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International
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International Journal of Fatigue 30 (2008) 767–778
Fatigue
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Fatigue performance of pre-strained pipes with girth weld defects:

Full-scale experiments and analyses
T.A. Netto *, M.I. Lourenço, A. Botto
Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro COPPE – Ocean Engineering Department, P.O. Box 68508, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil

Received 12 January 2007; accepted 15 July 2007

Available online 27 July 2007

Abstract

The local deformation mechanism of pre-strained welded joints with defects was studied in the first part of this work. [Netto TA,
Botto A, Lourenço MI. Fatigue performance of pre-strained pipes with girth weld defects: Local deformation mechanisms under bend-
ing. Int J Fatigue (2007), doi:10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2007.08.001]. It was shown that highly localized strains may develop at the tip of these
defects, depending on their type (lack of fusion and lack of penetration) and size. Different levels of pre-straining do affect the fracture
mechanics material parameters and subsequently can deteriorate the fatigue performance of these joints under operational cyclic loads.
Here, the fatigue lives of pre-strained joints with different defects were obtained experimentally by means of full-scale specimens. Sub-
sequently, both a finite element model and an algorithm based on linear fracture mechanics that accounts for the changes in the material
properties due to pre-straining were used to estimate the fatigue life of typical joints. The results were compared and used to suggest
guidelines to the development of weld acceptance criteria of reeled steel catenary risers.
 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Reeling; Plastically strained pipes; SCR; Riser fatigue; Weld defects

1. Introduction straightening of the pipe during the laying process.

The cost-effective development of deep and ultra-deep
water discoveries, in general, is through the deployment
of a floating production system. There are currently a num-
ber of different options for floating production units, how-
ever they all require a system of risers to transfer the
production fluids from the seabed to the production plat-
form. Consequently, risers are critical and expensive com-
ponents within a floating production field development.
Steel catenary risers (SCRs) installed by the reel-lay
method offer potential for great economy [1,2], since con-
ventional laying methods offer welding, inspection and field
joint coating taking place off-shore simultaneously with the
installation procedures. Reeled SCRs are welded on-shore.
This installation techniques involve controlled bending and
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +55 21 2562 7791; fax: +55 21 2562 7793.
E-mail address: tanetto@lts.coppe.ufrj.br (T.A. Netto).
Although this is common practice for static flowlines, there
is currently limited information available on the effect of
plastic deformation on girth welds intended for use in
dynamic applications.
Fatigue life predictions based on S–N curves and frac-
ture mechanics approaches can be employed in the preli-
minary stages of the design. Nevertheless, the necessary
confidence to establish a consistent planning for SCR’s
installations using reel methods should be built upon lab-
oratory fatigue tests using full-scale pipes and realistic
girth welding processes. In order to assess the possible
detrimental effect of such installation procedures into
the riser fatigue performance, welded segments of pipes
must be plastically deformed prior to the cyclic loading
test.
Hutt and Frazer [3] described full-scale fatigue tests car-
ried out to investigate the effects of plastic strain on the
fatigue performance of metallic risers. Tested pipes were

0142-1123/$ - see front matter  2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2007.07.002
768 T.A. Netto et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 30 (2008) 767–778
welded with conventional methods and radial friction weld.
Results showed that radial friction welded joints can pro-
vide improved fatigue performance, since the welding pro-
cess is automatic and there is less risk of unknown defects.
Venkataraman [4] summarized important considerations in
reeled riser design. He concluded that reeled risers, when
properly engineered and qualified, are feasible and cost-
effective for deepwater applications, even for dynamic ser-
vices. Ernest et al. [5] propose a methodology to perform
structural reliability analysis of pipes subjected to reeling.
They concluded that total amount of crack extension after
reeling process simulation seems to be completely
accounted by the R-curve, without fatigue effects.
The first part of this work described the full-scale test
program that simulates SCR’s installations using reel
method. Tested specimens were intentionally manufactured
with lack of fusion (LF) and lack of penetration (LP), two
different common weld defects. The bending simulator
induces plastic deformations in pipes similarly to what
occurs during installation procedures. Moreover, finite ele-
ment models were developed to reproduce the physical
experiments and then used to conduct a parametric study
in which type and size of the defects were varied. Guided
by the experimental observations and numerical analyses
of the localized strain that occurs in the vicinity of the
defects during reeling, a series of tests were performed in
order to determine the da/dN curve of virgin and pre-
strained test specimens made of typical weld and base
materials.
This work describes the fatigue analyses and full-scale
experiments on 8.625 in (2.08 mm) outside diameter pipes
and girth welds with induced lack of fusion and lack of
penetration defects that have been recently carried out at
COPPE/UFRJ. A fatigue rig, designed to produce a rota-
tive bending test, is described. The fatigue lives of reeled
joints with different defects are calculated independently
with the aid of a finite element model and, alternatively,
by an algorithm based on linear fracture mechanics theory,
specially developed for this purpose. The changes in the
material properties due to pre-straining are incorporated
in the analyses in order to verify their detrimental effect
on the fatigue life of reeled pipes. The results are compared
with the full-scale test results and a parametric study of LP
and LF defect dimensions is presented.
2. Full-scale experiments
Experiments on pipes with 8.625 in external diameter
were used as base cases to describe the experimental pro-
gram and later the analyses performed. Four specimens
having one girth weld each, made using GTAW and
SMAW processes for root and filling, respectively were
manufactured with different weld flaws, such as lack of
fusion and lack of penetration. One more specimen was
manufactured using the same procedure, but without weld
defects. Nominal material and geometric parameters of the
specimens were the following:
Material: API 5L X60;
Diameter (D): 219.08 mm (8.625 in.);
Thickness (t): 15.06 mm (0.593 in.);
Length (L): 5.2 m.
The full-scale test program included a bending simulator
and a fatigue test rig. Test procedures were planed to sim-
ulate installation and life-time operation conditions of
SCRs. The specimens were first tested on the bending appa-
ratus, described in the first part of this work, and then
under fatigue, as described in detail below.
2.1. Bending simulator
The bending simulator was designed to induce plastic
deformations in pipes through bending and reverse bend-
ing over rigid surfaces similarly to what occurs during some
installation procedures. It is composed of a main steel
structure and dies with variable radii of curvature that
are driven by two hydraulic actuators.
A schematic view of the experimental setup is shown
in Fig. 1. The pipe is placed between the bending and
the straightening dies. They are mounted on two rails
where they can slide on back and forth. The pipe ends
are attached to extension bars that react against one
roller assembly on each side when the actuators apply
force on the tools. The roller assemblies are designed to
allow translation and rotation of the end extensions when
the pipe specimens are being bent and/or straightened.
The sliding motion of the tools is driven by hydraulic
actuators provided with a servo-valve in a closed-loop
control system.
When the actuators distend, the pipe is bent over the
bending die. Similarly, the pipe is straightened when the
actuators move back slightly beyond their original posi-
tion. In all experiments, the radii of curvature of the reel-
ing and straightening tools were 6 m and 30 m,
respectively.
A complete description of the apparatus and the exper-
imental procedure can be found in the first part of this
work.
2.2. Fatigue test rig
2.2.1. Main characteristics
The main characteristics of the apparatus are as follows:
Maximum length of the 6 m (including end
specimens: connections);
Maximum external diameter 324 mm (12.75 in.);
of specimens:
Maximum bending moment: approx. 600 KN m
(5.3 · 106 lb in.);
Maximum axial tension: 2000 KN (4.5 · 105 lb);
Test frequency range: 5–15 Hz.
 T.A. Netto et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 30 (2008) 767–778
Fig. 1. Bending apparatus.
2.2.2. Experimental procedure
The designed test setup was based on a four-point bend-
ing rotating test method. Typically, rotating bending fati-
gue tests are conducted on smooth, small-diameter
cylindrical bar specimens, but they have also been per-
formed on drill pipe specimens with a diameter of
114 mm (4.5 in.) [6]. Alternatively, resonance frequency
based apparatus has been used to test 324 mm (12.75 in.)
diameter steel pipes with welded joints [3].
A typical small-scale rotating bending test setup is
shown in Fig. 2. To simulate fatigue loading, the middle
region of the specimen (length equal to L) is subjected to
a constant bending moment (Mz). This is accomplished
by simply supporting the specimen at each end, and then
applying transverse loads of equal magnitude (Fy) at two
points that are equally spaced apart from each end (in
Fig. 2. Small-scale bending fatigue test setup.
769
Fig. 2, a is the distance between the end supports and the
‘‘point’’ loads). As a result, any given material fiber in this
region will experience, in the static configuration, longitu-
dinal bending stress rb that is tensile in the region below
the longitudinal neutral axis and compressive in the other
side (Eq. (1)).
M z y F y ‘y
rb ¼  ¼ ð1Þ
Iz Iz
where y is the vertical distance between the material fiber
and the neutral axis and Iz is the moment of inertia of
the cross-section with respect to z. The material is then sub-
jected to cyclic bending loading by rotating the specimen
about its longitudinal axis. As the specimen rotates, each
material fiber around the cross-sections alternates between
compression and tension, thus creating cyclic stress load-
ing. In addition to bending fatigue loads, mean axial ten-
sion (Fx) can also be applied to the specimen. In the
static configuration, the magnitude of the superimposed
longitudinal stresses in each fiber is given by Eq. (2).
F x F y ‘y
rx ¼  ð2Þ
A Iz
where A is the area of the cross-section. As the specimen
rotates, rx alternates between high tension and low tension.
The mean stress rm is determined by the axial force being
applied to the specimen, whereas the stress range rr is con-
trolled by the bending load.
After assembled in the apparatus and before the fatigue
test, four strain gages are mounted in the weld and base
metal regions of the specimens. The selected loads for the
770 T.A. Netto et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 30 (2008) 767–778
desired stress range and mean stress are then applied to the
specimen, which is subsequently rotated as in the actual
fatigue test, but to a limited number of cycles. The strains
are recorded and the data is later processed in order to
obtain the actual stresses acting on the specimen. If neces-
sary, then, the loads initially applied are corrected to match
the desired test load parameters.
Most tests were carried out either until 107 cycles or
until detection of a through-crack. Through-cracks were
consistently detected in their initial stages with the aid of
a sealed rubber membrane placed around the region of
the girth weld, and inflated with air to a pressure of around
15 psi (100 kPa). Since a sudden loss of pressure might indi-
cate presence of material through-cracking, the external
surface of the membrane was constantly monitored by an
optical sensor linked to the data acquisition and control
system. In case of membrane deflation, the experiment
was automatically shutdown for further inspection of the
leak. Generally, through-cracks detected by this manner
were not apparent by simple visual inspection. Further
inspection with liquid dye penetrating usually sufficed to
identify the failure regions.
2.2.3. Experimental setup
A schematic view of the apparatus is shown in Fig. 3. It
includes a steel structure with two transverse load frame
assemblies equipped with hydraulic actuators, one hydrau-
lic actuator for tensioning, two end support assemblies pro-
vided with axial and radial bearings, two hydraulic pumps,
one driving mechanism to rotate the specimen (electrical
motor, timing belt, and pulleys), assorted instrumentation
(load cells, LVDT’s, pressure transducers, etc.), and a com-
puterized data acquisition and closed-loop control system.
Although the size of both the experimental setup and
test specimens introduces unique problems related to the
testing technique, the principle is similar to the small-scale
rotating bending test. The pipe specimen is assembled to
form a beam. The welded connection is at the center of this
beam, which is simply supported at the ends. Transverse
Fig. 3. Fatigue test rig.
loads are applied at two points equally spaced from the
end supports by two identical transverse load frame assem-
blies. These loads cause a constant bending moment in the
mid section of the specimen where the girth weld is located.
As the pipe rotates, metal fibers move from the compres-
sion to the tension zone, thus causing metal fatigue. The
nominal stress amplitude is calculated as shown in Eq.
(2). Mean stress is simulated by tensioning the specimen
with the aid of a hydraulic actuator acting on one end of
the specimen, while the other end is axially restrained.
The primary features of each load frame include a cus-
tom-made hydraulic actuator, a 10 liter accumulator, a
load roller assembly equipped with two tapered roller bear-
ings, and a load ring that is mounted onto the specimen
through wedges (Fig. 4). Additionally, the frames are each
instrumented with a linear variable displacement trans-
former (LVDT) to monitor the vertical displacement and
a load cell to monitor and control the applied load. Both
are connected to the computerized data acquisition and
closed-loop control system.
A positive displacement pump provided with an elec-
tronic servo-valve supplies hydraulic pressure to the cylin-
der and accumulator system that, in turn, applies load to
the ring through the roller assembly that is connected to
the actuator by a hinge. The hydraulic accumulators are
designed to insure that nearly constant flexural loads are
applied to the pipe, i.e., they are flexible enough to account
for slight variations in pipe stiffness or changes in deflection
that could be caused by pipe or setup imperfections.
The load rollers and rings are torch cut from steel plates
and then machined to a circular shape. They are through-
hardened by the conventional convection oven hardening
process to provide a long-lasting bearing surface for trans-
ferring the load to the specimen. Each roller is supported
on steel roller shafts that are aligned parallel to each other
when mounted on the load roller assembly. The load rings
are fit onto the pipe specimen by multiple sets of adjustable
wedges, as shown in Fig. 4. The steel wedges are machined
to act as a rigid interface between the ring and the pipe.
 T.A. Netto et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 30 (2008) 767–778 771

Fig. 5. Detail of the grips.

surface of the pipe, applying tension to the specimen by fric-

tion. The axial displacement is monitored using an LVDT
mounted on the steel structure, whereas the applied load
is prescribed via a closed-loop control system.
Both ends consist of sealed casings with one radial and
one axial roller bearing immersed in a cooling hydraulic
Fig. 4. Transverse load frame assembly. fluid, thus allowing the pipe to rotate about its own axis
freely. While one end is attached to the steel frame, the
The wedges and the load rings have matching beveled sides
other end is connected to the tensioning hydraulic actuator
that allow exact fit. The wedges are also shaped as circular
through a shaft and hinge, and is allowed to move in the
arcs, so that they mate to both the pipe specimen and to the
axial direction to account for the deformation of the spec-
circular load rings.
imen during the test.
The pipes as manufactured are neither uniformly circular
A schematic view of the driving mechanism is shown in
nor necessarily straight. Manufacturing flaws such as out-of
Fig. 6. The specimen rotation is driven by a constant tor-
roundness and welding misalignment are inevitable and
que, 440 V, 3-phase, 93 kW (125 HP) electric motor. Tor-
unpredictable for each pipe specimen. These variations in
que is transmitted to the specimen through timing belt
the geometry of the pipe can cause differences between the
and pulleys in a rate of 1:2. The timing belt is made of rub-
axis of rotation of the apparatus and the axis of the speci-
berized fabric and steel wire, having teeth that fit into
men. As a result, the cross-sections of the pipe specimen
grooves cut in the periphery of the pulleys. Consequently,
behave like rotating eccentric circles. This problem is gener-
power is transmitted at a constant angular-velocity ratio,
ally referred as ‘‘sweep’’. Manufacturing tolerances and
with no slippage. Speeds can be varied with the aid of an
pipe sweep combine to shift the center of mass away from
electronic frequency inverter connected in a closed-loop
the horizontal axis of rotation, causing unbalanced inertial
control system.
forces that can possibly create operational problems (e.g.,
The number of cycles for each test is measured by an
excessive vibration). These problems are overcome by prop-
electronic optical device linked to the data acquisition
erly mounting the load ring and wedge assembly. By adjust-
system.
ing the wedges, the load rings are positioned as circles
concentric to the horizontal axis of rotation. Mass is bal-
anced by attaching additional wedges between the pipe
and ring until the specimen has no preferred direction of
motion or position. The load rings and wedges are designed
to account for a maximum sweep of 50 mm.
A second hydraulic system composed by a positive dis-
placement pump equipped with an electronic servo-valve,
a 20 liter accumulator, and a custom-made hydraulic actu-
ator is used for tensioning the specimens. The piston passes
through a compression load cell mounted inside a connec-
tor with no interference. Its end is threaded to a robust ring
that is pulled against the load cell. The load cell, in turn,
transmits the axial tension to a shaft through the connector
body and the end support assembly. The other end of the
shaft has a conical shape and squared cross-sections that
slide through four hardened grips. The grips are circular
on the external toothed surfaces that contact the inner pipe,
and straight conical on the opposite side (Fig. 5). As the cyl-
inder pulls the connector, the shaft tends to move outwards,
making the grips open up. The grips then act on the inner Fig. 6. Driving mechanism.
772 T.A. Netto et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 30 (2008) 767–778

Table 1
Specimen parameters and fatigue test results
Specimen Defect Defect Fatigue test stresses Nf
type dimensions
a c rm ra(MPa)
(mm) (mm) (MPa)
PLP1 LP 5.3 17.0 64.7 83.2 643,266
PLP2 LP 5.8 15.9 65.0 107.9 494,002
PLF1 LF 1.2 26.1 64.7 192.50 97,373
PLF2 LF 1.4 17.5 64.0 221.40 53,287
PND – – – 64.8 172.3 515287

2.3. Fatigue test results

Table 1 shows the five full-scale specimens tested. Defect
type and sizing, fatigue test loads and number of cycles
until failure are also tabulated. The nomenclature applied
here is identical to the one used in the first part of this
work, where a means defect height in the case of lack of
penetration or half of the defect height in case of lack of
fusion and c means half of defect length in all cases. The
dimensions reported were obtained from the fractography
analyses of the specimen after fatigue test.
3. Fracture mechanics tests
As emphasized in the first part of this study, the influ-
ence of the reeling process on the da/dNxDK curve and
subsequently on the fatigue performance of the welded
joints must be considered. Assuredly, the material changes
imposed during reeling/straightening influence the crack
propagation velocity. Further, since the pipe had weld
defects prior to the reeling, the strain intensity should vary
significantly throughout the remaining ligament. It was
shown that values of longitudinal strain obtained for lack
of penetration defects vary from a maximum of 10% near
the crack face to around 2.8% close to the external surface
of the pipe. This last value is similar to the analytical strain
value calculated for an 8 in. pipe without defects reeled
over a reel with R = 6 m. Based on these results, fracture
Fig. 7. da/dN curves for weld metal.
Fig. 8. da/dN curves for base metal.
mechanics parameters of weld and base metal were
obtained experimentally for three different levels of pre-
straining: 2.5%, 5%, and 7.5%. The maximum value of
10% was avoided due to difficulties to manufacture the cou-
pon. These results are reproduced in Figs. 7 and 8 for bet-
ter clarity and completeness. Paris law approximation of
Eq. (3) was fit to the individual set of data. The parameters
C and m are listed in the figures for da/dN in mm/cycle and
DK in MPa mm1/2.
da m
¼ CðDKÞ ð3Þ
dN
4. Analyses
In this paper, a more complex model than the one devel-
oped in the previous study was used to reproduce initial
cracks nucleated in the defect regions. It was employed to
perform fracture mechanics analyses that were used,
together with the material parameters obtained experimen-
tally, to estimate the fatigue life of welded joints with differ-
ent defects and pre-straining histories. The numerical
estimated and experimentally obtained fatigue lives were
also compared with analytical predictions obtained with a
specific algorithm developed using fracture mechanics sim-
plified solutions.
The nominal pipe geometric parameter D = 219.08 mm
and thickness (t = 15.06 mm) were adopted. Two types of
defects were induced in the numerical model: lack of pene-
tration and lack of fusion. Initial out-of-roundness, thick-
ness eccentricity, weld misalignment and residual stresses
may vary from specimen to specimen, but were not consid-
ered in the analyses for simplicity.
The fatigue life predictions correlated well with the
experimental results. A one to one correlation was avoided
due to the natural variability in fatigue test results. Never-
theless, and despite of the reduced number of experiments,
the results evidenced a clear trend which was also repro-
duced by the model. The numerical and analytical proce-
dures and a parametric study are presented hereafter.
 T.A. Netto et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 30 (2008) 767–778 773

4.1. Numerical model

A fracture mechanics approach was used to estimate the

fatigue life of the welded joints. LP and LF defects were
considered as initial cracks and the stress intensity factors
along their edges were calculated with the aid of a linear
elastic finite element model (i.e., small-scale yielding was
assumed). The pipe, including the defected weld region,
was discretized with three-dimensional, 20-node, quadratic
brick elements. The number of integration points per ele-
ment was 20, i.e., a full integration scheme was used. A
refined mesh was needed due to the resulting singular stress
state at the crack tips. This was obtained by collapsing
together two edges of the elements around the crack tips
(Fig. 9). The node distribution of these elements was such
that their mapping to a fixed master element generated a
singular stress field around the crack tips. As described in
detail by Hussain et al. [7], the resulting singularity is of
the form r(1/2), where r is the radial distance of a given
point with respect to the crack tip.
Since the singular stress state is obtained artificially, the
stress values around the crack tip don’t have physical
meaning. Nevertheless, this procedure allows accurate cal- Fig. 10. Schematic view of the weld region with (a) LP and (b) LF defects.
culation of the stress intensity factor using linear elastic
modeling with consequent minimum computational time.
The pipe length was twice the nominal diameter. This
reduced length was considered enough to apply the edge
loading without affecting the stress field at the weld region.
A schematic view of the weld region with LP and LF
defects is shown in Fig. 10. The curved shape at the weld
root was intentionally made to better reproduce the actual
cases. In the experimental tests it was observed that, in the
case of LP defects, cracks nucleated at either side of the
lower boundary between weld material and HAZ (see
Fig. 18). Thus, singular elements were placed around this
region for the calculation of the stress intensity factor.

Fig. 11. Entire mash for fatigue analysis.

For LF cases, singular elements were placed around the

Fig. 9. Singular 3D element.
top and bottom of the defect, i.e., the defect was treated
as an initial crack itself. Figs. 11–13 show typical meshes
used for both cases.
As in the previous model, the edge nodes were kinemat-
ically coupled to a reference node at x1 = x2 = x3 = 0. Full-
reversed cyclic bending load was then applied on the pipe
by prescribing bending load on the reference node.
A J-integral contour integral formulation was used to
calculate the stress intensity factor at the crack tips. The
774 T.A. Netto et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 30 (2008) 767–778
Fig. 12. Detail of the LP defect region.
Fig. 13. Detail of the LF defect region.
J-integral is usually used in rate-independent quasi-static
fracture analysis to characterize the energy release associ-
ated with crack growth. It is represented by the Eq. (4)
where W is the strain energy density, T is the traction vec-
tor, u is the displacement field and C is an arbitrary contour
around the tip of the crack.
Z   Based on analytic formulations, developed for elliptical
du
J¼ W dy  T ds ð4Þ
C dx
The J-integral is related to the stress intensity factor by
means of Eq. (5) witch is valid for plane strain, axisymmet-
ric and three- dimensional models with linear material
response.
ð1  m2 Þ 2
J¼ KI
E
Several contour integral evaluations are possible at each
location along the crack front. In a finite element model
each evaluation can be thought of as the virtual motion
of a block of material surrounding the crack tip. Each such
block is defined by contours: each contour is a ring of ele-
ments completely surrounding the crack tip or crack front
from one crack face to the opposite crack face. These rings
of elements were defined recursively to surround all previ-
ous contours.
The J-integral should be independent of the domain
used, but J-integral estimates from different rings may vary
because of the approximate nature of the finite element
solution. Strong variation in these estimates, commonly
called domain dependence or contour dependence, indi-
cates a need for mesh refinement. For all models used, at
least 6 element rings were used and the calculated stress
intensity factor for each ring did not differ more then 4%.
For a given stress range, fatigue crack growth and num-
ber of cycles until failure (Nf) were evaluated in a simplified
manner, as follows:
The stress intensity factor range (DK) was calculated
considering the initial crack size (in the analyses, we consid-
ered a0 = 2 and 3 mm for LP and 2.a0 = 2 and 3 mm for
LF). pffiffiffiffiffiffi
We assumed DK ¼ Dr paQ where the function of
geometry Q is independent of the crack size a. This approx-
imation was deemed reasonable after calculating DK for
different crack sizes (for both LP and LF) up to 0.8 t.
The maximum deviation from the initial values (a = a0)
was only 11.6%.
By integrating the Paris Law Eq. (6), it is possible to
make a quantitative prediction of the number of cycles
until failure:
Z ac
da
Nf ¼ m ð6Þ
a0 CðDKÞ
where ac, the maximum allowable crack size, is the least be-
tween 0.8 t or (KIC/Qrmax)2/p. In any case, we assumed
that if a > ac the residual number of cycles until failure
was relatively very small, either due to increasing plastic
deformation ahead of the propagation front (ductile tear-
ing) or as a result of fast fracture (i.e., the critical stress
intensity value KC, set here for simplicity to be equal to
KIC, was reached).
4.2. Fracture mechanics algorithm
and semi-elliptical flaws, the variation of the SIF during the
crack propagation can be assessed. These formulations are
able to take in account the stress variation through the pipe
thickness. An algorithm was developed using the solutions
for the factor of geometry obtained from the API-579 and
BS-7910 standards. The solutions for semi-elliptical and
elliptical cracks were obtained from handbooks and
numerical modeling of curved shells.
ð5Þ
4.2.1. Flaw characterization
Flaw characterization rules allow existing or postulated
crack geometry to be modeled by a geometrically simpler
one in order to make the actual crack geometry more ame-
nable to fracture mechanics analysis. The rules are neces-
sarily conservative and intended to lead to idealized crack
 T.A. Netto et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 30 (2008) 767–778
Fig. 14. (a) Surface and (b) embedded defect characterization.
geometries that are more severe than the actual crack
geometry they represent. Fig. 14 shows the general proce-
dure used on the characterization of surface and embedded
flaws. This procedure resulted on simplified dimensions for
the lack of penetration and lack of fusion weld defects.
In general, the crack length is easy to be obtained. If the
flaw is oriented perpendicular to the plane of the maximum
principal tensile stress in the component, then the flaw
length to be used in calculations is merely the one measured
with non-destructive tests. However, if the flaw does not
lay upon a principal plane, then an equivalent flaw dimen-
sion with a mode I orientation should be inferred. The
more adequate procedure, recommended by both stan-
dards, consists on projecting the flaw onto the plane of
the maximum principal stress. In case of uncertainty about
which principal direction could be used (biaxial load), both
directions should be analyzed in order to determine the
critic one.
The length and depth of the lack of penetration defects
were perpendicular to the axial direction. However, the
depth of the lack of fusion defects was not aligned with
the radial direction, since this defect laid upon the bezel
wall. So, a relative defect depth, referred to the mode I,
was calculated for the lack of fusion defect.
4.2.2. Stress intensity factor (SIF)
Analytical solutions for SIF calculations of elliptical and
semi-elliptical cracks are well documented in the literature
[8]. Nevertheless, these solutions are presented for two
cases of stress distribution through the thickness: uniform
and linear. BS-7910 and API-579 standards bring a com-
pendium of tabled solutions for the geometry factor con-
sidering a large range of relation between axes of the
ellipse.
In the case of tubular welded structures, situations as
misalignment, thickness variations, residual stresses and
the material properties variation on the welded region
may lead to a more complex stress variation through the
thickness. The stress distribution can be obtained using
numerical models or empirical and semi-empirical
formulations.
The weight functions proposed initially by Bueckner [9]
and studied by Rice [10] helps to deal with these complex
stress states. Considering the complex stress distribution
represented by r(x), once the weight function h(x,a), which
775
is a function of geometry and dimensions of the crack is
obtained, it’s possible to calculate the SIF for mode I inte-
grating Eq. (7).
Z a
KI ¼ hðx; aÞrðxÞdx ð7Þ
0
In the case of surface cracks with semi-elliptical shape in
cylinders, Shen and Glinka [11] present the equations used
in the algorithm.
Regarding the embedded flows, the solutions of Sih [12]
were used.
4.2.3. Flaw recategorization
Flaw recategorization is required for two situations:
when an embedded flaw, during its propagation, reaches
a region close to the surface, the algorithm recategorizes
it as a surface flow; or when a deep surface flaw presents
a small remaining ligament. In this case, the algorithm
recategorizes it as a through-wall flaw.
The assumed flaw dimensions are modified as follows.
An embedded flaw should be recategorized to a surface
flaw when d/t < 0.2 (see Fig. 15a). The length and depth
of the surface flaw are given by Eqs. (8) and (9):
2cs ¼ 2ci þ 2d ð8Þ
as ¼ 2ai þ d ð9Þ
A surface flaw should be recategorized as a through-
thickness flaw when a/t > 0.8 (see Fig. 15b). The length
of the through-wall flaw is given by Eq. (10):
2cp ¼ 2cs þ 2ðt  as Þ ð10Þ
Note that the crack length is increased in each case by
twice the ligament dimension. When the plastic strain on
the remaining ligament is large, the flaw can grow to the
free surface by ductile tearing, in this case the flaw might
also extend in the length direction.
4.2.4. Algorithm development
FORTRAN 95 was used to develop the algorithms. The
applications were then compiled as Windows Dynamic
Link Libraries (DLL). A friendly interface was structured
using DELPHI 7. This interface allows the user to visualize
and change the analysis necessary variables, to follow the
fatigue life calculation process and to check the final results
Fig. 15. (a) Embedded and (b) surface flow recategorization.
776 T.A. Netto et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 30 (2008) 767–778
of the analysis. The application developed using DELPHI
interacts with the algorithms developed using FORTRAN
and storied in the libraries. The following steps describe the
application operation. The user enters with the defect type,
initial dimensions of the defect and the pipe dimensions.
Then the fatigue propagation law parameters must be pro-
vided. The algorithm integrates numerically the Paris law.
During the numerical integration, crack dimensions and
the SIF value are recalculated at each cycle, i.e., at each
cycle, the SIF is calculated and the weight functions (Eq.
(7)) are used to extend this calculation to a complex stress
state as described. The number of cycles is computed until
the crack becomes through-wall. The conditions to crack
recategorization are checked at each cycle and, if necessary,
the procedures described (Eqs. (8)–(10)) are applied. The
parameters of the forth degree Eq. (11) may be provided
to represent the stress variation r(x) through the thickness.
 x x2 x3 x4
rðxÞ ¼ r0 þ r1 þ r2 þ r3 þ r4 ð11Þ
t t t t
5. Experimental correlation
Good correlation results between experimental full-scale
tests and both numerical model and algorithm were
obtained. Best results were correlated to the use of da/dN
curves for weld material with pre-straining level of 7.5%.
The S–N curve of Fig. 16 presents a complete compari-
son between experiments, numerical calculations and algo-
rithm results. Figure also shows curves E, F2 and X 0 ,
commonly used on offshore structures projects. These
curves are defined through tests with non notched speci-
mens where the defect nucleation step is considered.
Despite they were plotted together with fracture mechanics
based results, the comparison should be understood as
merely qualitative.
The showed S–N design curves showed refer to a partic-
ular project demand related to fatigue. BSI [13] and DNV
[14] standards present the formulations of E and F2 curves,
while X 0 curve may be found on API [15] standards. The
curves were plotted until the limit of 107 cycles according
Fig. 16. Correlation between analysis and experiments.
Table 2
Standard S–N curves
S–N curve A m
E 4.16 · 1011
3.0
F2 1.72 · 1011 3.0
X0 2.5 · 1013 3.74
to Eq. (12), whose constants A and m can be found on
Table 2 for stresses in MPa.
N ¼ A  S m ð12Þ
Hutt and Frazer [3] present a series of tests performed
with conventionally welded pipe joints. A set of 12 in. pipe
specimens (outside diameter of 323.9 mm and wall thick-
ness of 17.5 mm) were manufactured with API X65 steel
with standard vertical down SMAW welded joints. The
welds were all inspected using both ultrasonic and radiog-
raphy and approved on the basis of standard pipeline weld-
ing acceptance criteria. Eight of these specimens were
passed through the pipe lay system of a reel-lay vessel, thus
subjected to plastic strain and straightening cycles.
Specimens were fatigue tested on a resonance rig. This
rig applies rotating bending loads at a resonant frequency
of approximately 30 Hz. No mean stress was imposed dur-
ing the tests.
Due to the similarity of test procedure and pipe material
with respect to the tests performed on this work, those fati-
gue test results for the eight plastically deformed pipes are
presented together on Fig. 16.
Better results were, in general, obtained for lack of pen-
etration defects. The worst result observed is related to a
lack of fusion defect. There are different possible reasons
for this. The misalignment between welded sections was
not modeled and might contribute for the discrepancy
between results. This particular full-scale model with worst
results revealed an elevated level of misalignment (approx.
15%). Other reason is associated with the procedure used to
calculate the number of cycles. The geometric parameter in
the numerical modeling was considered constant during the
crack propagation. When a lack of fusion defect is closer to
the outer surface, it can be reached first. At this moment,
the geometric parameter may suffer considerable variation,
contributing for the discrepancies.
The flaw recategorization and the stress intensity factor
reevaluation at each cycle are key characteristics of the
algorithm, allowing consistent evaluation of the crack geo-
metric changes during its propagation.
The developed algorithm, despite its geometric simplifi-
cations, turned out to be a quick and viable tool when
allied with well selected da/dN curves. These curves must
represent the material with its changes associated to pre-
strains. Other advantages of the algorithm are related to
the cost-effective use. It dispenses the use of expensive finite
elements software.
The conservatism level is noticeably different between
methodologies. As expected, all algorithm results were
more conservative than numerical analysis. When used as
 T.A. Netto et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 30 (2008) 767–778 777

a project tool, this may be considered as an additional

advantage.

6. Parametric study

A parametric study was performed with typical defects of

lack of fusion and lack of penetration. Both numerical
model and algorithm were used and compared. This study
also contributes to understand the effect of material pre-
straining on the welded joints fatigue life. The same 8 in.
pipe mentioned in item 2 was modeled and two defect
dimensions were considered: lack of fusion with 2 and
3 mm depth and 20 mm length and lack of penetration also
with 2 and 3 mm depth and 20 mm length. Five different lev-
els of load were applied: 50, 78, 110, 190 e 300 MPa. Addi- Fig. 19. Pre-straining effect on LP defects.
tionally, mean stress (R = 0.5) was considered, in order to
avoid compression of the crack faces throughout the cyclic
load. The numerical results are summarized in Figs. 17
and 18. As reference, they are plotted in S–N diagram for-
mat together with design curves currently used in practice.
The effect of material pre-straining is illustrated in
Fig. 19 (lack of penetration) and Fig. 20 (lack of fusion).
The detrimental effect on the fatigue performance due to
the deterioration of the fracture mechanics properties is
clear, especially for lower values of Dr. For example, the

Fig. 20. Pre-straining effect on LF defects.

numerically calculated number of cycles until failure for

Fig. 17. S–N curves obtained with numerical modeling of LP defect.
Dr = 190 MPa using raw material properties is 7.89 · 106.
For 2.5%, 5% and 7.5% this value drops 36.8%, 49.3%, e
59.2%, respectively. The corresponding relative reductions
in fatigue lives for Dr = 78 MPa are 72.5%, 75.0% e
76.8%. For better comparison, dashed lines were fit to
the data corresponding to raw and 7.5% pre-strained mate-
rial. The figures show small difference between the two
models. For instance, if we calculate the fatigue life drop
for Dr = 78 MPa using the algorithm, the obtained values
will be 71.4%, 74.6% e 76.2%. These values are very close to
the ones obtained numerically.

7. Concluding remarks

The fatigue performance of reeled risers was studied

Fig. 18. S–N curves obtained with numerical modeling of LF defect.
through combined experiments and analyses. Full-scale
experiments, FE and analytical calculations of the types
described above are viable options. FE calculations and
analytical modeling have shown similar results, proving
that the algorithm is a good project tool. Approximate
S–N design curves such as the ones considered in this study
are very useful for parametric studies when the problem
parameters are still not well defined. However, their use
778 T.A. Netto et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 30 (2008) 767–778
in the case of SCR installed by the reel method was dubious
due to the uncertainty related to the detrimental effect of
material pre-straining in the fatigue performance of the
welded joints. In order to elucidate this issue, fatigue life
results for varied stress ranges obtained numerically were
compared with three S–N curves used in practice (E, X 0
and F2). Depending on the defect, stress range, mean
stress, and pre-straining, curve E may underestimate or
overestimate the fatigue life as compared with the numeri-
cal results. In all cases, curves X 0 yielded conservative esti-
mates. These can be thus considered dependable design
tools for reeled SCRs, provided the problem parameters
do not deviate significantly from those contemplated in this
study.
Acknowledgements
The experimental work was conducted with the financial
support of Subsea Technology Laboratory – COPPE/
UFRJ. The work of T.A. Netto was also sponsored by
CNPq-Brazil, and that of M.I. Lourenço and A. Botto
by ANP-Brazil. The authors would like to thank the tech-
nical staff of the Subsea Technology Laboratory for the
assistance in the design and execution of the experiments
and the group Keppel Fels Brazil (former Setal) for manu-
facturing the welded joints free of charge.
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