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EPA-600 / 2 - 77 -182
August 1977 Environmental Protection Technology Series
THE UNIVERSITY
/ 70 OF MICHIGAN!
. u56 The University
770, 6002- 77 -18 , 2 OCT 26, 1977 of Michigan
ENGINEERING Engineering
LIBRARY Library
IN ATUN
ANNUAL AND SEASONAL PRECIPITATION
PROBABILITIES
T ED STA
UNI TES .
AGENCY
RO
NM
EN
T
CTIO
O T E
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
LIBRARIES
Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
DEPOSITED BY THE U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
INTED STATES OF AMERICA Ada, Oklahoma 74820
RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports ofthe Office ofResearch and Development, U . S . Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad cate
gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en
vironmental technology . Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The nine series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. EcologicalResearch
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6 . Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR )
7. Interagency Energy- Environment Research and Development
8 . " Special Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION TECH
NOLOGY series. This series describes research performed to develop and dem
onstrate instrumentation , equipment, and methodology to repair or prevent en
vironmental degradation from pointand non -point sources ofpollution . This work
provides the new or improved technology required for the control and treatment
of pollution sources to meet environmental quality standards.
This documentis available to the public through the National Technical Informa
tion Service, Springfield , Virginia 22161.
EPA -600 / 2 - 77 - 182
August 1977
ANNUAL AND SEASONAL PRECIPITATION PROBABILITIES
by
R . E . Thomas
Wastewater Management Branch
Robert S . Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory
Ada , Oklahoma 74820
and
D . M . Whiting
National Climatic Center
Environmental Data Service
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Asheville , NC 28801
ROBERT S . KERR ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY

OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U . S . ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
ADA , OKLAHOMA 74820
DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Robert S . Kerr Environmental Research
Laboratory , U . S . Environmental Protection Agency , and approved for publication .
Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or
recommendation for use .
GENERAL BOOKBINDING CO .
73 513AA , 0135
QUALITY CONTROL MARK 2155
FOREWORD
The Environmental Protection Agency was established to coordinate
administration of the major Federal programs designed to protect the
quality of our environment .
An important part of the agency ' s effort involves the search for
information about environmental problems , management techniques and new
technologies through which optimum use of the nation ' s land and water
resources can be assured and the threat pollution poses to the welfare
of the American people can be minimized .
EPA ' s Office of Research and Development conducts this search

through a nationwide network of research facilities .
As one of these facilities , the Robert S . Kerr Environmental
Research Laboratory is responsible for the management of programs to :
( a ) investigate the nature, transport , fate and management of pollutants
in groundwater ; (b ) develop and demonstrate methods for treating waste
waters with soil and other natural systems ; ( c ) develop and demonstrate
pollution control technologies for irrigation return flows ; ( d ) develop
and demonstrate pollution control technologies for animal production
wastes ; ( e ) develop and demonstrate technologies to prevent , control or
abate pollution from the petroleum refining and petrochemical industries ;
and ( f ) develop and demonstrate technologies to manage pollution resulting
from combinations of industrial wastewaters or industrial /municipal
wastewaters.
This report contributes to the knowledge essential if the EPA is to

meet the requirements of environmental laws that it establish and enforce
pollution control standards which are reasonable, cost effective and
provide adequate protection for the American public .
William C . Galegar
Director
Robert S . Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory
iii
ABSTRACT
The planning , design , and operation of land -based wastewater management

systems can be dependent on knowledge of the amount of precipitation which
falls during the operating season . This is particularly true for those cases where
soils with low permeability limit the hydraulic load . Precipitation probabilities
for selected periods at 93 weather stations have been compiled to assist planners ,
designers, and others having a need for this type of information . The 93 stations
selected represent a cross section of the differing precipitation patterns across
the United States .
CONTENTS
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
1 . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 . Use of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Appendices
A . Normal Monthly Total Precipitation Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B . Station List by States . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 8

SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
People involved in the planning , design , and operation of land -based systems
for management of wastewaters need methodology to assess the influence of climatic
factors on off - season storage and operating season hydraulic loading . Whiting ( 1 , 2 )
has developed computer programs to project off- season storage needs from weather
station data for temperature , precipitation , soil moisture , and snow - cover . These
programs do not provide the methodology for assessing the influence of precipitation
on the determination of hydraulic loading for the operating season . While the oper
ating season precipitation has little consequence for rapid - infiltration or overland
flow systems, it can be an important factor in the determination of hydraulic loading
for slow - rate (irrigation type) systems. The relative importance of operating season
precipitation is , of course , greatest for those situations where the ratio of operating
season precipitation to operating season evaportranspiration is comparatively high
and site soils limit the hydraulic load to comparatively low values .
The purpose of this report is to supplement the previously developed computer
programs for estimating off-season storage with a method for assessing the influence
of operating season precipitation on the long term performance of a project . The
information in this report will have its greatest utility for those considering the
design of slow -rate (irrigation type) systems on low permeability soils in regions
with moderate to high operating season precipitation .
The data source is monthly and annual precipitation totals from either the Local
Climatological Data (LCD ) tables , or from similar data from cooperative stations in
the 1941 - 70 normals tape file . As a rule , 30 to 40 years of record are processed and
the period for each station is shown in the table headings.
The gamma distribution function ( 3 ) may be used as a model for many sets of
data . This report uses the computer program for this function to provide an analyti
cal solution to several sets of precipitation data . Precipitation probabilities are
provided for stations in different climatic regimes for up to three time periods: April
September , October -March , and annual (January -December ) . The table gives
probabilities of exceeding or not exceeding arbitrary amounts , as well as the amounts
exceeded or not exceeded for arbitrary probabilities . The tables in this report
contain only the columns identified below :
SELECTED Fifty -two or less arbitrarily selected cumulative theoretical

PROB probability values . A program option permits change in these ,
VALUES but allows for no more than 52 .
SELECTED Cumulative values of the distribution corresponding respec
QUANTILE tively to the selected probability values . Beta is the scale
B = BETA parameter and is used to transform the standardized distribu
tion to the actual distribution .
SELECTED Arbitrarily selected cumulative amounts . The maximum number
QUANTITY of amounts is 52 . A program option permits change in amounts
LEVELS and also provides for the amounts to be scaled in terms of the
mean of the non - zero amounts .
EXC PRB Probabilities of exceeding the arbitrarily selected cumulative

FOR amounts shown . This is the mixed distribution .
PCP LVL
Two maps (Eastern and Western U . S . ) (Appendix A ) are included that show the
normal monthly precipitation in inches . Although the maps are based on 1931- 60 data
and the monthly amounts may differ slightly from the 1941 - 70 period , the month - to
month distribution is about the same regardless of the normal period . The purpose
of these maps is simply to illustrate the different rainfall regimes in various regions.
SECTION 2
CONCLUSION
It is a rather simple matter to determine the probability of exceeding arbitrarily

selected cumulative precipitation amounts for varying seasonal periods from existing
data tapes at NCC - EDS -NOAA , Asheville , NC 28801. Such determinations provide
a convenient and consistentmethodology for assessing the probable influence
of operating season precipitation on the long -term performance of some land -based
systems for wastewater management.
SECTION 3
USE OF TABLES
The station list and tables are presented in Appendix B . The stations are
listed alphabetically by state with the page number for the station tal
example , Little Rock , AR tables are on page 14 , showing three tables for the
Little Rock station covering April thru September and October thru March periods
as well as the annual record .
The 1941- 70 normals for each period are given in the heading of the tables
which cover the 1937 thru 1975 or 1976 period of record for the probability determi
nations. The April - September table will serve to explain the use of the tables .
The fifth line in the table shows a selected probability of 0 . 90 in column 1 . Combined
with the 32 . 718 inches for precipitation in column 2 , this indicates that the return
period of 32 . 7 inches of precipitation from April thru September is once in 10
years. Columns 3 and 4 are similar but in these columns the quantity of precipita
tion is selected and the probability is determined . Continuing across line 5 ,
the selected precipitation amount in column 3 is 21 . 591 inches and the calculated
probability is 0 .617 which indicates that this amount of rainfall will be exceeded ,
on the average , in 6 out of every 10 years . Using columns 3 and 4 on line 6
shows that the distribution is slightly askew . The normal precipitation of 23. 99
inches computes to a probability of 0 . 468 rather than the 0 .50 probability for
a precisely Gaussian distribution .
As indicated in the description of column headings similar runs can be made

for a variety of arbitrarily selected probabilities or cumulative rainfall amounts .
For information contact the National Climatic Center , Environmental Data Service,
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , Asheville , NC 28801 .
- - - -- - -
REFERENCES
1. Whiting, Dick M . 1975 . Use of Climatic Data in Estimating Storage Days for
Soils Treatment Systems. U . S . Environmental Protection Agency , Environ
mental Protection Technology Series EPA - 660/ 2 - 75 -018 . 98 pp .
Whiting , Dick M . 1976 . Use of Climatic Data in Estimating Storage Days for
Soils Treatment Systems . U . S . Environmental Protection Agency , Environ
mental Protection Technology Series EPA -600 /2 - 76 - 250 . 90 pp .
Crutcher , Harold L . , G . L . Barger , and G . F . McKay . 1973. A Note on a
Gamma Distribution Computer Program and Graph Paper . U . S . Department
of Commerce, NOAA Technical Report EDS - 11 , Washington , DC . 92 pp .
5
APPENDIX A
NORMAL MONTHLY TOTAL PRECIPITATION (INCHES)
1200 11 103• 100
attle
M. .
SOOK ul
Havre
Portland Williston
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Pendleton
Bismarck
Billing
Buros
1 Boi
Rapid City Huron
Pocatello
Lander
Winnemucca
Reno
acTraTmeTnt
o Salt Lake City beye
North Platte
Lincoln
in Francisco Tonopah Milford Denver
Grand Junction
inser
La Vera Dodge City
.?
..
YR
Anrele
Albuquerque
Amarillo Oklahoma City
San Diego 2 n Phoenix
!!
Yuma ! !
Abilene Fort Worth

ElPaso
Del Rio San Antonio Houston
Lihue 2011 !
Honolulu
Brownsville
ALASKA HAWAII
1199 10 100
NORMAL MONTHLY TOTAL PRECIPITATION (INCHES)
5 90° 73• 70
Inte.rnat. ionalO Falls
arri Marie
n
Duluth Burlingto
Portland
Minneapolis Green Bay / Alban

Butto
Hartord
‫מת‬
Detro
Dubuque Na
Des Moines Chicago Pittsburgh Philadelphia

.
Columbus
ndianapolis
C
.
Springfield Washington , D.
Kansas City Charleston
O
St. Louis Lexington
- - Norfolk
Raleigh
Knoxville
3
Memphis Columbia
Little Rock Atlanta
Birmingham Charleston
Shreveport Iackson
Jacksonville
New Orleans
Tampa
Miami
HT
ULF OF MEXICO
100 200 20 00 MIL
SCALE 1:10,000,000
ALBERS EQUAL AREA PROJECTION - STANDARD PARALLELS 29 % AND 45 % Based on Period 1931-60 .
79
APPENDIX B
STATION LIST
Station Location Page Number

01 -0831 Birmingham , AL
01- 5478 Mobile , AL
02 - 6481 Phoenix , AZ
02 - 9660 Yuma , AZ
03 - 4248 Little Rock , AR
04 - 2910 Eureka , CA
04 - 3257 Fresno, CA
04 - 5114 Los Angeles, CA
04 - 7630 Sacramento , CA
04 - 7740 San Diego , CA
04 - 7769 San Francisco , CA
05 - 2220 Denver , co
05 - 3488 Grand Junction , co
06 - 3456 Hartford , CT
08 - 4358 Jacksonville , FL
08 - 5663 Miami, FL
08 -6997 Pensacola , FL
08 - 8788 Tampa , FL
09- 0451 Atlanta , GA

10 - 1022 Boise , ID
10 - 7211 Pocatello , ID
11- 1577 Chicago , IL
12 - 4259 Indianapolis , IN
13 -2203 Des Moines , IA
13 -2367 Dubuque, IA
14 - 2164 Dodge City , KS
8
STATION LIST (continued )
15 - 4746 Lexington , KY
16 -6660 New Orleans , LA
16 - 8440 Shreveport, LA
17 - 1175 Caribou , ME
17 -6905 Portland , ME
19- 0770 Boston , MA

20 -2103 Detroit , MI
20 - 4641 Lansing , MI
20 - 5712 Muskegon , MI
20 - 7366 Sault Ste. Marie , MI
21- 2248 Duluth , MN
21 - 4026 Intl . Falls , MN
21- 5435 Minneapolis , MN
22 - 4472 Jackson , MS
NNNN
23 -4358 Kansas City , MO

23- 7455 St. Louis , MO
24 - 0807 Billings, MT
24 - 3751 Great Falls , MT
24 - 3996 Havre, MT
24 - 5745 Missoula , MT
25 - 4795 Lincoln , NE
25 -6065 North Platte , NE
26 - 2631 Ely , NV
26 - 4436 Las Vegas , NV
26 - 6779 Reno , NV
26 - 9171 Winnemucca , NV
29 -0234 Albuquerque, NM
30 - 0042 Albany , NY
30 - 1012 Buffalo , NY
30 -5801 New York , NY
31 -7069 Raleigh , NC
32 - 0819 Bismarck , ND
32 - 2859 Fargo , ND
32 - 9425 Williston , ND
33 - 1786 Columbus, OH
34 - 6661 Oklahoma City , OK
35 - 1176 Burns , OR
35 -6546 Pendleton , OR
35 -6751 Portland , OR
36 - 6889 Philadelphia , PA
36 - 6993 Pittsburg , PA
38 - 1544 Charleston , SC
38 - 1939 Columbia , SC
39 - 4127 Huron , SD
39 -6937 Rapid City , SD
40 - 4950 Knoxville , TN
40 -5954 Memphis , TN
41 - 0016 Abilene, TX
41 - 0211 Amarillo , TX
41- 1136 Brownsville , TX
41- 2242 Dallas - Ft. Worth , TX
41 - 2360 Del Rio , TX
41 - 2797 El Paso , TX
41 - 4300 Houston , TX
41 - 7174 Port Arthur , TX
41 - 7945 San Antonio , TX
42 - 5654 Milford , UT
42 - 7598 Salt Lake City , UT
43 - 1081 Burlington , VT
44 -6139 Norfolk , VA
44 -8906 Washington , DC
45 - 7458 Seattle , WA
45 - 7938 Spokane , WA
46 - 1570 Charleston , WV
10
47 - 3269 Green Bay , WI
48 - 1675 Cheyenne, WY
48 - 5390 Lander , WY
1.2
PRECIPITATION PROBABILITIES
STATION 10811 BIRMINGHAM , AL STATION 10831 BIRMINGHAM , AL
APRIL -SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 25 . 41 OCTOBER - MARCH 1937 - 1975 NORMAL = 27 . 82
SELECTED SELECTED SELECTED EXCFORPRO SELECTED SELECTED SELECTED EXC PRO
PROB QUANTILE QUANTITY PROB QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR
VALUES B = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES BƏBETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 . 200 21. 324 2 .541 1 .000 0 . 200 22 . 606 2 . 782 0 . 975
0
0
0 . 400 24 . 179 6 . 353 1 .000 0 . 400 25 . 778 6 . 955 0 . 975
0
0 .600 26 .835 12 . 705 0 .999 0 .600 28 . 639 13. 910 0 . 974

0 . 800 30 . 153 19 . 056 0 . 911 0 .800 32 . 171 20 .865 0 . 878
0
0 . 900 32 . 604 22 . 869 0 .697 0 . 900 34. 975 25 .038 0 . 651
0
0 . 950 35 . 104 25 . 410 0 . 506 0 . 950 37 . 402 27 . 820 0 . 456
Mi
0
0 . 960 35 . 794 31.763 0 . 133 0 . 960 36 . 128 34 . 775 0 . 105
oooooooooo
0 .970 36 . 653 38 . 115 0 .018 0 .970 39 . 033 41 . 730 0 . 012

0 . 980 37 . 816 44 . 466 0 . 001 0 .980 10.257 48.685 0 . 001
0
0 . 990 39 . 696 48. 279 0 .000 0 . 990 42 . 235 52 . 858 0 . 000
STATION 10831 BIRMINGHAM . AL STATION 15478 MOBILE . AL

ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 53 . 23 APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 38 . 58
PROB QUANTILE QUANTITY PROB QUANTILE QUAN TITY FOR
VALUES BOBETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES BOBETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 . 200 46 . 755 5 . 323 1 .000 0 .200 29 . 911 3 . 858 1 . 000
0 . 400 51. 213 13. 308 1 .000 0 . 400 34 . 712 9 .645 1 . 000
0
0 .600 55 . 274 26 .615 1 . 000 0 .600 39 . 240 19. 290 0 . 992

0 . 000 60 . 250 39.923 0 . 966 0 .800 44 . 970 28 . 935 0 .834
0 . 900 64 . 159 47 . 907 0 .754 0 .900 49 . 597 34 . 722 0 .600
0 . 950 67 . 510 53.230 0 .498 0 . 950 53 .643 38 .580 0 . 428
0
0 . 960 68 . 507 66 .538 0 . 062 0 . 960 54 . 861 46 . 225 0 . 124

0 0 0
0 . 970 69. 746 79 . 845 0 .002 0 . 970 56 . 362 57. 870 0 . 022
0 . 980 71 . 416 93 . 153 0 .000 0 . 980 58 . 446 67 .515 0 .003
0 . 990 74 . 100 101 . 137 0 . 000 0 . 990 61. 797 73 . 302 0 . 001
0
STATION 15478 MOBILE . AL STATION 15478 MOBILE , AL

OCTOBER -MARCH 1937 - 1975 NORMAL = 28 . 40 ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 66 . 98
SELECTED SELECTED SELECTED EXC PRO SELECTED SELECTED SELECTED EXCFORPRB
PROB QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR PROB QUANTILE QUANTITY
VALUES BEBETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES B = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 . 200 22 . 406 2 .840 0 . 975 0 . 200 54. 732 6 . 698 1 .000
0
o o
0 0
0 . 400 25 .643 7 . 100 0 . 975 0 . 400 61. 482 16 . 745 1 . 000

0 .600 28 . 570 14.200 0.973 0 .600 67 . 725 33. 490 0 . 999
0 . 000 32 . 191 21.300 0 . 852 0 .800 75 . 486 50 .235 0 . 896
0
0 .900 35 .071 25 . 560 0 .606 0 .900 8 : . 657 60. 282 0 .639

0
0 . 950 37 . 566 28. 400 0 . 411 0 .950 66 , 995 66 . 980 0 . 423

313
0 0 0 0 0
0 . 960 35 .500 0 . 009 0 . 960 88 . 592 83 . 725 0 .077

0 0 0
0 .970 39 . 244 42 .600 0 .010 0 . 970 90 . 581 100 . 470

117. 215
0 . 006
0 . 900 40 . 50 49. 700 0 . 001 0 . 980 93.270 0 .000
0 . 990 42 . 541 53 . 960 0 . 000 0 . 990 97.611 127 . 262 0 .000
12
STATION 26401 PHOENIX . AZ STATION 26461 PHOENIX , AZ
APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL 3 3 . 24 OCTOBER - MARCH 1937 - 1975 NORMAL = 3 . 61
SELECTED
PROB
SELECTED
QUANTILE
SELECTED EXC PRO
QUANTITY
SELECTED SELECTED
PROD QUANTILE QUANTITY
SELECTED EXC PRO
VALVES . : OETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES I -DETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 .200 1 . 712 0 . 324 0 .996 0 . 200 1 . 006 0 . 301 0 . 971
0 . 400 2 . 468 0 .910 0 .969 0 . 400 2 . 786 0 . 953 0 .033
0 . 600 3 . 281 1 .620 0 .822 0 .600 3 .841 1 . 905 0 . 702
0 . 800 4 . 426 2 . 430 0 .610 0 .000 5 . 343 2 . 858 0 . 587
0 . 800 5 . 433 2 . 916 0 . 465 0 . 000 6 . 677 3 . 429 0 . 474
0 . 950 6 . 367 3 . 240 0 .409 0 .950 7 . 022 * 3 . 610 0 .406
0 .960 6 .657 4 . 05O 0 . 254 0 .960 4 . 763 0 . 266
0 . 970 7 , 024 4 . 860 0 . 150 0 .970 8 .003 5 . 715 0 . 167
0 . 980 7 .531 5 .670 0 . 084 0 . 900 9 . 404 6 .660 0 .101
0 . 990 8 . 376 6 . 156 0.059 0 . 990 10 .622 7 . 239 0 . 074
STATION 26481 PHOENIX . AZ STATION 29660 YUMA . AZ

ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 1 . 05 APRIL - SEPTEMOER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 0 . 98
SELECTED
PROB
SELECTED SELECTED
QUANTILE QUANTITY
EXC PRO
FOR
SELECTED SELECTED SELECTED
PROB QUANTILE QUANTITY
EXC PRO
VALUES BRBETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES 8 = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 . 200 4 . 544 0 . 705 1 . 000 0 . 200 0 . 301 0 . 000 0 .929
0 . 400 5 .918 1 . 763 0 .995 0 . 400 0 .629 0 . 245 0 . 037
0 .600 7 . 306 3 . 525 0 .914 0 .600 1 . 049 0 . 490 0 . 685
0 . 800 9 . 170 5 .288 0 .695 0 . 800 1 . 727 0 . 735 0 .543
0 .900 10 . 750 5 . 345 0 .536 0 .900 2 . 380 0 . 882 0 . 472
0 . 950 12 . 179 7 . 050 0 . 134 0 . 950 3 . 020 0 . 980 0 . 429
0 . 960 12 . 617 8.813 0 .231 0 .960 3 . 241 1 . 225 0 . 336
0 . 970 13 . 169 10 .575 0 . 108 0 . 970 3 . 486 1 .470 0 . 262
0 . 980 13 . 925 12 . 338 0 .046 0 .580 3 .854 1 . 715 0 .203
0 . 990 15 . 172 13.395 0.027 0 . 990 4 . 479 1 . 062 0 . 074
STATION 29660 YUMA ,AZ STATION 29660 YUMA . AZ

OCTOBER - MARCH 1937 - 1975 NORMAL : 1 .69 ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 2 . 67
SELECTED SELECTED SELECTED EXC PRO SELECTED SELECTED SELECTED EXC PRO
PROR QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR PROS QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR
VALUES = & ETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES B GETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 . 200 0 . 473 0 . :69 0 . 920 0 .200 1 . 325 0 .267 0 . 994
DO
0 . 400 0 . 952 0 . 423 0 .822 0 . 400 2 .040 0 .666 0.949

600 1 . 553 0 . 845 0 .642 0 .600 2 . 837 1 . 335 0.707
0 .000 2 . 506 1 . 268 0 . 487 0 . 800 3 . 995 2.003 0 .610
0 . 900 3 . 4 :7 1 . 521 0 . 400 0 . 900 5 .036 2 . 403 0 . 503
0 . 950 4 . 305 1 . 690 0 . 363 0 .950 6 . 013 2 .670 0 . 436
0 . 960 4 .6ia 2. 1.3 0 . 268 0 . 960 6 . 378 3 . 330 0 .300
0.970 4 . 949 2 .535 0 . 196 0 . 970 6 . 707 1 . 005 0 . 190
0 . 980 5 . 457 2 . 950 0 . 143 0 . 980 7 . 246 4 .673 0 . 120
0 .990 6 . 317 3.2.: 0 . 117 0 . 990 5 . 073 0 . 097
13
STATION 34246 LITTLE ROCKAR STATION 34246 LITTLE ROCK , AR
APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 23 . 99 OCTOBER - MARCH 1937 - 1975 NORMAL = 24 . 53
PROD QUANTILE QUANTITY
VALUES BETA LEVELS
EXC PRO
FOR
PCP LVL
VALUES 8 BETA LEVELS
EXC PRO
FOR
PCP LVL TERRO
0 . 200 18 . 446 2 . 399 1 .000 0 .200 18 . 241 2 . 453 0 .975
0 . 400 21.866 5 .998 1 .000 0 . 400 22 . 055 6 .133 0 . 975
0
0
0 .600 25 . 132 11. 995 0 . 986 0 .600 25 .620 12 . 265 0 . 950
0 . 800 29 . 311 17 . 993 0 .023 0 .800 30 . 156 18 . 398 0 . 793
0 0
0 . 900 32 . 718 21.591 0 .617 0 .900 33.650 22 .077 0 .599
0 . 950 35 . 718 23 .990 0 . 468 0 .950 37. 105 24.530 0 . 450
0 . 960 36 .624 29. 988 0 . 176 0 . 960 8 . 088 30.663 0 . 183
0
0 .970 37 . 758 35 . 965 0 .047 0 . 970 9 . 320 36 . 795 0 . 054
0 0
0
0 .980 39 . 300 41 . 983 0 .010 0 . 980 10 . 995 42 . 928 00 ..012
0 . 990 41 .81: 45 . 581 0 .003 0 . 990 726 46 . 607 005
0
STATION 34240 LITTLE ROCK , AR STATION 42010 EUREKA . CA
ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL . 40 . 52 APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL 6 . 70
SELECTLO
PROD
SELECTED
QUANTILE
SELECTED
QUANTITY
EXC PRO
FOR
PROG QUANTILE QUANTITY
( XC
PO
PRO
VALUES . . . CIA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES 6 . ETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 . 200 41 . 163 1.052 1 .000 0 .200 4 . 204 0 .870 1 .000
0 . 400 46 . 120 12 . 130 1 . 000 0 .400 5 . 471 1 . 695 0 . 005
0 .800 50 .698 24. 260 1 . 000 0.600 6 . 751 3 . 300 0 . 901
0 . 800 56 . 380 36 .390 0 . 927 0 . 800 8 . 469 5 . 085 0 .663
0 . 900 60 .893 43.668 0 . 705 0 .900 8 .925 6 . 102 0 .498
0 . 950 64 . 793 48 . 520 0 . 494 0 .950 11 . 242 6 . 780 0 . 396
0 . 860 65 . 959 60.650 0 . 104 0 . 960 11 .645 0 . 475 0.199
0 . 970 67. 411 72 . 780 0 . 009 0 .970 12 . 153 10 . 170 0 .088
0 . 980 69. 373 84 .910 0 .000 0 . 980 12 . 850 11 .865 0 .035
0 0
0 . 990 72 . 540 92 . 168 0 . 000 0 . 990 13 . 999 12 . 882 0 . 020
STATION 42910 EUREKA . CA STATION 42910 EUREKA . CA

OCTOBER - MARCH 1937 - 1975 NORMAL = 32 . 98 ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 39 . 76
PROB QUANTILE
6 = BETA
QUANTITY
LEVELS
FOR
PCP LVL
PROB
VALUES
QUANTILE
B = BETA
QUANTITY FOR
VALUES LEVELS PCP LVL
0 . 200 26 . 906 3 . 298 0 . 975 0 . 200 32 . 747 3 . 976 1 .000
0
o o o o
0. 400 31 . 053 8 . 245 0 .975 0 . 400 37 . 190 9 . 940 1 . 000

00 ..600 34 .823 16 . 490 0 . 973 0 .600 41. 326 19. 860 0 .998
600 39.506 24 . 735 0 . 876 0 . 800 46 . 499 29 . 820 0 .896
o o o o o
0 . 900 43 . 245 29 .682 0 .672 0 . 900 50 .635 35 . 784 0 .666

0 . 950 46 . 493 32 . 980 0 . 496 0 .950 225 39. 760 0 . 474
0 . 960 47. 467 41 . 225 0 . 148 0 . 960 302 19. 700 0 . 118
0
o
0 . 970 48 . 602 49 . 470 0 .025 0 . 970 56 .643 59 .640 0 .0is

0 .980 50 . 327 57 . 715 0 .003 0 . 980 58 . 460 69 .580 0.001
0
o
0 . 990 52 . 991 62 . 662 0 . 003 0 . 990 61 . 398 75 . 544 0 .000

0
14
Novo
STATION 43257 FRESNO . CA STATION 43257 FRESNO . CA
APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 1 . 71 OCTOBER - MARCH 1937 - 1975 NORMAL = 6 .53
No
0 . 200 0 . 583 0 . 171 0 . 967 0 . 200 5 . 759 0 . 853 0 . 075
0 . 400 1 . 035 0 . 42A 0 . 869 0 . 400 7 . 386 2 . 133 0 . 974
0 .600 1 . 504 0 . 855 0 .677 0 .600 8 . 961 1 . 265 0 . 923
0 .800 2 . 432 1 . 283 0 .503 0 . 800 11 . 023 6 . 398 0. 727
0 . 900 3 . 227 1 .539 0 . 414 0 . 900 12 . 742 7 .677 0 .562
0 . 950 3 . 994 1 . 710 0 . 362 0 . 950 14. 282 8 . 530 0 .452
0 .960 4 . 265 2 . 138 0 . 256 0 . 960 4 . 751 10 . 663 0 .228
0 . 970 4 , 547 2 . 565 0 .179 0 . 970 15 . 342 12 . 795 0 . 098
0 .980 4 . 980 2 . 993 0 . 023 0 .980 16 . 148 14 . 928 0 .037
0 .990 5 . 713 3 . 249 0 . 098 0 . 990 17 . 473 16 . 207 0 .010
STATION 43257 FRESNO . CA STATION 45114 LOS ANGELES , CA
ANNUAL 1937- 1976 NORMAL - 10 . 24 APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL 1 . 31
SELECTED SELECTED SELECTED EXC PRO SELECTED SELECTED SELECTED ( XC PRO
PROD QUANTILE QUANTITY PRO QUANTILE QUANTITY
VALUES ETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES DIETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 . 200 7 . 240 1 .024 1 . 000 0 . 200 0 .235 0 . 131 0 .875
0 . 400 . . 007 2 . 560 0 . 009 0 . 400 0 . 592 0 . 320 0 . 741
0 .600 10 . 745 5 . 120 0 .955 0 . 600 1 . 125 0 . 655 0 . 571
0 . 800 13 .027 7 .680 0 . 754 0 . 800 2 . 071 0 . 983 0 . 445
0 . 900 14 . 925 9 . 216 0 .575 0 .900 3 . 038 1 . 179 0 . 384
0 . 950 16 .621 10 .240 0 .455 0 . 950 4 . 016 1 . 310 0 . 349
0 .960 17 . 138 12 .800 0 . 216 0 . 960 4 . 345 1 .636 0 . 214
0 . 970 17 . 786 15 . 360 0 .084 0 .970 4 . 742 1 . 965 0 . 216
0 . 900 18 .672 17 .920 0 .028 0 . 980 5 . 320 2 . 293 0 . 170
0 .990 20 . 125 19 . 456 0 .014 0 . 990 6 . 314 2 . 489 0 .148
STATION 45 1 14 LOS ANGELES . CA STATION 45 1 14 LOS ANGELES , CA
OCTOBER - MARCH 1937 - 1975 NORMAL - 10 . 28 ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL : 11 .59
SELECTED SELECTED SELECTED EXC PRB SELECTED SELECTED SELECTED EXC PRO
PROB QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR PROB QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR
VALUES B BETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES BEBETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 .200 6 . 119 1 . 028 0 .975 0 . 200 7 .559 1 . 159 000
0 . 400 8 . 389 2 .570 0 . 966 0 . 400 9 . 912 2 . 898 0 .995
0 .600 10 .671 5 . 140 0 .870 0 .600 12 . 301 5 . 795 0 . 915
0 .800 13 . 757 7 . 710 0 .663 0 . 800 15 .519 8 . 693 0 .707
0 . 900 16 . 394 9 . 252 0 .521 0 . 900 18 . 254 10 . 431 0 . 554
0.350 18 . 793 10 . 280 0 . 432 0 . 950 20 . 732 11. 590 0 . 456
0. 960 19 . 531 12 .850 0.249 0 . 960 21.482 0 . 254
0 .970 20 . 463 !5 . 420 0 . 130 0 . 970 22, 451 17 . 385 0 . 126
0.980 21 . 743 17. 990 0 .063 0 .980 23.766 20 . 283 0 .057
0.990 23.659 19.532
19 .532 0 .040 0 .990 25 . 934 22 . 021 0 . 034
15
STATION 47630 SACRAMENTO . CA STATION 47630 SACRAMENTO . CA
APRIL -SEPTEMBER 1940 - 1976 NORMAL = 2 . 40 OCTOBER -MARCH 1940 - 1975 NORMAL - 14 . 02
PROO QUANTILE QUANTITY PROO QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR
VALUES 6 = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES Ο « ΘΕΤΑ LEVELS PCP LVL
0 . 200 0 .971 0 . 200 9 . 854 1 . 482 0 . 973
ooo
0 . 856 0 . 240
0 .400 1 . 496 0 . 600 0 . 870 0 . 400 12 .634 3 . 705 0 . 972
0 .600 2 .266 1 . 200 0 . 600 0 .600 15 . 209 7 . 410 0 . 924
0 . 800 3 . 440 1 . 000 0 . 514 0 .800 18 . 547 11 . 115 0 . 719
0 .900 4 . 551 2 . 160 0 . 424 0 . 900 21 . 322 13. 338 0 .543
0 . 950 5 . 611 2 . 400 0 . 371 0 .950 23 . 790 14 . 820 0 . 126
0 . 960 5 . 900 3 . 000 0 . 262 0 . 960 24. 552 18 . 525 0 . 201
0 .970 6 . 375 3 .600 0 . 182 0 .970 25 . 496 22 . 230 0 .078
0 . 980 6 .973 4 . 200 0 . 125 0 . 980 26 . 792 25 . 935 0 . 026
0 . 990 7 . 983 4 .560 0 . 099 0 . 990 28 . 912 26 . 150 0 . 013
STATION 47630 SACRAMENTO . CA STATION 47740 SAN DIEGO . CA

ANNUAL 1940 - 1976 NORMAL = 17 . 22 APRIL - SEOTEMOER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 1 . 22
SELECTED
PROB
SELECTED
QUANTILE
SELECTED
QUANTITY
EXCFORPRB SELECTED SELECTED SELECTED
EXC PRO
VALUES 8 = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES 8 = BETA PCP LVL
LEVELS
0 . 200 12 . 128 1 . 722 1 .000 0 . 200 0 . 279 0 .172 0 . 000
0 . 400 15 . 010 4 . 305 0 . 999 0 . 400 0 .633 0 . 305 0 . 783
0 .600 17 . 835 8 .610 0 . 956 0 .600 1 . 130 0 .610 0 . 611
0 .800 21 .534 12 . 915 0 . 749 0 .800 1 . 975 0 . 915 0 .971
0 . 900 24. 605 15 . 490 0 . 564 0 .900 2 .818 1 . 098 0 . 410
0 . 950 27 .344 17. 220 0 . 441 0 . 950 3 . 661 1 . 220 0 . 371
0 . 060 26 . 177 21 . 525 0 . 200 0 . 960 3 .947 1 .525 0 . 289
0 . 970 29 . 224 25 . 630 0 .074 0 .970 4 . 281 1 . 830 0 .225
0 . 980 30 .652 30 . 135 0 .023 0 .980 4 . 773 2 . 135 0 . 175
0 . 990 32.993 32 . 718 0 .011 0 . 990 5 .614 2 . 318 0 . 15 :
STATION 47740 SAN DIEGO . CA STATION 47740 SA DIEGO .. CA

SANN DIEGO c .
VALUES BEBETA LEVELS
FOR
PCP LVL PROB
VALUES QUANTILE
6 = 6ΕΤΑ QUANTITY
LEVELS PCPFORLVL
0 .200 5 . 013 0 . 623 0 . 975 0 . 200 6 . 100 0 . 945 1 . 000
0 .400 6 . 783 2 . 050 0 . 968 0 .400 8 .036 2 . 363 0 . 905
.600 8 .546 4 . 115 0 . 880 0 .600 9 . 997 4 . 725 0 . 911
800 10 . 023 6 . 173 0 .672 0 . 600 12 .645 7 . 066 0 . 702
0 . 900 12 . 942 7 . 407 0 .526 0 .900 14 . 897 8 .505 0 .550
oo
Oo
0 . 950 14 . 775 8 . 230 0 . 434 0 . 950 16 . 990 9 . 450 0 . 453

0. 960 15 . 337 10 . 286 0 . 244 0 . 960 17. 567 11 . 013 0 . 253
0 .970 16 . 047 12 . 345 0 . 124 0 . 970 18 . 357 14 . 175 0 . 126
0 . 900 17. 022 14 . 403 0 . 058 0 . 900 19 . 442 16 .532 0 . 050
0 . 990 10 . 630 15 .637 0 . 035 0 . 990 21. 232 17. 055 0 .035
16
STATION 47760 SAN FRANCISCO . CA STATION 47760 SAN FRANCISCO . CA
APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 2 . 33 OCTOBER -MARCH 1937 - 1975 NORMAL = 17 . 20
VALUES 6 - BETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES B = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 .200 0 .835 0 . 233 0 . 974 0 .200 11 . 285 1 . 720 0 . 975
0 . 400 1 . 420 0 . 503 0 . 883 0 . 400 14 . 577 4 . 300 0 . 973
0 .600 2 . 134 1 .165 0 .687 0 .600 17 . 775 8 . 600 0 . 913
0 . 800 3 . 206 1 . 748 0 .503 0 .800 21. 979 12 . 900 0 . 707
2. 007
o
0 .900 4 . 202 0 . 400 0 .900 25 . 493 15 . 480 0 .541

0 . 950 5 . 154 2 . 330 0 .354 0 . 950 28 . 646 11 . 200 0 . 434
0
0 . 960 5 . 495 2 . 913 0 . 244 0.960
0 . 960 29.608
29 . 606 21 .500 0 . 218
0 . 970 5 . 039 3 . 495 0 . 164 0 .970 30 . 818 25 .800 0 .094
o
0 . 900 6 . 375 4 . 078 0 . 109 0 .980 32 . 474 30 . 100 0 .036

0 . 990 1 . 278 4 . 427 0 . 085 0 . 990 35 . 195 32 .600 0 . 019
STATION 47769 SAN FRANCISCO . CA STATION 52220 DENVER . CO

ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL 19 . 53 APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1937- 1976 NORMAL = 10 . 70
ooooo
PROD QJANTILE QUANTITY FOR PROB QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR

VALUES 8 BETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES 8 = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 . 200 13.614 1 . 953 1 . 000 0 . 200 7 . 530 1 .070 1 . 000
0 . 400 16 . 959 4 .883 0 . 999 0 .400 9 . 316 2 . 675 0 . 999
0 .600 20 . 252 9 .765 0 .951 0 .600 11 . 071 5 . 350 0 . 956
0 . 800 24.576 14.648 0 . 742 0 . 800 13 . 366 8 . 025 0 . 749
0
0 . 900 20 . 177 17.577 0 .561 0 . 900 15 . 272 9 . 630 0 . 563

0 . 950 31 . 394 19 .530 0 . 441 0 . 95016 . 971 10 . 700 0 .440
0 . 960 32 . 374 24. 413 0 . 206 0 . 960 17 . 486 13. 375 0 . 199
0
0 .970 33 .604 29.295 0 . 079 0 .970 18 . 137 16 . 050 0 . 073

35 .286 34. 178 0 .026 0 . 980 19 . 023 18 . 725 0 .023
0 0
0 .090 38 .043 37.107 0 .013 0 . 990 20 , 475 20 . 330 0 . 011
STATION 52220 DENVER . CO STATION 53488 GRAND JUNCTION . CO

ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 15 . 51 APRIL - SEPTEMOER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 4 . 32
QUANTILE QUANTITY
PROB
VALUES 8 = ETA LEVELS
FOR
PCP LVL
VALUES 8 = BETA LEVELS PCPFORLVL
0 .200 11 . 664 1 . 551 1 .000 0 . 200 3 . 020 0 . 432 1 .000
0 . 400 13 . 894 3 .878 1 . 000 0 .400 3 . 731 1 . 080 0 . 999
0 .600 16 .031 7 . 755 0 .982 0 .600 1 .42 9 2 . 160 0 . 955
0 .800 10 . 773 11.633 0 .802 0 . 800 5 . 341 3 . 240 0 . 742
0 . 900 21 . 013 13 . 959 0 .594 0 . 900 6 . 098 3 . 886 0 . 553
0 . 950 22 . 988 15 .510 0 . 447 0 . 950 6 . 772 4 . 320 0 . 429
0 . 960 23 . 585 19. 388 0 . 167 0 . 960 6 . 978 5 . 400 Ó . 190
0 . 970 24. 333 23 . 265 0 .045 0.970 7 . 235 6 . 480 0 . 068
0 . 980 25 . 350 27. 143 0 .009 0 .900 7 . 587 7 .560 0 .021
0 . 990 27 .007 29. 469 0 .003 0 . 990 8 . 163 B . 206 0 . 009
17
ARECIPITATION PROBABILITIES
STATION 53488 GRAND JUNCTION . CO
OCTOBER - MARCH 1937 - 1975 NORMAL = 4 . 09 STATION 53488 GRAND JUNCTION . CO
ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 8 . 41
VALUES BOBETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES 8 = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 .200 2 . 943 0 . 409 0 .875 0 . 200 6 . 376 0 . 841 1 .000
0 . 400 3 .603 1 .023 0 . 975 0 . 400 7 . 525 2 . 103 1 . 000
o o
0 .600 4 . 225 2 .045 0 . 950 0 .600 8 .620 4 . 205 0 . 986

0 .800 5 . 022 3 . 068 0 . 766 0 . 800 10 . 019 6 . 300 0 .810
0 . 900 5 .674 3 .681 0 .574 0 .900 11 . 157 7 . 569 0 . 592
0 . 950 6 . 250 4 . 090 0 . 442 0 . 950 12 . 157 8 . 410 0 .437
0 .960 6 . 425 5 . 113 0 . 183 0 .960 12 . 459 10 . 513 0 . 150
o
0 .970 6 .644 6 . 135 0 .058 0 . 970 12 . 837 12 . 615 0 . 036

0 .980 6 . 942 7 . 158 0 .015 0 .980 13. 351 14 , 718 0 .006
0 .990 7 . 428 7 . 771 0 . 006 0 . 990 14 . 166 15 . 979 0 . 002
o
STATION 63456 HARTFORD .CT STATION 63456 HARTFORD ,CT

APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 21 . 68 ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 43 . 37
SELECTED SELECTED SELECTED EXC PRO SELECTED SELECTED SELECTED EXCFORPRO
VALUES BOBETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES B = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 . 200 17 . 593 2 . 168 1 . 000 0 . 200 38 . 026 4 . 337 1 . 000
0 . 400 20 . 670 5 . 420 1 . 000 0 . 400 42 . 253 10 .843 1 . 000
600 23 . 594 10 . 840 0.993 0 .600 46 . 137 21 . 685 1 . 000
0
0 .600 27 . 319 16 . 260 0 . 868 0 .800 50 .936 32 . 528 0 . 953

0 . 900 30 . 344 19 .512 0 .680 0 . 900 54. 732 39 . 033 0 . 757
950 32 . 999 21 .680 0 .529 0 . 950 58 . 003 43. 370 0 .542
0 0
960 33 . 800 27 . 100 0 . 209 0 . 960 58 . 980 54 . 213 0 . 111

0 .970 34 . 802 32 . 520 0 .057 0 .970 60 . 195 65 . 055 0 .009
0 . 980 36 . 163 37 . 940 0 . 011 0 . 980 61 .835 75 . e98 0 . 000
0 0
0 . 990 38 . 376 41. 192 0 . 004 0 . 990 64.476 82 . 403 0 . 000
STATION 84358 JACKSONVILLE , FL STATION 84358 JACKSONVILLE ,FL

VALUES B = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES B = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 . 200 29 . 883 3 . 563 1 . 000 0 . 200 12 . 251 1 . 884 0 .975
0 . 400 33. 376 8 . 906 1 . 000 0 . 400 15 . 940 4 . 710 0 . 973
0 .600 36 . 601 17 .815 1 . 000 0 .600 19 .540 9 .420 0 .9. 9
0 .800 40 .593 26 . 723 0 . 921 0 . 800 24.287 14 . 130 0 . 703
0 . 900 43 . 760 32. 067 0 .680 0 . 900 28 . 267 16 . 956 0 . 541
0 . 950 46 . 494 35 .630 0 , 459 0 . 950 31 . 844 18 . 840 0 . 437
0 . 960 47 . 310 44 . 538 0 . 083 0 . 960 32 . 937 23 . 550 0 . 225
0
.
0 . 970 46 . 327 53 . 445 0 . 006 0 . 970 34 . 312 26 . 260 0 .100

0
.
0.980
0 . 980 49.701
49 . 701 62 . 353 0 .000 0 . 980 36 . 194 32 . 970 0 . 040
0 . 990 51. 916 67.697 0 .000 0 . 990 39 . 289 35 . 796 0 .022
.
18
STATION 84358 JACKSONVILLE FL STATION 85663 MIAMI, FL
PROB QUANTILE QUANTITY EXCFORPRO SELECTED SELECTED QUANTITY
PROB QUANTILE
SELECTED EXC PRO
FOR
VALUES B = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES 8 = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 . 200 46 . 058 5 . 447 1 .000 0 . 200 31 . 400 4 . 109 1 . 000
0 . 400 51 . 273 13.618 1 . 000 0 .400 37 . 100 10 .273 1 .000
0 .600 56 . 071 27.235 1 .000 0 .600 42 .535 20 . 545 0 . 986
0 .800 62 . 004 40 . 853 0 . 930 0 . 600 49 . 479 30 . 816 0 .817
0 .900 66 . 702 49 . 023 0 .692 0 . 900 55 . 132 36 . 981 0 .604
0 . 950 70 . 753 54 . 470 0 . 465 0 . 950 60 . 104 41. 090 0 . 451
0 .960 71 .963 68 . 088 0 .080 0 . 960 61. 605 51 . 363 0 . 161
0 . 970 73. 468 81. 705 0 .005 0 .970 63. 483 61 .635 0 .040
0 .980 75 .500 95 . 323 0 .000 0 . 980 66 .036 71 .908 0 . 007
0 . 990 78 . 777 103 . 493 0 .000 0 . 990 70 . 191 78 . 071 0 . 002
STATION 85663 MIAMI, FL STATION 85663 MIAMI ,FL

0 .200 11 . 683 1 . 871 0 . 973 0 . 200 46 . 559 5 . 980 1 . 000
0 .400 15 . 195 4 .678 0 . 970 0 .400 54 . 088 14 . 950 1 .000
0 . 600 18 .610 9 . 355 0 . 897 0 .600 61. 194 29 . 900 0 . 992
0 . 800 23 . 107 14 . 033 0 .670 0 . 800 70 . 191 44 . 850 0 .837
0 . 900 26 . 873 16 . 839 0 .501 0 . 900 77 . 460 53 . 820 0 .608
0 .950 30 . 256 18 ,710 0 .395 0 . 950 83 . 818 59 . 800 0 . 438
0 . 960 31 . 289 23 . 388 0 . 191 0 . 960 85 . 732 74 . 750 0 . 131
0 . 970 32 . 588 28 . 065 0.079 0 . 970 08 . 123 89 . 700 0 .025
0 . 980 34 . 367 32 . 743 0 .029 0 . 980 91 . 368 104 . 650 0 . 003
0 . 990 37 . 291 35 . 549 0 .015 0 . 990 96 .636 113 .620 0 .001
STATION 86997 PENSACOLA , FL STATION 86997 PENSACOLA , FL

APRIL -SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 37 .69 OCTOBER -MARCH 1937- 1975 NORMAL = 26 .53
PRO QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR PROB QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR
0 .200 27 . 847 3 . 769 1 .000 0 . 200 20 .030 2 . 653 0 . 975
0 , 400 33 . 342 9 . 423 1 . 000 0 . 400 23. 733 6 .633 0 . 975
0 .600 38 . 624 18 . 645 0.978 0 .600 27 . 153 13 . 265 0 . 965
o
0 . 800 45.420 28. 268 0 .786 0 . 800 31. 459 19 . 898 0 . 806
0 0 0
0 . 900 50 . 985 33 . 921 0 .577 0 . 900 34 . 937 23 . 877 0 .591

0 . 950 55 . 900 37 . 690 0 . 434 0 . 950 37 . 983 26 . 530 0 . 435
0 .960 57 . 387 47 . 113 0.164 0 . 960 38 . 901 33 . 163 0 . 144
o
0 .970 59 . 249 56 .535 0 .045 0 . 970 40 . 046 39 . 795 0 . 032

0 0 0
0 .900 61 . 784 65 . 956 0 .010 0 . 980 41 . 605 46 . 428 0 . 005

0 . 990 65 . 919 71 .611 0 . 004 0 . 990 44 . 136 50 . 407 0 . 002
19
o
STATION 86997 PENSACOLA . FL STATION 88788 1937 TAMPA ,FL
ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 64. 22 APRIL - SEPTEMBER - 1976 NORMAL = 33 . 78
PROD QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR PROB QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR
VALUES B = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES 8 - BETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 . 200 49 . 211 6 . 422 1 . 000 0 . 200 26 .206 3 . 378 1 . 000
0 . 400 57 . 792 16 . 055 1 . 000 0 . 400 30 .634 8 . 445 1 . 000
0 .600 65 .945 2 . 110 0 . 988 0 .600 34.830 16 . 890 0 . 991
0 . 800 76 . 329 48 . 165 0 . 821 0 .800 40 . 160 . 335 0 . 833
0 . 900 64 . 758 57. 798 0 .600 0 . 900 44. 478 30 . 402 0 .611
0 .950 92 . 150 64 . 220 0 . 440 0 . 950 48 . 263 33.780 0 .448
0 .960 84 . 389 80 .275 0 . 147 0 . 960 49 . 404 42 . 225 0 .146
0 . 970 97 . 100 96 . 330 0 .033 0 . 970 50 . 830 50 . 670 0 . 031
0 . 980 100 . 971 112 . 385 0.005 0 . 980 52 . 765 59. 115 0 .005
0 .990 107. 137 122.018 0 .002 0 . 990 55 .912 64 . 182 0 . 001
STATION 88788 TAMPA ,FL STATION 88786 TAMPA FL

OCTOBER - MARCH 1937 - 1975 NORMAL = 15 .60 ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 49 . 38
VALUES B = 6ETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES BOBETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 . 200 9 . 373 1 . 560 0 . 975 0 .200 39 . 322 4 . 936 1 . 000
0 . 400 12 . 360 3 . 900 0 .870 0 . 400 44 .938 12 . 345 1 . 000
0 .600 15 . 298 7 . 800 0 .881 0 .600 50 . 186 24 . 690 0 .997
0 . 800 19 . 198 11 . 700 0 . 647 0 . 800 56 . 775 37 . 035 0 . 864
0 . 900 22 . 484 14 .040 0 . 482 0 . 900 62 . 056 44 . 442 0 .619
0 . 950 25.447 15 .600 0 . 381 0 . 950 66 .651 49 . 380 0 . 429
0 . 960 26 . 354 19 . 500 0 . 188 0 . 960 68.030 61 . 725 0 . 105
0 .970 27 . 496 23. 400 0 .081 0 .970 69 . 750 74 . 070 0 .014
0 . 980 29 . 061 27 .300 0 .032 0 . 980 72 .081 86 . 415 0 .001
0 . 990 31 .636 29 .640 0 .017 0 . 990 75 . 854 93 . 822 0 . 000
STATION 90451 ATLANTA . GA STATION 90451 ATLANTA .GA

APRIL -SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 23 . 58 OCTOBER - MARCH 1937 - 1975 NORMAL = 24 . 76
PROB
VALUES
QUANTILE
B = DE TA
QUANTITY
LEVELS
FOR
PCP LVL
PROB
VALUES
QUANTILE
B = BETA
QUANTITY
LEVELS
FOR
PCP LVL
0 . 200 20 .091 2 . 358 1 . 000 0 . 200 19 . 783 2 . 476 0 . 975
0 . 400 22 . 392 5 . 895 1 .000 0 . 400 23. 064 6 . 190 0 . 975
0 . 600 24 . 509 11 . 790 1 .000 0 . 600 26 . 065 12 . 380 0 .971
0 .800 27 . 130 17 . 685 0 .934 0 .800 29 .813 18 . 570 0 . 856
0 .900 29 . 206 21 . 222 0 . 708 0 . 900 32 . 810 22 . 284 0 .652
0 . 950 30 . 997 23. 580 0 . 486 0 . 950 35 . 437 24 . 760 0 . 485
O O
0 . 960 31 .532 29 . 475 0 . 091 0 . 960 36 . 224 30 . 950 0 . 156

0 . 970 32.197 35 . 370 0 . 007 0 .970 37. 207 37. 140 0 . 031
0 . 980 33 . 096 41 . 265 0 .000 0 . 900 38 .538 43 . 330 0 . 004
O
0 . 990 34 . 546 44 .802 0 .000 0 .990 40 .697 47 . 044 0 . 001

20
STATION 045 ) ATLANTA . GA STATION 101022 BB ISE . ID
ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 48 . 34 APRIL -SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 4 . 38
0 . 200 42 . 330 4 .834 1 . 000 0 . 200 2 . 786 0 . 436 1 . 000
0 . 400 46 .598 12 . 065 1 . 000 0 . 400 3 . 636 1 .095 0 . 995
o o
0 .600 50 . 497 24 . 170 1 .000 0 .600 4 . 497 2 . 190 0 .909
0 .800 55 .289 36 .255 0 . 960 0 .800 5 . 653 3 . 205 0 . 686
o o
0.900 58. 062 43.506 0 . 750 0 .900 6 . 635 3 .942 0 .526

0 .950 302 48 .340 0 .509 0 . 950 7 . 523 4 . 380 0 . 425
o oooooooooo
0 .960 63 . 260 60 . 425 0 .076 0 . 960 7 . 795 5 . 475 0 . 225
0.970 64 . 468 72 .510 0 . 003 0 .970 8 .138 6 . 570 0 . 105
0 . 980 66 . 006 84.595 0 .000 0 . 980
o 8 .609 7 .665 0 .045
0 . 990 68 . 689 91 . 846 0 .000 0 .900 9 . 385 8 . 322 0 .026
STATION 101022 BOISE . ID STATION 107211 POCATEιι0 .

ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL 11 . 50 APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 5 . 22
PROG QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR PROB QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR
VALUES B = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES B = BETA LEVELS PCP tv
0 . 200 9 .600 1 . 150 1 .000 0 . 200 3 .678 0 .522 1 . 000
0 . 400 10 . 894 2 . 875 1 . 000 0 . 400 4 .598 1 . 305 0 . 999
0 .600 12 .099 5 . 750 0 . 999 0 .600 5 . 505 2 . 610 0 . 952
0 .800 13.604 8 .625 0 . 907 0 . 800 6 .699 3 . 915 0 . 752
0 .900 14.807 10 . 350 0 .690 0 . 900 7 . 694 4 . 696 0 . 577
0 . 950 15 . 851 11 . 500 0 . 496 0 . 950 8 . 585 5 . 220 0 . 460
0 . 960 16 . 164 14. 375 0 .130 0 .960 6 .856 6 .525 0 .223
0 . 970 16 .555 17 .250 0 .010 0 . 970 9 . 197 7 . 830 0 . 000
0 . 900 17 .083 20 . 125 0 . 001 0 . 980 9 .663 9 . 135 0 .032
0 .990 17 . 937 21 . 850 0 .000 0 . 990 10 . 427 9 . 918 0 .016
STATION 107211 POCATELLO . ID STATION 11577 CHICAGO . IL

ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 10 . 80 APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 21. 34
0 . 200 8 . 912 1 . 080 1 . 000 0 . 200 17 . 023 2 . 134 1 . 000
0
0 . 400 10 . 418 2 . 700 1 . 000 0 . 400 19 .576 5 .335 1 . 000

0 .600 11 .844 5 . 400 0 . 995 0 . 600 21 . 972 10 .670 0 . 996
0 0
0 . 800 13.656 8 . 000 0 . 882 0 . 600 24. 990 16 . 005 0 .863

0 . 900 15 . 124 9 . 720 0 . 696 0 . 900 27 . 417 19 . 206 0 .631
0 . 950 16 . 411 10 . 800 0 . 545 0 . 950 29 . 533 21. 340 0 . 451
0 . 960 16 . 799 13 . 500 0 . 214 0 . 965 30 . 169 26 .675 0 . 125
0 . 970 17 , 284 16 .200 0 .056 0 . 970 30. 962 32 . 010 0 .020
0
0 . 980 17 . 942 18 . 900 0 . 011 0 . 980 32 . 038 37 . 345 0 . 002

0 . 990 : 9 .012 20 . 520 0 . 004 0 .990 33 . 783 40 . 5 46 0 . 000
21
STATION 111577 CHICAGO . IL STATION 124259 INDIANAPOLIS IN
VALUES 8 - BETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES B = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 . 200 28 . 646 3 . 444 1 .000 0 . 200 17.654 2 . 145 1 .000
0 . 400 32 .231 8 .610 1 . 000 0 . 400 20 .228 5 . 363 1 . 000
0
0
0 .600 35 .551 17 . 220 0 . 999
0
0 .600 22 .638 10 . 725 0 . 997
0 . 800 39 . 681 25 . 830 0 . 910 0 .800 25 .666 16 .088 0 .890
0 . 900 42. 968 30 . 896 0 .674 0 . 900 28. 097 19 . 305 0 . 677
0
0
0 . 950 45 .813 34. 440 0 . 465 0 . 950 30.214 21. 450 0 . 497
0 . 960 46 . 664 13.050 0 . 098 0 . 960 30 . 050 26 .813 0 . 146
oooooooooo
0 .970 47 . 724 51 . 660 0 .009 0 . 970 31.643 32. 175 0 .025

0 .880 49.158 60 . 270 0 . 000 0 . 980 32 . 718 37.538 0 .003
0 . 990 51 . 474 65 . 436 000 0 . 990 34 . 459 10.755 0 . 001
STATION 124259 INDIANAPOLIS . IN STATION 132203 DES MOINESIA

ANNUAL 1937- 1976 NORMAL = 38 . 74 APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 21 , 70
VALUES BEBE TA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES B = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 .200 33 .609 3 . 874 1 . 000 0 . 200 17 .924 2 .170 1 .000
0 .400 37 . 205 9 . 685 1 . 000 0 .400 20 . 425 5 . 425 1 .000
0 .600 40 .503 19 . 370 1 . 000 0 .600 22 . 758 10 . 850 0 . 998
0
0 .800 44 . 568 29 . 055 0 . 951 0 . 800 25 . 681 16 . 275 0 . 896

0 . 900 47 . 778 34 . 866 0 . 736 0 . 900 28 . 022 19 .530 0 .676
0 . 950 50 .541 38 . 740 0 .506 0 . 950 30 . 057 21 , 700 0 . 489
0 .960 51. 364 48. 425 0 . 086 0 . 960 30 . 667 27.125 0 .132
0 . 970 52 . 389 58 . 110 0 . 005 0 . 970 31. 428 32 . 550 0 . 019
0
0 .980 53.772 67. 795 0 . 000 0 . 980 32 . 459 37. 975 0 .002
0 .990 55 .999 73.606 0 .000 0 . 990 34. 127 41 .230 0 . 000
0
STATION 132203 DES MOINESIA STATION 132367 DUBUQUE , IA

VALUES B - BETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES B = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 .200 25 .658 3 . 085 1 .000 0 . 200 20 . 053 2 . 706 1.000
0
0 . 400 29 . 121 7 . 713 1 .000 0 . 400 23. 367 6 . 770 1 . 000

0.600 32.343 15 . 425 0 . 999 0 .600 26 .502 13.540 0 . 987
OOO
0 0 0 0 0
0 .800 36 . 372 23 . 138 0 . 904 0 . 800 30 . 477 20 . 310 0 . 786

in
0.900 39 . 592 27 . 765 0 . 684 0 . 900 33.693 24 . 372 0 . 534

0 . 950 42 . 387 30.850 0 . 491 0 .950 36 .509 27 . 080 0 . 366
0 .960 43 . 224 36 . 563 0 . 126 0 . 960 37. 357 33 . 850 0 . 096
0
0 .970 44 . 269 46 . 275 0 . 017 0 . 970 38 . 417 40 . 620 0 .016

0
0 .980 45 .682 53 . 988 0 . 00 : 0 . 980 39.855 47 . 390 0 .002

0 0
0 .990 47 . 968 58 . 615 0 . 000 0 . 990 42 . 192 51 . 452 0 .000

22
STATION 132367 DUBUQUE IA STATION 142164 DODGE CITYKS
0 . 200 30 . 566 4 . 027 1 .000 0 . 200 11 . 057 1 . 557 1 .000
0 . 400 35 . 056 10 . 068 1 . 000 0 . 400 13. 751 3 .893 0 . 999
0.600
0 . 800
39 . 262 20 . 135 0 .994 0 . 600 16 . 400 7 . 785 0 . 956
44 . 550 30 . 203 0 . 814 0 .800 19 . 877 11 .678 0 . 757
0 .900 48 .797 36 .243 0 .542 0 . 900 22 . 769 14. 013 0 .570
0 .950 52.497 40. 270 0 . 356 0 . 950 25 . 353 15 . 570 0 . 460
0 . 960 53 . 607 50 . 338 0 .076 0 . 960 26 . 139 19 . 463 0 . 219
0 . 970 54 . 994 60 . 405 0 .009 0 . 970 27 . 127 23.355 0 .086
0 . 980 56 .873 70.473 0 . 001 0 . 980 28 . 476 27 . 248 0 . 029
0 .990 59 . 916 76 .513 0 .000 0 . 990 30 .688 29 . 583 0 . 014
STATION 142164 DODGE CITY .KS STATION 154746 LEXINGTON .KY

SELECTED
PROO
SELECTED SELECTED
QUANTILE QUANTITY EXCFORPRO SELECTED
PROB
SELECTED
QUANTILE
SELECTED
QUANTITY
EXC PRO
FOR
0 .200 15 . 231 2 . 058 1 . 000 0 . 200 20 . 142 2 . 322 1 . 000
NON
0.4000 18 . 557 5 . 145 1 . 000 0 . 400 22 . 587 5 . 805 1 . 000

60 21. 788 10 . 290 0 . 972 0 . 600 24 . 846 11 .610 1 . 000
0
0.800 25 . 983 15 . 435 0 . 789 0 .800 27 .651 17 . 415 0 . 940

0
0 .900 29. 444 18 . 522 0 .602 0 . 900 29 . 880 20. 898 0 . 744
0 .950 32 .516 20 .580 0 . 472 0 . 950 807 23 . 220 0 .543
0 . 960 33 . 449 25 . 725 0 . 210 0 . 960 32 . 383 29 . 025 0 .132
0 .970 34 .618 30 .870 0 .073 0 . 970 33. 101 34 .830 0 . 014
0 .980 36 . 212 36 . 015 0 . 021 0 . 980 34 . 070 40 .635 0 . 001
0
0 . 990 38 .619 39 . 102 0 . 009 0 .990 35 .636 44.118 0 . 000
STATION 154746 L EXINGTON ,KY STATION 154746 LEXINGTON ,KY

OCTOBER -MARCH 1937 - 1975 NORMAL = 21. 27 ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 44 . 49
0 . 200 16 . 920 2 . 127 0 . 975 0 . 200 39 . 595 4 . 449 1 . 000
0 . 400 12 . 781 5 . 318 0 . 975 0 . 400
43 . 545 11 . 123 1 .000
0 .600 22 . 402 10 .635 0 . 970 0 .600 47 , 152 22 .245 1 .000
0 . 800 25 . 681 15 . 953 0 . 852 0 . 800 51 . 582 33. 368 0 . 968
0 .900 28 . 313 19 . 143 0 .649 0.900 55 . 068 40 . 041 0 .780
0 . 950 30 . 609 21 . 270 0 .485 0 . 950 58 . 061 44 . 490 0 .547
0 . 960 31 . 299 26 .586 0 . 160 0 . 960 58 . 953 55 .613 0 .069
0
0 . 970 32 . 161 31. 905 0 .033 0 . 970 60 .061 66 . 735 0 . 004

0 . 980 33. 329 37 . 223 0 . 005 0 . 960 61 . 555 77 . 858 0 .000
0
0 . 990 35 . 225 40 .413 0 .001 0 . 990 63. 958 84 . 531 0 . 000

23
STATION 166660 NEW ORLEANS . LA STATION 166660 NEW ORLEANS .LA
PCP LVL
VALUES . BETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES BOBETA LEVELS
oooooo
0 . 200 25 . 364 3 . 066 1 .000 0 . 200 20 . 248 2 .611 0 .975

0 . 400 29. 304 7 .665 1 . 000 0 . 400 24.066 6 . 528 0 .075
0 .600 33.011 15 .330 0 . 096 0 .600 27.598 13 .055 0 .966
0 . 000 37.690 22 .995 0 .890 0 . 800 32.053 19 .583 0 . 828
0 .900 41 . 460 27.594 0 .692 0 . 900 35 . 656 23 . 499 0 .632
0 . 050 44 . 753 30 .660 0 .525 0 .950 38 . 814 26 . 110 0 . 482
0 . 960 45 . 743 38 .325 0 . 179 0 . 960 39 . 766 32.638 0 .160
0 . 970 46 . 979 45 .990 0 .038 0 . 970 40 .956 39 . 165 0 .046
0 . 980 48 .656 53 . 655 0 .005 0 . 980 42 .573 45 .693 0 .009
0 .990 51.376 58 .254 0 .001 0 . 990 45 , 201 49 .609 0 . 003
STATION 166660 NEW ORLEANS . LA STATION 168440 SHREVEPORT.LA

ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL : 56 . 77 APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 22 . 21
PROO QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR PROB QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR
VALUES = OETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES B = BETA . LEVELS PCP LVL
0 .200 40 . 316 5 .677 1 . 000 0 .200 16 . 451 2 . 221 1 . 000
o o
0 .400 54 . 711 14 . 193 1 .000 0 . 400 19 . 939 5 .553 1 . 000

0 .600 60 .654 28 . 385 0 .999 0 .600 23 . 316 11 . 105 0 . 974
0. 000 68 . 075 42 . 578 0 . 922 0 .800 27 .689 16 .658 0 . 789
.000 73 . 999 51 .093 0 .710 0 . 000 31. 288 19 . 989 0 . 597
0.050 79 . 137 56 . 770 0 . 529 0 . 950 34. 480 22 . 210 0 . 463
0.960 80.676 70 .963 0 .145 0. 960 35. 447 27 . 763 0 .197
0 .070 82 . 595 85 . 155 0 . 020 0 .970 36 .660 33 . 315 0 .065
o
0 .980 65 . 191 99 . 348 0 . 002 0 . 980 38 .313 38 .866 0 . 017

°
0 .930 89 . 389 107 . 863 0 . 000 0 . 990 41 . 013 42 . 199 0 . 007
STATION 160440 SHREVEPORT . LA STATION 168440 SHREVEPORT . LA

OCTOBER -MARCH 1937 - 1975 NORMAL = 22 .51 ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 44 . 72
NON
SELECTED SELECTED SELECTED EXC PRB SELECTED

PROB
SELECTED SELECTED
QUANTILE QUANTITY
EXCFORPRO
PROB QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR
0 . 200 17 . 471 2 . 251 0 . 975 0 . 200 37 . 444 4 . 472 1 . 000
0
0 .400 20 . 958 5 .626 0 . 975 0 . 400 42 .582 11 . 180 1 .000

0 .600 24 . 202 11 . 255 0 . 964 0 .600 47 .370 22.360 0 . 999
0
0 .800 28 . 313 16 .8830 .827 0 . 800 53 . 362 33.540 0 . 908

0
0 . 900 31 . 650 20 . 259 0 .644 0 .900 58.156 40 .246 0 .606

0
0 .950 34 . 583 22 .510 0 .502 0 . 950 62 . 319 44. 720 0 .509

0 . 960 35 . 468 20 . 138 0 . 207 0 . 960 63. 566 55 . 900 0 . 141
0 . 970 36 . 576 33 . 765 0 . 061 0 .970 65.124 67.080 0 . 021
0
0 . 980
0 . 990
38 . 062
40 . 534
39 . 393
42 . 769
0 .014
0 . 005
0 . 980
0 . 990
67.232
70 . 641
78 . 260 0 . 002
0 . 000
24
STATION 171175 CARIBOU . ME STATION 171175 CARIBOU , ME
APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1940 - 1976 NORMAL = 20 . 04 ANNUAL 1940 - 1976 NORMAL : 35 . 82
SELECTED
PROB
SELECTED SELECTED
QUANTILE QUANTITY
EXCFORPRO SELECTED SELECTED SELECTED
EXCFORPRO
0 . 200 16 . 430 2 . 004 1 .000 0 . 200 32 . 153 3 . 582 1 . 000
0 . 400 18 .843 5 .010 1 . 000 0 . 400 34 . 989 8 .955 1 . 000
0 .600 21 . 102 10 . 020 0 .997 0 .600 37 . 561 17. 910 1 . 000
0 .800 23 . 943 15 . 030 0 .887 0 .800 40 .702 26 . 865 0 . 979
0 .900 26 . 224 18 . 036 0 . 671 0 . 900 43 . 161 32 . 238 0 . 795
0 .950 28 . 211 20.040 0 .492 0 .950 45 . 264 35 .820 0 .535
0 . 960 28 . 808 25 . 050 0 . 145 0 . 960 45 . 889 44 . 775 0 . 059
0
0 . 970 29 . 553 30 . 060 0.025 0 . 970 46 .665 53. 730 0 . 001

0 .980 30 . 562 35 .070 0 . 003 0 .980 47 . 710 62 . 685 0 .000
0
0 . 990 32 . 197 38 .076 0 . 001 0 . 990 49 . 367 68 .058 0 .000

0
STATION 176905 PORTLAND , ME STATION 176905 PORTLAND . ME

APRIL -SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 18 . 30 ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 40 . 80
0 . 200 14 .825 1 .830 1 . 000 0 . 200 35 . 785 4 . 080 1 . 000
0 . 400 17 . 385 4 . 575 1 . 000 0 . 400 39 . 858 10 . 200 1 . 000
0 .600 19 . 815 9 . 150 0 . 993 0 .600 43 .605 20 . 400 1 . 000
0 . 800 22 .908 13 . 725 0 . 868 0 .800 48 .242 30 .600 0 . 952
0. 900 25 . 416 16 . 470 0 .676 0 . 900 51. 914 36 . 720 0 . 759
0. 950 27 .618 18 . 300 0 .523 0 . 950 55 .081 40 .600 0 .549
N
0 . 960 28.282 22.875 0 . 202 0 . 960 56 . 026 51 . 000 0 . 120

0. 970 29 . 112 27 . 450 0 . 053 0 . 970 57.203 61 . 200 0 . 010
0 .980 30 . 239 32 . 025 0 . 010 0 . 980 58 . 792 71 . 400 0 . 000
0 . 990 32 .072 34 . 770 0 .003 0 . 990 61. 355 77 . 520 0 .000
STATION 190770 BOSTON . MA STATION 190770 BOSTON . MA

APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 19 .51 ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 42 . 52
0 . 200 14 .529 1 . 951 1 . 000 0 .200 35 .004 4 . 252 1 . 000
0
0. 400 17 .637 4 . 878 1 .000 0 . 400 39 .623 10.630 1.000

ooo
0 .600 20 . 650 9 . 755 0 . 974 0 .600 43 . 915 21 . 260 0 . 999

Oo
0 .800 24 .554 14 .633 0 . 794 0 . 800 49.273 31.890 0 . 898

0. 900 27 . 769 17 . 559 0 . 605 0 . 900 53 . 550 38 . 268 0 . 663
0 .950 30 .621 19 . 510 0 .473 0 . 950 57 . 258 42 . 520 0 . 463
0 .960 31.466 24 . 388 0 .207 0 . 960 58 . 370 53 . 150 0 . 107
0 . 970 32 .570 29 . 265 0 .070 0 . 970 59. 755 63. 780 0 .012
0 .980 34 .048 34.143 0 .019 0 . 960 61 .629 74. 410 0 .001
0 . 990 36 . 463 37. 069 0 .006 0 . 990 64 .659 80 . 788 0 .000
25
1937-DETROIT.
STATION 202103 MI
ooooooo
DE TROIT ,MI STATION 202 103
APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1937- 1976 NORMAL = 18 . 49 ANNUAL 1976 NORMAL = 31 . 69
0.200 14 . 960 1 . 849 1 .000 0.200 26 .916 3 . 169 1 .000
0. 900 17 .019 4 . 623 1 .000 0 . 400 29 .833 7 . 923 1 . 000
0 .600 18 . 937 9 . 245 0 . 998 0 . 600 32 .509 15 . 845 1 . 000
0 .800 21.339 13 . 868 0 .880 0 . 600 35 .810 23 . 768 0 . 937
0 . 900 23 . 260 16 .641 0 .640 0 . 900 38 . 418 28 . 521 0 .696
0 . 950 24 . 929 16 . 490 0 . 445 0 . 950 40 .664 31 . 690 0 . 460
0 . 960 25.430 23.113 0 . 106 0 . 960 41 . 334 39 .613 0 .070
a
0 . 970 26 .054 27.735 0 . 013 0 . 970 42 . 167 47 . 535 0 . 004
0 . 960 26 . 899 32 . 358 0 . 001 0 . 980 43 .291 55 . 458 0 .000
0 . 990 28 . 266 35 . 131 0 . 000 0 .990 45. 103 60.211 0 . 000
STATION 204641 LANSING .MI STATION 204641 LANSING .MI

APRIL -SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 17 . 93 ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 30 . 39
LS
FOR
VALUES B = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES B = BETA LEVE PCP LVL
0 . 200 14. 924 1 . 793 1 . 000 0 .200 26 . 760 3 . 039 1 . 000
0 .400 17 . 079 4 . 483 1 . 000 0.400 29 .631 7 .598 1 . 000
0 . 600 19 .094 8 . 965 0 . 998 0 .600 32 . 263 15 . 195 1 . 000
0 . 800 21. 625 13 . 448 0 . 900 0 . 800 35 . 508 22 . 793 0 . 958
io
0 .900 23 . 655 16 . 137 0 .693 0 . 900 38.071 27 . 351 0 . 763

0 .950 25 . 423 17 . 930 0 .514 0 . 950 40 .277 30 . 390 0 .541
0 . 860 25 . 953 22 . 413 0 . 155 0 . 960 40 . 935 37 . 988 0 . 102
0 . 970 26 .615 26 . 895 0 . 026 0 . 970 41. 753 45 .585 0 .007
0 . 980 27 . 512 31 . 378 0 .003 0 . 980 42 . 858 53 . 163 0 .000
0 . 990 20 . 965 34 . 067 0 . 001 0 . 990 44 .636 57 . 741 0 . 000
STATION 205712 MUSKEGON ,MI STATION 2057 1 2 MUSKEGON .MI

VALUES B = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES BOBETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 . 200 13. 947 1 . 695 1 . 000 0.200 27 . 725 3 . 153 1 . 000
0. 400 15 . 804 4 . 238 1 . 000 0 . 400 30.038 7 . 883 1 . 000
oooo
0 .600 17 .531 8 . 475 0 .999 0 .600 32 . 131 15 . 765 1 . 000

0 . 800 19.687 12 . 713 0 . 897 0 .800 34 .680 23 .646 0 . 975
0 . 900 21 . 409 15 . 255 0 .664 0 . 900 36 .671 28 . 377 0 . 749
0.950 22.903 16 . 950 0 . 465 0 . 950 38 . 371 31 .530 0 . 456
0 . 960 23 . 351 21 . 186 0 . 110 0 . 960 38 . 875 39 . 413 0 . 031
0 . 970 23. 909 25 . 425 0 .013 0 . 970 39 . 502 47 . 295 0 . 000
0 .980 24.664 29 . 663 0 .001 0 . 980 40 .345 55 . 176 0.000
0 . 990 25 , 885 32 . 205 0 .000 0 . 990 41 . 597 59 . 907 0 .000
26
STATION 207366 SAULT STE . MARIE ,MI STATION 207366 1937SAULT STE . MARIE , MI
- 1976 NORMAL = 31 . 70
APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 18 . 09 ANNUAL
0 . 200 14 . 949 1 . 809 1 . 000 0 . 200 28 . 522 3 . 170 1 . COO
0 . 400 16 . 931 4 . 523 1 .000 0 . 400 30 . 888 7 . 925 1 . 000
0 .600 18 . 774 9 . 045 0 .999 0 .600 33 .029 15 . 850 1 . 000
0 . 800 21 . 076 13 . 568 0 . 900 0 . 800 35 .636 23 . 775 0 . 983
0 . 900 22 . 913 16 .281 0 .670 0 .900 37 .672 28 . 530 0 .799
0 . 950 24 . 507 18 .090 0 .472 0 . 950 39 . 409 31 . 700 0 .523
0 . 960 24 . 984 22 .613 0 . 113 0 . 960 39 .925 39 . 625 0 .046
0 .970 25 .579 27 . 135 0 .013 0 . 970 40 . 566 47 . 550 0 . 001
0 . 980 26 . 385 31.658 0.001 0 .980 41. 427 55 . 475 0 .000
0 .990 27 .687 34 . 371 0 .000 0 . 990 42 . 809 60 . 230 0 .000
0
STATION 212248
APRIL -SEPTEMBER 1937DULUTH
- 1976 , NORMAL
MN DULUTH .MN
STATION 212248
= 20 . 98 ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 30 . 18
SELECTED
DROB
SELECTED SELECTED EXC PRO SELECTED SELECTED SELECTED EXCFORPRO
QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR PROB QUANTILE QUANTITY
0 .200 12. 086 2 . 096 1 .000 0 . 200 25 . 485 3 .018 1 .000
0 0
0 . 400 19 . 311 5 . 245 1 . 000 0 . 400 28 . 318 7 . 545 1 . 000

0 .600 21. 377 10.490 0 . 999 0 . 600 30 .920 15 . 090 1 . 000
0
0 . 000 23. 954 15 . 735 0 . 890 0 . 800 34 . 136 22 .635 0 .931

0
0 . 900 26 . 000 18 . 882 0 .642 0 . 900 36 . 680 27 . 162 0 .687

0 . 950 27 . 790 20 . 980 0 .437 0 . 950 38 . 672 30 . 180 0 . 455
0 .960 28 . 323 26.225 0 .092 0 . 960 39 . 5 26 37 . 725 0 .073
0 .970 28 . 988 31 . 470 0 . 009 0 . 970 40 . 341 45 . 270 0 . 004
0
0 .980 29 . 887 36 . 715 0 .001 0 . 980 41. 439 52 . 815 0 . 000

0
0 . 990 31. 341 39 . 862 0 . 000 0 . 990 43 . 211 57 . 342 0 . 000

STATION 214026 INTL . FALLS , MN STATION 214026 INTL . FALLS ,MN
APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1940 - 1976 NORMAL = 19 . 02 ANNUAL 1940 - 1976 NORMAL = 25 .65
SELECTED SELECTED SELECTED EXCFORPRO SELECTED SELECTED SELECTED EXC PRB
0 . 200 15 .022 1 . 902 1 . 000 0 . 200 21.505 2 . 565 1 . 000
17 . 227 4 . 755 1.000 0 . 400 23 . 856 6 . 413 1 . 000
0 . 600 19 . 293 9 . 510 0 . 996 0 .600 26 . 014 12 . 825 1 . 000
0 . 000 21 . 890 14. 265 0 . 855 0 . 800 28 .676 19 . 236 0 . 927
0 . 900 23 . 976 17 . 118 0 .611 0 . 900 30 . 783 23. 085 0 .671
0 . 950 25 . 793 19 . 020 0 . 425 0 . 950 32 .597 25 . 650 0 . 433
0 . 960 26 . 339 23 , 775 0 . 107 0 . 960 33 . 138 32 . 063 0 .062
0 .970 22. 020 28 .530 0 . 015 0 . 970 33 . 811 38 , 475 0 .003
0 . 980
0 .990
27 . 942
29 . 437
33. 285
36 . 138
0 . 001
0 . 000
0 . 900
0 . 990
34.719 4844.988
34 . 719
36 . 183 . 735
44 . 888 0 .000
0 . 000
27
STATION 215435 MINNEAPOLIS . MN
APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 18 .82 STATION
ANNUAL 215435 MINNEAPOLIS . MN
1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 25 . 94
0 . 200 14 .643 1 . 882 1 . 000 0 . 200 21. 144 2 .594 1 . 000
0 . 400 17 . 006 4 . 705 1 . 000 0 . 400 24 . 027 6 . 485 1 . 000
0 .600 19 . 235 9 . 410 0 . 992 0 .600 26 . 712 12 . 970 0 .998
0 .800 22 . 057 14 . 115 0 . 837 0 .800 30 .070 19. 455 0 .887
0 . 900 24. 336 16 . 938 0 .506 0 . 900 32 . 756 23 . 346 0 .651
0 . 950 26 . 330 18 . 820 0 . 436 0 . 950 35 . 089 25 . 940 0. 456
0 . 960 26 . 931 23 . 525 0 . 130 0 . 960 35 .788 32 . 425 0 .110
0 . 970 27 .680 28 . 230 0 . 024 0 . 970 36 .660 38 . 910 0 .014
0 . 980 28 .698 32 . 935 0 .003 0 . 980 37 .840 45 . 395 0 . 001
0 . 990 30 .349 35 . 756 0 . 001 0 . 990 39 , 749 49 . 286 0 . 000
STATION 224472 JACKSON , MS STATION 224472 JACKSON .MS

0 . 200 19 .594 2 . 328 1 . 000 0 . 200 20 .698 2 .591 0 . 975
.
0 . 400 22 . 355 5 . 620 1 .000 0 .400 24 . 325

ino 6 . 478 0 .975
0 . 600 24. 933 11 . 640 0 . 998 0 .600 27 .658 12 .955 0 . 970
0 . 800 28 . 166 17. 460 0 . 909 0 .800 31 . 838 19 . 433 0 . 854
0 . 900 30 . 756 20 . 952 0 . 707 0 . 900 35 . 202 23 . 319 0 .660
0 . 950 33. 008 23 . 280 0 . 527 0 . 950 38 . 140 25 . 910 0 .503
0 . 960 33 . 683 29 . 100 0 . 158 0 . 960 39.025 32 . 388 0 . 180
0 . 970 34 . 526 34.920 0 .026 0 . 970 40 . 129 36 . 865 0 .042
0 . 960 35 . 667 40 . 740 0 .003 0 .980 41. 627 45 . 343 0 .007
0 . 990 37 .515 44 . 232 0 . 001 0 . 990 44 . 059 49 . 229 0 . 002
STATION 224472 JACKSON . MS STATION 234358 KANSAS CITY , MO
ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 49 . 19 APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 25 , 72
200 42 . 891 4 . 919 1 . 000 0 . 200 18 . 892 2 . 572 1 .000
0 0
400 47 . 911 12 . 298 1 . 000 0 . 400 22 .470 6 .430 1 . 000

0 .600 52 . 538 24 . 595 1 . 000 0 .600 25 .895 12 . 860 0 . 979
0 . 800 58 . 272 36 . 893 0. 946 0 .800 30. 286 19 . 290 0 . 780
0 . 900 62 . 820 44 , 271 0 . 750 0 .900 33 .87 : 23 . 148 0 . 559
0 . 950 66 . 746 49 . 190 0 .544 0 . 950 37. 031 25 . 720 0 . 410
0 . 960 67 . 919 61. 488 0 . 124 0 . 960 37 . 986 32 . 150 0 . 141
0 0
0 . 970 69 . 379 73. 785 0 .012 0 . 970 39. 101 36 .580 0 .035
0 . 980 71. 351 86 . 083 0 . 001 0 .980 40.807 45 . 010 0 . 007
0 . 990 74 .534 93. 461 0 . 000 0 . 990 43 . 457 48 . 868 0 .002
28
Saulem 234350
STATION
ANNUAL
SELECTED
234358
SELECTED
KANSAS CITY , MO
1937 - 1976 NORMAL - 37 . 00
SELECTED EXCFORPRO
STATION 237455 ST . LOUIS .MO
APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 21 .65
SELECTED SELECTED SELECTED EXC PRO
NO
PROD QUANTILE QUANTITY PROB QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR

VALUES Β = ΘΕΤΑ LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES 8 = BE TA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 . 200 1. 560 3 . 700 1 .000 0 . 200 16 , 377 2 . 165 1 . 000
0 . 400 33 . 334 9 . 250 1 . 000 0 . 400 19 . 166 5 . 413 1 . 000
0 .600 37 . 852 18 .500 0 . 991 0 .600 21 . 810 10 . 625 0 . 988
0 .800 43.587 27 . 750 0 . 826 0 . 800 25 . 072 16 . 236 0 .009
0 . 900 48 , 230 33. 300 0 . 602 0 . 900 27. 897 19. 485 0 . 575
0 .950 52 . 298 37 .000 0 .436 0 . 950 30 . 286 21 .650 0 . 411
0 . 960 53. 524 46 . 250 0 . 136 0 . 960 31. 006 27. 063 0 . 125
0 . 970 55 . 055 55 .500 0 . 020 0 . 970 31 . 907 32 . 475 0 . 025
0 . 980 57 . 135 64 . 750 0 . 004 0 . 980 33 . 129 37 . 888 0 .004
0 . 990 60 .513 70 . 300 0 . 001 0 .990 35.116
35 . 116 41.135
41 . 135 0 . 001
ooooooo
STATION 237455 ST . LOUIS , MO STATION 240807 BILLINGS ,MT

ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 35 . 89 APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 9 .51
SELECTED SELECTED SELECTED EXC PRO SELECTED SELECTED SELECTED EXCFORPRB
VALUES 8 = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES 8 = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 . 200 29 .689 3 . 589 1 . 000 0 . 200 7 . 446 0 . 951 1 .000
0 .400 33. 380 8 . 973 1 . 000 0 . 400 8 . 728 2 . 376 1 . 000
0 .600 36 . 796 17. 945 0 . 999 0 .600 9 . 942 4 . 755 0 . 991
0 . 800 41 . 043 26 . 918 0 . 906 0 . 800 11 . 486 7 . 133 0 . 841
0 . 900 44. 422 32. 301 0 .663 0 . 900 12 . 739 8 . 559 0 .628
0 .950 47 . 346 35 .890 0 . 451 0 . 950 13 . 838 9 .510 0 . 469
0 . 960 48 . 221 44 .863 0 . 091 0 . 960 14 . 169 11. 888 0 . 162
0 .970 49. 311 53.835 0 .008 0 . 970 14 . 583 14 . 265 0 . 037
0 .980 50 . 784 62.806 0 .000 0 . 980 15 . 146 16 .643 0 .006
0 .990 53 . 163 68 . 191 0 . 000 0 . 990 16 . 060 18 . 069 0 . 002
STATION 240807 BILLINGS , MT STATION 243751 GREAT FALLS ,MT

SELECTED SELECTED SELECTED EXC PRO SELECTED SELECTED SELECTED EXC PRB
0 . 200 11 . 910 1 . 415 1 . 000 0 . 200 7 . 569 1 . 019 1 . 000
0 . 400 13 . 582 3 . 538 1 . 000 0 . 400 9 . 051 2 .548 1 .000
0 .600 15 . 144 7 . 0 75 0 .998 0 .600 10 . 475 5 .095 0 . 979
0 .800 17.101 10.613 0 .910 0 . 800 12 . 306 7 .643 0 . 791
0 .900 18 . 668 12. 735 0 . 707 0 . 900 13.804 9 . 071 0 . 583
0 . 950 20 . 031 14. 150 0 .526 0 . 950 15 . 126 10 . 190 0 . 438
0 .960 20 . 440 17.688 0 . 156 0 .960 15 . 526 12 . 738 0 . 166
0 .970 20. 950 21.225 0 .026 0 . 970 16 .027 15 . 285 0 . 046
0 .980 21.641 24. 763 0 .003 0 .980 16 . 709 17 . 833 0 .010
0 .990 22 . 750 26 .885 0 . 001 0 . 990 17 . 821 19 . 361 0 . 004
PRECIPITATION PROBAB II. ITIES
STATION 243751 GREAT FALLS , MT STATION 243996 HAVRE , MT
SELECTED SELECTED SELECTED EXC PRO SELECTED SELECTED QUANTITYSELECTED EXC PRO
PROB QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR PROB QUANTILE FOR
0 . 200 11 . 803 1 .499 1 . 000 0 . 200 6 . 290 0 . 859 1 .000
0 . 400 13 .614 3 . 746 1.000 0 . 400 7 .678 2 . 148 1 .000
ooo
0 .600 15 . 317 7 . 495 0 .995 0 .600 9 . 027 4 . 295 0 . 969

0 . 800 17 . 464 11.243 0 .850 0 . 800 10 . 780 6 . 443 0 . 780
0 .900 19 . 193 13.491 0 .615 0 . 900 12 . 227 7 . 731 0 .592
OnO
0 . 950 20 . 702 14 .990 0 .437 9 .950 13 .513 6 .590 0 . 462
0 . 960 21 . 155 18 . 738 0 . 121 0 . 960 13 . 903 10 . 738 0 . 204
0 . 970 21. 722 22 . 465 0 . 020 0 . 970 14 . 393 12 .885 0 .071
0 .980 22 . 489 26 . 233 0 . 002 0 . 980 15 . 061 15 . 033 0 . 020
0 . 990 23 . 735 26 . 481 0 .001 0 . 990 16 . 152 16 . 321 0 .008
STATION 243996 HAVRE , MT STATION 245745 MISSOULA . MT

0 . 200 9 . 253 1 . 155 1 .000 0 . 200 5 . 776 0 . 771 1 .000
0 . 400 10 . 768 2 . 888 1 . 000 0.400 6 . 754 1 . 926 1 . 000
0 .600 12 . 200 5 . 775 0 . 994 0.600 7 . 681 3 . 855 0 . 987
0 . 800 14 . 015 8 . 663 0 . 862 0 .800 8 . 858 5 . 783 0 . 799
0 . 900 15 . 482 10 . 395 0 .653 0 . 900 9 .812 6 . 939 0 .559
0 . 950 16 . 766 11.550 0.489 0 .950 10 .648 7 .710 0 . 394
0 0 0
0 . 960 17 . 153 14.438 0 .166 0 . 960 10 . 900 9 .638 0 .114

0 . 970 17 .636 17 . 325 0 .036 0.970 11 . 215 11 . 565 0 .022
0 . 980 10 . 292 20 .213 0 . 006 0 . 980 11 .642 13 . 493 0 . 003
0 . 990 19 . 357 21 . 945 0 . 002 0 . 990 12 . 337 14 . 649 0 . 001
STATION 245745 MISSOULA ,MT STATION 254795 LINCOLN , NE

ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 13 . 34 APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 21. 74
VALUES B = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES B = BE TA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 . 200 11 . 088 1 . 334 1 . 000 0 . 200 15 . 777 2 . 174 1 . 000
ooooo
0 . 400 12 . 416 3 . 335 1.000 0 . 400 18 . 656 5 .435 1 .000

0 .600 13 .642 6 . 670 0 .999 0 . 600 21. 402 10 . 870 0 . 979
0 .800 15 . 163 10 . 005 0 . 913 0 .000 24. 913 16 . 305 0 . 767
0 . 900 16 . 371 12 . 006 0 .667 0 . 900 27. 772 19 . 566 0 .532
0 . 950 17. 415 13. 340 0 . 448 0 . 950 30 . 287 21 . 740 0 . 377
0 . 960 17 . 727 16 .675 0 . 002 0 . 960 31 . 047 27. 175 0 . 117
0 . 970 18 . 115 20 . 010 0 .006 0 . 970 31 . 997 32 .610 0 . 025
0 . 980 18 .640 23 . 345 0.000 0 . 980 33 . 289 38 . 045 0 .004
0 . 990 19 . 487 25 . 346 0 .000 0 . 990 35 . 392 41 . 306 0 . 001
30
STATION 254795 LINCOLN . NE STATION 256065 NORTH PLATTE . NE
ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 28 .61 APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 16 . 02
PROB QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR PROG QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR
0 . 200 22 .691 2 . 861 1 . 000 0 . 200 10 . 958 1 .602 1 .000
0 . 400 26 . 052 7 . 153 1 . 000 0 . 400 13 .526 4 . 005 0 . 999
0 .600 29 .202 14 . 305 0 .996 0 .600 16 .040 8 . 010 0 .950
0 .800 33 . 165 21. 458 0 .858 0 . 800 19 . 326 12 .015 0 . 722
0 . 900 36 . 349 25 .749 0 .620 0 . 900 22 . 051 14. 418 0 . 527
0 . 950 39 . 124 28 .610 0 . 436 0 . 950 24. 481 16 .020 0 .401
0 . 960 39 . 958 35 . 763 0 . 115 0 . 960 25 .219 20 . 025 0 . 169
No
0 . 970 40 . 998 42 . 915 0 . 017 0 . 970 26 . 146 24 . 030 0 .057

0 .980 42 , 407 50 . 068 0 .002 0 . 980 27.412 28 . 035 0 . 016
0 . 990 44 .692 54 . 359 0 .000 0 . 990 29 . 485 30 . 438 0 . 007
STATION 256065 NORTH PLATTENE STATION 26 2631 ELY .NV

SELECTED
PROB
SELECTED SELECTED
QUANTILE QUANTITY
EXC PRO
FOR
EXC PRO
FOR
VALUES B = BETA LEVELS
PCP LVL VALUES B = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 . 200 14.645 1 . 990 1 . 000 0 . 200 2 . 825 0 . 464 1 .000
0 . 400 17. 366 4 .975 1 . 000 0 . 400 3 . 797 1 . 160 0 .990
0 . 600 19 . 967 9 . 950 0 . 981 0 .600 4 . 798 2 . 320 0 . 866
0 . 800 23. 296 14 . 925 0 . 782 0 .800 6 . 163 3 . 480 0 .667
0 . 900 26 . 010 17 . 910 0 . 557 0 . 900 7 . 333 4 . 176 0 .521
0 .950 28 . 400 19 . 900 0 . 405 0 . 950 8 .401 4 .640 0 . 429
0 . 960 29. 122 24 . 875 0 . 135 0 . 960 8 . 729 5 . 800 0 .244
.
0 . 970 30 . 026 29 .850 0 . 032 0 . 970 9 .144 6 . 960 0 . 126

.
0 . 980 31 . 254 34 .625 0 . 006 0 . 980 9 . 714 8 . 120 0 . 060

0 . 990 33 . 256 37 . 810 0 .002 0 . 990 10 .657 8 .816 0 . 038
STATION 262633 ELY , NV STATION 262631 ELY , NV

SELECTED SELECTED SELECTED EXC PRB SELECTED SELECTED SELECTED EXCFORPRO
ooo
PR36 QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR PROB QUANTILE QUANTITY

VALUES B = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES BEBETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 . 200 3 . 025 0 . 406 0 . 974 0 . 200 6 . 490 0 . 870 1 . 000
0 . 400 3 . 664 1 . 015 0 .974 0 . 400 7 .610 2 . 175 1 .000
0 .600 4 . 259 2 . 030 0 . 957 0 .600 9 .084 4 . 350 0 . 977
0 .800 5 . 017 3 . 045 0 . 795 0 .800 10 . 727 6 . 525 0 . 795
0 . 900 5 .634 3 .654 0 . 603 0 . 900 12 .075 7 . 830 0 .597
0
00 .. 960
950 6 . 178 4 . 060 0 . 465 0 . 950 13 . 267 8 . 700 0 . 458
0
6 .343 5 . 075 0 . 188 0 . 960 13 . 628 10 . 875 0 . 186

0
0 .970 6 . 548 6 . 090 0 . 056 0 . 970 14 . 081 13 . 050 0 .057

0
0 .900 6 . 828 7 . 105 0 .013 0 . 980 14.697 15 . 225 0 .014

0 .990 7 . 285 7 . 714 0 . 005 0 .9900 15 . 703 16 .530 0 . 006
STATION 264436 STATION 264436 1937LAS - 1975VEGAS ,NV = 2 . 10
LAS VEGAS ,NV
APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 1 .66 OCTOBER - MARCN NORMAL
0 . 200 0 .600 0 . 166 0 . 966 0 . 200 0 . 928 0 . 210 0 .965
0 . 400 1 .094 0 . 415 0 . 876 0 . 400 1.552 0 . 525 0 . 912
0 .600 1 . 704 0 . 830 0 . 704 0 .600 2 . 256 1 . 050 0 . 762
0 0
0 .800 2 .657 1 . 245 0 .545 0 . 800 3 . 294 1 .575 0 .594
0 . 900 3 .556 1 . 494 0 . 462 0 . 900 4 .238 1 . 680 0 .490
0 . 950 4 . 426 1 .660 0 . 412 0 . 950 5 . 133 2 . 100 0 . 441
0 0 0
0 .860 4 . 734 2 . 075 0 .307 0 . 960 5 . 460 2 .625 0 . 317
0 .970 5 . 056 2 . 490 0 .227 0 . 970 5 . 771 3 . 150 0 . 222
0
0 . 980 5 .553 2 . 905 0 .166 0 . 980 6 . 269 3 .675 0 . 153

0
0 .990 6 . 389 3 . 154 0 . 137 0 . 990 1 .103 3 . 990 0 .121
STATION 264436 LAS VEGAS , NV STATION 266779 RENO . NV

VALUES BOBETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES BEBETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 . 200 2 . 123 0 . 376 0 . 998 0 . 200 1 . 153 0 . 224 0 .997
0 . 400 3 .092 0 . 940 0 . 972 0 . 400 1 . 708 0 . 560 0 . 961
0 .600 4 . 139 1 .880 0 .846 0 . 600 2 . 313 1 . 120 0 .813
0 0
0 . 800 5 .621 2 . 820 0.657 0 . 800 3 . 178 1 .680 0 .610

0 . 900 6 . 930 3 . 384 0 .541 0 .900 3 . 945 2 .016 0 . 493
0 . 950 8 . 145 3 . 760 0 .468 0 . 950 4 .661 2 . 240 0 .922
0
0 . 960 8 .522 4 . 700 0 . 312 0 . 960 . 883 2 .800 0 . 274

0 . 970 9 . 001 5 .640 0 . 198 0 . 970 5 . 166 3 . 360 0 . 173
0 .980 9 .663 6 .580 0 . 121 0 . 960 5 . 557 3 . 920 0 . 102
0 0
0 .990 10 . 766 7 . 144 0 . 009 0 . 990 6 . 210 4 . 256 0 .074
STATION 266779 RENO . NV STATION 266779 RENO . NV

ooo

0 . 200 3 . 136 0 . 496 0 . 975 0 .200 5 . 193 0 . 720 1 . 000
0 . 400 4 .240 1 . 240 0 . 969 0 . 400 6 . 464 1 .800 0 . 999
0 .600 5 . 339 2 . 480 0 . 891 0 . 600 7 . 714 3 . 600 0 . 959
0
0 .800 6 .615 3 . 720 0 .698 0 . 800 9 . 354 5 .400 0 . 770

0 .900 8 . 069 4 . 464 0 .557 0 . 900 10. 720 6 . 480 0 . 597
0
0 .950 9 . 207 4 . 960 0 .466 0 . 950 11. 940 7 . 200 0 . 479

0 0 0 0 0
0 .960 9 . 556 6 . 200 0 .272 0 . 960 12 . 312 9 . 000 0 . 236

0 . 970 9 . 997 7 . 440 0 . 143 0 . 970 12 . 778 10. 800 0 . 096
0 .980 10 .602 8 . 680 0 . 069 0 . 960 13 . 416 12 . 600 0 . 034
0 .990 11.600 0 .044 0 . 990 14 . 461 13 . 680 0 . 017
32
STATION 269 171 WINNE MUCCANV STATION269171 WINNEMUCCANV
SELECTED SELECTED SELECTED EXC PRO 'SELECTED SELECTED SELECTED EXC PRO
0 . 200 2 . 018 0 . 342 1 . 000 0 .200 3 . 591 0 . 505 0 . 975
0 . 400 2 . 771 0 . 655 0 . 986 0 .400 4 . 484 1 . 263 0 .975
0 .600 3 . 556 1 . 710 0 .870 0 .600 5 . 336 2 . 525 0 . 942
0 .800 4 . 638 2 . 565 0 . 656 0 . 800 6 . 436 3 . 786 0 . 760
0 . 000 5 . 574 3 . 078 0 . 516 0 . 900 7 . 345 4 . 545 0 . 585
0 . 950 6 . 431 3 . 420 0 . 432 0 .950 8 . 152 5 . 050 0 . 465
0 . 960 6 . 695 4 . 275 0 . 256 0 .960 8 . 398 6 . 313 0 . 218
0 . 970 7 . 030 5 . 130 0 . 140 0 . 970 8 . 705 7 .575 0 .083
0 . 980 7 . 490 5 . 985 0 . 072 0 .980 9 . 126 8 . 838 0 .026
0 . 990 8 . 253 6 . 496 0 . 047 0 .990 0 . 613 9 . 595 0 .013
STATION 269171 WINNEMUCCANV STATION 290234 ALBUQUERQUE , NM

PROB
VALUES
QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR PROB QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR
B = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES 8 = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 . 200 6 . 422 0 . 847 1 .000 0 . 200 3 . 834 0 . 501 1 . 000
0 . 400 7 . 691 2 . 118 1 .000 0 . 400 4 . 669 1 . 253 1 . 000
0 .600 8 . 911 4.235 0 .981 0 .600 5 . 480 2 . 505 0 .977
0 . 800 10 . 481 6 . 353 0 . 809 0 . 800 6 .532 3 . 750 0 . 816
900 11 . 767 7 . 623 0 .611 0 . 900 7 . 400 4 . 509 0 .641
0 . 950 12 . 903 8 . 470 0 . 470 0 .950 8 . 170 5 . 010 0 .513
0 . 960 13 . 246 10 . 588 0 . 190 0 . 960 8 . 404 6 . 263 0 . 243
0 .970 13 .677 12 . 705 0 .057 0 .970 8 .697 7 . 515 0 .091
0 . 900 14 . 263 14 .823 0 .013 0 .980 9 . 097 8 . 766 0 . 028
0 . 990 15 . 218 16 . 093 0 .005 0 .990 9 . 750 9 .519 0 .013
STATION 290234 ALBUQUERQUE , NM STATION 290234 ALBUQUERQUE , NM

OCTOBER - MARCH 1937 - 1975 NORMAL = 2 . 76 ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 7 , 77
ooooooo
PRO QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR PROB QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR
0 . 200 1 .630 0 . 276 0 . 975 0 .200 6 .036 0 . 777 1 . 000
o
0 . 400 2 . 311 0 .690 0 .962 0 . 400 7 . 285 1 . 943 1 . 000

0 .600 3 .009 1 . 380 0 . 861 0 .600 8 .490 3 .885 0 . 982
o
0 . 800 3 . 966 2 .070 0 .673 0 . 800 10 .047 5 . 828 0 . 826

0 . 900 4 . 794 2 .484 0 .548 0. 900 11 . 327 6 . 993 0 .650
0 . 950 5 . 553 2 . 760 0 . 467 0 .950 12 . 459 7 . 770 0 .517
0 . 960 5 . 766 3 . 450 0 . 296 0 . 960 12 . 803 9 . 713 0 . 236
0 . 970 6 . 084 4 . 140 0 .174 0 . 970 13 . 233 11 . 655 0 . 082
0 .980 6 . 492 4.830 0.097 13.819 13 .598 0 .023
0
0 . 090 7 . 169 5 . 244 0 . 067 0 .990 14 . 775 14 . 763 0 . 010

33
STATION 300042 ALBANY ,NY STATION 300012 ALBANY , NY
VALUES BEBETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES BOBETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 . 200 15 . 375 1 . 807 1 .000 0 . 200 29 . 880 3 . 336 1 . 000
0 . 400 17 .816 4 .516 1 .000 0 . 400 33. 171 8 . 340 1 .000
0 .600 20 . 116 9 . 035 0 . 997 0 .600 36. 193 16 .680 1 . 000
0 . 800 23 . 024 13 . 553 0 .907 0 . 800 39 . 924 25 . 020 0 . 964
O O
0 . 900 25 . 370 16 . 263 0 . 733 0 . 900 * 2 .675 30 .024 0 . 792
0
0 .950 27.422 18 .070 0 . 577 0 . 950 45. 417 33 . 360 0 .587

0 . 960 28 . 039 22 . 588 0 . 225 0 . 960 46 . 175 41 , 700 0 . 134
oooooooooo
0
0 .970 28 .810 27 . 105 0 .056 0 . 970 47.118 50.046 0 .012
O
0 . 980 29. 855 31 .623 0 .010 0 . 980 48. 393 58 . 380 0 .000
0 . 990 31 .552 34 . 333 0 .003 0 . 990 50 . 446 63 . 384 0 . 000
O
STATION 301012 BUFFALONY STATION 301012 BUFFALO , NY
0 . 200 15 . 369 1 . 806 1 .000 0 . 200 31. 751 3 .611 1 . 000
0 . 400 17 .082 4 .515 1 . 000 0 . 400 34.489 9 .028 1 . 000
0 .600 18 .656 9 . 030 1 .000 0 .600 36 . 969 18 . 055 1 . 000
0
0 . 800 20 .601 13. 545 0 . 936 0 . 800 39 . 995 27.083 0 .973

0
0 . 900 22 . 139 16 . 254 0 . 703 0 . 900 42 . 361 32.499 0 .751

0 . 950 23. 465 18 . 060 0 . 474 0 . 950 383 36 . 110 0 . 468
ooo
0 .960 23 . 861 22 .575 080 0 . 960 44 . 964 45 . 136 0 . 038
0 . 970 24. 353 27 . 090 0 . 005 0 . 970 45 . 230 54 . 165 0 .001
0 . 980 25 .018 31 . 605 0 . 000 0 . 980 46 . 734 63. 193 0 . 000
0 . 990 26 . 090 34 . 314 0 .000 0 . 990 48 . 345 68 . 609 0 . 000
0
STATION 305801 NEW YORK ,NY STATION 305801 NEW YORK . NY

APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 20 .69 ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 40 . 19
PR38 QUANTILE QUANTITY
EXC PRO
FOR
SELECTED
PROB
SELECTED
QUANTILE
SELECTED
QUANTITY
EXCFORPRO
VAL UES B = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES B BETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 .200 17 .637 2 . 069 1 . 000 0 . 200 36 . 417 4 .019 1.000
0 . 400 20 .691 5 . 173 1 .000 0 . 400 40 .650 10 . 046 1 . 000
0 .600 23.590 10 . 345 0 . 995 0 .600 44. 551 20 .095 1 . 000
0 .800 27. 281 15 . 518 0 . 902 0 . 800 49 . 383 30 . 143 0 . 965
0 . 900 30 . 275 18 . 621 0 . 741 0 . 900 53. 214 36 . 171 0 . 810
0 . 950 32 . 903 20 . 690 0 . 600 0 . 950 56 ,520 40 . 190 0 .624
0
0 . 960 33.696 25 . 863 0 . 267 0 . 960 57 .506 50 . 238 0 . 173

0 . 970 34 . 686 31. 035 0 . 082 0 . 970 58 . 738 60 . 265 0 . 021
0 0
0 . 980 36.032 36 . 200 0 .019 0 . 980 60 . 399 70 .333 0 .001

0 . 990 38 . 221 39 . 311 0 . 007 0 . 990 63 . 077 76 . 361 0 . 000
0
34
STATION 317069 RALEIGH , NC STATION 317069 RALEIGH , NC
APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 23 . 85 OCTOBER - MARCH 1937 - 1975 NORMAL = 18 .69
PROR QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR PROB QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR
VALUES O = OETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES LEVELS
B = BETA PCP LVL
0 .200 20 . 280 2 . 385 1 . 000 0 . 200 15 . 343 1 . 869 0 . 975
O
0 . 400 22 . 798 5 .963 1 . 000 0 .400 17.517 4 .673 0 .975

O
0 .600 25 . 120 11 . 925 0 . 999 0 .600 19 . 480 9 . 345 0 . 974

O
0
0 .600 20 . 025 17 . 888 0 . 926 0 .800 21 . 905 14 . 018 0.885
O
0 . 900 30 . 330 21. 465 0 . 712 0 . 900 23 . 832 16 . 821 0 .670
UN
0 .950 32 . 324 23 .850 0 . 500 0 . 950 25 . 500 18 .690 0 . 479
0 . 960 32 . 921 29 . 813 0 . 118 0 . 960 25 . 999 23 . 363 0 . 120
0 .970 33 . 664 35 . 775 0 . 013 0 . 970 26 .621 28.035 0 . 015
0 . 980 34.669 41 . 738 0 . 001 0 . 980 27.463 32.706 0 .001
0 . 990 36 . 291 45 . 315 0 . 000 0 . 990 28 . 823 35 .511 0 .000
STATION 31 7069 RALEIGH , NC STATION 320619 BISMARCK , ND
ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 42 . 54 APRIL -SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 12 .67
VALUES 6 = ΘΕΤΑ LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES B = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 .200 38 . 202 4 . 254 1 . 000 0 .200 9 .629 1 . 267 1 . 000
0 . 400 41. 465 10 .635 1 . 000 0 . 400 11 . 214 3 . 166 1 . 000
0 .600 44. 420 21 . 270 1 . 000 0 .600 12 . 712 6 . 335 0 . 990
0 .800 48.024 31 . 905 0 . 981 0 . 800 14 .611 9 .503 0 .614
0 . 900 50. 812 38 . 286 0 . 796 0 . 900 16 . 147 11. 403 0 .574
0 . 950 53 . 249 42 .540 0 . 526 0 . 950 17 . 492 12 .670 0 . 405
0 . 960 53. 964 53.175 0 . 051 0 . 960 17 . 897 15 . 038 0 . 116
0 0
0 . 970 54 . 851 63 .810 0 . 001 0 . 970 18 . 403 19 .005 0 . 021

0 . 980 56 . 046 74 . 445 0 . 000 0 .980 19. 090 22 .173 0 .003
0 . 990 57 . 963 80 . 826 0 . 000 0 . 990 20 . 205 24 . 073 0 .001
0
STATION
ANNUAL
320819 BISMARCK . ND
1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 16 . 16
STATION 32 2859 FARGO . ND
APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 15 . 42
0 . 200 13 . 095 1 .616 1 .000 0 . 200 11 . 551 1 .542 1 . 000
o
0 . 400 14 . 754 4 .040 1 . 000 0 .400 13 .677 3 . 855 1 .000

0 . 600 16 . 292 8 . 080 0 . 999 0 .600 . 705 7 . 710 0 . 983
o o
0 . 000 18 . 207 12 . 120 0 . 887 0 . 800 18 . 301 11 . 565 0 . 799

0 . 900 19 . 732 14 . 544 0 .628 0 . 900 20 . 415 13 . 878 0 . 580
0 . 950 21 . 052 16 . 160 0 . 416 0 . 950 22 . 276 15 . 420 0 . 427
0 . 960 21 . 447 20 . 200 0 . 079 0 . 960 22 .036 19 . 275 0 . 147
o o
0 . 970 21 . 940 24 . 240 0 .007 0 . 970 23 .541 23 . 130 0 .036

0 .980 22 . 605 28 . 280 0 .000 0 . 980 24.497 26 .985 0 . 006
0 . 990 23 . 661 30 . 704 0 . 000 0 . 990 26 . 054 29 . 296 0 . 002
o
35
STATION 322859 FARGO , ND STATION 329425 WILLISTON , ND
ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 19 .62 APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 10 . 92
PROB QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR PROD QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR
0 .200 15 .679 1 . 962 1 . 000 0 . 200 8 . 109 1 . 092 1 . 000
00 ..400 17 .993 4 . 905 1 . 000 0 . 400 9 . 712 2 .730 1 .000
0
600 20 . 162 9 .810 0 . 896 0 .600 11 . 254 5 . 460 0 . 978
0 .800 22 .689 14 . 715 0 . 865 0 . 800 13 .238 8 . 190 0 . 791
0
0 . 900 25 .080 17 . 658 0 .631 0 . 900 14.862 9 . 828 0 .585
0 . 950 26 . 989 19 .620 0 . 448 0 . 950 16 . 297 10 . 920 0 . 441
0
0 . 960 27 .562 24 . 5 25 0.120 0 . 960 16 .732 13.650 0 . 169
0
0 . 970 28 . 277 29 . 430 0 . 018 0 .970 17 . 275 16 . 380 0 .046
0
0 .980 29.247 34 . 335 0 . 002 0 . 980 18.016 19. 110 0 .011

0
0 . 990 30 . 818 37 .278 0 . 000 0 . 990 19 . 223 20 . 748 0 .004

0
STATION 329425 WILLISTON ,ND STATION 331786 COLUMBUS , OH
ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL - 14 . 33 APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 21 . 42
SELECTED
PROB
SELECTED SELECTED EXC PRO SELECTED SELECTED SELECTED EXC PRB
QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR PROB QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR
VALUES B = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES BOBE TA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 .200 11.573 1 . 433 1 . 000 0 . 200 17 . 702 2 . 142 1 . 000
0 0 0 0
0 . 400 13 . 279 3 . 583 1 . 000 0 . 400 20 . 108 5 . 355 1 .000

0 .600 14 .877 7 . 165 0 . 997 0 .600 22. 348 10 . 710 0 .998
0 . 800 16 . 887 10 . 748 0 . 874 0 . 800 25 . 149 16 .065 0 .899
0 . 900 18 . 501 12 . 897 0 .648 0 . 900 27 . 389 19 . 278 0 .674
0 . 950 19 . 907 14 . 330 0 . 466 0 . 950 29 . 333 21.420 0 .481
.
0 0 0 0 0
0 .960 20 . 330 17 . 913 0 .130 0 . 960 29 . 916 26.775 0 . 122

0 . 970 20 . 857 21 . 495 0 . 021 0 . 970 30 .643 32 . 130 0 .016
0 . 980 21 . 571 25 . 078 0 . 002 0 . 980 31 . 627 37.485 0 . 001
0 .990 22 . 728 27 . 227 0 . 000 0 . 990 33 .218 40 . 698 0 . 000
STATION 331786 COLUMBUS , OH STATION 346661 OKLAHOMA CITY . OK

0 . 200 32 . 557 3 . 701 1 .000 0 . 200 16 . 879 2 . 166 1 . 000
0
0 . 400 35 . 542 9 . 253 1 . 000 0 . 400 19 . 782 5 . 415 1 . 000

0
0 .600 38 .255 18 . 505 1 . 000 0 .600 22.538 10 .830 0.990

0 . 800 41 . 574 27 . 758 0 . 969 0 .800 26 .043 16 .245 0 .836
0
0 . 900 44.177 33 . 309 0 .755 0 . 900 28. 885 19 . 494 0 . 621

0 . 950 46 . 405 37 .010 0 .490 0 . 950 31 . 380 21 . 660 0 . 461
0 0
0 . 960 47, 068 46 . 263 0 . 052 0 . 960 32 . 131 27 .075 0 . 1'57

0 . 970 47 .891 55 .515 0 . 001 0 . 970 33 . 072 32 . 490 0 .036
0 . 980 48 .999 64 . 768 0 .000 0 . 980 34.348 37. 905 0 . 006
0 0
0 . 990 50 . 780 70 . 319 0 . 000 0 . 990 36 . 424 41. 154 0 . 002

36
STATION 346661 OKLAHOMA CITY , OK STATION 346661 OKLAHOMA CITY , OK
VALUES 8 BETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES B = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 . 200 7 . 243 0 . 971 0 . 075 0 . 200 25 . 843 3 .137 1 .000
0 . 400 9 . 042 2 . 428 0 .975 0 . 400 29 . 580 7 .843 1 .000
0 .600 10 . 755 4 . 855 0 . 949 0 .600 33. 076 15 .685 0 .998
0 . 800 12 . 970 7 . 283 0 . 796 0 . 800 37 . 467 23.528 0 .892
0
0 . 900 14 . 798 8 . 739 0 .636 0 . 900 40 . 990 28 . 233 0 .677
0.950 16 . 423 9 . 710 0 .520 0 .950 44 . 057 31. 370 0 . 496
0 . 960 16 . 916 12. 138 0 . 265 0 . 960 44 . 977 39 . 213 0 .144
0 . 970 17 .535 14 . 565 0 . 110 0 . 970
0
46 . 126 47.055 0 .024
0 . 980 18 . 380 16 .993 0 .039 0 . 980 47 . 682 54.898 0 .002
0 . 990 19 . 763 18 . 449 0 . 019 0 . 990 50 . 203 59 . 603 0 . 001
0
STATION 351176 BURNS . OR STATION 35 1 1 76 BURNSOR

0 .200 2 . 273 0 . 392 1 . 000 0 . 200 5 . 993 0 . 791 0 . 975
0 . 400 3 . 025 0 . 980 0 . 990 0 . 400 7 . 177 1 . 978 0 .975
O o
0 .600 3 . 795 1 . 960 0 . 870 0 . 600 8 . 277 3 . 955 0 . 962

0 . 800 4 . 841 2 . 940 0 .623 0 . 800 9 .671 5 . 933 0 .808
0 .900 5 . 735 3 .528 0 . 466 0 .900 10 . 801 7 . 119 0 .611
o o o o
0 . 950 6 . 547 3 . 920 0 . 371 0 . 950 11. 794 7 .910 0 . 465

0 . 960 6 . 797 4 .900 0 . 192 0 . 960 12 . 094 9 . 888 0 . 177
0 . 970 7 . 112 5 . 880 0 . 089 0 .970 12.469 11. 865 0 . 047
0 .980 7 .545 6 . 860 0 . 036 0 . 980 12 . 978 13 . 843 0 .010
0 . 990 6 . 261 7 . 448 0 . 022 0 . 990 13 . 808 15 . 029 0 . 003
STATION 351176 BURNS . OR STATION 356546 PENDLETON . OR

ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 11 .63 APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 4 .50
SELECTED
PROB
SELECTED
QUANTILE
SELECTED
QUANTITY
EXC PRO
FOR
EXC'
FOR
PRO
0 . 200 9 . 130 1 . 183 1 . 000 0 . 200 3 . 023 0 . 450 1 .000
0
0 . 400 10 .591 2 . 958 1 . 000 0 .400 3 . 783 1 . 125 0 . 999

0 .600 11 . 982 5 . 915 0 . 992 0 .600 4 .533 2 . 250 0 . 940
0
0 . 800 13 . 734 8 .873 0.829 0 .800 5 .521 3 . 375 0 . 712

0 . 900 15 . 149 10 .647 0 .593 0 . 900 6 . 345 1 . 050 0 .526
0 0
0 . 950 16 . 387 11 .830 0 . 421 0 . 950 7 . 081 4 .500 0 . 408

0 . 960 16 . 759 14 . 786 0 . 121 0 . 960 7 . 306 5 . 625 0 .184
0 . 970 17 . 224 17 , 745 0 . 021 0 .970 7 . 586 6 . 750 0 . 069
0 . 980 17.856 20 . 703 0 .003 0 . 980 7 . 974 7 . 875 0 .022
0 0
0 . 990 18 . 880 22 , 477 0 .001 0 . 990 8 . 607 8 . 550 0 .011

37
STATION 356546 PENDLETON , OR STATION 356751 PORTLAND , OR
SELECTED SELECTED SELECTED EXC PRO SELECTED SELECT
SELECTED QUANTILE ED EXC PRO
PROB QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR PROB QUANTITY FOR
0 . 200 10 . 255 1 . 231 1 .000 0 . 200 6 . 488 0 .879 0 .972
0
0 . 400 11 . 546 3 . 078 1 .000 0 .400 7 . 773 2 . 198 0 . 972
o o
0 .600 12. 742 6 . 155 0 . 999 0 .600 8 . 962 1 .395 0 . 957
0 . 800 14.230 9 .233 0 . 911 0 . 800 10 . 465 6 .593 0 . 786
0
0
0 .900 15 .415 11 . 079 0 .677 0 . 900 11 .683 7 . 911 0 .576
o o o o
0 . 950 16 .441 12 . 310 0 . 470 0 . 950 12 . 753 8 . 790 0 . 428
0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 . 960 16 .748 15.388 0 . 102 0 . 960 13 .076 10 . 986 0 . 151
0 . 970 17 . 131 18 . 465 0 .010 0 . 970 13. 480 13.185 0 . 037
0 . 980 17 .648 21.543 0 . 001 0 . 980 14.028 15.383 0 .007
ooooooooo
0 0
0 . 990 18 . 483 23 . 389 0 .000 0 . 990 4 . 921 16 . 701 0 . 002
STATION 356751 PORTLAND , OR STATION 356 75 1 PORTLAND . OR

OCTODER -MARCH 1941 - 1975 NORMAL = 20 . 82 ANNUAL 1941 - 1976 NORMAL 37 . 61
PROD QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR PROO QUANTILE QUANTITY
VALUES . . . ETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES DETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 . 200 24 . 093 2 . 882 0 .872 0 . 200 31 .513 3 . 761 0 .072
0
0 . 400 27 . 353 7 . 205 0. 972 0 . 400 35 . 215 0 . 403 0.972

0 .600 30.276 14. 410 0 .072 0 . 600 38 . 504 18 .805 0 .072
0 0
0 .800 33 . 869 21.615 0 .900 0 . 800 42 .512 28 .208 0 .911
0 0
0 . 900 36 . 714 25 .938 0 .694 0 . 900 45 .663 33 . 849 0 . 681
0
0 . 950 39 . 171 28.820 0 . 498 0 . 950 48 .371 37 .610 0 .453

0 . 960 39.905 36 .025 0 . 120 0 . 960 49 . 178 17 .013 0 . 072
0
0 0 0 0
0 . 970 40 . 820 43. 230 0 .013 0 . 970 50 . 181 56 . 415 0 . 004

0 .980 42 .057 50 . 435 0 .001 0 . 960 51 . 535 65 .818 0 . 000
0 . 990 44 . 053 54.758 0 .000 0 . 990 53. 715 71 . 459 0 . 000
STATION 366689 PHILADELPHIA . PA STATION 366889 PHILADELPHIAPA

APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 21. 57 ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 39 . 93
SELECTED
PROB
SELECTED SELECTED
QUANTILE QUANTITY
EXC PRG
FOR
SELECTED
PROB
SELECTED SELECTED
QUANTILE QUANTITY EXCFORPRO
0 . 200 16 . 436 2 . 157 1 .000 0 . 200 36 . 161 3 . 993 1 . 000
0
0 . 400 20 . 936 5 . 393 1 . 000 0 . 400 39 . 385 9 . 983 1 . 000

0 0 0 0
0 .600 23 . 263 10 . 705 0 .999 0 . 600 42 . 312 19 . 965 1 .000

0 0
0 . 800 26 . 173 16 . 178 0 . 922 0 . 800 45 . 888 29 . 948 0 . 981

0 . 900 28 .499 19 .413 0 . 728 0 . 900 48 . 689 35 . 937 0 . 812
0
0 . 950 30 . 519 21 . 570 0 .544 0 . 950 51 . 084 39 . 930 0 . 562

0 . 960 31 . 124 26 . 963 0 . 160 0 . 960 51. 797 49. 913 0 . 071
0 0
0 . 970 31 . 879 32 . 355 0 . 025 0 . 970 52 . 60 59 . 895 0 .002

0 . 980 32 . 900 37 . 748 0 . 002 0 . 980 53 .872 69 . 878 0 . 000
0
0 0
0 . 990 34 . 553 40 . 983 0 . 000 0 . 990 55 . 784 75 . 867 0 .000

0
38
STATION 366993 PITTSBURGH ,PA STATION 366993 PITTSBURGH . PA
VALUES 6 = ΘΕΤΑ LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES B = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL
oooooo
0 . 200 17 . 375 2 .002 1 .000 0 . 200 32.203 3 .623 1 . 000
0 . 400 19 . 243 5 .005 1 .000 0 . 400 35 . 107 9 . 056 1 . 000
0 .600 20 . 957 10 .010 1 .000 0 .600 37 . 744 18 . 115 1 .000
0 .800 23. 070 15 .015 0 .950 0 .800 40 .967 27 . 173 0 . 975
0 .900 24 . 739 18 .018 0 . 737 0 . 900 43 . 493 32 .607 0 . 776
0 . 950 26 . 175 20 .020 0 .506 0 . 850 45 .654 36 . 230 0 .514
0. 960 26 .604 25 .025 0 . 088 0 . 960 46 . 297 45 . 288 0 . 057
0 . 970 27 . 137 30 .030 0 .005 0 .970 47 . 095 54. 345 0 . 001
0 . 980 27 . 856 35 . 035 0 . 000 0 . 980 48 . 170 63. 403 0 .000
0 .990 29 .015 38 . 036 0 . 000 0 .990 . 896 68 .837 0 .000
STATION 301544 CHARLESTON , SC STATION 381544 CHARLESTON , SC

APRIL -SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL 19 . 24 OCTOBER - MARCH 1937 - 1975 NORMAL 32 .88
oooooo
PROU QUANTILE QUANTITY
VALUES b . OCTA LEVELS
EXC PRO
PCP LVL
SELECTED
PRO .
VALUES
SELECTED
QUANTILE
. . BETA
SELECT
SELECTED QUANTITY
LEVELS
EXC.PRO
ED PCP LVL
0 .200 26 . 270 1 . 924 1 . 000 0 . 200 13. 473 3 . 200 0 .875
0 . 400 30 . 491 4 . 810 1 . 000 0 . 400 18 . 607 8 . 220 0.963
0 .600 34 . 382 0 . 620 1 .000 0 . 600 19 . 570 16 . 440 0 .612
0 .800 39 . 353 14.430 0 . 989 0 . 800 23 . 377 24. 660 0 . 152
0 0
0 .900 43 . 363 17 . 316 0 . 991 0 . 900 26 . 502 29 . 592 0 .046

0 . 950 46 . 869 19. 240 0 . 977 0 . 950 29 . 271 32 . 680 0 . 018
0. 960 17 .024 24 .050 0 . 881 0 . 960 30 . 110 41 . 100 0 . 001
0 . 970 49 . 242 28 . 860 0 .681 0 . 970 31 . 162 49 . 320 0 . 000
0 . 980 51 .029 33 .670 0 . 435 0 . 980 32 .596 57 .540 0 .000
0. 990 53 . 929 36 .556 0 .303 0 . 990 34 . 939 62 . 472 0 . 000
0
STATION 38 1544 CHARLESTON , SC STATION 381939 COLUMBIA SC

0 .200 42 . 968 5 . 212 1 .000 0 . 200 21 . 422 2 .628 1 . 000
0 . 400 48 .646 13.030 1 .000 0 . 400 24 . 879 6 . 570 1 . 000
0 .600 53 . 923 26 .060 0 . 999 0 . 600 28 . 142 13 . 140 0 .995
0 .800 60 . 511 39. 090 0 . 899 0 .800 2 . 272 19. 710
0 . 876
0 0
0 .900 65 . 769 46 . 908 0 . 666 0 .900 35 .606 23. 652 0 .676

0 .950 70 . 330 52 . 120 0 . 466 0 . 950 38 .527 26 . 260 0 .512
0. 960 71 . 696 65. 150 0 . 109 0 . 960 39 . 405 32 . 850 0 .179
0 .970 73 . 400 78 . 180 0 .013 0 . 970 40 . 503 39 . 420 0 .040
0 . 980 75 . 704 91. 210 0 . 001 0 .980 41 .992 45 . 990 0 . 006
0 .990 79 . 430 99 .026 0 .000 0 .990 44 . 410 49 . 932 0 . 002
39
STATION 381939 COLUMBIA SC STATION B1939 COLUMBIA . SC
OCTOBER - MARCH 1937 - 1975 NORMAL - 20 . 00 ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL . 46 . 36
PROK QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR PROB QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR
VALUES 8 = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES & BETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 . 200 14 . 168 2 . 008 0 .975 0 . 200 38 . 370 4 .636 1 . 000
0 .400 17.583 5 . 020 0 . 975 0 . 400 43.942 11 . 590 1. 000
0 .600 20.823 10 . 040 0 . 942 0 .600 157 23 . 180 0 .998
0 .800 25 . 00 1 15 . 060 0 .753 0 . 000 55 . 708 34 . 770 0 . 895
O O O O O
0 . 900 28 . 439 18 .072 0 . 569 0 . 900 60 . 966 41 . 724 0 . 685
0 . 950 31.491 20 .000 0 .444 0 . 950 65 .544 46 . 360 0 . 505
0 .960 32 . 417 25 . 100 0 . 196 0 . 960 66 .018 57 . 950 0 . 151
0 .970 33 . 579 30.120 0 .069 0 . 970 68 .633 69 .540 0 .026
0 . 980 35 . 163 35 . 140 0 . 020 0 . 980 70 . 956 81 . 130 0 . 003
0 . 990 37 . 753 38 . 152 0 . 009 0 . 990 74. 720 88 . 00 0 .001
STATION 394127 HURONSD STATION 394127 HURON , SD
APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 14. 46 ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL - 19 . 44
VALUES B = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES в BETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 . 200 10 . 373 1 . 446 1 .000 0 . 200 14 . 673 1 .000
0 .400 12 . 423 3 .615 1 .000 0 . 400 17 . 196 4 . 860 1 .000
0 .600 14 . 394 7 . 230 0 . 973 0 .600 19 . 590 9 . 720 0 . 987
0 . 000 16 . 929 10 .845 0 . 758 0 . 800 22 . 636 14.580 0 . 806
0 0
900 19 . 006 13 . 014 0 .538 0 . 900 25 . 107 17 , 496 0 . 574

0 .950 20 . 840 14. 460 0 . 394 0 . 950 27. 274 19 . 440 0 . 412
0 . 960 21 . 395 18 . 075 0 . 138 0 . 960 27 . 926 24 . 300 0 . 127
0
0 .970 22 . 090 21. 690 0 .035 0 . 970 28 . 745 29 . 160 0 . 026

0 . 980 23 . 036 25 . 305 0 . 007 0 .980 29 . 854 34 . 020 0 . 004
0 0
0 . 990 24 . 580 27 . 474 0 .002 0 . 990 31 .658 36 . 936 0 .001
STATION 396937 RAPID CITY , SD STATION 396937 RAPID CITY . SO

APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 13 . 36 ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL 17 . 12
oooo00
200 9 .013 . 1 . 336 1 . 000 0 .200 13 . 202 1 . 712 1 . 000
400 11 . 580 3 . 340 1 . 000 0 .400 15 . 237 4 . 260 1 .000
0 .600 13. 264 6 . 680 0 .982 0 . 600 17 . 151 6 . 560 0 . 993
0 . 800 15 . 414 10.020 0 .779 0 .800 19 . 565 12 .840 0 .830
0 . 900 17 . 163 12 . 024 0 .546 0 . 900 21. 509 15 . 408 0 . 562
0 0 0
0 .950 18 . 701 13 . 360 0 .389 0 . 950 23 . 207 17 . 120 0 .403

0 . 960 19 . 165 16 . 700 0 . 121 0 . 960 23. 717 21 . 400 0 . 104
0 .970 19 . 746 20 . 040 0 .026 0 . 970 24 . 355 25 . 680 0 . 016
0 . 980 20 .535 23. 380 0 . 004 0 . 980 25 . 219 29 . 960 0 .002
0 . 990 21.819 25 . 384 0 .001 0 . 990 26 .620 32 . 526 0 . 000
40
STATION 404950 KNOXVILLE , TN STATION 404950 KNOXVILLE . IN
0 .200 18 . 397 2 . 124 1 . 000 0 . 200 20 . 444 2 . 494 0 . 975
0 . 400 20 .635 5 .310 1 .000 0 . 400 23 . 348 235 0 .975
0 .600 22 . 702 10 .620 1 . 000 0 .600 25 . 971 12 . 470 0 . 974
0 . 800 25 . 270 15. 930 0 .939 0 . 800 29 . 213 16 . 705 0 .884
0 0 0 0
o o
0 .900 27 . 310 19 . 116 0 . 741 0 .900 31 . 786 22 . 446 0 .668

0 . 950 29.074 21.240 0 .540 0 .950 34 . 016 24 . 940 0 .477
0 . 960 29 .601 26 . 550 0 . 131 0 . 960 34 . 683 31 . 175 0 . 119
o
0 .970 30 . 258 31 . 860 0 .014 0 .970 35 .515 37 . 410 0 . 015

0 .980 31 . 146 37 . 170 0 .001 0. 980 36 .640 43 .645 0 .001
0 . 990 32 .579 40 . 356 0 . 000 0 . 990 38 . 458 47 . 386 0 . 000
STATION 404950 KNOXVILLE , TN STATION 405954 MEMPHIS , TN

SELECTED
PROB
SELECTED SELECTED
QUANTILE QUANTITY EXCFORPRB SELECTED
PROB
SELECTED
QUANTILE
SELECTED
QUANTITY
EXCFORPRB
VALUES 6 = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES B = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 . 200 41 . 449 4 .618 1 .000 0 . 200 18 . 384 2 .314 1 . 000
0 .400 45 . 196 11 . 545 1 . 000 0 . 400 21 . 484 5 . 785 1 . 000
0 .600 48 . 604 23 . 090 1 . 000 0 . 600 24 . 420 11 . 570 0 . 992
0 .600 52 . 768 34 .635 0 . 978 800 28 . 149 17 . 355 0 .854
0 . 900 56 .030 41. 562 0 . 795 0 .900 31. 169 20 . 826 0 .645
0 . 950 58 . 623 46 . 180 0 .542 0 .950 33 .817 23 . 140 0 . 485
0 . 960 59 . 653 57 . 725 0.066 0 . 960 34 .614 28 .925 0 . 169
0 .970 60 . 684 69 . 270 0 . 002 0 . 970 35 .611 34 . 710 0 .039
0 .980 62 . 073 80 .815 0 .000 0 . 980 36 . 965 40 . 495 0 . 006
0 . 990 64 , 303 87 . 742 0 .000 0 . 990 39. 166 43 . 966 0 . 002
STATION 405954 MEMPHIS , TN STATION 405954 MEMPHIS , TN

0 . 200 19 . 623 2 . 596 0 . 975 0 . 200 41 . 529 4 .910 1 .000
0 . 400 23 . 648 6 . 490 0 . 975 0 . 400 46 . 746 12 . 275 1 . 000
Ovo
0 .600 27. 193 12 . 980 0 . 964 0 . 600 51. 576 24 . 550 0 . 999
0 . 800 31.673 470 0 .815 0 .800 57 . 590 36 . 825 0 . 922
0 . 900 35 . 301 23 . 364 0 .616 0 . 900 62 . 376 44 . 190 0 . 704
Nv
0 0
0 . 950 36 . 486 25 . 960 0 . 468 0 . 950 66 .519 49 . 100 0 .501

0 . 960 39 . 446 32.450 0 . 174 0 .960 67 . 758 61 . 375 0 .017
0 . 970 40 .647 38 . 940 0 .045 0 . 970 69 . 303 73 .650 0 .013
0 0 0
0 . 980 42 . 279 45 . 430 0 . 009 0 . 980 71. 391 85 . 925 0 . 001

0 . 990 44. 933 49 . 324 0 .003 0 . 990 74 . 764 93 . 290 0 .000
41
STATION 410016 ABILENE , TX STATION 410016 ABILENE , TX
APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL : 15 .80 OCTOBER - MARCH 1937 - 1975 NORMAL = 7 . 79
PCP LVL
VALUES B = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES B = BETA LEVELS
0 . 200 10 . 782 1 . 580 1 .000 0 . 200 4 .626 0 . 779 0 . 975
0 . 400 13 .719 3 . 950 0 .998 0.400 6 . 374 1 . 948 0 . 966
0 .600 16 .646 7 . 900 0 . 938 600 8 . 136 3 . 895 0 . 668
0 .800 20 . 532 11.850 0 .731 0 .800 10 . 525 5 . 843 0 .663
0 . 900 23 . 795 14 .220 0 . 564 0 . 900 12 .569 7 .011 0 . 524
0 . 950 26 . 726 15 .800 0 . 455 0 . 950 14 .432 7 . 790 0 .437
.
0 . 960 27 . 624 19 . 750 0 . 233 0 . 960 15 . 005 9 . 738 0 .255

0 . 970 28 . 751 23 . 700 0 .102 0 . 970 15 . 728 11. 685 0 . 136
0 .980 30 . 294 27 . 650 0.040 0 . 960 16 . 723 13 . 633 0 . 066
0 . 990 32 . 630 30 . 020 0 .022 0 . 990 8 . 368 14 .801 0 . 043
STATION 410016 ABILENE TX STATION 410211 AMARILLO . TX

ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 23 . 59 APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL 15 . 32
0 . 200 17. 717 2 . 359 1 .000 0 . 200 10 .681 1 .532 1 . 000
0 . 400 21. 361 5 .898 1 .000 0 . 400 13. 201
3 .830 0 . 999
0 . 600 24 . 677 11 . 795 0 .978 0 . 600 15 . 669 7 . 660 0.955
0 . 800 29 . 419 17 . 693 0 . 801 0 . 800 18 . 898 11 . 490 0 . 740
0 . 900 149 21 . 231 0 . 608 0 . 900 21 . 577 13 . 780 0 .551
0 . 950 36 . 450 23 .590 0 . 471 0 . 950 23 . 966 15 . 320 0 . 427
0 .960 37.450 29 . 488 0 .196 0 . 960 24 . 692 19 . 150 0 . 188
0 . 970 38 . 703 35 . 365 0 .063 0 .970 25 .604 22 .900 0 .067
0 . 980 40 . 410 41 . 263 0 .016 0 . 980 26 . 850 26 . 810 0 . 020
0 . 990 43 . 197 44 . 821 0 . 007 0 . 990 28 .889 29 . 108 0 . 009
STATION 410211 AMARILLO , TX STATION 410211 AMARILLO , TX

0 . 200 2 .614 0 . 496 0 . 974 0 . 200 14 . 963 2 . 028 1 . 000
0
0 . 400 3 . 844 1 . 240 0 . 950 400 17. 948 5 . 070 1 . 000

u u
0 0
0 . 600 5 . 133 2 . 480 0 . 820 0 . 600 20 .821 10 . 140 0 . 977

O
0
0 . 800 6 . 930 3 . 720 0 .621 0 .800 24.522 15 . 210 0 . 785

0
0 . 900 8 . 503 4 . 464 0 . 499 0 . 900 27. 555 18.252 0 . 570

0 0 0 0 0 0
0 . 950 9 .957 4 . 960 0 . 424 0 . 950 30 . 236 20 . 280 0 .436

0 0
0 . 960 10 . 407 6 . 200 0 . 269 0 . 960 31. 047 25 . 350 0 . 167

0
0 . 970 10 . 976 7 . 440 0 . 161 0 . 970 32 . 063 30 . 420 0 .048

0
0 . 980 11 . 766 0 .680 0 .092 0 . 980 33 . 447 35 . 490 0 . 011

0 0
0 . 990 13 . 077 9 . 424 0 . 065 0 . 990 35 . 703 38 . 532 0.004

42
STATION 411136 BROWNSVILLE , TX STATION 411136 BROWNSVILLE , TX
0 . 200 11 . 533 1 .567 1 . 000 0 . 200 5 . 249 0 . 942 0 . 974
0 . 400 14 . 376 3 .918 0 . 999 0.400 7 .500 2 . 355 0 . 956
0 .600 17 . 176 7 . 835 0 . 963 0 .600 9 . 820 4 . 710 0 .841
on
0 .800 20 . 854 11 . 753 0 .786 0 .800 13 .015 7 . 065 0 . 640

0 . 900 23 . 917 14 . 103 0 .620 0 .900 15 . 785 8 .478 0 . 512
0 . 950 26 . 655 15 .670 0 . 505 0 . 950 18 . 330 9 . 420 0 . 432
0 . 960 27 . 488 19 . 588 0 . 259 o
0 . 960 19 . 116 11 . 775 0 . 266
0 . 970 28 . 536 23.505 0 .110 0 .970 20 . 110 14. 130 0 . 153
o
0 . 980 29 . 967 27 . 423 0 .041 0 . 980 21. 481 16 , 485 0 . 083
0 .990 32 . 313 29 . 773 0 . 021 0 . 990 23 . 756 17 . 898 0 . 056
o
STATION 411136 BROWNSVILLE , TX STATION 412242 DALLAS -FT. WORTH , TX

SELECTED SELECTED SELECTED EXC PRB SELECTED SELECTED QUANTITYSELECTED EXC PRO
PROB QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR
VALUES 6 = BETA LEVELS PCPFORLVL PROB
VALUES
QUANTILE
8 = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 .200 19 . 824 2 . 509 1 . 000 0 .200 13.413 1 . 907 1 .000
0 . 400 23 . 626 6 . 273 1 . 000 0 . 400 16 . 723 4 . 768 0 . 999
0 .600 27 . 270 12 . 545 0 . 987 0 .600 19 . 984 9 . 535 0 0 .953
0 .800 31 . 948 18 .818 0 . 844 0 .800 24 . 268 14. 303 0 .750
0 . 900 35 . 770 22 .581 0 .658 0 . 900 27 . 836 17. 163 0 .572
0
0 . 950 39 .141 25.090 0 .518 0 . 950 31 . 025 19 .070 0. 453

0 . 960 40 . 160 31. 363 0 . 220 0 . 960 31 . 996 23. 838 0 .216
0 .970 41 .436 37 . 635 0 . 069 0 . 970 33 .217 28 .605 0 . 085
0 .980 43 . 172 43 . 908 0 . 017 0 .980 34 . 884 33 . 373 0 .029
0 . 990 46 . 003 47 . 671 0 . 007 0 .990 37 .618 36 . 233 0 . 014
STATION 412242 DALLAS -FT, WORTH , TX STATION 412242 DALLAS - FT . WORTH , TX

PROK QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR PROB QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR
0 . 200 6 . 365 1 . 323 0 . 975 0 . 200 25 . 201 3 . 230 1 . 000
0 . 400 11. 161 3 . 306 0 .970 0 . 400 29 . 648 8 .075 1 . 000
0 .600 13 . 929 6 .615 0 .894 0 .600 33 .877 16 . 150 0 . 989
O o
0 . 800 17 .624 9 . 923 0 .693 0 . 800 39 . 269 24 . 225 0 . 836

0 . 900 20. 750 11 . 907 0 . 544 0 . 900 43 .650 29.070 0 .628
0 .950 25 .577 13. 230 0 .448 0 . 950 47 . 497 32 .300 0 . 472
0 . 960 24. 444 16 .538 0 . 249 0 . 960 48 . 658 40 .375 0 . 070
0 .970 25 . 5 36 19 . 845 0 . 123 0 . 970 50 . 110 48 . 450 0 .042
0 . 980 27 . 033 23. 153 0 . 056
0 . 033
0 . 980 52 . 082 56 .525 0 .006
0 . 990 29 . 503 25 . 137 0 . 990 55 . 291 61. 370 0 . 002
43
o
STATION 412360 1937 DEL
APRIL - SEPTEMBER - 1976RIO NORMAL
. TX = 11 . 30 STATION 412360 DEL RIO . TX
OCTOBER - MARCH 1937 - 1975 NORMAL = 5 . 58
SELECTED SELECTED SELECTED EXCFORPRO SELECTED SELECTED SELECTED EXCFORPRB
PROB QUANTILE
B = BETA
QUANTITY PROB QUANTILE QUANTITY
VALUES LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES 8 =BETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 . 200 6 . 881 1 . 130 0 . 999 0 .200 2 . 926 0 . 556 0 . 972
0 . 400 9 .559 2 . 825 0 . 985 0 .400 4 . 478 1 . 395 0 . 943
0 .600 12 . 370 5 .650 0 .878 0 .600 6 . 141 2 . 790 0 . 816
0 . 800 16 . 264 8 . 475 0 . 683 0 .800 8 . 502 4 . 185 0 .638
0 . 900 19 .645 10 . 170 0 . 554 0 . 900 10 . 594 5 . 022 0 .530
0
0 . 950 22 . 752 11 . 300 0 . 472 0 . 950 12 .544 5 . 580 0. 463

0 . 960 23 . 712 14 . 125 0 . 297 0 . 960 13 . 150 6 . 975 0 .317
0 0
0 . 970 24 . 927 16 . 950 0 . 175 0 . 970 13 . 920 8 . 370 0 . 208

0 .980 26 . 601 19.775 0 . 097 0 .980 14.986 9 . 765 0 . 133
0 . 990 29 . 377 21 .470 0 . 067 0 . 990 16 . 764 10 .602 0 . 100
STATION 412360 DEL RIO , TX STATION 412797 EL PASO , TX

ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 16 .88 APRIL -SEFTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 4 . 97
0 . 200 11 . 692 1 .668 1 . 000 0 .200 3 . 244 0 . 497 1 .000
0 . 400 15 . 320 4 .220 0 .996 0 . 400 4 . 239 1 .243 0 . 995
0 .600 18 . 761 8 . 440 0 . 942 0 .600 5 . 246 2 . 485 0 .916
0 .800 23 . 358 12 . 660 0 . 758 0 . 800 6 .602 3 . 728 0 . 706
0 . 900 27. 238 15 . 192 0 . 606 0 . 900 7 . 752 4 . 473 0 . 551
0 . 950 30 . 737 16 . 880 0 .506 0 .950 8 . 794 4 . 970 0 .452
0 . 960 31 . 807 21 . 100 0 . 287 0 . 960 9 . 113 6 .213 0 .248
0 .970 33 . 155 25 . 320 0 . 142 0 . 970 9 .515 7 . 455 0 . 121
0 . 980 35 . 003 29 .540 0 .064 0 . 980 10 . 067 8 .698 0 . 053
0 .990 38 . 043 32 . 072 0 .038 0 . 990 10 . 977 9 . 443 0 . 032
STATION 412797 EL PASO , TX STATION 412797 EL PASO , TX

OCTOBE -MARCH 1937 - 1975 NORMAL = 2 .80 ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 7 . 77
0 . 200 1412 0 . 280 0 . 972 0 . 200 5 .645 0 . 777 1 . 000
: :
0 . 400 2 . 129 0 . 700 0 . 942 0 . 400 6 . 952 1 . 943 1 . 000

0 . 600 2 . 892 1 . 400 0 . 803 0 .600 B . 229 3 . 885 0 . 965
0 . 800 3 .968 2 . 100 0 . 608 0 . 800 9 . 897 5 . 828 0 . 775
0 . 493
: : : : : : :
0 . 900 4 . 917 2 . 520 0 . 900 11 .279 6 . 993 0 .593

0 . 950 5 . 799 2 . 800 0 .422 0 . 950 12 .510 7 . 770 0 . 469
ooo
0 . 960 6 . 073 3 .500 0 . 274 0 . 960 12 . 884 9 . 713 0 . 218

0 . 970 6 . 421 4 .200 0 . 170 0 .970 13 . 354 11 .655 0 .001
0 .980 6 . 902 4 . 900 0 . 101 0 . 980 13 .994 13 . 598 0 . 026
0 .990 7 . 703 5 .320 0 .073 0 . 990 15 .044 14. 763 0 .012
44
STATION 414300 HOUSTON , TX STATION 414300 HOUSTON , TX
PROB QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR PROB QUANTILE QUANTITY LS
FOR
VALUES B = OETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES Β = 6ΕΤΑ LEVE PCP LVL
0 . 200 18 . 895 2 .628 1 . 000 0 . 200 15 . 680 2 . 191 0 .875
0 . 400 23.237 6 .570 1 .000 0 . 400 19 . 112 5 . 478 0 . 975
0.600 27 . 478 . 140 0 . 963 0 . 600 22 . 334 10 . 955 0 .950
0.000 33.012 19 . 710 0 . 766 0 . 000 26 . 451 16 , 433 0 . 761
0 0
0 .900 37 . 595 23. 652 0 . 580 0 . 900 29 . 815 19 . 719 0 . 561
0 . 950 41.675 26 .200 0 .454 0 . 950 32 . 786 21 . 910 0 . 425
0 . 960 42 . 915 32 . 850 0 . 205 0 . 960 33 . 685 27 . 366 0 . 167
0 . 970 44 . 471 39 , 420 0 .074 0 . 970 32 . 865 0 .049
0 .980 46 .595 45 . 990 0 .022 0 . 980 36. 345 38 , 343 0 .012
0 . 990 50 .071 49 . 932 0 .010 0 . 990 38 . 846 41 . 629 0 . 004
0
STATION 414300 HOUSTON , TX STATION 417174 PORT ARTHUR , TX
VALUES B =BETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES В2ВЕТА LEVELS PCP LVL
0 . 200 37 . 396 4 .819 1 .000 0 . 200 22 . 158 3 . 086 1 .000
0 . 400 43 . 803 12.048 1.000 0 .400 27 .310 7 . 715 1 .000
0 .600 49 . 876 24 .095 0 .990 0 . 600 32 , 349 15 .430 0 .962
0 .800 57 . 603 36 . 143 0 .833 0 .800 36 .931 23. 145 0 . 765
0 .900 63 . 868 43 . 371 0 .614 0 . 900 44 . 387 27. 774 0 .581
0 .950 69. 363 18.190 0 . 453 0 . 950 49. 248 30 . 860 0 .456
0 .960 71. 020 60 . 238 0 . 851 0 . 960 50 , 725 38 .575 0 . 209
0 .970 73. 091 72 . 285 0 . 034 0 . 970 52 . 580 46 . 290 0 .077
0 .900 75 . 904 84 . 333 0 .005 0 .980 55 . 112 54 . 005 0 . 024
0 . 990 80 . 476 91 .561 0 .002 0 . 990 59 . 257 58 .634 0 .011
STATION 417174 PORT ARTHUR , TX STATION 417174 PORT ARTHUR , TX

OCTOBER -MARCH 1937 - 1975 NORMAL = 24 . 21 ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 55 .07
ooooooo
oooooo
0 . 200 19 . 035 2 . 421 0 . 975 0 . 200 43 . 185 5 . 507 1 . 000

0 . 400 21 . 855 6 . 053 0 .975 0 . 400 50. 275 13 . 768 1 .000
0 .600 24. 410 12 . 105 0 . 972 0 .600 56 .975 27 . 535 0 . 992
0 .800 27 .575 18 . 156 0 .848 0 . 800 65 . 468 41 . 303 0 .843
0 . 900 30 . 096 21. 789 0 .605 0 . 900 72 . 336 49.563 0 .622
0 . 950 32 . 283 24 . 210 0 . 415 0 . 950 78 . 348 55 . 070 0 . 455
0 . 960 32 . 638 30 . 263 0 . 095 0 .960 80 . 159 68 .636 0 .144
0 .970 33 . 755 36 . 315 0 . 011 0 .970 82 . 421 82 .605 0 . 029
0 . 980 34 .860 42 . 368 0.001 0 .980 85 , 491 96 . 373 0 .004
0 .990 36 .649 45 . 999 0 . 000 0 . 990 90 . 476 104 . 633 0 . 001
45
STATION 417945 SAN ANTONIO , TX STATION 417945 SAN ANTONIO . TX
VALUES B = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES BOOETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 .200 12 .072 1 .621 1 . 000 0 . 200 6 .635 1 . 133 0 . 975
0 . 400 15 . 147 4 . 053 0 . 999 0 .400 9 . 054 2 . 833 0 . 966
0 .600
18 . 186 8 . 105 0 .962 0 .600
11. 480 5 .665 0 . 865
0 . 000 22 . 194 12 . 158 0 . 795 0.800
14. 753 8 . 498 0 .648
0 . 900 25 .540 14 . 589 0 .638 0 . 900 17 .545 10 . 197 0 . 502
0 .950 28 .536 16 . 210 0 .527 0 . 950 20 .084 11 .330 0 . 411
0 . 960
29 . 450 20 . 263 0 . 285 0 . 960 20.864
14 . 163 0 . 220
0 . 970 30 .597 24 . 315 0 . 130 0 . 970 21.848 16 . 995 0 . 115
0 .980 32 . 167 28 . 368 0 . 052 0 . 980 23.201 19 .828 0 . 054
0 . 990 34 , 742 30 .799 0 . 028 0 . 990 25 . 436 21 . 527 0 .033
STATION 417945 SAN ANTONIO , TX STATION 425654 MILFORD . UT

ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 27 .54 APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 3 .87
0 . 200 20 . 891 2 . 754 1 . 000 0 . 200 2 . 726 0 . 387 1 .000
0 . 400 25 . 464 6 . 885 1 .000 0 . 400 3 . 413 0 . 968 0 .999
0 .600 29. 907 13.770 0 . 975 0 .600 4 .092 1 .935 0 . 952
0 0 0 0
0 . 600 35 .677 20 .655 0 .809 0 . 800 4 . 986 2 . 903 0 . 752

0 . 900 40 . 438 24 . 786 0 . 631 0 . 900 5 . 733 3 . 483 0 .579
0 . 950 44.666 27.540 0 .504 0 . 950 6 . 398 3 .870 0 . 462
0 .960 45 . 948 34.425 0 . 236 0 .960 6 .601 4 . 638 0 . 227
0 . 970 47 . 558 41 . 310 0 . 067 0 . 970 6 . 857 5 . 805 0 . 093
0 . 980 49 . 752 48 . 195 0 .027 0 . 980 7 . 206 6 . 773 0 . 033
0
0 . 990 53. 339 52 . 326 0 . 012 0 .990 7 . 779 7 . 353 0 .017
STATION 425654 MILFORD . UT STATION 425654 MILFORD UT

OCTOBER -MARCH 1937 - 1975 NORMAL = 4 .53 ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL : 6 . 40
oooooo
0 . 200 3 .096 0 . 453 0 . 975 0 . 200 6 . 602 0 . 840 1 .000

3.
0 . 400 900 1 . 133 0 . 974 0 . 400 7 . 715 2 . 100 1 . 000
0 .600 4 . 670 2 .265 0 . 931 0 .600 8 . 766 4 . 200 0 .992
o o
0 . 800 5 . 67 3. 396 0 . 730 0 .800 10 . 106 6 . 300 0 . 845

0 .900 6 . 499 4 . 077 0 .553 0 . 900 11. 189 7 . 560 0 .630
0 . 950 7 . 237 4 .530 0 . 435 0 . 950 12 . 139 6 . 400 0 . 468
0 . 960 7 . 461 5 . 663 0 . 201 0 . 960 12 . 425 10 . 500 0 .157
0 .970 7 . 743 6 . 795 0 . 076 0 . 970 12 . 763 12 .600 0.035
0 . 900 8 . 128 7 . 928 0 .025 0 . 980 13 . 269 14. 700 0 . 006
0 . 990 8 . 758 8 .607 0 .012 0 . 990 14. 056 15 . 960 0 .002
46
STATION 427596 SALT LAKE CITY ,UT STATION 427598 SALT LAKE CITY , UT
oooo

VALUES B - BETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES B = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 .200 4 .936 0 . 722 1 . 000 0 . 200 6 . 469 0 . 795 0 . 975
0 . 400 6 . 117 1 .805 0 . 999 0 . 400 7 . 559 1 .988 0 . 975
0 . 600 7 . 276 3 .610 0 . 949 0 . 600 8 . 558 3.975 0 .971
0 . 800 8 . 794 5 . 415 0 . 723 0 .800 9 . 807 5 . 963 0 .869
0 . 900 10 .055 6 . 498 0 .532 0 . 900 10 . 810 7 . 155 0 .680
0 . 950 11 .181 7 . 220 0 . 409 0 .950 11 . 684 7 . 950 0 .520
0 . 960 11 .523 9 . 025 0 . 177 0 . 960 11 . 947 9 . 938 0 . 184
0 . 970 11 , 953 10 .830 0 .062 0 . 970
0 12 . 275 11 .925 0 .041
0 . 980 12 .540 12 .635 0 . 019 0 . 980 12 . 720 13 . 913 0 . 006
0 .990 13. 502 11 . 718 0 .009 0 . 990 13 . 442 15 . 105 0 .002
STATION 427598 SALT LAKE CITY ,UT STATION 431081 BURLINGTON , VT
0 . 200 12 . 497 1 .517 1 . 000 0 . 200 17 . 066 1 . 940 1 .000
0 . 400 14 . 154 3 . 793 1 . 000 0 . 400 18 . 921 4 . 650 1 . 000
0 .600 15 .695 7 . 585 0 . 999 0 .600 20 . 622 9 . 700 1 .000
0 0
0 .800 17 .619 11 . 378 0 . 898 0 . 800 22 . 722 14 . 550 0 . 957

0 .900 19 . 154 13.653 0 .665 0 .900 24 . 381 17 .460 0 . 762
0 .950 20. 487 15 . 370 0 . 466 0 . 950 25 . 010 19.400 0 .543
0 . 960 20 . 886 18 . 963 0 . 110 0 . 960 26 . 236 24. 250 0 .106
0
0 . 970 21 . 383 22 . 755 0 .013 0 . 970 26 . 766 29. 100 0 .007

0 0
0 . 980 22 .056 26 . 548 0 . 001 0 . 960 27 . 482 33 . 950 0 . 000

0 .990 23 . 145 28 .823 0 .000 0 . 990 28 .634 36 . 860 0 .000
0
STATION 431091 1937BURLINGTON

ANNUAL
, VT
- 1976 NORMAL = 32 .54
STATION 446139
APRIL - SEPTEMBER
NORFOLK NORMAL
1937 - 1976
, VA = 25 . 49
w a

0 . 200 29.698 3 . 254 1 . 000 0 . 200 21 .614 2 . 549 1 . 000
0 .400 32 .095 8 . 135 1 . 000 0 . 400 24 . 487 6 . 373 1 . 000
0 .600 34. 261 16 . 270 1 . 000 0 .600 27 . 157 12 . 745 0 . 999
0
0 . 800 36 .896 24 . 405 0 . 986 0 . 800 30 . 493 19 . 118 0 . 919

0 .900 38 . 951 29 . 286 0 . 826 0 . 900 33 . 156 22 . 941 0 . 714
10.704
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 .950 32 . 540 0 . 559 0 .950 35 . 467 25 . 490 0 . 523

0 . 960 41 .224 40 .675 0 . 051 0 . 960 36 . 159 31 . 863 0 . 142
0 . 970 41 , 869 48 .810 0 . 001 0 . 970 37 .022 38 . 235 0 .020
0.980 42 . 737 56 . 945 0 .000 0 . 980 38 . 190 44 . 608 0 .002
0 . 990 44 . 130 61 .626 0 . 000 0 . 990 40 .078 48 . 431 0 . 000
47
STATION
STATION 446139
OCTOBER -MARCH
NORFOLK , VA
1937 - 1975 NORMAL = 19 . 19 ANNUAL
446139
1937NORFOLK , VA
- 1976 NORMAL = 44.68
SELECTED SELECTED SELECTED EXC PRO SELECTED SELECTED SELECTED
QUANTILE QUANTITY
EXC PRO
FOR
PROB
VALUES
QUANTILE
B = BETA
QUANTITY
LEVELS
FOR
PCP LVL
PROB
VALUES B = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 . 200 16 .016 1 . 919 0 . 975 0 . 200 39. 325 4 . 468 1 . 000
0 . 400 18 .049 4 . 798 0 .975 0 . 400 43. 328 11 . 170 1 . 000
0 .600 19 . 872 9 . 595 0 . 975 0 .600 46 . 988 22 . 340 1 . 000
0 . 800 22. 107 14.393 0 .904 0 .800 51. 489 33 .510 0 . 962
0.900 23 . 872 17 . 271 0 .683 0 .900 55 .034 40 . 212 0 .760
0 . 950 25 . 394 19 . 190 0 .473 0 . 950 58 . 079 44 . 680 0 . 525
:
0 . 960 25 . 848 23 . 988 0 .095 0 . 960 58 . 987 55 . 850 0 . 084
o
0 . 970 26 . 414 28 . 785 0 . 008 0 . 970 60 . 115 67.020 0 .004
0 . 980 27. 176 33 .583 0 . 000 0 . 980 61 .637 78 . 190 0.000
0 . 990 28 . 410 36 . 461 0 . 000 0 . 990 64 . 085 84 . 692 0 .000
STATION 448906 WASHINGTON DC STATION 448906 WASHINGTON , DC

0 . 200 17 .811 2 . 189 1 .000 0 . 200 33 .650 3 . 889 1 .000
0
0 .400
20 . 630 5 .473 1 .000 0 .400 37.626 9 . 723 1 . 000
0 . 600 23 . 265 10.945
0 . 995 0 . 600 41 . 293 19 . 445 1 .000
0
0 0
0 . 800 26 .642 16 . 416 0 . 876 0 . 800 45 . 841 29 . 168 0 . 941

0
0 . 900 29 . 350 19 . 701 0 .670 0 . 900 49 . 449 35 . 001 0 . 738

0
0 . 950 31.717 21 . 890 0 . 503 0 .950 52 . 565 38.890 0 .530

0 0 0 0 0
0 . 960 32 . 429 27 . 363 0 . 168 0 . 960 53 . 496 48 . 613 0 . 118

0 . 970 33 . 316 32.835 0 . 035 0 .970 54 .655 58 . 335 0 . 011
0 . 980 34 .525 38 .306 0 . 005 0 . 980 56 . 222 68 . 058 0 . 001
0 . 990 36 . 482 41 .591 0 . 001 0 . 990 58 . 749 73 . 691 0 .000
STATION 457458 SEATTLE , WA STATION 457458 SEATTLE , WA

0 . 200 6 . 178 0 . 919 1 .000 0 . 200 21.989 2 .646 0 . 975
0 . 400 7 . 432 2 . 296 1 . 000 0 . 400 25 . 119 6 .615 0 . 975
0 . 600 8 .641 4 . 595 0 . 957 0 .600 27 .947 13 . 230 0 . 974
0 . 800 10 . 200 6 . 893 0 .691 0 . 800 31 . 441 19 . 845 0 . 893
0 .900 11 . 479 8 . 271 0 . 459 0 . 900 34 .218 23.814 0 . 690
0
36 .622
6
0 . 950 12 .610 9 . 190 0 . 320 0 . 950 26 . 460 0 .504

NN
0 .960 12 . 952 11 . 488 1 . 099 0 . 960 37 . 342 33 . 075 0 . 135

0 0
0 .970 13 . 382 13 . 785 0 .023 0 . 970 38 .239 39 . 690 0 .018

0 . 980 13 . 966 16 . 083 0 .004 0 . 900 39 . 452 46 . 305 0 . 001
0
0 . 990 14. 920 17 . 461 0 . 001 0 . 990 41 . 414 50 . 274 0 .000

48
STATION 457 458 SEATTLE . WA STATION 457938 SPOKANE , WA
ANNUAL 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 35 .65 APRIL -SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 5 . 75
VALUES B = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES 8 BETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 .200 29 . 433 3 .565 1 . 000 0 . 200 3 . 906 0 .575 1 . 000
0 . 400 33 .009 8 .913 1 . 000 0 .400 4 . 922 1 . 438 0 . 998
0 .600 36 . 313 17 .825 0 . 999 0 . 600 5 . 929 2 . 875 0 . 941
0
0 . 000 40.437 26 . 738 0 .906 0 .800 7 . 258 4 . 313 0 . 724
0 .900 43 .677 32. 085 0 .656 0 . 900 8 . 371 5 . 175 0 .548
ooo
0 .950 46 .496 35 .650 0 .439 0 . 950 9 . 368 5 . 750 0 . 433
0 . 960 47 . 339 44 .563 0 . 081 0 . 960 9 .672 7 . 188 0 . 208
0 . 970 48.389 53.475 0 . 006 0 .970 10 . 054 8 .625 0 .084
0 .980 49 .807 62. 388 0 . 000 0 . 980 10 .577 10 . 063 0 .030
0 . 990 52 . 097 67 . 735 0 . 000 0 .990 11 . 436 10 .925 0 . 015
STATION 457938 SPOKANE , WA STATION 45 7938 SPOKANE , WA

OCTOBER - MARCH 1937 - 1975 NORMAL = 11 .67 ANNUAL 1937 -1976 NORMAL : 17. 42
PR36 QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR PROB QUANTILE QUANTITY FOR
VALUES B BETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES B = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 . 200 8 . 664 1 . 167 0 .975 0 . 200 13 . 745 1 . 742 1 . 000
o
0 . 400 10 . 226 2 . 918 0 . 975 0 . 400 15 . 653 4 . 355 1 . 000

0
0 .600 11 .664 5 . 835 0 . 964 0 .600 17.432 8 . 710 0 .997

o
0 .800 13 . 471 8 . 753 0 .780 0 .800 19 .660 13 . 065 0 . 857

0 . 900 14 . 928 10 .503 0 . 561 0 . 900 21.443 15 .678 0 .597
0
0 .950 16 . 203 11 . 670 0 . 399 0 . 950 22. 993 17 . 420 0 . 401

0 . 960 16 .587 14 . 568 0 .119 0 . 960 23. 457 21 . 775 0 .087
0 . 970 17 . 066 17 . 505 0 .023 0 .970 24.037 26 . 130 0 . 010
0
o o o
0 . 980 17 . 717 20 . 423 0 . 003 0 .980 24 .872 30 . 485 0 . 001

0 . 990 18 . 774 22. 173 0 . 001 0 . 990 26 . 092 33 . 098 0 .000
0
STATION 46 1570 CHARLESTON , WV STATION 461570 CHARLESTON , WV

VALUES = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES B = BETA ιενείς PCP LVL
0 . 200 17 .897 2 . 178 0 . 925 0 . 200 34 .679 4 . 075 0 . 925
o o
0 . 400 21 . 049 5 . 445 0 . 925 0 . 400 39 .510 10 . 188 0 . 925

0 .600 23. 701 10 .690 0 .924 0 . 600 43. 322 20 . 375 0 .925
0 . 800 26 . 908 16 . 335 0 . 862 0 . 800 47 . 850 30 .563 0 . 894
o o
0
0 . 900 29 . 437 19 . 602 0 . 702 0 . 900 51 . 367 36 .675 0 . 733

0 0 0
0 . 950 31.622 20. 780 0 .545 0 . 950 54 . 373 40 . 750 0 .535

0 . 960 32. 275 27. 225 0 . 185 0 .960 55 . 267 50 . 938 0 . 110
o o
0 . 970 33.090 32 .670 0 . 035 0 . 970 56 . 377 61. 125 0 . 006

0
0
0 .980 34.191 30 . 115 0 .004 0 . 900 57.874 71. 313 0 . 000

0 . 990 35 . 971 41 . 382 0 . 001 0 . 990 60 . 280 17. 425 0 . 000
0
o
0
STATION 473269 GREEN BAY .WI STATION 473269 GREEN BAY . W !
1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 27 . 01
APRIL - SEPTEMBER 1937 - 1976 NORMAL = 18 . 15 ANNUAL
0 . 200 14 . 823 1 .815 1 . 000 0 . 200 23 . 806 2 . 701 1 .000
0 . 400 16 . 909 4 . 538 1 . 000 0 . 400 26 . 189 6 . 753 1 . 000
600 18 . 857 9 .075 0 . 998 0 .600 28 . 366 13.505
1 . 000
0 . 800 21. 299 13 .613 0 . 887 0 . 800 31 . 040 20 . 258 0 . 964
0 . 900 23 . 255 16 . 335 0 . 659 0 . 900 33 . 145 24 . 309 0 . 762
0 . 950 24 . 955 18 . 150 0 . 471 0 . 950 34. 952 27. 010 0 .524
0 . 960 25 . 466 22 .688 0 . 124 0 . 960 35 . 491 33 . 763 0 . 080
0 . 970 26 . 102 27 . 225 0 .018 0 . 970 36 . 160 40 . 515 0 . 004
0 . 980 26 . 964 31 . 763 0. 002 0 . 980 37 . 062 47 . 268 0 . 000
0 . 990 28 . 359 34 . 485 0 .000 0 . 990 38 . 514 51 . 319 0 .000
STATION 481675 CHEYENNE , WY STATION 481675 CHEYENNE , HY

VALUES BEBETA LEVELS PCP LVL VALUES 6 = BETA LEVELS PCP LVL
0 .200 0 . 000 1 . 000 0 .000 0 . 200 0 . 000 1 . 465 0 . 000
0 . 400 0 .000 2 . 700 0 . 000 0 . 400 0 . 000 3 . 663 0 . 000
0 .600 0 . 000 5 . 400 0 .000 0 . 600 0 . 000 7 . 325 0 .000
0
0 . 600 0 .000 B . 100 0 . 000 0 . 800 0 . 000 10 . 986 0 . 000

0 0
0 0
0 . 900 0 .000 9 . 720 0 .000 0 . 900 0 .000 13 . 165 0 .000

0 . 950 0 .000 10 .800 0 .000 0 . 950 0 . 000 14 .650 0 . 000
0
0 .960 0 .000 13 . 500 0 . 000 0 . 960 0 . 000 18 . 313 0 . 000

0 . 970 0 .000 16 .200 0 .000 0 . 970 0 . 000 21 . 975 0 .000
0 0
0 . 980 0 . 000 18 . 900 0 . 000 0 . 980 0 . 000 25 .636 0 . 000

0 . 990 0 . 000 20 . 520 0 . 000 0 . 990 0 . 000 27 .835 0 .000
0
0
STATION 485390 LANDER .WY STATION 485390 LANDER ,WY

0 . 200 0 . 000 0 . 896 0 .000 0 . 200 0 .000 1 . 384 0 . 000
0 . 400 0 .000 2 . 240 0 . 000 0 .400 0 .000 3 . 460 0 .000
0 .600 0 .000 4 . 480 0 .000 0 .600 0 . 000 6 . 920 0 . 000
0 .800 0 .000 6 . 720 0 . 000 0 . 800 0 .000 10 .380 0 .000
0 . 900 0 . 000 8 . 064 0 .000 0 . 900 0 . 000 12 . 456 0 . 000
0
0 . 950 0 . 000 8 . 960 0 . 000 0 . 950 0 . 000 13 . 840 0 .000

0 . 960 0 .000 11. 200 0 .000 0 . 960 0 .000 17 . 300 0 . 000
0 0
0 . 970 0 . 000 13 .440 0 .000 0 . 970 0 . 000 20 . 760 0 .000

0 . 980 0 .000 15.680 0 . 000 0 . 900 0 . 000 24.220 0 . 000
0
0 . 990 0 . 000 17.024 0 . 000 0 . 990 0 .000 26 . 296 0 .000

50
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1.REPORT NO . 3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO .
EPA -600 / 2 - 77- 182
4.TITLE AND SUBTITLE 5 . REPORT DATE
| August 1977 issuing date
Annual and Seasonal Precipitation Probabilities 6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7.AUTHOR ( S ) 18 .PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
Richard E . Thomas
Dick M . Whiting
2.PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS 10 . PROGRAM ELEMENT NO .
Robert S . Kerr Environmental Research Lab . - Ada , OK 1BC611
Office of Research and Development 11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
U .S. Environmental Protection Agency
Ada , Oklahoma 74820
12 . SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS 13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
In - House
[14 , SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
Same as above .
EPA /600/ 15
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16 . ABSTRACT
The planning, design , and operation of land -based wastewater management sys
tems can be dependent on knowledge of the amount of precipitation which falls during
the operating season . This is particularly true for those cases where soils with low
permeability limit the hydraulic load . Precipitation probabilities for selected
periods at 93 weather stations have been compiled to assist planners , designers,
and others having a need for this type of information . The 93 stations selected re
present a cross section of the differing precipitation patterns across the United
States .
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS

DESCRIPTORS b.IDENTIFIERS /OPEN ENDED TERMS |c. COSATI Field /Group
wastewater land application 13B
design criteria storage requirements
climatology
rainfall
DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT 19 . SECURITY CLASS (This Report) 21. NO. OF PAGES

RELEASE TO PUBLIC UNCLASSIFIED 57
20 . SECURITY CLASS (This page) 22. PRICE
UNCLASSIFIED
A Form 2220-1 (9-73) 51 U.S.GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1977 - 757- 056 /6538 Region No. 5- 1
Research reports ofthe Office ofResearch and Development, U . S . Environmental
vironmental technology . Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
The nine series are:
1. EnvironmentalHealth Effects Research
3. EcologicalResearch
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
7. Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8. " Special Reports
vironmental degradation from point and non -point sources of pollution . This work
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa
EPA -600 / 2 - 77 - 184
August 1977
PROCEEDINGS EIGHTH NATIONAL SYMPOSIUM

ON FOOD PROCESSING WASTES
March 30 - April 1 , 1977
Seattle , Washington
by
Food and Wood Products Branch

Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Corvallis , Oregon 97330
Co - sponsored by
National Canners Association

American Meat Institute
Southeastern Poultry and Egg Association
Pacific Egg and Poultry Association
Western States Meat Packers Association
Northwest Food Processors Association
National Independent Meat Packers Association
American Frozen Food Institute
INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY

CINCINNATI , OHIO 45268
DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Industrial Environmental Research

Laboratory -Cincinnati , U . S . Environmental Protection Agency , and approved
for publication . Mention of trade names or commercial products does not con
stitute endorsement or recommendation for use .
FOREWORD
When energy and material resources are extracted , processed , converted ,

and used , the related pollution impacts on our environment and even on our
health often require that new and increasingly more efficient pollution con
trol methods be used . The Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Cincinnati ( IERL -Ci) assists in developing and demonstrating new and improved
methodologies that will meet these needs both efficiently and economically .
The Eighth National Symposium on Food Processing Wastes was co -sponsored
with the National Canners Association , American Meat Institute , Southeastern
Poultry and Egg Association , Pacific Egg and Poultry Association , Western
States Meat Packers Association , Northwest Food Processors Association ,
National Independent Meat Packers Association and American Frozen Food Insti
tute . The primary purpose of these symposia is the dissemination of the la
test research , development and demonstration information on process modifica
tions waste treatment, by -product recovery and water reuse to industry ,
consultants and government personnel . Twenty -nine papers are included in
this Proceedings as well as the final registration list .
These symposia will be continued ; if you are interested in participating
or wish to receive additional information about the Ninth , contact :
Industrial Pollution Control Division
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory -Ci
Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati , Ohio 45268
David G . Stephan
Director
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Cincinnati
iii
CONTENTS
Foreword
THE SHAPE OF THINGS TO COME

W . A . Mercer
STATUS OF EPA 'S EFFLUENT GUIDELINES FOR THE FOOD INDUSTRY

J . Denit , E . H . Forsht
EFFLUENT POLISHING AND WASTEWATER REUSE AT SNOKIST GROWERS CANNERY

L . A . Esvelt , H . H . Hart
CONTROL OF ODORS FROM ANAEROBIC LAGOONS TREATING MEATPACKING WASTES

J. A . Chittenden , L . E . Orsi , J . L . Witherow
TOMATO CLEANING , WATER RECYCLE AND MUD DEWATERING

W . W . Rose
REMOVAL OF SUSPENDED SOLIDS AND ALGAE FROM AERATION LAGOON WASTE

WATERS TO MEET 1983 DISCHARGE STANDARDS TO STREAMS
E . R . Ramirez , D . L . Johnson , T . E . Elliott
EFFLUENT GENERATION , ENERGY USE AND COST OF BLANCHING
J . L . Bomben
DISSOLVED AIR FLOTATION TREATMENT OF SEAFOOD PROCESSING WASTES - -
AN ASSESSMENT
D . B . Ertz , J . S . Atwell, E . H . Forsht
COMMERCIAL FEASIBILITY OF RECOVERING TOMATO PEELING RESIDUALS
W . G . Schultz , H . J . Neumann , J . E . Schade ,
J . P . Morgan , A . M . Katsuyama , H . J . Maagdenberg
WASTE REDUCTION BY PROCESS MODIFICATION IN SWEET CORN PRESERVATION 137
H . Robertson , M . E . Lazar , J . M . Krochta , D . G . Farkas
APPLICATION OF FINE SCREENS IN THE TREATMENT OF FOOD PROCESSING 147

WASTEWATERS
R . C . Neal, A . D . Bubp, R . L . Chaney
PRELIMINARY EVALUATION OF ANAEROBIC SLUDGE DIGESTION FOR THE TUNA 155
PROCESSING INDUSTRY
A . Kissam , H . Barnett , F . Stone , P . Hunter
REUSE OF BRINES IN COMMERCIAL CUCUMBER FERMENTATION 169
R . F . McFeeters , M . Palnitkar , M . Velting,
N . Fehring , W . Coon
TREATMENT OF PACKINGHOUSE WASTEWATER BY SAND FILTRATION 186

M . L . Rowe
ECONOMIC RETURN ON POLLUTION CONTROL EXPENDITURES FOR THE 197
PICKLED FOOD INDUSTRY
J . G . Meenahan
AN EFFECTIVE WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT PROGRAM FOR A CARROT PROCESSOR 200

G . E . Wilson , J . H . C . Huang
RECOVERY OF SOLUBLE SERUM PROTEINS FROM MEAT INDUSTRY WASTES 211
R . W . Greiling
IMPROVED BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT OF FOOD PROCESSING WASTE WITH 235
TWO - STAGE ABF PROCESS
B . W . Hemphill, R . G . Dunnahoe
SCP FROM FOOD WASTES BY THE DEEP TANK PROCESS 253
M . L . Jackson , C . C . Shen
EVALUATION OF INSTANT NOODLES PROCESSING WASTE WATER 266
CHARACTERISTICS AND TREATMENT ALTERNATIVES
P . Y . Yang , V . S . Luis , Jr .
POTATO JUICE PROCESSING 284

J . R . Rosenau , L . F . Whitney , J . R . Haight
RECOVERY AND APPLICATIONS OF ORGANIC WASTES FROM THE LOUISIANA 292
SHRIMP CANNING INDUSTRY
S . P . Meyers , B . E . Perkins
TOXIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SOME CANADIAN FRUIT AND VEGETABLE 308

PROCESSING WASTEWATERS
R . N . Dawson , A . Lamb , P . A . Mulyk
REDUCING WASTEWATER FROM CUCUMBER PICKLING PROCESS BY 322

CONTROLLED CULTURE FERMENTATION
L . W . Little , S . J . Dunn , R . Harrison , J . D . Harris
SALMON PROCESSING WASTEWATER TREATMENT 333
P . A . Bissonnette , S . S . Lin , P . B . Liao
FUNGAL CONVERSION OF CARBOHYDRATE WASTES TO ANIMAL FEED PROTEIN -- 355

VITAMIN SUPPLEMENTS
B . D . Church , C . M . Widmer
WATER REUSE OF WASTEWATER FROM A POULTRY PROCESSING PLANT 389
J . B . Andelman , J. D . Clise
vi
WATER RECYCLING IN POULTRY PROCESSING : CASE STUDY IN EGYPT 411
A . A . Hamza , S . Saad
THE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL OF WASTEWATER FROM DIARY PROCESSING 427

PLANTS
J . A . Moore , B . M . Buxton
vii
FROM WHERE I STAND - - -
by
Walter A . Mercer *
INTRODUCTION
The National Canners Association , its officers and members , wish me to express
its appreciation and gratitude for the opportunity , over these eight years ,
to be recognized as a co - sponsor of this National Symposium on Food Processing
Wastes . As always , in the past and now , representatives of the Association ' s
Research Staff are pleased to be present and to participate in the program .
The intensive planning which has gone into each of the past seven symposia
has resulted in a comprehensive coverage of environmental research dealing
with the many facets of water use and wastewater generation in the production
and preservation of foods of all kinds .
I am greatly impressed with the number and importance of the co - sponsors

listed in this Eighth Symposium program . The fate of the future food supplies
of this Nation will be greatly affected by the current and future welfare of
these segments of the food industry . Their ability to survive and their
willingness to gamble with unpredictable situations , depends on the degree
of economic strangulation brought about by emotionally - conceived and hastily
enforced environmental controls .
As I look backward , from this day , near the end of a career of research efforts
in a broad area of food industry problems , I recall my participation in the
birth and growth of these symposia .
This Eighth Symposium marks a further sincere cooperative , coordinated effort
between industry and government to solve a complex of troublesome environ
mental problems for a number of segments of the food producing and processing
industry . The listing of co - sponsors of this Symposium are evidence of that
fact.
My experiences in government - industry relations reach back to the days when
the U . S . Public Health Service was responsible for quality and pollution
abatement research . Through the National Institutes of Health and the Bureau
of State Services , I received the first public health research grant ever
awarded to a member of an industry - supported research group .
That was 20 years ago . The principal aims of the 8 - year period of research
support were to make possible and promote water conservation practices in food
processing , while protecting and improving, where necessary , the quality and
wholesomeness , and sanitation of the canned and frozen foods produced .
*National Canners Association , Berkeley, California .

This , and other research , established the basic principles of the counterflow
water reuse systems now in use . Included was demonstration of the effective
ness of the controlled application of chlorine to maintain sanitary conditions
and the mechanics of more effective application of water in washing and trans
porting raw foods in preparation for canning or freezing.
During those years , the asparagus , bean , and pea plants of the Pacific North
west became homes to me- - particularly those in the Blue Mountain area of
Eastern Washington and Oregon . Later each year the action shifted back to
California and its fruit and tomato processing plants .
Now we are faced with a water - shortage crisis and the forced realization that
water is a precious commodity whose every drip must be used and re - used now
and for all of the years to come.
During the last few weeks old research reports , water reuse diagrams , and
conservation recommendations have been dusted off - - to be searched through
to find if yesterday ' s answers fit today ' s problems- -or offer a new solution .
Water reuse procedures and waste reduction procedures , developed by yesterday ' s
research , are in use today and have certainly progressed to a degree of sophi
stication which has assisted the industry in its pollution abatement problems.
If the canning and freezing industry were required , or desired , to use water
on a one- pass basis , the annual pack of foods would require an estimated
280 billion gallons of fresh water . Because the industry , many years ago ,
recognized the need for , and the pollution abatement benefits , of conserving
water , it now reuses about 180 billion of its intake water . The final waste
water discharge is approximately 100 billion gallons .
Today , then , there is an estimated 64 percent reuse of processing and container
cooling waters in the canning and freezing of foods . This amazing effort to
conserve water and reduce liquid waste flows was made possible by government
industry cooperation in years of research which developed and demonstrated
the conservation procedures and the chlorination controls necessary for protec
tion of the quality and cleanliness of the foods and the sanitary condition
of the food handling equipment.
A question to be answered would cite the current estimate of 64 percent reuse

of waters in food canning and freezing and then demand to know why 100 percent
reuse and zero discharge of wastewaters cannot now be an industry practice .
First , let me say , that the food processing industry urgently needs and anxiously
desires to cooperate in additional industry - government financed research .
This could be the means of enabling the industry to further diminish its
dependence on water and to lessen its contribution to environmental problems.
Such cooperative research proposals , using as a basis the outstanding results
of past cooperative projects , will be proposed . EPA inability or refusal
to provide financial and advisory support for sound research proposals is
inconceivable . At the focal point of the surrounding circumstances is the wel -
fare of the public , to the degree that it depends on food growing, food preser
vation , and food distribution .
To accomplish all or a part of the needed research requires further develop
ment of in - plant water -saving and waste - prevention equipment or procedural
changes - - and then of major importance a demonstration , for any and all sig
nificant changes , of economical , technological, and sanitational acceptance
for application in the processing of foods for human and animal consumption .
Extensive re - use of the same water, which approaches closed - loop technology ,
must be observed , studied , and approved for use by government agencies who
regulate the wholesomeness and health safety of foods intended for human and
animal consumption .
At this time, recycling of water in contact with food being prepared for pre
servation cannot come near the closed - loop procedures used in non - food in
dustries . Therefore , if the Federal Water Pollution Control Act adheres to
its intent to eliminate all discharge of pollutants by 1985 , those food pro
cessors able to survive will be few and necessarily large in terms of finan
cial capabilities .
Elimination of food processing plants , however small and however significant

to the food production capability of this Nation , has immeasurable and complex
adverse social and political consequences . One must recognize that mandated
achievement of zero -discharge operations will certainly have the potential
for limiting the Nation ' s food supply and , most importantly , denying an ade
quate variety of foods to a significant segment of society because the costs
are prohibitive .
For my industry , the only hope of approaching , on a broad front , the bureau
cratic dream of zero discharge of pollutants would require that tomorrow we
begin that complex , sophisticated research which must be done to establish
the public health safety and aesthetic acceptability of closed - loop recycling
of food processing waters .
Dr . Robert Schaffner , Associate Director for FDA ' s Bureau of Foods , has made
it quite clear that EPA may have assumed , in their Effluent Limitation
Guidelines , that the food processing industry will practice extensive recycling
of water and the reclamation and reuse of treated wastewaters. However , he
clearly stated that the issuing of future regulations for the safe use of
recycled waters on foods is FDA 's responsibility .
Dr . Schaffner also noted that more research and monitoring is needed to deter
mine the magnitude of the problem of chlorination of recycled waters .
Dr . Schaffner stated that :
" Chloroform and other chloro - or bromo - alkanes seem to be present most oftenm
and a wide variety of other compounds may be found whose origin or formation
is not understood at this time. "
This means that research will have to be undertaken to determine whether or
not an extensive water recycle and rechlorination operation in food processing
may lead to the formation of such organic compounds.
Such research should be EPA - sponsored , in a typical food industry operation ,
and I do not refer , here, to treated wastewater for reuse as food processing
water .
A PLEA FOR SURVIVAL OF EPA'S FOOD WASTE RESEARCH PROGRAM AT CORVALLIS , OREGON
It is alarming to me, personally , to my associates in food research and pro
duction , to associations of food processors , and to consumers , were they
adequately informed , to learn that EPA plans to eliminate , for the next fiscal
year , funding for further food - oriented research development and demonstration
projects . Of great and equal concern are the consequences of a proposed
plan of reorganization which eliminates EPA field offices and , thereby ,
disbands the teams of EPA scientists to whom we have looked for technical
advice .
Surely , we have interpreted correctly that portion of the report of the Na

tional Commission on Water Quality which gives recognition to the value of
EPA scientific input into solving the environmental problems of consumer
dependent , low - profit margin industries in regional areas .
I quote from the Commission ' s report:

" Finally , the results of many (of the ) st udies point to a need for technical
advisory services to localities and to small industries . The compliance
requirements are technically , legally , and administratively complex . The
heir long
planning requirements and their - termm imp
long -ter lications rea
implications reach beyond th
ch beyond thee cap
capaa
city of many small or even moderate- sized communities to cope . "
I continue to quote :
" The Commission is convinced that such a field advisory service, operating
out of regional offices of EPA would help localities , states , and the Federal
government save money . It would halp to expedite grant applications . It
would help to assure that communities select the best long - range treatment
option , in terms of cost effectiveness and environmental quality . Properly
staffed , it could also be an essential information clearing- house to keep
localities and industries abreast of innovative technologies and economically
and environmentally preferable solutions to their individual treatment pro
blems . "
The Commission recommendation and others in the report , are completely in

line with my industry ' s experiences with certain EPA scientists in Washington
and most certainly that Food and Wood Products Group in Corvallis , Oregon .
I am certain that such statements could be made for other similarly -oriented
scientists in other field branch offices of the Agency ' s current organization .
The Food and Wood Products Branch in Corvallis has , over the past several
years , supervised numerous research projects designed to aid the food process
ing industry ' s waste management and pollution abatement programs . Since
wastes generated during the processing and production of foods are unique - -
exceptionally high in pollutional strength , highly variable in nature, and
frequently seasonal - - common technology designed for domestic sewage or other
industrial wastes cannot be transferred for application to the treatment of
food processing wastes .
Vitally needed information has resulted from the programs supported by the
Food and Wood Products Branch . This information has been the basis for the
following: ( 1 ) process modifications to curtail waste generation , ( 2 ) water
conservation and wastewater reclamation procedures to reduce water consumption ,
( 3) treatment alternatives to more economically meet pollution abatement regula
tions, and ( 4 ) by -product utilization of waste materials , especially to further
the utility of food materials . Although progress has been made in each of
these research areas , much work remains to be done to optimize food processing
operations to meet environmental goals . This work can only be effectively
continued through Federal assistance as administered for the Western States
by the EPA scientists in Corvallis .
Due to restrictive compliance schedules legislatively imposed by the Water

Pollution Control Act of 1972 , the food industry must implement waste abate
ment procedures which will result in the discharge of specified minimal quan
tities of water pollutants . The economic impact of these pollution controls
is a serious deterent to food production and reasonable consumer costs . Only
with continued and intensified research programs can the maximum benefit
cost ratio be achieved for capital expenditures related to pollution abatement .
Especially under present economic conditions , consumers and food processors
alike can ill- afford imposition of added costs which will result from dis
continuities in the current Federal research programs . Every effort must be
made to assure that the vitally needed programs are uninterrupted . Continuity
in the present staff of the Food and Wood Products Branch is prerequisite
to maintaining these programs .
Advantages of the Corvallis Laboratory
In addition to preserving continuity of staff and current programs , continuing

the current staff intact at the Corvallis laboratory offers several advantages .
Among the principal advantages is its proximity to areas in which certain
segments of the food processing industry are concentrated . These centers are
evidenced by the large numbers of fruit and vegetable processing plants in
the Northwest and California , seafood processing in Alaska and along the Pacific
Coast , beet sugar refining plants in the Rocky Mountains , cane sugar plants in
Hawaii , and to lesser degrees , the number of meat , poultry , and dairy product
plants throughout the western states .
Close proximity to such a wide variety of food processing centers has promoted
excellent communication and cooperation between industry and the Food and
Wood Products Branch . Environmental problem areas have thus been more readily
and better defined , thereby encouraging meaningful research programs . Broader
selection of test sites for specific projects has assured the widest possible
application of research results - - technical and technological developments have
had applicability well beyond geographic and commodity considerations . The
western states , in which Corvallis is centrally situated , is unique in this
important respect .
The Federal food wastes research program as administered by the Branch in
Corvallis , by necessity relies heavily on extramural resources , primarily
through universities , private research organizations , other governmental
agencies , and trade associations . A large number of such institutions , where
food wastes research programs are actively conducted , is located in the West .
The universities in Washington , Idaho , Oregon , and California are highly ori
ented toward agricultural production and food processing ; the Sea Grant Colleges
in Washington and California , as well as the National Marine Fisheries Services
laboratories in Washington and Alaska , are organized to work on sea food pro
cessing problems ; the U . S . Department of Agriculture ' s Western Regional
Research Center and the National Canners Association Western Research Laboratory
have worked in close cooperation with the EPA in developing technical informa
tion and new technology for pollution abatement in fruit , vegetable , and seafood
processing . The proximity of the Corvallis Branch to these institutions has
largely enhanced the implementation of valuable research programs at these
locations .
Constant communication between EPA and industry , and between EPA and extra
mural research institutions , is essential to the continuation of fruitful
research . Proximity not only encourages maintenance of such communication ,
but also promotes frequent personal contact between the Corvallis staff and
these outside parties , thereby offering the staff the opportunity to guide
and monitor research projects at minimal costs to EPA and to provide continuous
development of the staff ' s expertise in industrial matters . These opportunites
will enhance EPA ' s ability to assure the promulgation of sound and realistic
environmental regulations, thereby acquiring maximum benefits for the well
being of both industry and the general public .
The Basis for My Plea
For the food canning industry, we have said in the past and wish to repeat
the following :
" The lofty intent of the American public to protect our environment was imper
fectly translated into laws by the Congress . Those laws are being imper
fectly translated into regulations and the regulations themselves are being
imperfectly enforced . In too many cases these successive distractions have
resulted in actions which are unrelated to the basic intent of environmental
protection .
You who have scientific and technical competence are the ones to whom we must
look to keep all of the machinery properly directed . While you may not control
the legal machinery itself , you are the advisors upon whom all must lean . "
During this past weekend I was shocked and dismayed to read some of the
strongly worded statements coming from the headquarters office of EPA , and
especially was I disturbed by the Secretary of Interior, who in his Saturday
speech to the National Wildlife Federation coined the phrase :
"Rape , ruin , and run ."

The Secretary , of course , was referring to alledged misuses of public lands
for strip mining, oil development , live stock grazing , and for other purposes .
But if EPA abdicates from its responsibility to continue effective funding

for meaningful research in food processing environmental problems , and if the
present Food and Wood Products Branch is disbanded and removed from the cor
vallis Laboratories , I shall repeat loudly and often that apt phrase :
"Rape, ruin , and run. "
EPA Has Established that the Food Processing Industry is Different
The fruit , vegetable , and seafood processing industry in the United States
is characterized by extremely wide diversities . This , in fact , applies to
all agriculturally -based and agriculturally - dependent industries . The diver
sities for food canning and freezing plants may be categorized as follows :
- - - processing plants vary more than 3000 - fold in size , as measured by the
tons of raw commodity annually processed
- - - - the plants are located in wide - spread geographic areas, from the sub
Arctic regions of Alaska to the temperate climate of Florida and Hawaii .
Plants sites also vary between the extremes of isolated shoreline loca
tions in Alaska to highly industrialized metropolitan centers
processing plants operate for varied periods , depending upon the avail
ability of specific raw commodities ; salmon plants in Alaska may operate
for just a few weeks , while citrus , potato , and tuna plants may operate
for ten or more months per year . Generally , the industry is highly
seasonal, with most plants in operation for approximately four months
out of the year
- - - - product mixes ( e . g . , peas and corn , peaches and pears , salmon and crab ,
etc . ) vary widely between plants , especially in the ratio of commodities
processed at each . Thus, waste characteristics , and hence environmental
problems, vary among plants within each category ( fruit , vegetable ,
seafood) .
These diverse factors , to name but a few , compound the environmental problems
facing the food processing industry . Research must therefore be directed not
only to general problem areas , but to the specific problems unique to each
industrial category . Above all , research programs must include thorough
economic analyses , taking the above factors into account , so that cost - effec
tive alternatives may be developed for solving the various environmental pro
blems .
The food processing industry is grateful for the assistance that came in
the past - -critical problems have been solved . Today ' s problems are even more
critical. Tomorrow will not come for the food industry as we know and depend
on it today - - unless we strive together - - industry and government- - to find a
way through the economical and technolgical maze that lies ahead .
I shall be deeply troubled if the future brings circumstances which can only
be fittingly described by the phrase :
" Rape , ruin , and run . "
From Where I Stand - - I wish my view of the food industry ' s future , reflected
from the experiences of the past , could be brighter . I know that food proces
sing, with all of its variations , non - standardized systems , and plant- to
annot be stuffed into the EPA - fashioned inflexible mold .
There must be a better way . We - -EPA and the industry - -must find that way
together .
STATUS OF EPA ' S EFFLUENT
GUIDELINES FOR THE FOOD INDUSTRY
by
J . D . Denit * and E . H . Forsht*
INTRODUCTION
Even after five years of working with the statutes , the Federal Water Pollu
tion Control Act Amendments ( 1 ) or the FWPCA is still considered by many
observers to be one of the most complex and comprehensive measures enacted
by Congress . The basic goal of the Act is to " restore and maintain the
chemical , physical and biological integrity of the Nation ' s waters . " Also
by July 1983 , wherever possible , water quality is to be suitable for
recreational contact and for the protection and propagation of fish and
wildlife .
The basic mechanism of achieving these goals includes an effluent control

system to limit discharges of pollutants from point sources into any body of
water . Effluent limitations and standards are established so that
industrial sources of pollution will have to meet increasingly stringent
limitations by the 1977 and 1983 deadlines set in the Act .
By this July , all direct dischargers of pollutants must meet effluent

limitations based upon the best practicable control technology currently
available (BPT) . * * This technology represents the average of the best
existing waste treatment performance within each industry category or
subcategory . However, the Legislative History provides that where waste
treatment performance is determined to be uniformly inadequate , the
Administrator of EPA may establish effluent limitations on the basis of what
the Agency finds is appropriate for BPT in the industry . In such instances ,
the industry may be held responsible for achieving higher levels of control
than any currently in place .
It should be emphasized that determination by EPA that a treatment system
(or systems) constitutes BPT does not necessarily require the purchase and
installation of that particular equipment . The technology which forms the
basis of the effluent limitations are used as reference points only to
* Branch Chief , Food Industries Branch and Chemical Engineer , respectively ,

U . S . Environmental Protection Agency , Effluent Guidelines Division (WH -552 ) ,
Washington , D . C . 20460 .
* * It should be noted that discharge permits for individual dischargers
(normally valid for five years ) may have been issued at such a time that
they will expire during calendar year 1977 . The NPDES permit issuing
authority is responsible for such action as necessary to " bridge" the six
year period before 1983 limitations are required .
document the availability of technology which can meet the necessary levels
of performance . However , the industry may select alternative methods to
meet the effluent limitations . In some plants , for example , implementing
waste and water management practices , utilizing by - product recovery
techniques , or making changes in process operations may be sufficient to
meet the effluent limitations , without the need for end - of -pipe waste
treatment . On the other hand , the mere presence of technology which may be
defined as BPT does not guarantee that the effluent limitations will be met .
It is the industry ' s responsibility to assure that the appropriate system is
installed in a manner designed and sized to accommodate the waste
characteristics and flow for individual plants . The treatment units must
also be properly operated and monitored to maintain optimum operating
conditions .
By July . 1 , 1983 all industrial point sources must meet effluent limitations
based on the best available technology economically achievable (BAT) . This
technology represents the very best control and treatment measures
(including in - plant and process changes) that have been developed or are
capable of being developed within each industry category or subcategory .
New Industrial point sources must meet effluent standards based on the best
available demonstrated control technology . These standards include an
assessment of what higher levels of pollution control are available through
the use of improved production processes as well as end -of - pipe treatment
techniques .
Again it should be noted that selection of a particular treatment system as
best available or best demonstrated technology , which is used as the basis
imitations or standards , is not tantamount to a technology
requirement . Other treatment alternatives can be used to meet the
regulations .
CURRENT STATUS OF FOOD INDUSTRY REGULATIONS AND STUDIES
As shown in Table I , the Agency ' s promulgated regulations cover

approximately 28 , 000 point sources within the food processing industry .
These facilities discharge nearly 70 million pounds of BOD5 per day to the
receiving waters or to publicly owned treatment works.
The legal status of these regulations are outlined in Table II . Regulations
covering 88 subcategories of the food industry have been promulgated . Of
these , 32 subcategories are now under judicial review , including 17 subcate
gories within the grain mills, meat processing and leather tanning
categories which the courts have remanded to the Agency for reconsideration
of various technical and economic issues .
Table III outlines the status of the remaining food industry studies . The
miscellaneous foods category has been divided into the beverages , edible
oils , bakeries and confectioneries , and miscellaneous specialty food
segments . It is the Agency ' s intention that regulations for beverages and
10
1.
TABLE INDUSTRY
FOOD
THE
OF
CHARACTERISTICS
SELECTED
.of
No Flow BOD5 meeti
Plantsng
Category DischargersMGD Mlbs
./d ay BPT
(2)
Dairy 5,400 200 4,200 %
20
(3)
Mills
Grain 210 150 610 %
40
&V. eg
(4,5)Fruits 1,900 470 5,480 %
75
(6,7)
Seafood 1,400 180 710a %
35
(8)Sugar 130 3,150 2, 10 %
45
12
(9)
Feedlots ,000
10 -
.()210
Prod
,1Meat 8,700 5,550 ,400b
55 %
65
(13
)Leather __180180 50 710 %
10
,920
27 9,750 ,320
69
scree
aa fter ning
DAF
bafter
2.
TABLE REGULATIONS
INDUSTRY
FOOD
THE
OF
STATUS
LEGAL
.of
No
Subcategories Current
Category Litigation Withdrawn Remanded
Promulgated
Proposed
Dairy
Mills
Grain
&Veg
.Fruits
Seafood
33 10 5a5a
Sugar 8 2
Feedlots
Meat 5 10 10
10
Leather - 6 6 - 6
5 88 32 5 17
a1983
only
3.
TABLE STUDIES
INDUSTRY
FOOD
OTHER
OF
STATUS
Food
Miscellaneous
Beverages future
near
in
Proposed
Oils
Edible
&Confectioneries
Bakeries guidance
as
issued
be
May
.Specialities
Misc
Products
Meat
Poultry ,
regulations
promulgating
Anticipate
Source
New
and
1983
for
only
but
Hatcheries
Fish guidance
as
issued
be
May
edible oils will be proposed in the near future . However , current resource
constraints within the Agency have delayed the economic impact studies for
the bakeries and confectioneries , and the miscellaneous specialty food
segments . Regulations for these latter two segments and for fish hatcheries
and farms are not now anticipated . Instead , technical reports , called
Development Documents , will be issued as guidance to permit issuing
authorities pending completion of the requisite economic and cost impact
studies . The regulations for the poultry subcategories of the meat products
category were published in proposed form in the Federal Register on April
24 , 1975 , however , the Agency anticipates promulgating only the 1983
effluent limitations and new sources and pretreatment standards .
The salient legal issues that have been raised in the judicial review of the
cases cited above included jurisdiction (Federal District Court versus the
U . S . Court of Appeals ) and ranges of limitations for individual plants
versus national uniform standards by industrial classes . A recent Supreme
Court decision (14 ) resolved several legal issues regarding the effluent
limitations and standards promulgated by EPA . The Supreme Court held that
( 1 ) EPA has the authority under Section 301 of the FWPCA " to limit the
discharge of pollutants, through industry -wide regulations setting forth
uniform effluent limitations , provided some allowance is made for variations
in individual plants , " and ( 2 ) the Courts of Appeals have exclusive
jurisdiction to review effluent limitations promulgated under Section 301
which also includes jurisdiction to review guidelines promulgated under
Section 304. It is anticipated that the above decision will greatly
expedite and eliminate confusion during judicial review procedures .
CHANGING INFLUENCES AND CONSTRAINTS
Changing influences and constraints which may affect the food processing
industry regulations include the energy shortage and other environmental
legislation .
This winter has highlighted the dismal prognostications regarding the

world ' s energy resources , i . e . , our conventional supplies of energy cannot
support current levels of consumption . Perhaps these predictions prompted
Congress to include the statutory requirements in the Act to consider the
energy consumption of the waste treatment technology utilized as the basis
for the effluent limitations and standards .
It is not too surprising that a consideration of minimum energy consumption

actually encourages production efficiency , waste management and water
conservation . Improvements in product and byproduct recovery generally
divert energy consumption from non - productive waste handling and treatment
to production of useful end products . Improved waste management and water
conservation practices leads to smaller energy requirements for waste
treatment . Smaller treatment systems require fewer resources for production
and installation . Likewise , pumping smaller volumes of effluents through or
among treatment units requires less energy .
At the present time , the Agency is assessing various issues regarding a
strategy to strengthen overall environmental protection under effluent
guidelines through consideration of the impact of the Resource Conservation
and Recovery Act ( 15) and the Safe Drinking Water Act ( 16 ) . The Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act provides for R & D and dissemination of
information on promising recovery , disposal, and resource use techniques .
The Agency must also issue criteria for identifying hazardous wastes and
require a permit for any facility which treats , stores , or transports
hazardous wastes . The Safe Drinking Water Act is designed to assure that
water supply systems serving the public meet minimum national standards for
protection of public health . This Act also establishes a joint Federal
State system for protecting underground sources of drinking water .
One example of the inter - relationship among these Acts revolves around the
" zero discharge" effluent limitations established for various point source
dischargers including some within the food processing industry . In
assessing this requirement in relation to the Safe Drinking Water Act , two
points are particularly pertinent . First , ground water is the drinking water
source for at least 50 percent of the American population . The majority of
this ground water is not treated prior to use as drinking water . Second ,
the Safe Drinking Water Act is designed to protect both surface and ground
sources of drinking water from initial contamination wherever possible .
Correspondingly , the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act mandates the
protection of both ground and surface waters from leachates from any solid
waste disposal project . Disposal is defined as " the discharge , deposit ,
injection , dumping , spilling , leaking , or placing of any solid waste or
hazardous waste into or on any land or water so that such solid waste or
hazardous waste or any constituent thereof may enter the environment or be
emitted into the air or discharged into any waters , including ground water . "
As a practical matter , many dischargers may attempt to meet the " no

discharge " limitations by disposing of untreated wastes into an unlined pond
or lagoon . If the surrounding area is permeated by an aquifer which could
be a drinking water source , potential leachates could create serious
environmental problems . In fact , leaching from holding ponds and lagoons is
the second major srurce of ground water pollution next to septic tanks and
cesspools .
In some cases , particularly those involving hazardous materials , a zero

discharge standard may raise consequent questions as a solution to the
problems posed by water pollution . In other cases " zero discharge " in arid
regions may also complicate the essential balance between beneficial uses
downstream and water conservation efforts which are strongly supported by
states, environmental groups , and farmers .
Even with limitations which allow a discharge of pollutants , one must
consider the implications for sludge disposal and effluent discharge to
ground or surface waters . In fact , the Agency ' s current efforts include
developing strategies to incorporate a close scrutiny of all intermedia
effects into subsequent reviews of the effluent limitations and standards .
15
RECOVERY , REUSE , AND CONSERVATION
These changing influences and constraints which include other environmental

laws and declining resources , confirm the truth in the old maxim that
recovery , reuse , and conservation are essential to pollution control,
resource utilization and economic efficiency . The food processing industry
in general, as exemplified by many segments of the meat processing industry ,
should reorient its efforts toward a " total utilization concept , " wherein
much of the current waste materials are viewed as " secondary raw material . "
This approach closes the processing cycle so that raw material is used to
the fullest extent possible with the subsequent minimization of
environmental pollution . The implementation of in - plant changes to
accomplish this goal is certainly more logical than spending large amounts
of money to simply treat food processing wastes at the end of the effluent
pipe .
Successful examples of these concepts include :

a) Recovery of animal and fish solid wastes as well as dissolved and
suspended nutrients for animal feeds, tallow , inedible products , or low
grade fertilizers;
b) Recovery of potato , orange , grapefruit , and pineapple peel wastes as

animal feeds , and
c) Recovery of whey solids for use in other food products .

Likewise successful water conservation techniques which may apply to the
food processing industry include :
a ) Teaching good water management practices to plant operators ;

b) Utilizing dry solids transportation rather than wet fluming ;
c) Recycling or reusing water ; and

d) Implementing dry clean - up operations prior to water washes .
FUTURE CONCERNS
As a practical matter , the future of the food processing regulations

contains the uncertainties associated with possible legislative amendments
to the FWPCA , and the new administration ' s approach to environmental issues .
Congress is now considering many proposals from industry , labor ,

agriculture, environmental , and government groups for amendments to the
FWPCA . The Environmental Protection Agency has submitted several proposals
which would directly affect industry . These include :
a) inserting a new section authorizing the imposition of a fee upon non
complying point sources . The fee would approximate the economic value of
non - compliance to equalize the competitive positions of the cooperative and
recalcitrant point sources ;
b) amending section 509 ( b ) to modify the location for judicial review of a

number of EPA actions under the FWPCA so that petitions for review may be
filed only in the United States Court of Appeals for the District of
Columbia . Such a provision finds precedent in the Clean Air Act and would
prevent " forum shopping " which often results in inconsistent interpretations
of the Act and issues of nationwide importance ; and
c ) amending section 308 to provide that contract employees of EPA would be

permitted to excercise the functions of an " authorized representative" as
the Congress intended when it enacted section 308 .
The Agency has advised against extension of the July 1 , 1977 deadline for
industrial point sources, because most of the major industries will be in
compliance by that date. Those industries unable to meet the deadline
because of factors beyond their control will be eligible to receive EPA
Enforcement Compliance Schedule Letters that require compliance by a
specified date . Despite the recommendations of the National Commission on
Water Quality , the Agency sees no need to extend the 1983 deadline since
Section 301 (c ) provides for economic variances from the BAT requirements
where appropriate.
Based on campaign issues , papers and recent statements , it appears as if

President Carter will play an active role in environmental issues and
legislation . The President has stated that "we must vigorously enforce the
pollution control. . . laws already on the books . " ( 17) He also believes that
much of the environmental damage which now occurs can be prevented and has
pledged his support for research to find environmentally sound ways to
achieve economic goals without unacceptable pollution damage . The President
also believes that it is not possible to discuss environmental pollution
without considering energy . Several elements of the President ' s energy
policy relate directly to the environment . As an integral part of energy
conservation , industry needs " to make better use of recycled materials , to
better manage our solid wastes , and to realize the fuel savings which
recycling offers" . (17)
SUMMARY
These recent trends in environmental issues suggest that , regardless of the
outcome of individual court cases or the proposals for amendments to
environmental legislation , the industrial sector is expected and must
continue to reduce the levels of pollutants into the environment .
Industry should evaluate every waste treatment alternative which is

technically and economically feasible , not just the technology which forms
the basis for the effluent limitations and standards . The Agency intends to
continue working to integrate its efforts to help minimize the intermedia
environmental consequences of its regulations . Correspondingly , the optimum
environmental approach which typically includes by - product recovery , reuse,
recycle , and conservation along with end -of -pipe treatment , is increasingly
consistent with industry ' s economic self - interest .
REFERENCES
1 . Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 , P .L . 92 -500 ,

October 18 , 1972, 33 USC 1251, et . seq.
Development Document for Effluent Limitations Guidelines and New Source

Performance Standards for the Dairy Product Processing Point Source
Category , U . S . Environmental Protection Agency , Wash . , D . C . , 20460 , May
1974 , EPA - 440 / 1 - 74 - 021 - a .

Performance Standards for the Grain Processing Segment of the Grain
Mills Point Source Category , U . S . Environmental Protection Agency ,
Wash . , D . C . , 20460, March 1974 , EPA - 440 / 1 - 74 - 028 - a .

Performance Standards for the Apple , Citrus , and Potatoes Segment of the
Canned and Preserved Fruits and Vegetable Point Source Category , U . S .
Environmental Protection Agency , Wash . , D . C . , 20460 , March 1974 , EPA
440 / 1 - 74 - 027 - a .
5 . Development Document for Effluent Limitations Guidelines and News Source

ash . , des and
Performance Standards for the FruitsY,, WVegetables t Sointle SSegment
PoinSpecialties eem
of the Canned and Preserved Fruits and Vegetables Point Source Category ,
U . S . Environmental Protection Agency , Wash . , D . C . , 20460 , October 1975 ,
EPA - 440 / 1 - 75 /046 .
6 . Development Document for Effluent Limitations Guidelines and New Source
Performance Standards for the Catfish , Crab , Shrimp and Tuna Segment of
the Canned and Preserved Seafood Processing Point Source Category , U . S .
Environmental Protection Agency , Wash . , D . C . , 20460 , June 1974 , EPA
440 / 1 - 74 - 020 - a .

Performance Standards for the Fish Meal, Salmon , Bottom Fish , Clam ,
Oyoter , Sardine , Scallop , Herring and Abolone Segment of the Canned and
Preserved Seafood Processing Point Source Category , U . S . Environmental
Protection Agency , Wash . , D . C . , 20460 , September 1975 , EPA - 440 / 1
75 / 041a .
8. Development Document for Effluent Limitations Guidelines and New Source
Performance Standards for the Beet Sugar Processing Subcategory of the
Sugar Processing Point Source Category , U . S . Environmental Protection
Agency , Wash . , D .C ., 20460 , January 1974 , EPA - 440 / 1 - 74 - 002 - b .
Performance Standards for the Feedlots Point Source Category , U . S .
Environmental Protection Agency , Wash . , D . C . , 20460 , January 1974 , EPA
440 / 1 -74 -004- a .
Performance Standards for the Red Meat Processing Segment of the Meat
Product and Rendering Processing Point Source Category , U . S . Environ
mental Protection Agency , Wash . , D . C . , 20460 , February 1974 , EPA - 440 / l
74 - 012 - a .
11 . Development Document For Proposed Effluent Limitations Guidelines and

New Source Performance Standards for the Processor Segment of the Meat
Products Point Source Category , U . S . Environmental Protection Agency
Wash . , D . C . , 20460 , August 1974 , EPA -440 / 1 - 74 /031 .
12 . Development Document for Proposed Effluent Limitations Guidelines and
New Source Performance Standards for the Poultry Segment of the Meat
Product and Rendering Point Source Category , U . S . Environmental Pro
tection Agency , Wash . , D . C . , 20460 , April 1975 , EPA -440 / 1 - 75 /031 - b .
Performance Standards for the Leather Tanning and Finishing Point Source
Category , U . S . Environmental Protection Agency , Wash . , D . C . , 20460 ,
March 1974 , EPA - 440 / 1 - 74 - 016 - a .
14 . E . I . duPont de Nemours & Co . , et . al . v . Train , Administrator ,

Environmental Protection Agency , et . al . , 97 S . Ct . 965 ( 1977) .
15 . Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 , P. L . 94 -580 , October 21 ,

1976 , 42 USC 6901, et . seq.
16 . Safe Drinking Water Act, P .L . 93-523, December 16 , 1974, 42 USC 300 f . ,

et . seq .
17 . Carter, Jimmy, "My Views on the Environment" , EPA Journal, Vol. 3, No .

One , January 1977 .
EFFLUENT POLISHING AND WASTEWATER REUSE
AT SNOKIST GROWERS CANNERY
by
Larry A . Esvelt * , Herbert H . Hart * *
INTRODUCTION
Snokist Growers is a growers cooperative located in Yakima , Washington
which markets fresh and canned fruit to wholesale and retail outlets . The
cooperative owns and operates a cannery to produce canned pears , peaches ,
cherries , plums , and apple slices , sauce and rings . A normal processing
season consists of about 9 weeks production of pears at about 250 metric tons
raw fruit per day, a week of peach canning at about 250 metric tons raw fruit
per day, 15 weeks of apple processing at about 100 metric tons of raw fruit
per day, and varying cherry and plum production depending on the season .
In 1968 Snokist Growers Cannery placed a biological wastewater treatment
system in operation which has consistently produced an effluent well within
their State and EPA discharge permit . It was evaluated under an EPA grant
( 1 , 2 , 3 ) and was subsequently used as an exemplary waste treatment system
during the development of 1977 best practicable treatment guidelines for food
processing wastewater discharges. In 1973 , a low water year , Snokist manage
ment became concerned about the integrity of their water supply system which
appeared to be diminishing due to ground water levels dropping at their wells
and decided that additional water sources were needed . They then investiga
ted the feasibility of an additional well and of reclaiming a portion of
their biologically treated process effluent for use in the cannery . No sani
tary wastes enter the processing wastewater stream , minimizing the potential
for human pathogen presence in the wastewater . The lower cost alternative
was development of a new well supply but word of the consideration of re
claiming effluent reached EPA officials in charge of evaluating the possibil
ity of reducing food processing wastewater emissions through reclamation and
recycle in compliance with PL 92 - 500 . They suggested the possible availabil
ity of R & D funds to provide Snokist with economic incentive to select the
effluent reclamation and reuse alternative rather than developing a new well
water supply . Snokist then applied for an R & D grant and received EPA grant
number $803280 in late 1974. The grant was to partially offset the cost
differential between the two alternatives and to finance evaluation of the
reclamation and reuse of treated processing wastewater . Harold Thompson of
the EPA, Corvallis , OR has served as Project Officer .
*Dr . Larry A . Esvelt, P . E . is principal of Esvelt Environmental Engineering ,

Spokane, Washington
* * Herbert H . Hart is Pollution Control Manager at Snokist Growers , Yakima,
Washington
Objectives for EPA R & D Project S803280 were as follows :
1 . Determine the feasibility of treating fruit processing wastewater to
achieve a suitable water quality for in - plant reuse and to develop
operational procedures to ensure consistent performance of the treatment
facility .
Determine the feasibility of reusing the treated fruit processing waste

water for :
a ) Equipment cleaning
Product cleaning and conveying
c ) Boiler feed to produce steam for :
1 ) Cleaning
2 ) Exhausting
3) Cooking
4 ) Blanching
d ) Direct contact container cooling
3. Document the reduction of pollutants being discharged to the environment
resulting from the reuse of treated processing wastewater and evaluate
the economics of wastewater reuse for achieving EPA ' s 1983 effluent
standards .
Facilities for biological effluent polishing were installed in 1975 and

were used to provide reclaimed effluent for reuse during the 1975 and 1976
process seasons. The reclaimed effluent quality was routinely monitored for
chemical and biological quality . Special testing was conducted to ascertain
the level of specific pollutants such as heavy metals , pesticides , halogen
ated organics and pathogens .
Use of the reclaimed water was routinely applied to floor and gutter
wash and applied to the uses to be evaluated under the project objectives
for varying periods . The results of such uses on product quality was
assessed .
WASTEWATER TREATMENT FACILITIES

Snokist Growers cannery wastewater treatment facilities were constructed
in 1968 to accomodate a flow up to 2 . 5 mgd and BOD of 28 , 000 lb /day . A
schematic flow diagram for the treatment system is shown on Figure 1 . Table
1 describes the system components . The activated sludge system produced a
high quality effluent for discharge to the Yakima River ( 1 , 2 , 3) .
Before the 1975 processing season additional facilities were added to
polish the biologically treated effluent by multimedia filtration and dis
infection . The flow schematic during the 1975 and 1976 processing seasons
is shown on Figure 2 . The facilities added for the wastewater reclamation
and reuse are listed in Table 2 .
SCREENED WASTE
FROM CANNERY NUTRIENT ( N , P )
ADDITION
METERING
SLUDGE
REAERATION
BASIN
TO RIVER
DISSOLVED AIR
FLOTATION SLUDGE
THICKENER
CLARIFIER
PRESSURIZATION
AERATION
BASIN
WASTE FLOW
- - - SLUDGE FLOW
Figure 1 . Snokist Growers Wastewater Treatment System Schematic

Flow Diagram 1968 - 1974.
22.
WASTEWATER
REUSE IN
CANNERY
SCREENED WASTE
FROM CANNERY NUTRIENT
ADDITION
METERINGO
BACK WASH
WATER
- CHLORINE
SLUDGE
RE AERATION
BASIN
MULTI MEDIA
FILTERS
TO RIVER
FILTER
BACKWASH
CLARIFIER
FLOTATION SLUDGE
THICKENER
WASTE SLUDGE
AERATION
BASIN
- WASTE FLOW
- - - - SLUDGE FLOW
Figure 2 . Snokist Growers Wastewater Treatment System Schematic
Flow Diagram 1975 - 1976 ,
23
TABLE 1 . SNOKIST GROWERS WASTEWATER FACILITIES
Facility Description
1. Screening 8 mesh/ cm (20 mesh/ in ) vibrating screens

2. Aeration Basin 22 ,700 cubic meter (6 million gallon ) earthen
dike , PVC lined basin with 5 surface aerators
having a total of 292 kW ( 390 horsepower )
3 . Clarification 27 . 5 meter (90 ft . ) Diameter , hydraulic
sludge removal , 2 . 4 m ( 8 ft. ) side water
depth , center feed .
4 . Sludge Recirculation Two variable speed pumps each with 6 ,600

liter per minute ( 1750 gallon per minute)
capacity
5 . Sludge Reaeration 5 ,700 cu . meter ( 1 . 5 million gallon ) basin

with 45 kw (60 horsepower ) surface aeration
6 . Sludge Thickening 9. 2 meter ( 30 ft . ) Diameter pressurized

recycle flotation sludge thickener
TABLE 2 . SNOKIST GROWERS WASTEWATER POLISHING FACILITIES CONSTRUCTED 1975
Facility Description
1 . Filters TWO 2 . 4 meter ( 8 ft . ) diameter by 1 . 8 meter
( 6 ft. ) side pressure filters . Area = 4 . 7 sq .
meters ( 50 sq . ft . ) each . Media = Microfloc
MF 177 - 90 . 5 mm ( 36 in . ) filter : 30 % 1 . 5 sp . gr .
anthracite ( 3mm ) ; 30 % 1 . 6 sp . gr . anthracite ;
30 % 2 . 6 sp . gr . silica sand ; 10 % 4 . 0 sp . gr .
garnet sand ( 0 . 25 mm ) supported on 3 inches of
1 - 2 mm 4 . 0 sp . gr . sand and 11 inches graded
silica gravel .
Equipped with pipe underdrain , surface wash ,
pneumatically operated automatic valves ,
automatic backwash program , flow , headloss
meters and automatic flow control .
2. Turbidity Meter Low range , continuous flow - Hach CR
3. Filter and Backwash Pumps Two constant speed 3800 liter (1000 gal)
per min @ 20 meter (66 ft . ) TDH / 2600 liter
(700 gal) per min . @ 23 meter (75 ft . ) TDH
pumps , interchangeable. 22 . 5 KW
24
TABLE 2 . Continued
4 . Chemical Feed Pumps Liquid alum storage and automatic stroke

adjustable feed pump. Polymer stroke adjust
able feed pump . To be used if needed .
5 . Reclaimed Water Pump Split case 2600 liter (700 gal) per min @ 54
meter ( 177 ft. ) TDH pump. 37 KW .
6. Chlorinator One 227 kg ( 500 lb . ) per day chlorinator with
motorized " V -notch " control valve and motorized
vacuum valve for " compound loop " control .
7. Chlorine Residual Analyzers Two wastewater type amperometric continuous

flow analyzers for monitoring and controlling
chlorine residual at the filter effluent and
for monitoring chlorine residual at the re
claimed water pump inlet .
8. Chlorine Contact Chamber Two hundred twenty seven cu . meter (60 , 000 gal)
and Backwash Water baffled chamber - 11 . 6 meters ( 38 ft ) X 6 . 7
Storage meters (22 ft) x 3 meters ( 10 ft) deep with
6 baffles .
9. Controls and Operation a. Flow to filters automatically maintained

according to chlorine contact level up to
a preset maximum rate per filter .
b . Filter backwa sh initiated by timer , high

head loss across filters or manually .
Chlorine residual automatically maintained

by flow proportioning and residual monitor
ing and feed rate adjustment .
Chemical feed of alum and / or polymers , if
used , paced to filter flow .
Reuse pump automatic shutdown at low
contact tank level .
Alarms transmitted to wastewater lab and
plant for appropriate action due to follow
ing :
1) Low or high chlorine residual in
reclaimed water
High turbidity in filtered water
3) Low contact tank /backwash storage level
4) System malfunction
i 25
STUDY OF WASTEWATER REUSE
The wastewater treatment system performance was monitored for perfor
mance during the 1974 , 1975 and 1976 processing seasons under this study .
Monitoring points included the screened wastewater , aeration basin effluent ,
clarifier effluent , filter effluent and chlorinated reclaimed wastewater
reused in the cannery . Snokist Growers tested the wastewater for temperature
pH , COD , BOD , suspended and volatile suspended solids , nitrogen , phosphorus ,
turbidity , chlorine residual, hardness , alkalinity , total bacterial plate
count and total and fecal coliform bacteria at various of the monitoring
points . Samples from the reclaimed wastewater , and from Snokist ' s water
supply for comparison , were analyzed by National Canners Association for
heavy metals , by the Environmental Protection Agency Region X Laboratory
for pesticides and volatile halogenated organics , by Foremost Laboratories
for volatile halogenated organics , by Dohrmann Laboratories for total halo
genated organics and by Columbia Laboratories for herbicides .
The reclaimed water was used in the cannery for floor and gutter wash
throughout the 1975 and 1976 processing seasons . Trial uses of the reclaimed
water were for equipment washdown , initial product conveying, contact con
tainer cooling and generation of steam for use in equipment washdown , ex
hausting, cooking and blanching . The effect of using the reclaimed water
for these purposes was compared with using the regular house water supply .
Total Plate Count of bacteria was used to compare the effect of using the
alternate waters and steam sources for washing peelers and belts on parallel
pear processing lines . Total Plate Count was also used to compare the
reclaimed and house waters for use in bin dump tanks and initial conveying
of peaches and apples . The counts were taken of the water in the dump tank
and of water used to rinse the fruit ( a standard number of fruit in a
standard amount of water ) before and after contact with the dump and conveying
water . Cans of fruit cooled in the two waters under similar conditions
were stored for a given time period and observed for failure . Product quality
evaluation by grading (USDA Grades ) and organoleptic comparison was used to
compare steam from the reclaimed water source with house steam .
26
RESULTS
Snokist Growers cannery process wastewater flow rate during pear and
peach processing averaged from 5 , 500 to 6 ,500 cu meters/ day ( 1 . 5 to 1 . 7 mgd )
during the 1974 , 1975 and 1976 processing seasons and 2 ,500 to 3 ,500 cu .
meters /day (0 . 7 to 0 . 9 mgd ) during apple processing. The untreated waste
water COD during pear processing averaged over 2000 mg/lin 1974 , about
1800 mg/ l in 1975 and about 1500 mg/ l in 1976 . The reduction from 1974 to 1975
resulted from additional water use from recycled effluent for floor and
gutter wash . From 1975 to 1976 water use was cut back slightly and peel and
core solids were removed separately resulting on a lower waste load in the
effluent to the treatment system .
The wastewater is nutrient deficient so nitrogen and phosphate are
added prior to treatment. The aerators maintain over 2 mg / l dissolved oxygen
in the activated sludge system and the sludge recirculation rate approximate
ly equals the process wastewater flow rate .
The treatment system performance was monitored over the three seasons.
Effluent emission rates are shown on Tables 3 , 4 , and 5 . The tables show that
variations in emission rates occurred from week to week . The tables also
show that the emission rate for suspended solids and COD actually increased
from 1974 to 1975 even though over 30 % of the effluent was recirculated for
use in the cannery during 1975 and the amount of wastewater discharged re
duced by nearly 30 % on a per unit of product basis. The biological effluent
was of poorer quality in 1975 than in 1974 and the reason was thought to be
increased chlorine useage in the cannery for cleanup which allowed chlorina
ted slugs to reach the aeration system at startup each morning .
During the 1976 season additional attention was given to control of in
plant chlorination which resulted in better biological effluent quality and
reduced emission rates for suspended solids , COD and BOD throughout pear
processing except for one week immediately following Labor Day (September 6 ) .
The biological treatment system was apparently hit by a highly toxic slug of
accumulated chlorinated washdown from belts and equipment at startup on
September 7 . The system recovered rapidly when reseeded with the contents
of the small aeration basin .
The emission rates for pollutants jumped sharply in 1976 when pear pro
cessing ended and apples only processing was initiated . The plant may have
been receiving occasional chlorinated slugs but the principal reason for
effluent deterioration is thought to be the onset of cold weather at about
the same time. From near the end of November 1976 through January 1977 the
aeration basis did not exceed 2° Celcius.
TABLE 3 .
1974 POLLUTANT EMISSIONS

SNOKIST GROWERS WASTEWATER REUSE PROJECT
PROGRESS REPORT
Fruit COD Emission BOD * * Suspended Solids

Processed* Total kg / kkg Emission Emission
Week kkg kg Fruit kg/ kkg Total kg kg / kkg
8 / 23- 24 518 Pr 1590 3 . 07 - 1050 2 . 03
8 / 26 - 31 1616 Pr 4520 2 .80 3 . 00 1430 0 . 88
9/ 3 -7 1319 Pr 1030 / 4 da 0.98 0.06 189/ 4 da 0 . 18

9 / 9 -14 1305 Pr ,121 PI 1025 0 . 72 0 . 06 229 0 . 16
9/16-20 624 Pr,426 Pi 810 0 . 77 230 0 . 22

9 /23- 28 1636 Pr,236 A 1000 0 .53 0 .07 450 0 . 24
9 /30 - 10/ 5 1600Pr, 519A ,20P1 765/5 da 0.43 - 309 / 5 da 0 . 17
10 / 7 - 12 1546 Pr,587 A 1830 0 .86 785 0 . 37
10 /14 -19 1588 Pr ,595 A 1750 0 .80 0. 20 486 0 . 22
10 / 21 -26 1618 Pr ,592 A 1930 0 .87 0.15 825 0 . 37

10/29-11/ 2 1335 Pr , 538 A 770 / 3 da 0 .69 0 .13 473 0 . 25
11 / 4 - 9 1438 Pr , 576 A 1095 0 . 54 0 . 09 428 0 . 21
11/11-15 648 A 1260 1 . 94 0 .64 474 0 . 73
11 / 18 -22 819 A 770 / 4 da 1 . 18 0 .09 140 / 4 da 0 . 21
11/25 - 27 234 A 255 1 .09 0 . 14 136 0 . 58
12 / 2 - 6 386 A 4440 *** 11 .5 0. 19 3530*** 8 .63

12 / 9 - 13 295 A 540 1.83 0. 16 310 1 . 05
* Pr - Pears , pe = Peaches , Pl - Plums , A - Apples
* * 1 day or 2 days during week only
* * * 1 day high results skewed results
Total Wastewater Flow 8 / 23 - 12 / 13/ 1974 = 460 ,600 cu . m .

Total Fruit Processed 8 / 23 - 12 / 13/ 1974 = 22 ,800 kkg
Wastewater Discharge Rate = 20 . 2 cu . m . / kkg (4770 gal/ ton )
28
TABLE 4 .
1975 POLLUTANT EMISSIONS
PROGRESS REPORT

Processed* Total kg/ kkg Emission Emission
Week kkg kg _ Fruit kg/kkg Total kg kg/kkg Fruit
8 / 26 - 30 1407 Pr 1300 0.92 0.16 592 0.42
9/ 2-6 1358 Pr 880 0.65 0 .076 346 0.25
9/8 -13 1664 Pr, 46 P1 1940 1.13 0. 22 817 0. 48
9 / 15 - 20 1644 Pr , 520 P1 1700 0 .79 0 . 12 625 0 . 29
9 / 22 - 27 1311 Pe, 280 P1 1330 0 .84 0 . 105 630 0 .40
9/29 -10/4 1734 Pr, 14 P1 1230 0.70 0.070 627 0.36
10/ 6 - 11 1620 Pr, 473 A 4240 2.03 0.31 3290 1.57
10 / 13- 18 1598 Pr 3320 2 . 08 0. 38 2230 1.40
10/ 20 -25 1666 Pr, 550 A 2590 1.17 0.14 590 0.72
10/ 28 -11/ 1 1334 Pr, 498 A 1190 0 . 65 0 .054 0.26
11/ 3- 8 1730 Pr, 570 A 1990 0.87 0.13 829 0.36
11/ 10 - 15 1670 Pr, 682 A 1130 0 .48 0. 115 0.21
11/ 17 - 19 789 Pr, 397 A 350 0.30 0.033 88 0.074
11/20,21,24,25 570 A 362 0 .64 125 0 . 22
12/ 1-5 840 A 1540 1 .83 0 .39 1035 1.23
12 / 8 -12 881A 1070 1.21 0.25 585 0.66
12/ 15 -18 291 A 455 1.56 0. 26 161 0 . 55
* Pr - Pears = De = Peaches , Pi - Plums , A - Apples
* * 1 day per week only
Total Wastewater Flow 8 /26 - 12/ 19/ 75 - 557 ,500 cu .m

Total Wastewater Reused : 180 , 100 cu .m .
Total Effluent to River : 377 ,400 cu .m .
Total Fruit Processed 8 /26 - 12 /19/75 = 26 ,500 kkg
Wastewater Flow Rate = 21. 0 cu. m . /kkg (4970 ga1/ton )
Effluent Flow Rate = 14 .2 cu .m ./kkg (3360 gal/ ton )
29
TABLE 5 .
1976 SEASON POLLUTANT EMISSIONS


Processed Total Unit Emission Emission
Week kkg kg kg / kkg kg / kkg Total kg Unit kg /kkg
8 / 24 - 8 / 28 1529 Pr 449 . 326 . 078 172 . 112

8 / 30 - 9 / 4 1760 Pr 514 . 292 . 027 118 . 067
( 5 . 2 max da ) ( 1 . 09 max da )
9 / 7 - 9 / 11 1520 Pr 3854 2 . 54 . 464 1022 .672
9 / 13 - 9 / 18 1622 Pr , 473 P1 742 . 354 . 052 196 . 094
9 / 20 - 9 / 25 1601 Pr , 482 PI 1020 . 490 . 133 309 . 148
9 / 27 - 10 / 2 1490 Pr , 29 pe , 14 PI 610 . 398 . 039 147 . 096
10 / 4 - 10 / 9 1828 Pr , 529 A 694 . 294 . 027 211 . 090
10 / 11 - 10 / 16 1808 Pr , 563 A 772 . 326 . 030 232 . 098
10 / 18 - 10 / 23 1830 Pr , 551 A 845 . 355 . 053 362 . 152
10 / 25 - 10/ 30 1674 Pr , 569 A 1001 . 446 . 041 295 . 132
11/ 1 - 11/ 6 1744 Pr , 575 A 957 . 413 . 044 403 . 174
11/ 8 - 11 / 13 1452 Pr , 459 A 1146 . 600 . 099 364 . 190
11 / 15 - 11 / 20 646 A 584 . 904 . 066 155 . 240
11 /22 - 11/ 24 422 A 408 . 967 . 137 178 . 423
11/ 29 - 12 / 3 * * * * 566 A 1127 1 . 99 . 336 757 1 . 33
12 / 6 - 12 / 10* * * 714 A 867 1 . 21 . 245 606 . 849
12 / 13- 12 / 17 * * * 728 A 602 . 827 . 165 366 . 503
12 / 20 - 12 / 22 * * * 418 A 470 1 . 13 266 .636
12 / 27 - 12 / 30 * * * 549 A 315 . 574 149 . 271
1/ 3 - 1/ 7 * * * * 678 A 573 . 845 . 111 488 . 720
1 / 12 - 1/ 14 * * * * 397 A 2797 7 . 05 686 1 . 73
1 / 17 - 1 / 21 * * * * 741 A 4460 6 . 02 1627 2 . 20
1 / 24 - 1 / 28 & 1 / 31 * * * 958 A 1938 2 . 02 .57 1277 1 . 33
2 / 23- 2 / 25 * * * 391 A 570 1 . 46 439 1 . 12
2 / 28 - 3 / 4 588 A 709 1 . 21 . 238 449 . 764
3 / 7 - 3 / 10 494 A 238 .482 . 047 140 . 283
* Pr - Pears , Pe = Peaches , pl - Plums , A - Apples

* * One or two days per week data only
* * * Aeration Basin Temperature less than 2°C
* * * * Aeration Basin partially or completely frozen over
(Continued )
30
TABLE 5. (Continued )
8 /24 - 11/ 13 11 / 15 - 3 / 10
Total Wastewater Flow , cu . m . 422 , 720 209 ,750
Total Wastewater Reused , cu. m . 159 ,660 60 , 340
Proportion Reused 37 . 8 % 28 . 8 %
Total Effluent to River, cu. m . 263, 060 149,410
Total Fruit Processed , kkg 24 ,102 8 , 290
Wastewater Flow Rate , cu. m . /kkg 17. 5 25 . 3
Wastewater Flow Rate, gal. / ton 4 ,210 6 ,080
Effluent Flow Rate , cu . m . /kkg 10 . 9 10 . 9
Effluent Flow Rate , gal. / ton 2,617 4 ,330
Overall proportion reused - 34 . 8 %

Overall Effluent Flow Rate = 12 . 7 cu . m ./ kkg
3 , 060 gal . / ton
31
Reclaimed Water Quality
The reclaimed effluent quality is highly dependent upon the biological

effluent quality . Figure 3 shows the frequency distribution for the biolo
gical and filtered effluents during the pear processing season of 1974 , 1975
and 1976 . Generally the filter system is effective at reducing the suspended
solids, but only by about 30 to 50% and then only when the solids load to the
filters is relatively low . Figure 3 shows the relatively poorer effluent and
reclaimed water produced in 1975 compared with the other years .
The chlorination system was effective at disinfecting the reclaimed

water . Figure 4 shows a frequency distribution for chlorine residual and
total and fecal coliform organisms in the reclaimed effluent during the
1976 season . The poorest disinfection results occurred during the week of
biological system upset following Labor Day when chlorine demand exceeded
chlorination capacity . Other poor disinfection results occurred when equip
ment malfunctions allowed the chlorine residual to fluctuate . Figure 4
indicates that the chlorine residual maintained at 3 mg/ 1 resulted in less
than one total and fecal coliform organism per 100 ml. A chlorine residual
of 2 mg / l resulted in total coliform organism concentration of about 2 per
100 ml or less . Analyses for Salmonella and Staphylococcus organisms were
negative .
Heavy metals analyses were conducted on the reclaimed water and com
pared with Snokist Growers cannery house water supply ( ground water ) . Iron ,
arsenic , cadmium , tin and manganese were consistently below the detectible
limits in both waters . Lead was consistently below detectible limits in the
house water but was detected at 0 . 01 and 0 . 02 mg/ l in two of five samples
of reclaimed water analyzed in 1976 . Mercury was found at from 0 .0003 to
0 . 0009 mg/ l in 4 samples of reclaimed water and was not detectable in 4
samples . Mercury was 0 .0003 to 0 . 0010 in three house water samples and
undetected in two samples . One sample of each analyzed on the same day
showed high mercury levels (0 . 0026 and 0 . 0017 mg/ l in reclaimed and house
water respectively ) which is assumed to be analytical error . Zinc concentra
tions ranged from 0 . 15 to 0 .63 mg / l in the reclaimed water and from less than
0 . 01 to 0 . 02 mg/ l in the house water .
Pesticide and PCB analyses were performed by the EPA Region X laboratory .
All results were less than the detectable level except PCB ' s which were de
tected in the house water on four occasions in 1976 at up to 0 .065 micro
grams per liter .
Analyses for organohalides was conducted by Foremost and Dohrmann

Laboratories in California in 1976 . Chloroform in the chlorinated reclaimed
effluent ranged from 1 . 5 to 25 micrograms per liter while other volatile
organohalides were at or below 1 microgram per liter . Total volatile organic
halides were measured at about 13 mocrograms per liter in the reclaimed
effluent compared to 3 to 7 micrograms per liter measured in the house water .
IIIIII
ACTIVATED SLUDGE EFFLUENT

DED
FILTERED EFFLUENT
SUSPEN
SOLIDS
--
,g
l/m
- -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
—- -1975-7 -1974
-
- - d
-
-
-
- -
-í M 1976 -
-
-
5 L4Lhadhabahdahl
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 98 99
FREQUENCY LESS THAN , %

Figure 3 . Suspended Solids in Biological and Filtered Effluents during
Pear and Peach Processing - 1974 , 1975 , 1976 Seasons .
Snokist Growers Cannery .
33
І тттттттттт
^
RESIDUAL
CHLORIN E
CL2 RESIDUAL
/l- g
MS
m
ORGANIS
in
TOTAL COLIFORM
/ 00
1ml
T
M
N
/ FECAL
COLIFORM
-
U LAZITI I i II
1 2 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 98 99
O
TIME ORGANISMS LESS THAN & CL2 GREATER - . %
Figure 4 . Chlorine Residual and Total and Fecal coliform in Reclaimed

Effluent . Snokist Growers Cannery 1976 Processing Season .
Trial Uses of Reclaimed Water
The reclaimed water with house steam and with steam generated from the
reclaimed water was tested for equipment cleaning against house water with
house steam . No differences could be detected in equipment sanitation .
The reclaimed water was used for initial product cleaning and conveying .
Its use in the peach bin dump tank for 3 days was compared to 3 days with
house water . Results are shown on Figure 5 . Figure 6 shows the results of
using the reclaimed and house water in the apple dump and initial conveying
area . No differences in product quality resulted from use of the reclaimed
water .
The reclaimed effluent was of equal quality in both hardness and silica
to the house water for consideration as a boiler feed source . It was used
in a portable steam generator to provide steam for comparison with house
steam for cleaning , exhausting , cooking and blanching . As noted above no
differences in cleaning were detected . Pears exhausted with reclaimed water
steam could not be significantly distinguished from the house steam exhaust
ed controls . Apple sauce cooked with house and reclaimed water steam and
apple slices blanched with the two steams were different but differences
were judged to result from varying degrees of carmelization due to heat and
time differences in the batch processes used . The normal continuous proces
ses could not be used with the portable steam generator .
The reclaimed water was used for trial runs of direct contact container
cooling. During the 1975 season about 1200 cans were cooled in reclaimed
water and an equal number of controls retained . One hundred cans from each
cooling water were stored at 30° C for 3 months . No differences were appar
ent on opening. One thousand cans from each cooling water were stored at
18° C for a year . No failures occurred in either set . During 1976 over
3000 cans were cooled in each the reclaimed and house water . Approximately
100 of each were stored at 35° C for 6 months with no failures and no dis
cernable differences . The additional 3000 from each cooling water have been
stored 6 months at about 18° C with no failures noted .
DISCUSSION
The process effluent being treated and reclaimed by Snokist Growers

Cannery appears to be suitable for use in several areas of the cannery . The
uses include initial product dumping and conveying , washdown of floors ,
gutters and equipment, boiler feed and direct contact container cooling . The
greatest beneficial use at Snokist appears to be for container cooling with
the cooling water subsequently used for floor and gutter wash . A 50 % reduc
tion in wastewater discharge and pollutant emission is anticipated when this
use is implemented .
Cost of the filter system , chlorination system , pumps and piping were
approximately $ 300 ,000 . Operation and maintenance costs are expected to be
about $ 5 ,000 per year . Approximately 90 million gallons of effluent may be
reclaimed and reused during a typical processing season for which the allo
cated cost is estimated at about $ 0 . 35 per thousand gallons including
35
DUMP TANK WATER
TPC / mi -
+- - - - - - -
HOUSE WATER -
RECLAIMED WATER - - - - - - -
. - - - - -
PEACHES AFTER DUMP TANK
TPC 10
PEACHES BEFORE DUMP TANK

TPCIO
DAY 1 DAY 2 DAY 3

DUMPING
Figure 5 . Total Plate Count in Dump Tank and on Fruit

BEFORE
Using Reclaimed and House Water , - Peaches .

AFTER
DUMP
TANK
/100
NO
mi
67 % LESS THAN
-
- - LOG MEAN
- -
COUNT
PLATE
-
TOTAL
RECLAIMED WATER
HOUSE WATER % 67 % GREATER
Figure 6 . Total Plate Count on Fruit Using Reclaimed and

House Water in Bin Dump Tank - Apples .
Snokist Growers Cannery - 1976 Processing Season .
36
amortization . This is not a competitive price with other supply sources in
the Yakima area but the value for meeting 1983 effluent standards is added
justification for considering this type of system in the future.
SUMMARY
The results of a two - year study of reclamation and reuse of treated

process wastewater at Snokist Growers Cannery show the reclaimed water qual
ity to be suitable for use in the following areas of the fruit cannery :
1) Initial fruit wash and conveying .
W
2 ) Washdown of fruit peeling and conveying equipment .
3) Steam generation boiler feed .
4) Floor and gutter wash .
5 ) Direct contact container cooling.
The consistent suitability for use in these areas is contingent upon
a well disinfected , low suspended solids product from the biological effluent
polishing system which consists of mixed media filtration and chlorination .
The polishing system performance is , however , highly dependant on performance
of the biological treatment system (activated sludge ) in producing a low Sus
pended solids effluent.
Reclaimed water reuse during the 1976 process season resulted in approx
imately 35 % reduction in wastewater discharged . Projections for full scale
cooling use indicate a 50 % or greater effluent reduction will be achieved .
REFERENCES
1. Aerobic Treatment of Fruit Processing Wastes . FWQA Report DAST - 8 .
Snokist Growers , Yakima , Washington ( 1969 )
2 . Esvelt
E s , L . A . and H . H . Hart . " Treatment of Fruit Processing Waste
by Aeration, " JWPCF, 42:1305 (1970) .
Esvelt , L . A . " Aerobic Treatment of Liquid Fruit Processing Wastes, "
Proc. First National Symposium on Food Processing Wastes .
EPA, PNWL, Corvallis , OR ( 1970 ) .
37
CONTROL OF ODORS FROM AN ANAEROBIC LAGOON
TREATING MEAT PACKING WASTES
by
J . A . Chittenden * , L . E . Orsi* *, J. L . Witherow * ** ,

and W . J . Wells , Jr . * * * *
INTRODUCTION
The warm , highly concentrated wastes from a meat packing operation are
uniquely suited to the use of anaerobic lagoons to provide a high degree
of pretreatment prior to final aerobic treatment . The advantages of
anaerobic lagoons include minimum design removal efficiencies of BOD ,
grease, and suspended solids of 80 % . The anaerobic process has minimum
capital and operating costs , is simple to operate , mechanical equipment
is not necessary , and the treatment processes can withstand the shock
loadings common in the food processing industry .
One major disadvantage associated with the anaerobic lagoons is the odors
that result from such a process . This problem has resulted in many
companies seeking other treatment alternatives at considerable penalties
in capital and annual operating costs .
The cause of these odors and a successful method of eliminating the problem
is the subject of this paper . Also discussed is a conceptual process for
recovering a significant amount of wasted energy by utilizing the heating
value of the methane generated by the anaerobic process . The financial
incentive for using the anaerobic process as opposed to a completely aerobic
system for the treatment of meat packing wastes in a proposed packing plant
is also presented .
BACKGROUND
The anaerobic digestion process utilizes bacteria which function in the

absence of free oxygen to break down organic waste . The waste material
is converted through a number of intermediate products to water , gases and
solids of lesser molecular weight. The bacteria use bound oxygen to survive
and obtain it from organic compounds, water and oxides of nitrogen and
sulfur . The gases produced are mainly methane and carbon dioxide which are
odorless. However , reduction of sulfur - containing organic matter and
sulfates produce organic sulfides , occasionally disulfides in the C1 - C6
range , and hydrogen sulfide ( 1) .
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S ) is usually the major cause of objectionable odor
from the anaerobic process. It has an odor characteristic of rotten eggs,
|
Texas Amarillo Systems Company , Amarillo , Texas

*
Wilson & Co . , Oklahoma City , Oklahoma

*
* ** U . S . Environmental Protection Agency , Corvallis , Oregon

* *** Bell , Galyardt, & Wells , Omaha, Nebraska
38
which can be detected at very low concentrations of between 1 . 0 x 10
and 1 . 0 x 10 - 4 mg / 1 in water ( 2 ) and 4 . 7 x 10 - 4 ppm in air ( 3 ) . Hydrogen
sulfide is also a toxic gas , having a threshold limit of 10 ppm for indus
trial exposure with concentration of 20 - 150 ppm causing eye irritation .
A thirty minute exposure to 500 ppm of hydrogen sulfide can result in dizzi
ness , headache, staggering , loss of consciousness , diarrhea , bronchitis and
broncho - pneumonia . Finally , exposure to 800 - 1000 ppm can be fatal in
30 minutes or less (4 ) . The toxicity of the gas is of concern in confined
structures such as sewer or wetwells , but its odor is of primary importance
to the utilization of lagoons .
The reduction of sulfate to sulfide under anaerobic conditions is well

established . Sulfate is considered to be the source of almost all the sul
fide in the anaerobic lagoon . Part of the sulfide produced will combine
with metal ions , such as iron , and become insoluble . Most of the sulfide
usually remains soluble as hydrogen sulfide and , at the near neutral pH
in the anaerobic lagoons , partially dissociates into hydrogen and bisul
fide ions . The sulfide remaining as H2S in solution will escape into the
air until its partial pressure is in equilibrium with the H2S in solution .
Thus , the odor of hydrogen sulfide from an anaerobic lagoon is proportional
to the sulfate in the waste water treated . The source of sulfates is
the water supply . Sulfate concentrations are not thought to be increased
by the meat packing operations . From experience, the meat industry and
state regulatory agencies have not usually considered using anaerobic lagoons
when the sulfate in the water supply exceeded 200 mg / 1 , and some are reluc
tant with concentrations over 100 mg /1 .
Two laboratory investigations ( 5 ) (6 ) have reported on the theory of sul

fide production and have developed basic information under controlled condi
tions . Lawrence , et al . , combine the dissociation and gas equilibrium
equations to form equation 1 . that can be used to calculate the ratio of
concentrations of soluble sulfides in the water to hydrogen sulfide in the
gas .
1. [ISS ( 1 + K,
Where TSS 18 hs + H , s in water,

H , s , is hydrogen sulfide in gas ,
at is hydrogen ion concentration in water ,
a is the absorption constant, and
K , is the ionization constant .
The Handbook of Chemistry and Physics has values on a and Ky , at various
temperatures . Data collected during the investigation gave somewhat higher
ratios of ( TSS /H2S ,) than was calculated by the equation . From the experi
mental data , the ratio would be expected to vary from 4 to 8 at the normal
pH of digesters .
39
They operated several 20 liter anaerobic digesters to which known amounts
of sulfate were added to the influent . When 200 and 400 mg / 1 of 504 - 5
was added , the equilibrium soluble sulfide concentrations were 32 mg / l as
S and 78 mg / l as S , respectively . For the digester receiving 400 mg / 1
504 - s , a figure in the Lawrence paper shows the sulfides in the gas to be
10 mg / l as S .
Lawrence , et al. , conclude that the concentration of hydrogen sulfide in the

digester is related to the concentration of hydrogen sulfide and sulfide
percursers (sulfates ) entering with the waste minus the quantity of hydrogen
sulfides expelled with the gas and that the quantity of sulfides in the
gas is related to the solubility of hydrogen sulfide , the pH , and the total
amount of gases produced . They also determined that up to 400 mg / l of sul
fide can be precipitated by added iron compounds with no adverse effect on
the anaerobic treatment process . Precipitation of the sulfides eliminates
the hydrogen sulfide odor .
Gloyna and Espino utilized 430 liter pilot units in developing equation
2 . to calculate the sulfide production in lagoons .
2. s* = K (50,3
Where s is 24 hour average sulfide concentration in the lagoon ,
so , is the concentration of sulfate ion in the influent, and
K was determined by the investigation to be:
K = .055 + .00012 ( 16 .BOD/ ac ) + .0016 (detention in days)

The test data is reported in Table 1 .
TABLE 1 . RESULTS FROM LABORATORY LAGOON STUDIES
Test BOD S04 Temp Detention Sulfide

No . °C
1b /AC /day mg / 1 days mg / 1
136 23 30 0 .432
68 23 0 .500
136 23 1 . 12
136 206 4 . 29
68 200 6 . 36
136 400 8 . 76
These two investigations indicate the concentration of hydrogen sulfide

in solution in an anaerobic lagoon will be between 2 and 5 percent of the
SOL concentration in the untreated wastewater . Using the established
ratio of soluble sulfide to sulfide in the gas the calculated hydrogen
sulfide concentration escaping to the atmosphere will be nearly one percent
of the SO2 concentration in the wastewater .
Since the threshold odor in air is 10 % ppm for hydrogen sulfide, the
odor of hydrogen sulfide would be present with sulfates at 10 - 2 mg / l in the
water supply . Experience has shown that a concentration of sulfates up
to 100 mg / l in the water produces odors that are accepted , thus disper
sion of the hydrogen sulfide in the atmosphere is a major factor in odor
control.
Models for dispersion of odors were found in the literature ( 7 ) (8 ) (9 ) .

A simplified model to determine maximum horizontal distance of odor travel
is shown in equation 3 . .
3. C = k / x \n
Do
Where Co is initial odor concentration
C is odor concentration at X
X is horizontal distance from the source , and
Do is diameter of the odor source .
When using constants (k = 1 , n = - 1 . 5 ) developed by Shirazi, et al . ( 9 )

the necessary distance to reach a threshold odor was 5 miles from an an
aerobic lagoon receiving 388 mg / 1 SO , (The design of such a lagoon is
proposed in this paper ) . An attempt to verify these constants with odor
data collected by Minor and Stark ( 10 ) was unsuccessful. However , these
facts agree with experience that odor control by dispersion of H2S from
anaerobic lagoons treating high sulfate wastewaters is impracticable and
perhaps unpredictable .
CASE HISTORIES
Two of the first cases of hydrogen sulfide odor problems with an anaerobic
lagoon treating meatpacking wastes occurred at Storm Lake and Harlan , Iowa .
In both cases , the odors were sufficient to initiate nuisance complaints .
Sulfates in both water supplies were quite high ; ranging from 75 to 1560
mg / 1 at Harlan and from 126 to 690 mg / 1 at Storm Lake . In both cases ,
the meatpackers switched to another source of water with lower sulfate con
centrations to reduce the odor problem .
An anaerobic lagoon was constructed in 1965 to treat packinghouse wastewater

near Cherokee , Iowa. The well water analysis showed an average of 90 mg/ 1
of sulfate . On a winter day , minor odor was detected by one of the authors
20 feet downward from the lagoon . However , there were signs of metal
deterioration , typical of hydrogen sulfide corrosion , on the doors of the
control building and on a nearby cyclone fence . Occasional odors have been
detected by local citizens , but operation or design changes have not been
necessary to control odors .
In 1970 the City of Spencer , Iowa , had an anaerobic lagoon designed for treat
ment of municipal wastewater consisting of about 90 percent meatpacking wastes .
The meatpacker had his own wells , but they were in the same aquifer as the
municipal wells , which had sulfate concentrations of 1030 to 1050 mg / 1 .
Because of objections by 108 local residents , odor control was incorporated
in the lagoon design . The engineered design included : ( 1 ) Limiting the meat
packing wastewater to sulfate concentration of less than 200 mg / 1 by develop
ing another ground water supply (2 ) Maintaining a scum layer on the
lagoon to reduce the release of H2S from the lagoon surface . ( 3 ) Using
submerged inlets and outlets on the anaerobic lagoon to reduce H2S release.
( 4 ) Maintaining a 7 . 0 pH to reduce release of H2S by reducing the partial
pressure of the gas . (5 ) Putting the effluent through a degasifier to
remove the H2S and passing the gas through an ozone chamber to oxidize
the H2S. However , because of the odor potential and later imposed ammonia
limits , the anaerobic lagoon was not constructed .
Anaerobic lagoons are used by a meatpacker in Denison , Iowa . The sulfate
concentration in the anaerobic lagoon influent and effluent averaged 332 ,
and 39 mg / 1 , respectively . Hydrogen sulfide in the anaerobic lagoon ef
fluent averaged 4 .6 mg/ 1. The lagoons were covered with a thick layer of
scum , but the H2S odor was strong at the overflow weir and at a small tank
in which the lagoon effluent was aerated . The treatment plant operator
described the odor as a bad situation and aromatic chemicals were used to
mask the odors .
In Texas, two anaerobic lagoons treating meatpacking wastes are known to

have significant odor problems (11) . One packer obtains water from the
city of Sweetwater with a measured sulfate content of 218 mg / 1 . Personnel
from the Extension Service made three odor intensity measurements on the
downwind side of the lagoon which required 31 (Dr) dilution to reach a
threshold odor . The other packer in Maverick County used water from the
Rio Grande River which had a sulfate concentration of 190 mg / 1 . Odor
measurements made downwind were 31 Dt alongside the lagoon and 2 Dt at
3 /4 of a mile from the lagoon . The packer in Maverick County ceased opera
tion due to financial problems and odor control became unnecessary . The
Extension Service recommended to the other packer conversion of the anaerobic
lagoon to an aerated lagoon .
In Moerewa, New Zealand , anaerobic lagoons are used to treat settled meat
packing waste (12) . The main criticism of the lagoon was reported as the
odor of hydrogen sulfide associated with the gases. The sulfate concen
tration of the wastewater is not given , but an analyses of the evolved gas
was : hydrogen sulfide at 0 . 4 % , carbon dioxide at 7 . 0 % , methane at 85 . 0 % ,
oxygen at 0 . 6 % and nitrogen and others at 7 . 0 % . A record of hydrogen sulfide
in the air close to the lagoons was kept for 8 months. The highest concen
tration was an isolated occurrence of 0 . 99 mg / 1 , but of the total number
of readings at two- hour intervals , 1897 were nil and 389 were positive with
an average concentration of 0 . 02 mg / 1 .
The odor control at Moerewa consisted of maintaining a scum cover on the
lagoon . The effectiveness of the cover in reducing the escape of hydrogen
sulfide was established by air samples taken four inches above the water
or scum cover . The concentration of hydrogen sulfide above the scum averaged
0 . 35 mg / 1 , compared to the concentrations ranging from 2 . 0 to 15 . 0 mg / 1
over the scum free areas .
42
In 1973, the city of Greeley , Colorado , initiated operation of anaerobic
lagoons which received 95% of their wastewater flow from a large meatpacker .
The water supply at the packing plant contained 700 to 800 mg/ l of sulfates
(13) . A severe odor problem occurred at the anaerobic lagoon . After one
year ' s operation , city water was extended to the packer . The sulfate con
centration in the city water was about 40 mg / 1 . Six months after the lower
sulfate water was used , odor continued to be a problem . In July 1975 , the
State of Colorado Air Pollution Control Agency found the facility in viola
tion of air quality standards for odors and subsequently issued a cease and
desist order . These air quality standards have a maximum limit for odor
at the property line of 15 Dt . Five other states have similar standards (8 ) .
Several new operation schemes were undertaken to control the odor . To build
up a heavy scum layer on the surface , all of the plant flow was routed to
anaerobic lagoon No. 3. The addition of straw and grease to aid in developing
a cover was planned as a second step . Such a cover was expected to reduce
odor emissions from the lagoon . After the scum completely covered the
surface, measured odors were below the air quality standards for a two
month period.
However , due to an excess build -up of solids in lagoon No . 3 , another lagoon

(No . 1) was put into operation on December 17, 1975 , and odor levels in
excess of the air quality standards reoccurred . Beginning on January 23,
the primary treatment process at the packing plant was bypassed to increase
the grease level and more rapidly form a cover on lagoon No . 1. On March 1 ,
the addition of 10 mg/ l of chlorine to the packing plant effluent was ini
tiated to reduce sulfide odors at the lagoon inlet . In the 30 days after
the initiation of chlorination , the scum layer went from 35 to 40 percent
cover on lagoon No . 1 to a 99 % cover . High winds sometimes broke up the
scum layer and temporarily reduced the percent of surface area covered .
The wastewater became anaerobic in 32 , 500 feet of force main between the
packing plant and the lagoons . Measurement of the hydrogen sulfide concentra
tion in the wastewater showed up to a 50 mg / l decrease at the inlet to the
lagoon when chlorination was practiced . The build -up of the cover and
corresponding decrease in the odor dilutions reading are shown in Table 2 .
TABLE 2 . PERCENT OF SURFACE AREA COVERED (14)
Date Lagoon No. 1 Lagoon No. 3 DE

March 30
March 29
1
March 26 99 100
March 25* 100
March 24 99 100
March 22 99 100
March 19 60 * * 60 * *
March 18 * 95 100
March 17 98 100
March 11 85 * * 100 * *
TABLE 2. PERCENT OF SURFACE AREA COVERED (14) (Cont.)
Tottovo
Date Lagoon No . 1 Lagoon No. 3
DET
TIL
March 9 * 100
March 8 100
March 3 100
March 2 100
March 1 * 100
February 25 * 40 100
February 19 * 20 100
February 16 5* * 60 * *
February 13 35 100
February 4 100
February 3 100
February 2 100
January 29 * 100
January 28 100
January 26 100
* Odor readings by State officials

** Days of high winds
The overall effectiveness of the scum cover in reducing odor emissions is
summarized in Figure 1 . Only those odor measurements made by the State
Agency personnel are shown on the figure .
During March 1975 , a series of sulfate measurements was made by the city
on the packing plant effluent and the influent to the treatment plant and
are shown in Table 3 . Additional sulfate measurements on the packing plant
effluent averaged 95 and 90 mg / 1 in April and May , respectively .
TABLE 3. SULFATE CONCENTRATIONS
Date Packing Plant Treatment Plant

Effluent (mg / 1) Influent (mg / 1 )
March 2 48
March 3 110 71
March 4 45 47
March 5 110 220
March 8 150 80
March 9 120
March 15 121
March 16 120
March 19 66 140
March 22 160
154D+
170,
INSPECTI
OFFICIAL
6 /26/75 –
DATES
STATE
6 / 30 / 75
ODOR
BY
ON
OFS
71 1 / 75
71 2 / 75 –
7 / 31/ 75 100 % COVER ON LAGOON # 3
10 / 7 / 75 —
10 / 22 / 75 -
10 / 30 /75
11/ 2 / 75
11/ 12 /75
11/ 13 / 75
II/ 18 / 75
11/ 28 / 75
12 / 5 / 75
12 / 11 / 75
127 17 / 75 - LAGOON # 1 ON LINE
1/ 7 / 76
1 / 15 /764 PRIMARY TREATMENT
BY-PASSED
1 / 29 / 76
2 / 3 / 76 –
2 / 11/ 76 → COVER # 1 IS 35 - 40 %
COMPLETE
2 / 19 /76
2 / 25 / 76
37 1 /76 CHLORINE ADDED
3 / 9 /76 → COVER # 1 IS 95 % COMPLETE
3 / 18 / 76
3 / 25 / 76
FIGURE I. ODOR LEVELS WITH VARYING OPERATION (8 ).

TABLE 3 . SULFATE CONCENTRATIONS (Cont . )
Date Packing Plant Treatment Plant

Date deck
Effluent Part
ing (mg / 1)y Treatment(mgplan
Influent / 1) s
March 23 205
March 25 80
Average 100 120
The city rechecked its testing procedures and reagents for the sulfate
test and found no discrepancies . Tests on city domestic water showed
SOL concentrations in the range of 40 - 60 mg / 1 . An increase of about
50 mg / l of sulfates by the meat packing process is shown by this data .
This increase is contrary to the commonly accepted belief that sulfate
concentrations are not increased in the meat packing process .
An anaerobic lagoon was used to treat meatpacking wastewater near Ada,

Oklahoma . The water supply had a sulfate concentration of 4 . 0 mg / 1 .
During a two - year period , one of the authors inspected the lagoon over
200 times and detected septic odors within a few feet of the lagoon , but
the odor of H2S was not detected . The lagoon did not have a scum cover and
bubbles at the surface showed considerable gas production . The lack of
odor was attributed to the low sulfate concentration in the water ( 15 ) .
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
A study of acceptable methods of controlling anaerobic lagoon odors was

initiated in the course of the design of a new meat packing facility to
be located in Southwestern Arizona . In order to enable the reader to
evaluate the potential of the concepts presented in this paper , the results
of that study are discussed in detail in the remaining pages of this article .
In the proposed location of the meat packing plant , ground water supplies
were limited and of such poor quality that it was concluded that water would
have to be obtained elsewhere .
The only other available source of water was the irrigation canal that
bordered the property . Discussions with the Bureau of Reclamation and
the local Water and Drainage Districts indicated that approval would be
granted for withdrawing the necessary water.
A typical analysis of the water is given in Table 4 . Although the water

was somewhat high in salinity , it would be acceptable for potable use after
suspended solids removal and chlorination . Previous experience had shown ,
however , that the high sulfates ( 388 mg / 1) would produce unacceptably high
odor emissions from the anaerobic lagoons.
46
TABLE 4 . IRRIGATION WATER ANALYSIS
Constituent Concentration mg/ 1
Silica
Calcium 91
Magnesium 32
Sodium 126
Potassium 6
Bicarbonate 172
Carbonate o
Sulfate 388
Chloride 107
Fluoride 0.5
Nitrate Nil
Dissolved Solids 796
Hardners as CaCO3 360
Non - carbonate Hardners 218
as CaCO3
Specific Conductance 1 . 240
mmhos
The meatpacking company retained a consulting firm to study the problem

and make recommendations . In particular , the consultant was given two
assignments :
1) Develop the capital and operating costs of a completely

aerobic waste treatment system and compare those costs with
the capital and operating costs of an anaerobic lagoon system
followed by a minimum of aerobic treatment .
Explore the various alternatives for collecting and treating
the gases generated by the anaerobic lagoon so that acceptable
odor emission would result . In particular , the anaerobic lagoon
cover developed for the Wilson & Co . plant at Monmouth , Illinois
was to be evaluated as a potential candidate for the Arizona
lagoon .
The proposed plant location also dictated two other significant design
parameters . First , the final disposal of the waste water would be cropland
irrigation . There was no stream available to accept treated wastes . The
State required treatment of the waste prior to irrigation to a level that
produced a maximum BOD5 of 100 mg / 1 . Since the crops could utilize the
nitrogen in the ammonical form , nitrification was not a problem . The second
factor dictated by the proposed site was that aerobic lagoons for final
treatment of the waste were precluded by the soil conditions on the site .
The soil was all sand and cost estimate comparisons of sealing the large
area lagoons to meet acceptable ex - filtration rates versus the cost of
small area aeration basins indicated that extended aeration would be the
cheaper alternative .
The proposed plant was to be capable of slaughtering 2880 head of beef

per day and breaking 2000 beef carcasses per day into boxed beef. Drawing
up the experience of similar plants , the raw and treated wastes characteristics
were formulated . Their design values are shown in Table 5 .
TABLE 5 . WASTE CHARACTERISTICS
Raw Wastes Treated Wastes
Flow - MGD 2 . 88 2 .88

BOD mg / 1 1500 60
SS mg/ 1 1200
Grease mg / 1 900 10
Total K - N mg / 1 200 160
A summary of the study to evaluate the treatment alternative and the com
parisons of the candidates for a lagoon cover is given in the following
paragraphs .
Completely Aerobic System
A schematic of the proposed completely aerobic system is given in Figure 2 .

The first stage aerobic treatment was to be accomplished with two parallel
fixed media towers using redwood media . The influent BOD5 , estimated at
1500 mg/ 1 , would be reduced by 65 % in the towers . Recirculation around the
towers would maintain an adequate wetting rate to enhance treatment effi
ciency .
The second stage aerobic treatment chosen was two parallel aeration basins
each containing 250 hp of either slow speed , fixed platform aerators , or
a dispersed air system using static tube diffusers.
The final clarifiers were used to settle the wastes . The settled solids
were returned to the inlet of the redwood towers so that the fixed media
towers would operate in the activated biological media mode . Provisions
were also made to allow sludge return to the extended aeration basin in
order to maintain the MLSS at desirable levels . Approximately 0 . 2 MGD of
sludge would be wasted to an aerated sludge holding tank with two days
holding capacity .
Approximately 30 acres of storage ponds to provide 20 days of storage would
be provided after the final clarifiers . To avoid ground water contamina
tion , the lagoons would be sealed .
Effluent from the ponds would be utilized for irrigation .
The aerated sludge from the sludge holding tanks would be pumped directly
to a separate irrigation system .
48
DIRECT
-RECYCLE
FIXED IRRIGATION TO
LIFT AERATION FINAL
MEDIA STORAGE
STATION SYSTEM CLARIFIERS IRRIGATION
TOWERS PONDS
SLUDGE SLUDGE
49
RECYCLE HANDLING
WASTE
SLUDGE
TO
IRRIGATION
FIGURE
2. .
SCHEMA
SYSTEM
AEROBI CTIC
ETELY
COMPL
Anaerobic /Aerobic System
In order to utilize anaerobic lagoons in this application it would be neces

sary to have an effective gas collection system to prevent objectionable
odorous emissions .
A study was made of the available covers that could be used in this applica
tion . A cost summary of this study is shown in Table 6 .
TABLE 6 . COMPARATIVE ANAEROBIC LAGOON COVER COSTS
Type Basin Size No. Basins Est . Cover Cost
Fiberglass Arch 50 ' x 300 ' $ 1 ,419 ,000

Precast Concrete Double Tees 50 ' x 300 ' 600 , 000
Floating Fiberglass 130 ' dia . 730 , 000
Floating Flexible Membrane 200 ' x 300 ' 253,000
The preceeding costs are for the cover only . The cost of concrete , earth
work , pipe , fittings and protective coatings is not included . Obviously ,
the flexible membrane would be the cover of choice . A flow sheet of the
combination anaerobic / aerobic system is shown on Figure 3 .
In order to minimize the cover cost , the design of the anaerobic lagoons
was given careful consideration . The loadings were set on the high side
of normal design criteria - 17 . 5 # BOD / 1000 ft . The water depth was to be
maintained at 20 feet rather than the more conventional 15 feet . Finally ,
the slopes above water level were maintained at 4 : 1 , while the dikes below
water level were cut to 1 : 1 slope.
From the anaerobic lagoon , the waste was to be treated aerobically in two
aeration basins operating in the completely mixed activated sludge mode .
Sludge wasting from the two final clarifiers would be to the anaerobic
lagoons . Because of the high anaerobic lagoon BOD removal efficiency (80 % ) ,
the aerator horsepower requirements would be 400 horsepower rather than the
500 horsepower required in the completely aerobic system .
The lined storage ponds prior to irrigation would be identical to that
discussed in the completely aerobic system .
Cost Comparison
The estimated costs for the two alternative systems are shown in Table 7 .
50
LIFT ANAEROBIC AERATION FINAL IRRIGATION TO
STORAGE
1
STATION LAGOONS BASINS CLARIFIERS PONDS IRRIGATION
_
_
.WASTE
SLUDGE SLUDGE
RECYCLE
_
__ _
_
_
_
3
FIGURE
_ _ _
__
/AEROBIC
.ANAEROBIC
SCHEMATIC
SYSTEM
_
TABLE 7 . CAPITAL COST COMPARISONS- -2. 88 MGD PLANT
Completely Aerobic Anaerobic/ Aerobic
System System
First Stage Aeration $ 1 , 266 , 000 -0

Anaerobic Lagoons - 0 $ 194 ,000
Second Stage Aeration 779 , 000 688 , 000
Sludge Handling Facilities 375 , 000 83 ,000
Irrigation Storage Ponds - 314 , 000 314 ,000
30 ac . lined
Subtotal $ 2 ,734,000 $ 1 , 279, 000
Anaerobic Lagoon Cover w /Burner -O 369 , 000
Total Cost $ 2 , 734 , 000 $ 1 ,648 , 000
From the preceeding table it can be seen that the covered anaerobic lagoons
followed by a mechanical aerobic system would result in an estimated capital
cost savings of over $ 1 ,000 , 000 for a 2 . 88 MGD plant.
In addition , there would be an appreciable savings in annual operating cost

as shown in Table 8 .
TABLE 8 . ESTIMATED ANNUAL OPERATING COST COMPARISONS
Completely Aerobic Anaerobic / Aerobic

System System
Power ( 2 .65¢ /KWH ) $ 155 , 000 $ 82 , 000

Labor 22 , 000 22 ,000
Maintenance 19 , 000 9 , 000
Total $ 196 , 000 $ 113, 000
Anaerobic Lagoon Cover Construction Details

Many attempts to construct a successful lagoon cover have been made over
the years and most of them have been notable for their lack of success .
For one thing , earlier covers lacked the ability to withstand u . v . degra
dation . Lack of permanent bonding of seams was also a common failing .
Another weakness common to earlier systems was the lack of an adequate gas
removal system . This resulted in large pockets of gas producing bubbles
under the film . One system that was inspected had gas bubbles 10 feet high
and 100 feet in diameter .
52
The system at Monmouth , Illinois , that was supplied by Globe Linings , Long
Beach , California , and designed and specified by Messmair , Stanley and
Associates of Rock Island , Illinois , appears to have met and solved these
problems . The significant design and construction details are discussed
below .
The cover material is five ply , 45 mil composite constructed of two nylon
reinforcing screens bonded to three sheets of DuPont Hypalon 45 synthetic
rubber . The estimated cost of the anaerobic lagoon cover is detailed in
Table 9 .
Gas removal is of prime importance . To conduct the gases and to act as a

cover support , four inch by twelve inch styrofoam logs were inserted in a
factory - sealed envelope in the liner. A sketch of this concept is shown in
Figure 4 . The logs were placed across the width of the lagoon on 20 foot
centers with one row down the length of the lagoons .
Styrofoam - 4 " x 12"

Hypalon Covery
Factory Sealed Envelope
Gas Passageway
FIGURE 4 . CROSS SECTION OF COVER FLOAT SYSTEM
The gas generated by the anaerobic action in the lagoon follows the space
between the styrofoam float and the cover out to the edge of the lagoon .
It was feared that in time the solids build - up on the lagoon surface would
tend to fill up these passageways . To date , this has not occurred . Small
bubbles 6 to 12 feet in diameter and 6 to 10 inches high do form , but when
the cover is lifted to this point, the gas leaked out through the passage
ways and the cover subsided back to the surface .
A sketch of the edge construction details is shown in Figure 5 . The use of

the aluminum hold down plates results in a positive seal holding in the
generated gases . The perforated pipe shown in the sketch and a 103 cfm
1 hp blower was used to collect the gases . The blower must run continuously
to prevent gas build - up under the cover .
Provided with the system would be an approved gas incineration system for
disposal of the gas . A schematic of the gas train is shown in Figure 6 .
One other problem encountered was the disposal of accumulated storm water .
A portable 3 inch trash pump is used to pump the rain water out of the
pockets in the center of the lagoon .
53
PLACE
IN
CAST
BOLT
YA
A"2x LUMINUM
(16ONG
"L
)PLATE -CHAMFERED
EDGE
W/3-6P4UC
HPIPE
12 OLES
"CON
TRS
MIL 5
.D|-4UPONT
HYPALON
COVER
| | | | | | =| || || |
三川三三三三三
|
加印三中三川
|| || = | | |三4
| = | | |=| | | 三山三山三
| | | || 「三三三三三
到三 ||三三三
山了到三信三川
示三= 三||E111
示三ヨ|三川三川三川三
24 "
LCONCRETE
CURB
FIGURE
5.
DETAIL
INSTALLATION
LAGOON
.COVER
COVERED COVERED
1
_
LAGOON
ANAEROBIC LAGOON
ANAEROBIC
&DRIP
SEDIMENT
TRAP
_
-METER
-HPLOWER
.BOLI
-CHECK
VALVE
TO
_
Man -MANOMETER
_
PLANT
55
BOILER K
VALVE
RELIEF
PRESSURE
_
&FLAME
TRAP
VALVE
RELIEF
E- XPLOSION
-DRIP
TRAP
6.
FIGURE BURNER
GAS
WASTE
.
SCHEMATIC
SYSTEM
RECOVERY
GAS
ENERGY CONSERVATION
In the above discussion , the final disposal of the gas was proposed as in
cineration . With current energy shortages this viable source of energy
should not be wasted . A study was then made of its possible uses .
TABLE 9 . ESTIMATED PROJECT COST GAS RECOVERY AND DISPOSAL
Item Estimated Cost
5 Ply , 45 mil DuPont Hypalon Membrane (126 ,600 sq . ft . ) $ 253, 200

P . C . Concrete Curb -Wall 12 , 000
Stainless Steel Anchor Bolts and Nuts 3 , 900
Aluminum Anchor Plate 4 , 500
6 " Perforated P . V . C . Collection Pipe 10 , 800
Gas Train Piping , Valves , Blower , Meter & Appurtenances 9 , 700
Concrete Slab and Gas Equipment Shelter 1 , 500
Total $ 295 ,600
10 % Contingency 29 , 600
Total Estimated Construction Cost $325 , 200
Engineering , Legal and Fiscal 43 ,600
Total Estimated Project Cost $368 ,800
TABLE 10 . ANAEROBIC LAGOON GAS ANALYSIS
Methane - Vol. % 65 - 70
Carbon Dioxide - Vol. % 30 - 35
Nitrogen Trace
Hydrogen Trace
Hydrogen Sulfide mg/ 1 16
Estimated Heating Value BTU / ft 650
Gas Production
ft3 /# v . s . Destroyed 12 - 18
Anticipated Production ft /day 278 ,000
An expected analysis of the digestor gas is shown in Table 10 . From this

table it can be calculated that an average of 180 million BTU ' s per day
would be generated by burning this gas . In addition to direct incinera
tion , which would waste this energy , two other methods by which this energy
could be utilized were explored .
56
A Supplement To Fossil Fuels Feeding Existing Boilers
In this alternative various firing schedules were examined such that the
waste gases would be stored and used at intervals to fire one or more of
the plant ' s boilers . In addition to the expense involved in constructing
and maintaining storage facilities , it soon became obvious that , because
of the hydrogen sulfide content of the gas , this was not an acceptable
alternative . If the hydrogen sulfide was not removed from the gas a poten
tial for corrosion of the boiler stack existed .
The capital costs of the equipment needed to remove the hydrogen sulfide
were estimated to be over $ 100 ,000 .
Providing a Dedicated Boiler
The next alternative was to provide a separate boiler sized to fire at the
rate of gas production . The boiler manufacturers state that if the boiler
exhaust was kept above 375°C , corrosion would be no problem . Thus , a conven
tional carbon steel packaged boiler could be used. The cost of the system
was estimated to total $ 40 , 000 . The estimated annual costs of operating
the system are in Table 11 .
TABLE 11. HEAT RECOVERY ANNUAL COSTS
Labor -0
Utilities 4 , 000
Maintenance and Upkeep 2 , 000
Depreciation - 12 years 3 , 000
Total 9 ,000
No labor figures were assessed since it was assumed the waste treatment
operator could take care of the gas production and collection facilities ,
and the stationary engineer would handle the boiler operation .
The value of the energy thus utilized was assumed to be the incremental
cost of the fossil fuel not consumed as a result of using the gas . These
savings are calculated below .
TABLE 12 . HEAT RECOVERY SAVINGS
Basis : Coal Cost $ 30 / ton

Coal Heating Value 9000 BTU /#
Cost / 106 BTU $ 1 .67/ 106 BTU
Gas Generation 278 , 000 ft3 /day
.
Heating Value 650 BTU /#

BTU Recovered @ 85% Eff . = 154 x 106 BTU / day
Gross Annual Savings

@ 365 days /year = $94 , 000
The gross annual savings of $94 ,000 less the annual cost of $ 9000 gives a
net savings of $ 85 , 000 per year. This savings is equivalent to a pretax
return in investment of 213 percent and it gives a pay back of less than
one year .
In the proposed scheme , a 200 HP fire- tube boiler with its own exhaust stack
would be provided in the boiler room . The boiler would be provided with a
combination boiler to allow he firing of fuel oil of gas production dropped
off . ( There is no natural gas available for new installation in the proposed
location of the plant . )
The lagoon cover itself would be used for gas storage . If the gas production
rate exceeded the boiler capacity , the gas incinerator would be fired at
intervals to maintain an acceptable balance .
EMISSION CONTROL
The Enforcement Division of EPA , Region IX , was contacted regarding the

emissions from a boiler or an incinerator operating on anaerobic gas .
The following comments were made :
" In the solution of any environmental problem , the necessary

changes and usage of resources create other environmental
stresses . A common case is where a pollutant in one medium
(water ) is placed on another medium (land) . A similar trade
off occurs in this proposed solution for control of odors
from anaerobic lagoons . Specifically , burning of the collected
gas will result in the conversion of the highly odorous
compound, H2S , to a non - odorous compound S02. However , many
discharges of SO2 to the atmosphere are limited by regulations
to prevent air pollution . At the proposed location of these
facilities in southwestern Arizona , there are regulat ons
limiting the emission of s02 from existing boilers which use
fossil fuels . The SO2 regulations currently in effect for
southeastern Arizona do not constrain SO2 emissions from
existing boilers using gases produced from anaerobic digestion .
However, any new or modified facility would be subject to
preconstruction review regulations of the State and local
agencies . Such a project could also be subject to EPA new
source review regulations depending on its size and location .
Since certain portions of southwestern Arizona are not meeting
the National Ambient Air Quality Standards for S02 , any major
new source of s02 located in such areas would be subject to
strict emission limits and offset requirements described in
EPA ' s Interpretive Ruling of December 21, 1976 . Furthermore,
the State or local agency may impose requirements more
restrictive than the minimum required by EPA . "
From the above statement it can be seen that prior to an investment decision ,
the appropriate authorities should be contacted regarding the emissions
from incinerating the anaerobic gases . If local conditions warrant , S02
removal may be required .
58
The technology for scrubbing flue gases of S02 is well established . One
highly effective process would be the use of a bicarbonate scrubber to
effect a 90 % to 95% removal of the so2 . The calculated s02 emissions from
burning the anaerobic gases at a 16 mg / 1 H2S concentration would amount to
2 .66 # S02 per million BTU ' s . A 90 to 95 % SO2 removal efficiency would bring
the SO2 emissions well within new source limitations required for fossil
fuel boilers .
Discussions with suppliers of scrubbers to remove 2 .66 # S02 per million BTU ' S
from a 200 H . P . boiler indicated that an installed capital cost of $70 , 000
and an annual operating cost of $ 10 , 000 could be routinely achieved . Land
disposal of the was te liquor from the scrubber would be an acceptable disposal
technique .
Based on the economic incentive the anaerobic lagoon presents over a mechanical
system their added costs should not change the management decision to adopt
anaerobic lagoons over a completely aerobic mechanical system .
CONCLUSIONS
Odor problems from anaerobic lagoons treating meat packing wastes are the
result of hydrogen sulfide emissions . The hydrogen sulfide escaping to the
atmosphere will be nearly 1 % of the sulfate concentration in the wastewater .
Anaerobic lagoons which treat wastewaters containing 100 mg/ l or more of

sulfate need special design and operation for odor control . Design of sub
merged inlets and outlets , operation to maintain a complete scum cover , chlo
rination of the raw wastewater prior to pipeline transport when H2S is pro
duced , and changing to a lower sulfate water supply have been found to reduce
odor emissions .
Anaerobic lagoon treatment is both cost effective and energy saving for
warm concentrated wastewaters . The major drawback of odor emission , when
the wastewater contains high sulfate concentrations , has been controlled
with a flexible membrane cover and a positive gas removal system . The
floating flexible membrane cover has been shown less expensive than rigid
cover systems .
The anaerobic lagoon has been shown economically advantageous over aerobic
treatment for meat packing wastewater even with the added cost of a flexible
cover and gas removal system .
Although incineration of odorous digestor gas is the common disposal method ,
these gases can be used economically in a dedicated boiler for the produc
tion of steam for process uses and to conserve our fossil fuel resources .
This energy conservation system has a one year payout .
REFERENCES
1. Bethea , R . M . , " Comparison of Hydrogen Sulfide Analysis Techniques. "

Journal of Air Pollution Control Association . Vol. 23, No. ,
p . 710 - 713 ( 1973) .
2. Pomeroy , R . D . , and H . Cruse. Hydrogen Sylfide Odor Threshold . Jour .

Amer . Water Works Assn . 61 (12 ) :677 . 1969.
3. Leonardos , G . , D . Kendall , and N . Barnard . Odor Threshold Determina
tions of 53 odorant Chemicals . Jour. Air Poll . Control Assn . 19 ( 2) :91.
1969 .
American Mutual Insurance Alliance . Handbook of Hazardous Materials .
Technical Guide No . 7 , Chicago , Illinois , p . 60 (1974 ) .
5 . Lawrence , A . W . , McCarty , P . L . , and Guerin , F . " The Effect of Sulfide
on Anaerobic Treatment . " Proceedings of 10th Industrial Waste Conference ,
Purdue University , p . 343 ( 1964 ) .
6. Gloyna , E . F . , and Espino , E . " Sulfide Production in Waste Stabiliza
tion Ponds . " ASCE Journal of Sanitary Engineering Division , Vol . 95 ,
ND . SA3 , p . 607 (1969) .
7. Hogstrom , Ulf . Possibilities of Predicting Odor Frequencies in Ambient
Air from Sensory and Chemical Analyses at the Source. University of
Uppsala , Uppsala , Sweden . 1970 .
Sweeten , John M . Odor Perception and Measurement. Agricultural Engi
neering . Texas Agricultural Extension Service, College Station .
May 1975 .
9. Shirazi , M . A . , L . R . Davis , and K . V . Byram . Effects of Ambient

Turbulence on Buoyant Jets Discharged Into a Flowing Environment . EPA
National Environmental Research Center , Corvallis, OR . Jan . 1973.
10 . Minor , J. Ronald , and Ronald W . Stark . Evaluation of Alter
proaches to Control of Odors from Feedlots . Idaho Research Foundation
Inc. University of Idaho , Moscow , Idaho . Dec. 1975.
11 . Personal communication with Dr. John M . Sweeten , Texas Agricultural

Extension Service , College Station , Texas .
Rand, M . B . , and Cooper , D . E . " Development and Operation of a Low Cost
Anaerobic Plant for Meat Wastes . " Proceedings of Industrial Waste
Conference , Purdue University , p . 613 - 638 (1966) .
13. Wells , J . W . , Wells , P . B . , and Alleman , D . D . " Treatment Capabilities
of an Extended Aeration System Following Anaerobic Lagoons Treating
Meat Packing Waste . " Proceedings of Sixth National Symposium on Food
Processing Waste . EPA 600 / 9 - 76 - 224 .
60
14 . City of Greeley , Colorado . Progress Report No . 2 . Corrective Action
Plan for Lone Tree Wastewater Treatment Plant . April 1976 .
15 . Witherow , J . L . " Small Meatpackers Waste Treatment Systems. " Pro

ceedings of the 28th Industrial Waste Conference . Purdue University ,
Lafayette , Indiana (1973) .
TOMATO CLEANING , WATER RECYCLE
AND MUD DEWATERING * *
by
Walter W . Rose *
INTRODUCTION
With the advent of mechanical harvesting , food processors noted an in

crease in clods of dirt and smear soil coming in with the raw products .
The initial response by the industry to this situation was to use more water
to insure that the product was adequately cleaned . In recent years there
have been several external factors imposed on the industry which now makes
it economical to reduce the volume of fresh water and to discharge less
pollutants .
With engineering assistance from a consulting firm , Eutek Inc . , the

National Canners Association put together a project that was addressed to
the problem of cleaning tomatoes with less water, the removal of mud from
the dump tank and the development of a water recycle system .
BACKGROUND
Results of past work has been reported at previous symposia (1 ) (2 ). The

major efforts during the previous two years were to demonstrate the use of
rotating rubber discs for cleaning and to develop the water recycle system .
Prior to the full scale demonstration of low water cleaning by rubber discs ,
pilot studies had been conducted ( 3 ) . Studies have also looked into the
energy and economic aspects of operating in various modes and results
have been reported ( 4 ) (5 ) .
Results up to the 1976 season did show that mechanical energy , in the form
of soft, rotating rubber discs , effectively clean tomatoes with the use of
minimal amounts of water . In addition to the wiping of surface dirt from
the tomatoes , the spinning discs also removed a significant number of
adhering stems. Physical and chemical treatment was applied to the dump
* National Canners Association , Berkeley , California

* * Supported in part by the U . S . Environmental Protection Agency under
Grant Number S - 803251
tank water and a major portion of the water was recycled back to the dump
tank . Soil could be separated from the water and removed from a thickener
tank .
The major objectives of the 1976 season were to evaluate the cleaning of
tomatoes by a machine of different design than that previously used , to
verify past data and to economically dewater mud which had been separated
from the water. Because of a labor strike at the beginning of the process -
ing season and rains which followed, the accomplishment of the first two
objectives is in doubt. The quality of fruit was poor and caused the
processor to alter his method of operation . Rather than operate independent
systems, it was necessary for the processor to split the product into two
flows, part of the tomatoes went through conventional processing and part
went through the demonstration system .
The emphasis of this report will be in reporting on results obtained from

dewatering mud by a horizontal vacuum belt . The 1976 test results did
show that the cleaner was effective in cleaning tomatoes and that minimal
water was required. Because of problems previously mentioned, data
collected in 1976 can not be directly compared with that obtained the pre
vious two years.
WATER RECYCLE
Figure 1 is a schematic drawing which illustrates the major components of

mn
the water recycle system and the method of processing the mud . As shown
in figure 1 , the key process elements are a solids trapping false bottom , an
ejector for solids transport, a screen with a solid hopper , a soil solids
sepa rating swirl concentrator, a gravity clarifier - thickener and a tube
flocculator. The soil solids passed through the false bottom and were
transported by an ejector to the gravity screen . The screen removed
gross solids such as vines , rocks and other debris . After screening the
water flowed by gravity to the swirl concentrator. Grit, sand and heavy
particles in the incoming water were separated and discharged as a fixed
underflow from the swirl concentrator to a gravity thickener . Overflow
from the thickener could be chemically treated in the tube flocculator and
returned . The swirl concentrator returned approximately 80 % of flow back
to the dump tank . Overflow from the thickener tank could also be returned
to the dump tank or be discharged to the sewer, the direction of flow was
determined by a level control in the dump tank .
SCREEN
SWIRL
CONCENTRATORE UNDER
FLOW
-GRIT
TUBE
RETURN
WATER
FROM &THICKENER
SORTING
BELTS STORAGE
OF
SOLIDS
STA
2 NDPIPE
CON
LEVELTROL
BIN
DUMB -UMAK
WAT E
P ER
FLOCCULATION
BOT SE
FALTOI COAGULANT
TRANSPORN SCOUR
?EJECTOR JETS
DEWATERIN
VACUUM G
CPRIMARY
R_ ETURN B
O: ELT
PUMP WATER
FROM
SORTING
BELTS SLUDGE
9CAKE
TO
FINAL
OVERFLOW
TO
SEWER
+ VACUUM DISPOSAL
SOURCE
1.FIG
DIAGR
WATER
RECYC
FSYSTE
OF.LOW LEMAM
VACUUM BELT DEWATERING UNIT
Prior to 1976 , sludge from the thickener tank was periodically withdrawn
for disposal onto agricultural land . Data indicated that the solids content
of the sludge was generally 20 to 25 % solids. Higher solids in the mud
would decrease the disposal costs . A low cost, vacuum belt dewatering
system was fabricated prior to the 1976 season and evaluated as a method
of increasing the solids content ofmud removed from the thickener tank .
Figure 2 is a schematic of the dewatering unit. The major components

are as follows:
1. Sludge receiving hopper with level control .

2. Vacuum belt with variable speed chain drive.
3. Vacuum source and filtrate withdrawal pump.
4. Filter cake removal and belt cleaning.
Sludge from the thickener tank was delivered to the hopper by gravity . The
feed to the hopper was controlled by a level switch inside the hopper . The
level switch was connected to an air operated sludge level control valve ,
installed in a line between the thickener tank and the hopper .
Two types of belting material were used in the dewatering study . One belt
was made of polypropylene monofilament, 6 . 4 ounces per square yard and
with a porosity of 125 cfm of air at 20 inches ofmercury . The second belt
was made of nylon high twist, 8 ounces per square yard and with a porosity
of 40 to 70 cfm at 20 inches of mercury .
A NASH water sealing vacuum pump, with a 2 hp motor turning at 1950 rpm ,
was used to maintain vacuum within the vacuum chamber. During a test ,
the pump operated at a vacuum of 36 inches of water and pulled approxi -
mately 10 cfm of air through the belt . Sludge was dewatered as it moved
over the vacuum chamber . The filtrate from the sludge was continuously
removed from the vacuum chamber by a diaphram pump.
The dewatered sludge cake was scraped off the belt after it passed over the
pull drive mechanism . It was collected in a gondola and eventually trans
ported to a landfill for disposal. The washing of the vacuum belt was by
means of spray nozzles located immediately upstream of the sludge hopper.
The belt was cleaned before receiving a new layer of sludge . Rinse water
was collected and transported by a diaphram pump to the thickener tank .
65
SLUDGE
CONTROL
VALVE
OMAN
DRIVE
SLUOGE
CONTROL
LEVEL
SWITCH
FEED
SLUOGE
SLUDGE
HOPPER FILTRATE
AND
CHAMBER
VACUUM
CAKE
SCRAPER
99
BELT
WASH
CONTROL
PANELS
GONDOLA
DIAPHRAM
PUMP VACUUM
PUMP
BELT
WASH
VACUUM
AND FILTRATE
PUMP
SEAL
WATER
AFIG
.2 SSEMBLY
DEWATERING
VACUUM
OF
BELT
UNIT
The pertinent operational variable of the vacuum belt are as follows :
1. Sludge solids loading rate

2. Type of vacuum belt
3. Vacuum applied
4. Belt speed
5. Cake thickness
6. Type and concentration of chemical for sludge conditioning .
An intensive program evaluation of the sludge dewatering unit was con -

ducted between September 9 and 23 . During this time period , the mud
removal and the sludge dewatering units were operated and monitored on
a continuous , round the clock basis. The dewatering operation , except
on September 15 and 22 , 1976 , was evaluated without chemical coagulation /
flocculation . On those two days various concentrations of a polymer
(Calgon Cat - Floc ) were added to the tube flocculator .
After several trial and error efforts , a schedule for the withdrawal of
sludge from the thickener tank was established. Sludge was permitted to
thicken in the tank for 4 to 5 hours prior to dewatering. It was found that
the vacuum belt could operate for approximately 1 hour before the feed
from the thickener tank became too dilute for further dewatering . When
this occurred , the feed would be stopped and the mud permitted to accu
mulate in the thickener tank . After some 4 to 5 hours the dewatering
system would be started up again and run until the feed became dilute.
DATA COLLECTION AND INTERPRETATION
Information and samples were collected which permitted an analysis of the

performance of the vacuum dewatering system . Data was gathered for vari
ation in belt speed , feed sludge and sludge cake on the belt , sludge cake
and filtrate production rate , total solids of the feed sludge and effect of
chemical coagulation . The results from this evaluation have been inter
preted in terms of sludge solids loading rate , dewatering efficiency, drying
factor , sludge volume reduction efficiency and solids recovery efficiency .
Data are presented in table 1 for the dewatering of mud without the use of
chemical coagulants . During the test period the belt speed va ried from
1 . 3 to 3 . 6 ft /min . The thickness of the sludge feed varied from 3 / 16 to
10 / 16 inches with an average of 7 / 16 inch ; the sludge cake thickness
DEWATERING
MUD
TOMATO
OF
1.RESULTS
TABLE
VACUUM
UNIT
BELT
WITH
Coagulation
Chemical
)(Without
Belt (in
Thickness
)Mud Loading
Sludge Production
Cake .(94
Conc
Solids
Total Filtrate
Speed Rate Rate Rate
Production
Date Time )/m(ftin Feed Cake ?)/f(gtph g()/ft2ph Feed Filtrate
Cake )/f(gt2ph
/976 :24 0p 3.6 4/16 2/16 8.6 4.3 .7
25 .913
46 2.9
/76
919 0:5 0p .2 3/16 /126 3.9 6.2 .5
29 .5142 4.8
9/76 6:30p 3.1 4/16 3/16 .13 3.2 .9
25 .02
36 2.5
/79160 2:15p 3.6 4/16 2/16 8.6 4.3 .8
32 .713
45 2.0
/79106 15:0p .63 4/16 2/16 8.2 4.2 .3
16 .319
28 4.0
7/9160 6:05p 3.6 9/16 6/16 .9
18 6.12 .5
14 .816
25 .24
7/9106 10
:00p 3.6 8/16 4/16 .816 8.4 .9
29 .017
50 2.3
7/9160 211
:0p 6.3 5/16 3/16 .7
10 6.4 .1
16 .018
26 8.3
79/161 34: 0a .63 6/16 /146 .812 .58 .0
12 .53118 .04
/79161 :0100a 3.6 7/16 4/16 .9
14 8.5 .5
20 .012*
38 4.0
79/161 4:10p 3.6 /16
10 8/16 .3
21 .0
17 .1
30 .61438 .83
/79161 05: 5p 3.6 8/16 4/16 .0
17 5.8 .2
20 .617
34 2.9
/79162 1: 0a 3.6 /196 /166 19
.2 .8
12 .4
20 .039
32 .64
/79163 :3120p 3.6 6/16 4/16 .8
12 8.5 .2
38 .412*
54 4.6
/79163 4:10p 3.6 8/16 4/16 .017 8.5 .4
31 .19
43 .72
/79163 9:30p 3.6 8/16 /166 .1
17 12.8 .9
24 .916
33 .92
/79164 1:00a 3.6 1/86 7/16 .0
17 ,9
14 28.8 .71236 2.6
/79146 2:00a 3.6 6/16 4/16 .8
12 8.5 .2
27 .21
37 3.5
79/164 :0100a 3.6 8/16 /176 .0
17 9.
14 .3
31 .318
59 3.0
/76
9123 :0120a 31. 8/16 /166 6.1 4.6 .9
45 .680
55 .52
9/23176 5:10a 2. 7/16 5/16 91. 6.5 .4
33 .5
49 5.0
Average 17/6 1/46 .0
13 8.6 .4
26 .7239 3.6
Range 3
.(1 (/13 6 2/1( 6 (3.1 (2.3 .0-(12 .5-(118 (
2.0
3.6) )10/16 )8/16 .3)
21 .0)
17 .2)
38 .3)80
59 5.2)
*Estimated
value
ranged from 2 / 16 to 8 / 16 inches with an average thickness of 4 / 16 inch .
The sludge loading rate varied between 3 . 1 and 21 . 3 gph /ft“ , with an
average of 13 gph / ft . The total solids concentrations for the feed sludge,
sludge cake and filtrate ranged from 12 . 0 to 38 . 2 , 18 . 5 to 59 . 3 and 1 . 1 to
8 . 0 percent by weight respectively with an average of 26 . 4 , 39. 7 and 2 . 2
percent by weight.
The rates of sludge loading and sludge cake production were estimated from
the measured feed sludge thickness and the belt speed . As an illustration ,
data was taken from September 9 at 4 : 20 P . M . and calculated as follows :
Feed sludge = 4 / 16 = 0 . 021 ft.

Belt speed = 3 . 6 ft /min
Belt width = 9 in - 0 . 75 ft
Effective belt surface area = 3 ft"
Sludge surface loading area = 0 . 75 x 3 . 6 = 2 . 7 ft /min .
Therefore the sludge loading rate is :

= 2 . 7 ft /min x 0. 021 ft x 7. 48 gal/ft' x 60 min / hr
- 3 ft²
= 8.6 gph/ ft?
Similarly , the sludge cake production was estimated to be 4 . 3 gph / ft®
since the cake thickness for this particular run was 2 / 16 inch ,
On September 15 and 22 , the vacuum belt was used to dewater sludge which
had resulted from the use of chemical flocculation of thickener overflow .
Data for this time period is presented in table 2 . In comparing the data
with that in table 1 , certain observations can be made :
1. A slight increase in the thickness of sludge feed and cake

was noted during the time coagulation was used.
2.
There was an increase in the sludge loading rate and in
sludge production when chemicals were used .
3 . There was a significant increase in the total solids

concentration of the sludge feed and cake when chemicals
were used .
2.RESULTS
TABLE
DEWATERING
MUD
TOMATO
OF
WITH
UNIT
BELT
VACUUM
)(With
Coagulation
Chemical
Cake
Sludge Filtrate Calcon
Belt (in
Thickness
)Mud Production
Loading .(%)
Conc
Solids
Total Production Cat
-Floc
Speed Rate
Rate Rate Concentration
Date Time )/m(ftin Feed Cake g
( phne )/f(gt2t2
phph Feed Filtrate
Cake )/f(gt2ph /l)(mg
/79156 :41 0a .63 9/16 /176 .219 .9
14 .341 .256 .03 4.0
9/15176 8:40a 3.6 7/16 5/16 .9
16 .1
12 .8
35 .7
55 1.5 3.0
9/15176 4:00p 3.6 /166 5/16 .514 .1

12 .643 .658 .52 2.6
9122176 5:00p 6.3 9/16 /156 .8
21 .1
12 .2
38 .2
58 2.8 .53
9122176 :16 5p 2. 8/16 4/16 .4
10 5.2 .7
44 .9
56 5.1 5.
/76
9122 8:00p 1.3 8/16 1/66 6.1 .64 .6
39 .6
57 4.5 5.2
Average 8/16 5/16 14.8 10.2 57

.240 3.2 53. .35 .5
17
Range -(6/16 (4/16 .1-6( .6-4( 5

.7-(158355 (
2.5 (15
)9/16 )7/16 .8)
21 .9)
14 78
.6)5144 5.) )70
4. There was also a significant increase in the total solids concen
tration of the filtrate when adding chemicals and reasons for
this increase are not known .
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
The important parameters in evaluating a sludge dewatering unit includes :

sludge solids loading rate , cake solids production rate , dewatering effi
ciency and solids recovery efficiency . The sludge solids loading rate was
estimated to be the sum of rates of solids collected in the filtrate and
solids in the cake . The former were estimated from the filtrate production
rates and the solids concentrations of the filtrate . The rate of solids pro
duction in the cake was estimate from the sludge cake production and the
solids concentration of the cake. The specific gravity of the cake was
estimated to be 1 . 41 .
The sludge dewatering efficiency looks at the efficiency of removing water

from sludge and is defines as :
(filtrate water out)

D. E. =
filtrate cake
ut
7 x 100
water o out water out
The drying factor reflects on an increase of solids concentration of the cake

that is produced as opposed to sludge prior to dewate ring. This parameter
is defined as the ratio of solids concentration of the cake to that of the
sludge . The sludge volume reduction efficiency , representing the percent
volume reduction in dewatered sludge is an important factor that considers
the volume of cake being produced and disposed of. Efficiency is defined
as :
cake vol. prod. rate x 100

cake vol. . filtrate prod .
prod. rate ' rate
The final parameter that was evaluated was solids recovery efficiency and
is defined as:
cake solids
x 100
cake solids + filtrate solids
Table 3 presents data for dewatering with the vacuum belt during the time
period when chemical coagulation was not used . Solids loading rates ranged
from 9 . 8 to 117. 3 lbs /hr - ft2, with an average of 38 . 9 lbs /hr -ft2 . Cake
production ranged from 8 . 9 to 116 . 8 lbs / hr - ft with an average of 38 . 3
lbs /hr - ft . The dewatering efficiency was between 17 to 70 percent with
an average of 37 percent. The drying factor ranged between 1 . 21 and
1 . 89 with an average of 1 . 53. The sludge volume reduction efficiencies
ranged from 17 to 49 percent with an average of 30 percent. The solids
recovery efficiencies ranged from 91 to 99 percent with an average of
97 percent.
The effect of chemical treatment of thickener overflow on sludge dewatering

was investigated for six runs that took place on 9 / 15 and 9 /22 . The
chemical used was a cationic polymer (Calgon Cat - Floc) . The chemical
dosage for the three runs made on 9 / 15 was 15 mg/ l ; and for 9 / 22 it was
20 mg/ l. Results for these conditions and the ranges are given in table 4 .
In comparing the performance of the vacuum belt as shown in table 3 and

4 , it was noted that a significantly higher sludge solids loading rate and
cake solids production rate were obtained with chemical coagulation than
without. The average solids loading rate with chemical usage was 76 . 2
lbs / hr - ft? as opposed to 38 . 9 lbs /hr - ft2 without chemical use . Similarly ,
the average solids production rate with chemical addition was 75 . 2 lb /hr
ft? , in contrast to 38 . 3 lb /hr - ft without chemical.
It has been estimated that the unit cost for the vacuum belt dewatering unit
is $ 2 per ton of dry solids . This is in contrast to the $ 12 to $ 29 / ton of dry
solids for the dewatering of sewage sludge by conventional rota ry drum
vacuum filters , filter presses or centrifuges. The unit cost of $ 2 /ton is
estimated on the following assumptions:
1. Tomato production rate - 120 tons /hr.

Solids production rate - 15 lbs soil / ton tomatoes .
3. Period of operation - 60 days.

Initial capital cost - $ 5 , 000 with a 5 year life and straight
line depreciation .
5 . Manpower - 2 man hours /day at $ 10 /hr.

wer
6. Total power - 3 HP.
3.PERFORMANCE
TABLE
MUD
TOMATO
CF
EVALUATION
UNIT
BELT
VACUUM
WITH
ING
DEWATER
)(Without
Coagulation
Chemical
Solids
Cake
Solids
Sludge Dewatering Volume
Sludge Solids
Rate
Load
Effi
Rate cien
Proding
ucticy
on Reduction Recovery
Date Time /fh(l))/fh(lbt2bt2r (% ) Factor (% )
Drying (% )
9/76 4:20p .024 .7
23 47 .81 2 79
9/ 176 5:00p .9
12 .512 4.1 4
9/76 6:30p 9.8 9.8 1.39
7/9106 2:15p .1
23 .9
22 1.39
/79160 5:10p .6
12 .012 7.1 4
79/160 06: 5p .9
32 .3
32 1.78
/79106 :0100p 51
.2 .9
50 6.1 7
/79160 11:20p 17
.2 16
6. 6
.1 1
/79161 4:30a 15.8 .8
14 1.54
/79161 10:00a .7
35 .3
35 .81 5
/79161 4:10p .4
72 .0
72 1.28
13 .
/79161 5:05p 31
.7 .3
31 1.71
79/126 1:0a .2
44 .7
42 5.1 7
/79136 12:30p 58
.8 .3
58 1.42
/79163 4:10p .0
42 6.41 3.1 7
/79163 3:90p .3
46 .9
45 1.36
79/146 :01 0a .4
59 .1
59 1.27
/79164 2:00a .734 34
.3 .31 7
/79164 10:00a .3
117 .8
116 1.89
9/23176 :0120p .334 .6
32 1.21
/79263 5:10a .1
44 .8
38 1.48
Average .9
38 .338 37 1.53 30
Range (
9.8 (89 1
(7 (1.21 (17
.3)
117 .8)
116 )
70 )1.89 )
49
4.PEVALUATION
TABLE
MUD
TOMATO
OF
ERFORMANCE
UNIT
BELT
VACUUM
WITH
DEWATERING
)(With
Coagulation
Chemical
Solids
Sludge Cake
Solids Dewatering Volume Solids
Sludge
Loading
Rate Rate
Production Efficiency Reduction Recovery
Date Time )/fh(lbt2r h
)/fl(bt2r (%) Factor
Drying (% ) (% )
19/ 5176 :41 0a .4

108 .4
107 1.36
/71956 8:40a .586 .186 1.56
9/15176 4:00p 93
.6 93.1 .31 4
9122176 0:50p .9
92 .192 1.52
/79262 1:6 5p .5
40 .2
38 1.27
/79262 8:00p 35.4 .5
34 1.45
Average .2
76 .2
75 1 36 1.42 28 98
Range (35
.4 (34
.5 (1.27 (8
1 (94
.4)
108 .4)
107 )1.56 )
51 )
99
During the course of this project the newly developed vacuum belt dewater
ing unit has only been evaluated on the dewatering of sludge from tomato
dump tank water. Its performance on sewage sludge is unknown and makes
a comparison with other existing sludge dewatering devices rather difficult .
What has been evaluated appears to be an efficient and cost effective device
for dewatering mud .
REFERENCES
1. Rose, W . W . , Katsuyama, A . M . , and Wilson , G . E . Tomato

cleaning and water recycle . Proceedings of the Sixth National
Symposium on Food Processing Wastes EPA 600 / 2 - 76 - 224 (1975 )
2. Wilson , G . E . , Rose , W . W . , and Huang , J . Y . C . Tomato flume

water recycle with off - line mud removal. Proceedings of the
Seventh National Symposium on Food Processing Wastes EPA
600 / 2 - 76 - 304 (1976 )
Krochta, J . M . , Graham , R . P . , and Rose, W . W . Cleaning of

tomatoes using rotating rubber discs. Food Technology 28 (12) :26
(1974 )
Carroad, P . A . , Krochta , J . M . , and Rose, W . W . Water / energy

trade - off in cleaning tomatoes. Food Technology 30 ( 3 ) :24 (1976 )
5. Carroad , P . A . , and Rose , W . W . Water recycle improves disc

cleaning of tomatoes. Food Technology 31 ( 3 ) : 92 (1977)
75
REMOVAL OF SUSPENDED SOLIDS AND ALGAE
FROM AEROBIC LAGOON EFFLUENT
TO MEET PROPOSED 1983 DISCHARGE STANDARDS TO STREAMS
by
Ernest R . Ramirez * , D . L . Johnson * * , and T . E . Elliott * *
ABSTRACT
A new technology has been applied to the removal of algae from aerobic
lagoons . This involves a two - step process which employs electrocoagulation
together with a specially designed dissolved air flotation basin . The
performance of this system is very effective in removal of algae from
aerobic lagoon effluent .
INTRODUCTION
A Swift Hog Packinghouse Plant located in Moultrie, Georgia processes

approximately 2 , 000 hogs per day . These are dressed and cut in a one - shift
operation . Water used to carry out this operation is approximately
650 , 000 gallons per day. Following good in -plant waste control practices
plus extensive mechanical pretreatment, this plant employs an anaerobic
lagoon with an area of approximately 1 - 1 / 2 acres and a depth of 14 feet .
The anaerobic lagoon effluent is directed to a 19 - acre aerobic lagoon .
Details on construction and design factors of both the anaerobic and
aerobic lagoon have been described in the literature ( 1 ) .
In spite of the anaerobic and aerobic lagoons , the plant determined it

would not be able to meet either 1977 nor 1983 effluent limitations with
the original treatment system . Effluent from the aerobic lagoon is
discharged to Okapilco Creek .
A fundamental problem with the lagoon system at Moultrie , as in other

systems of its type, is the growth of algae in the aerobic lagoon .
The problem of algae in aerobic lagoons has been studied elsewhere and is
discussed in ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . Basically , algae can be described as hydrophilic bio
colloids with apparent negative surface charges . Oftentimes , algae are
* Swift & Company , Research & Development Center , Oak Brook , Illinois 60521
* * Swift Fresh Meats Company , 115 West Jackson Blvd . , Chicago , Illinois 60604
76
particulates 3 to 15 microns in size and their specific gravity is approx
imately that of the water . Destabilization of algae suspensions has been
accomplished with lime , alum , magnesium ions , ferric sulfate , and many
synthetic polyelectrolytes ( 3 ) (5 ) . pH is an important factor with regard
to any chemical treatment for removal of algae from water .
ALTERNATE SOLUTIONS TO MEET EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS
The solution to the problem was approached from many directions . These
included the following : ( a ) modified in -plant operations and improved
pretreatment to diminish the problem , (b ) consider the possibility of
working with the municipal plant for treatment of all Swift wastewater ,
( c ) use of aerobic lagoon effluent as an irrigation source , ( d ) employ
algae destruct chambers of the Chem Pure Inc. type , ( e ) use of dissolved
air flotation as described in the literature , ( f ) consider algae - eating
fish in the aerobic lagoon , ( g ) use of extended aeration and sand filter
tertiary treatment , ( h ) use services of algae harvesting facilities as
described by the WRAP System , ( i ) physical- chemical treatment using
Lectroclear process , ( j ) Sweco concentrato , and (k ) Biological Water
Purification reed sand filter system .
of the above alternate approaches to the wastewater treatment problem

at Moultrie , our Engineering Department settled on the following three
combined with improved pretreatment as being the more efficient and
reliable, when considering the strict standards of the 1983 Effluent
Limitations : (a ) extended aeration and sand filter tertiary treatment ,
(b ) water reclamation by algae harvesting (WRAP System ) , ( c ) physical
chemical treatment with LectroClear .
COST EVALUATION OF TREATMENT ALTERNATIVES
The three selected alternatives mentioned above were then fully evaluated
in terms of Capital Equipment and Cost and Operating and Maintenance
Cost . A cash flow of the three processes indicated the physical -chemical
treatment , using the Lectroclear principle , was the most economical . At
the completion of this cost analysis study , plans were then laid for the
design and installation of a Lectroclear System capable of meeting proposed
1983 effluent limitations. These limitations , together with the limitations
for 1977 , are given in Tables 1 and 2 .
11
TABLE 1 . MOULTRIE - EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS
(WATER QUALITY LIMITED STREAM )
JULY 1 , 1977 - JUNE 30 , 1979
Effluent Kg /Day (Lbs . /Day ) Basis 0 .65 Mgd Other Units
Daily Daily Daily Daily
Avg . Мах .
Avg . Max .
BOD5 * 25 (54 ) 50 ( 108 ) 20 ppm
TSS * * 74 ( 163) 148 ( 326 ) 60 ppm
Oil & Grease * * * 24 (52 ) 48 ( 104 ) 20 ppm
Fecal Coliform Max . 400 org . /
100 ml .
Ammonia 10 (22) 20 (44 ) 4 - 8 ppm
(Nitrogen ) * * * *
pH 6 .0 - 9.0
Settleable Solids Not to exceed
0 . 1 ml / 1
* Based on stream water quality model .

* * Based on 1977 Meat Packing Guidelines - max . Lwk 654 M # Lwk x . 25 # / M # Lwk .
* * * 977 Meat Packing Guidelines - max . Luk 654 MfLwk x . 08# /M # Lwk.
* * * * Based on 1983 Meat Packing Guidelines - (4 ppm ) ( 8 . 345 ) 1 .650 Mgd . )
TABLE 2 . MOULTRIE - PROPOSED EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS

(WATER QUALITY LIMITED STREAM )
JULY 1 , 1983
Effluent Kg/ Day (Lbs . / Day ) Basis 0 .65 Mgd Other Units
Daily Daily Daily Daily
Avg . Мах . Avg . Max .
BOD5 26 52 5 - 10 ppm
TSS 46 9 - 18 ppm
Oil & Grease 10 mg / 1
Ammonia
22.
(Nitrogen ) 22 44 4 - 8 ppm
Fecal Coliform Max . 400 Org /
100ml
PH 6 .0 - 9.0
Settleable Solids Not to exceed
0 . 1 ml / 1
Dissolved Oxygen 6 ppm .
DECISION TO GO TO ELECTROCOAGULATION -DISSOLVED AIR FLOTATION
The plant was especially interested in selecting a low Capital Equipment
figure together with a low Operating Cost figure . Stipulations put forth
by the plant and included in this design were the following : (a ) system
should have the capability of the aerobic lagoon effluent in a single - shift
( 8 hours ) five day operation . This stipulation automatically increased
the capacity of the unit by threefold , (b ) space was not a premium item
under the condition of this project , ( c ) labor allotted to the wastewater
treatment system would be held to a minimum .
Annual Operating and Maintenance Cost of the Lectroclear installation

based on a design of 1 , 500 gallons per minute is an estimated maximum
$ 75, 000 per year . Annual Fixed Cost and Depreciation Cost are an esti
mated $ 25 , 000 per year based on a straight line 15 year depreciation .
Total Annual Operating costs and Fixed and Depreciation Costs are an
estimated maximum $ 100 , 000 per year for the specific plant at Moultrie ,
Georgia .
DESIGN FACTORS
The design of the LectroClear unit installed in Moultrie , Georgia was

based on the following parameters: (a ) a single design would be made
which would meet both 1977 and 1983 Effluent Limitations. The primary
difference in the quality of the treated wastewater would be the amount
of metal coagulant employed (alum ) .
Beaker Scale tests on the removal of algae from Moultrie wastewater

showed the following : ( a ) optimum reults were achieved when the com
bination of electrocoagulation and dissolved air flotation were employed ,
(b ) energy input in the electrocoagulation cell would require not more
than 2 ampere -minutes per gallon of wastewater treated , ( c ) 50 % dissolved
air recirculation using pressures between 50 to 75 psig would be adequate,
( d ) to meet the 1977 Standards, approximately 80 - 150 ppm of alum would
be required , while to meet the proposed 1983 Limitations approximately
150 - 250 ppm of ulum would be used , ( e ) size of the basin would be 64 - feet
long , 15 - feet wide , and 5 - feet deep , ( f ) dwell time in the electrocoagu
lation cell would be 2 - 1 / 2 minutes when operated at 1 , 500 gpm . Details
on mechanisms and design of electrocoagulation cells have been reported
elsewhere (6 ) (7 ) (8 ) (9 ) (10 ) . Photographs of the electrocoagulation
cell are shown in Figures 1 and 2 . Photographs of the overall installation ,
showing both flotation basin and electrocoagulation cell, are shown in
Figures 3 and 4 .
Fig . 1 Electrocoagulation Cell. Fig . 2 Inside view of bottom of
Bottom section contains Electrocoagulation Cell .
electrodes . Note close spacing between
electrodes .
Rectifier , powering the electrocoagulation cell , is capable of 24 Volts DC

and 3 , 000 Amperes . Pump employed for the 50 % dissolved air recycle
employs 50 Hp .
RESULTS
Installation of all basic hardware was completed in January 1976 .

Several one- week trial runs were carried out to evaluate capabilities of
the installation and also to debug the operation .
Performance of the L
Performance of the LectroClear installation during various runs is shown
in Table 3 .
80
Fig . 3 . Flotation Basin . Electro Fig . 4 . Rear View of Flotation
coagulation Cell is at the Basin . Tank is pressure
left . Note skimming storage chamber for DAF .
in front of basin .
TABLE 3 . WATER ANALYSES OF MOULTRIE -LECTROCLEAR TESTS
Sample Date * * BOD TSSTEN pH FOG Fecal

(mg / 1 ) (mg / 1 ) (mg / 1 ) (mg / 1 ) Coliform (mg / 1 )
Lagoon 9 / 20 / 76 53 33. 0 7.7

LC Effluent * 9 / 20 / 76 5 5. 5 26 . 5
Lagoon 9 / 21 / 76 21 . 6 64 47. 9 5 .1
LC Effluent * 9 /21 / 76 3.5 4.5 12 . 3 5.1
Lagoon 9 / 22 / 76 17 . 3 55 24 .6 4 .0
LC Effluent+
* 3,231756
9 / 22 / 76 17:
22. 7 5 2 ..
.0 24.0
9.7 --- ---
Lagoon 9 / 23/ 76 44 23. 0
LC Effluent * 9 / 23 /76 5 13 . 0 6 .9
Lagoon 9 / 24 / 76 24 . 0 7.5
LC Effluent* 9 /24 /76 7 14 . 0 7. 0
Lagoon 1 / 4 / 77 56 20 . 0 9.2 -
LC Effluent* 1 / 4 / 77 9 13.0
7.2 0
* Lectroclear Effluent - Treatment is 150 ppm Alum , 2 ppm Anionic Polymer
1 . 2 Ampere -minutes in Electrocoagulation Cell , 50% recycled DAF ,
all samples are daily composite tests .
Solids content of the skimmings are given in Table 4 . .
TABLE 4 . MOULTRIE - ALGAE SLUDGE ANALYSES LECTROCLEAR BASIN

(WET BASIS )
Date Total Solids, % TKN , % Equiv . Protein , % Aluminum , %

3 / 31 / 76 3. 9
3 / 31 / 76 4.0
3 / 31 /76 4.2
3 / 31 / 76 3. 6
3 / 31 / 76 3.9 0 . 245 1 . 56
4 / 1 / 76 4 .9 0 . 25 1 . 56
4 / 2 / 76 7 .8 0 . 27 1 .69
8 /21 / 76 5 .4 0 . 28
9 / 21/ 76 7. 0 0 . 28
The analyses of both as generated skimmings and skimmings on a dry basis are
given in Table 5 .
TABLE 5 . MOULTRIE SKIMMINGS ANALYSIS (DRY BASIS)
us
Sample Date Phosphorus, % TKN, % Equiv . Protein , % K20
Comp. 1 - 5 3 /31/76 1 . 71 7 . 88 49 . 4 0 .70
It is anticipated that approximately 3 , 000 gallons per day of algae skim

mings will be generated and removed from the LectroClear basin .
Due to the fertilizer value of the skimmings , the local farmers were
interested in obtaining possession of the skimmings . In the final
analyses , a contract will be made with a local farmer whereby he would
guarantee the removal of skimmings on a daily basis . Figure 5 shows
farmer removing the first few runs of skimmings at the Lectroclear
wastewater treatment facility .
82
Fig . 5 . Farmer removes skimmings from skimmings holding tank .
DISCUSSION
The results show that removal of algae at the Moultrie plant is a

proportional function of alum dosage used . To meet proposed 1983 dis
charge limitations to the stream , alum addition of about 150 - 250 ppm
will be required . The 1977 discharge limitations can be met with
approximately 80- 150 ppm of alum addition .
The data clearly demonstrate that the combination of electrocoagulation

and recycle dissolved air flotation technologies can be effectively used
to remove suspended solids from wastewaters. The unique sequential two
step operation employing electrocoagulation first, provides an ideal
approach to destabilizing the hydrophilic biocolloid in the first - step ,
while recycle dissolved air flotation is used to remove the last traces
of suspended material from the wastewater .
This particular installation was used to separate algae from wastewater .

The concept , however , can be effectively used for handling any type of
wastewater where suspended material, coagulated material (blood or
albumen ) , or precipitated material (heavy metals ) are present. It
follows that this technology can be applied to all wastewaters where
suspended , dispersed or emulsified foreign pollutants are present .
In summary , a new concept has been established for utilizing electro

coagulation and dissolved air flotation in a sequential two - step
operation . The effectiveness of this technology surpasses the per
formance of processes heretofore industrially employed .
83
REFERENCES
1. Sollo , F . W . 15th Industrial Waste Conference , Purdue University ,

Lafayette, Ind . ( 1960) .
2. Friedman , A . A . , Peaks , D . A . , and Nichols , R . L . Algae separation

from oxidation pond effluents . Journal Water Poll. Control Fed . ,
Pg . 111 ( 1977 ) .
Caldwell, D . H . , et al. Upgrading lagoons. Transfer Seminar Program ,

USEPA , Washington , D . C . (August 1973) ,
Bare, W . F . Rance , et al. Algae removal rising dissolved air flotation .
Journal Water Pollution Control Fed . , 47 , 153 (1975 ) .
Folkman , Yais and Wachs , Alberta M . Removal of algae from stabiliza

tion pond effluents by lime treatment.
Ramirez , E . R . Electrocoagulation of meat processing wastewater .

WWEMA Industrial Conference (April 3 , 1974 ) .
Beck , E . C . , Giannini, A . P . , and Ramirez , E . R . Electrocoagulation

clarifies food wastewater . Food Technology , Vol. 28 , No. 2 , Pg . 18 ,
(1974 ) .
Ramirez , Ernest R . Electrocoagulation clarifies food wastewater .

Deeds & Data, WPCF (April 1975 ) .
Ramirez , E . R . , Johnson , D . L . and Clemens, 0 . A . Direct Comparison

in physiochemical treatment of packinghouse wastewater between dis
solved air and electroflotation . 31st Annual Purdue Industrial Waste
Conference , West Lafayette , Ind . (May 1976 ) .
10 . Ramirez , E . R . and Clemens , 0 . A . Electrocoagulation techniques for
primary treatment of several different types of wastewater . 49th
Annual Conference , W . P . C . F . , Minneapolis , Minn . (October 4 , 1976 ) .
EFFLUENT GENERATION , ENERGY USE AND COST OF BLANCHING
by
John L . Bomben *
INTRODUCTION
The wastewater produced by the blanching of vegetables for freezing or can

ning is a significant fraction of the total wasteload of the vegetable
processing industry ( 1 ) . Since the beginning of this industry , the basic
design of blanchers has received little attention , but because of national
concerns about wastewater and energy , changes in the design of conventional
blanching systems are now being tested and evaluated .
This paper describes the characteristics of conventional blanchers and new

blancher designs , the effluent generation and energy use of blanchers , and
the cost of blanching with four different blanchers (water , steam (hydrosta
tic and vibratory spiral ) , and hot gas ) .
Material and Heat Balances
Figure 1 shows a material balance for blanching and cooling vegetables .

(Table 1 lists the definitions of the symbols used in this paper ) . Total
Solids of the vegetables is used as the unit for the material balance . In
the effluent , Total Solids can be expressed as the equivalent Biological
Oxygen Demand (BOD ) , Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD ) or Total Organic Carbon
( TOC ) and Suspended Solids ( ss ) , which are all common units for measuring the
organic load of an effluent . The initial weight of raw vegetables changes
as the vegetables are blanched and cooled because of changes in water and
solids content ; the yields ( Y , and Y , ) represent these changes . Reducing
the wasteload of blanching and cooling translates into reducing the hydraulic
load ( E , and E . ) and the organic load ( TSC and TS ) of the effluents . If
air is used to cool the vegetables , then E = 0 , and the cooling effluent is
eliminated , but since much of the cooling is provided by evaporation of water ,
the yield after air cooling will be less than that after water cooling .
Frozen vegetables are sold by weight , and thus the reduction in yield is a
product loss . Bomben et al . , (5 ) have reported on material balances measured
with seven different vegetables using either air or water cooling .
Figure 2 shows a heat balance for blanching and cooling . Using C = 1 kcal /
kg°C ( 1 BTU / 16°F) AH = 539 kcal /kg ( 970 BTU /1b ) and Q, = 0 , the theoretical
steam required to heat the vegetables to an enzyme inactivation temperature
can be calculated to be 134 kg of steam /kkg of raw vegetables ( 268 lb steam /
ton raw vegetables ) . The magnitude of Q , determines the efficiency of an
actual blancher ; the smaller it is , the higher the efficiency .
*USDA , ARS, Western Regional Research Center , Berkeley , California
85
STEAM COLD
WATER
OR /OR
AND
WATER
HOT AIR
AMBIENT
RAW BLANCHED COOLED

BLANCHER COOLER
VEGETABLES VEGETABLES VEGETABLES
,(TS
)RWy ,(TS
WV
)BYB ),(TYCSYBWV
BLANCHER COOLER
EFFLUENT EFFLUENT
86
,(TSB
)EEB ,(TSC
)EEC
CWy
+)E(TcvW=YRTSBBCcSYB
COOLER
BLANCHER
BOD
BOD
SS Ss
1Material
.Figure
cooling
and
blanching
for
balance
WW
QH ';=1w 6°C
WV WV
YB YCWv
RAW BLANCHED COOLED
BLANCHER COOLER
VEGETABLES VEGETABLES VEGETABLES
=16°C
t1 =8
t28°C =27°C
13
WW
QH
w
Q+1)t-(= iyc
87
=27°C
two
kkIF cal
g°C
:/1C=&OQL
STEAM
1kg
- 24
QH
VEGET
kRAW
". kg
wy
2Heat
.Figure
cooling
and
blanching
for
balance
TABLE 1 . NOMENCLATURE
BOD = Biological Oxygen Demand , kg /kkg

C = heat capacity of vegetables or water , kcal /kg°c
E , = hydraulic wasteload of blancher , 1 /kkg of raw vegetables
E = hydraulic wasteload of cooler , 1 /kkg of raw vegetables
AH = heat of vaporization for water , kcal /kg
Q = heat added to blancher , kcal/kg of raw vegetable
Q1 = heat lost from blancher , kcal /kg of raw vegetable
s $ = Suspended Solids , kg /kkg
( TS ) , = Total Solids in blanched vegetables, %
( TS ) ) = Total Solids in cooled vegetable , %
(( TTSSJ)EB, == TTotal
ors Solids in blancher effluent , %
= Total Solids in cooler effluent , %
SEC
(( TS ) - ° = Total Solids in raw vegetable , %
t , = temperature of raw vegetables , °C
WN
t = temperature of blanched vegetables , °C

t = temperature of cooled vegetables , °C
tw . = temperature of inlet cooling water
tw = temperature of outlet cooling water
= feed rate of raw vegetables, kkg /hr
= water evaporated from vegetable , kkg/hr
YogPyield of blanched vegetables , %
yield of cooled vegetables , %
On the basis of a heat balance using the temperatures shown in Figure 2 ,

5500 1 of water / kkg of raw vegetables ( 1320 gal/ton ) are required for cool
ing vegetables after blanching . For air cooling the heat balance is more
complicated because both heat of evaporation and sensible heat are trans
ferred . If heat were transferred solely by evaporation , then for the temper
atures in Figure 2 , C = 1 kcal /kg and AH = 556 kcal /kg ( 1000 BTU / 1b ) :
Wevap - YC ( t, - tz? = 0 . 0997.
W 2H + C ( t , - t )
Since Y , usually equals approximately 95 % (5 ) , air cooling gives approxi
mately å 10 % reduction in the yield of vegetables . This loss can be
counteracted by spraying the vegetables with water or blancher condensate,
but in practice the weight loss and water addition do not balance , and
there is a reduction of yield and some production of effluent ( 5 ) .
Conventional Water and Steam Blanchers
Although conventional blanchers can be found in many forms , they can be put
into two basic categories - - -water and steam blanchers . Table 2 shows the
characteristics of wastewater from conventional steam and water blanchers .
Blanchers are operated at varying conditions , and as a result , the charac
teristics of the wastewater can be quite different at different times in the
TABLE 2 . WASTELOAD AND ENERGY USE IN CONVENTIONAL BLANCHING
Hydraulic Load BOD SS Steam Efficiency

( 1/kkg ) (kg /kkg ) (kg/ kkg ) (%
60
Hot Water
Snap Beans 124 0 .69 0 . 13
Lima Beans 821 0 .65
Peas 384 3. 0
Steam
Snap Beans 125 0 .55 0 . 02
Lima Beans 238 3 .5
Peas 313 4 .3
( 1) Data taken from Ralls & Mercer (4 ) , Lund (5 ) , Lazar & Rasmussen (6 ) , and
Bomben ( 7 ) .
same plant and from plant to plant . Generally , water blanchers produce a
higher hydraulic load , but their organic load can be larger or smaller than
that of steam blanchers . The amount of makeup water added to a water blan
cher is not a well -controlled variable and is probably the cause of the large
difference in wasteloads reported in the literature . One plant operates a
water blancher with no overflow ( 8 ) , but since in that particular case
(artichokes ) citric acid is added to the blancher water , this has to be
considered a special case , whose applicability to other blanched vegetables
has not been investigated .
Data on the steam consumed by conventional blanchers are very limited , and
typical values are shown in Table 2 , where efficiencies are based on the
theoretical steam consumption of 134 kg of steam /kkg of raw vegetables .
Whereas the steam efficiency for the steam blancher was a measured value ( 7 ) ,
the one for the water blancher was estimated (6 ) . Generally , it appears
reasonable to assume that water blanchers consume less steam than steam
blanchers , but measurements of the actual efficiency of a water blancher
are not available , or at least not well-known . The low efficiency of a
steam blancher is attributable to the large losses of steam at the feed
and discharge ends and the large uninsulated surface area .
New Blancher Designs
The Vibratory Spiral Blancher - Cooler is a design which departs markedly from
that of conventional steam blanchers ( 9 ) . Vibratory spiral conveyors are used
to reduce the size of the steam blancher as compared to a water blancher ,
thereby reducing floor space and reducing surface area for heat loss . In
89
addition , the spiral conveyor gives a simple means of sealing the feed and
discharge of the blancher with vegetables thereby reducing this large heat
loss associated with steam blanching . In addition to the blancher , this
design also uses a vibratory spiral conveyor as an air cooler , where conden
sate from the blancher is sprayed on the vegetables as they are cooled .
Thus , the only effluent for both blanching and cooling is the unevaporated ,
unabsorbed liquid leaving the cooler . This design has been tested in a
large -scale pilot plant ( 7 and 9 ) , and Table 3 shows the waste load and the
steam efficiency obtained with that unit .
TABLE 3 . WASTELOAD AND STEAM EFFICIENCY OF VIBRATORY BLANCHER - COOLER
Hydraulic BOD ss
Load
( 1 / kkg ) (kg/kkg) (kg/kkg)
Snap Beans 27 . 0 0 .53 0 . 084
Lima Beans 0 . 90 0 . 54
Brussels Sprouts 0 .43 0 . 073
Cauliflower
Broccoli 0 .25 0 . 091
Steam Efficiency = 85% ( Theoretical steam requirement = 134 kg / kkg of

vegetables )
Hot -Gas Blanching uses the products of combustion along with steam as a heat
transfer medium ( 4 ) . A belt conveyor moves the vegetable through the hot
gases and steam . This concept has been tested to the pilot plant stage , and
Table 4 shows the waste load and energy requirements obtained with the pilot
plant .
The Hydrostatic Steam Blancher uses water to seal the feed and discharge of
a conventional steam blancher , thereby reducing the escape of steam from the
blancher ( 10 ) . Some of these blanchers are operating in freezing plants in
California , and are reported to use 0 .5 lb of steam per lb of vegetable ( 11) .
No data are available on the wasteload produced by this system , but it proba
bly is approximately the same as that of a conventional steam blancher and
flume as reported by Bomben et al . ( 5 ) and listed in Table 5 .
90
TABLE 4 . WASTELOAD AND STEAM EFFICIENCY OF HOT -GAS BLANCHING
Hydraulic BOD
Load
( 1 /kkg) (kg/kkg)
Snap Beans 0 . 06 < 0 .01

Corn - on -cob 58 0 . 86
Beets 93 0 .63
Spinach 0 .66 0 .01
Peas 14 0 . 12
Steam efficiency = 56 % ( includes natural gas and electrical power for

blower and is based on a theoretical steam consump
tion = 134 kg /kkg) .
( 1)
TABLE 5 . WASTELOAD OF STEAM BLANCHING INCLUDING WATER COOLING
Steam Blanching Effluent Water Cooling Effluent

Hydraulic Hydraulic
Load BOD ( 2 ) Load BOD (2 )
( 1/ kkg ) (kg/kkg) ( 1 /kkg ) (kg/kkg )
Snap Beans 150 0 . 92 4930 1.6
Lima Beans 113 1.1 4960 3.4
Peas 191 2. 7 4960 2. 9
(1) Data taken from Bomben , et . al. ( 5)

( 2) Chemical Oxygen Demand was multiplied by 0 .6 to get BOD (7 )
Comparison of Waste Water and Energy Use
Table 6 compare's the wastewater produced and the energy used for the blan
ching of snap beans by different methods. Wastewater characteristics are
reported as hydraulic wasteload and organic wasteload ( BOD & SS ) and steam
consumptions are reported as efficiency with respect to the theoretical value
of 134 kg / kkg. In the case of Hot - Gas Blanching, the energy of the natural
gas and the circulating blower are included in the calculation of the effi
ciency .
Hot -Gas Blanching produces the lowest wasteload . Its energy efficiency is
an improvement over steam blanching , and it approaches that of water blan
ching . Despite its low wasteload , Hot -Gas Blanching is at a disadvantage
97
TABLE 6 . WASTELOAD AND STEAM EFFICIENCY OF DIFFERENT METHODS OF BLANCHING
SNAP BEANS
Hydraulic BOD ss Steam

Load Efficiency
( 1 /kkg) ( kg / kkg ) (kg / kkg ) (% )
Conventional Water 124 0 .69 0 . 13

Conventional Steam 125 0 . 55 0 . 02
Hot - Gas 0 . 06 < 0 . 01 < 0 . 01
Hydrostatic Steam
Vibratory Spiral 0.53 0 . 084
Blancher -Cooler
because it depends on increasingly scarce natural gas or liquified petroleum

gas .
Since its effluent is the same as a conventional steam blancher and a cooling
flume, the Hydrostatic Steam Blancher makes no reduction in wasteload . Its
steam efficiency is a considerable improvement over that of a conventional
steam blancher , but it is less than that of a conventional water blancher .
The wasteload for the Vibratory Spiral Blancher -Cooler includes both blan
ching and cooling , whereas the other wasteloads shown in Table 6 do not
include cooling. In preparing vegetables for freezing, flume cooling is
generally used after blanching , and flume cooling has a larger hydraulic
wasteload than blanching (5 ) . The Vibratory Spiral Blancher - Cooler reduces
both of these wasteloads to low levels . If only the Vibratory Spiral Blan
cher is used , as in canning , then its wasteload would be about the same as
that of conventional steam blanching . The Vibratory Spiral Blancher - Cooler
has the highest steam efficiency of the blanchers shown in Table 5 , thus
demonstrating the effectiveness of its seals against steam leaks and its
double wall insulated construction .
COST ANALYSIS
Table 7 shows the capital cost of four blanchers . Since conventional steam
blanchers are usually custom - fabricated , purchase costs could not be accu
rately obtained ; therefore , it was decided not to include this type of
blancher in the cost analysis . Equipment purchase costs are based on
equipment manufacturers ' price quotations for a capacity of 4 . 5 kkg/hr
( 5 tons /hr) of snap beans ( 2 . 0 minute blanching time ) . Other items in esti
mating direct fixed capital are taken as percentages of equipment purchase
cost ( 12 ) . Floor space is valued at $ 270 / m ( $ 25 / ft ) . The costs of the
water blancher (reel type ) and Hot -Gas Blancher include $5 ,000 for a flume
cooler . The Vibratory Spiral Blancher - Cooler and the Hydrostatic Steam
Blancher have the cooler as an integral part of the blancher .
92
TABLE 7 . CAPITAL INVESTMENT FOR BLANCHERS AND COOLERS
Vibratory Water Hydrostatic Hot -Gas

Spiral Blancher Steam Blancher
Blancher Blancher
Cooler
-
1. Equipment purchase $ 107, 587 $ 16 , 373 $ 87 ,446 $ 126 , 900

cost
Nm
Delivery 5 , 379 819 4 , 372 6 , 345

Installation 21,517 3 , 275 17 , 489 25 , 380
4. Floor space 4 , 050 1 ,719 9 ,000 25 ,022
5. Indirect costs 34 ,633 5 , 546 29 ,577 45 ,873
$173, 166 $ 27 ,732 $ 147, 883 $229 ,520
1 . Equip 1 . Equip 1 . Equip 1 . Ralls &
ment Mfg . ment Mfg . ment Mfg . Mercer ( 4 )
2 . 5 % of 1 + $5 ,000 2 . 5% of 1 correc
3 . 20% gf 1 for flume 3. 20% gf 1 ted by
4 . 15 m at 2 . 5 % of 1 4 . 33 m ? gt Marshall
$270 /m 3 . 20 % of 1 $ 270 /m2 and
5. 25% (1 +2 + 4 . 6 .4 m ,at 5 . 25% ( 1+ 2 + Stevens
3+ 4 ) $ 270 / m 3+ 4 ) equip
5 . 25% (1 + 2 + ment
3+4 ) cost
index ( 12 )
+ $ 5 , 000
for
flume
2 . 5 % of 1
3 . 20% of 1
, no 2
4 . 93m at
$ 270 / m
5 . 25 % ( 1 +
+ 2 + 3+ 4 )
Table 8 shows the labor , fixed and variable costs for the four blanchers , and
it shows the basis used for calculating these costs. Since the open mesh
conveyor belts used in the Hydrostatic and Hot -Gas Blanchers probably require
more maintenance than the conveying systems used in the Vibratory Spiral or
water blancher , higher maintenance costs were used for the former . There are
no data available for the wasteload of Hydrostatic Steam Blanchers; there
fore , its wastewater cost was calculated from the wasteload of conventional
steam blanching with flume cooling ( Table 5 ) . The water use and wasteload
for flume cooling were added to those of water blanching and Hot -Gas Blan
ching to get an overall cost of water and wastewater for these systems .
TABLE 8 . COST OF BLANCHING AND COOLING FOR FREEZING ( $ / kkg )
Vibratory Spiral Water Hydrostatic Hot -Gas

Blancher - Cooler Blancher Steam Blancher Blancher
1. Operating labor 0 .63 0 .63 0 .63 0 .63

L .
Supervision , 0 .41 0 .41 0 . 41 0 . 41
fringes benefits ,
laboratory , etc .
3. Maintenance 0 .69 0 . 11 1 . 17 1 . 82
4 . Depreciation 1 . 37 0 . 22 1 . 17 1 .82
5 . Insurance , Taxes , 1 . 10 0 . 18 0 . 94 1 . 46
other expenses
Steam 0 .68 0 . 96 2 . 15 0 . 77
Electricity 0 .04 0 .01 0 .02 0 . 36
Water 0 . 00 0 . 16 0 . 17 0 . 16
9 . Wastewater 0 . 01 0 . 15 0 . 14 0 . 12
$ 4 . 93 $2.83 $ 6 . 80 $ 7 .55
Annual production - 4 .5 kkg /hr x 14 hrs / day x 200 days /yr = 12 ,600 kkg / yr
1. 1 / 4 man / shift for operation and 1 /4 man / shift for cleaning ( 2 shifts /day )
with average hourly wage = $ 5 /hr : 2 ( 2 + 2 ) $ 5 / ( 14 x 4 . 5 ) = $ 0 .63 /kkg =
$0 .57 / ton .
Supervision , fringe benefits , laboratory , supplies , etc . = 65 % of opera

ting labor .
3 . Maintenance = 5 % of direct fixed capital /yr for Vibratory Spiral and

water blanchers and 10% of direct fixed capital for Hydrostatic Steam and
Hot -Gas blanchers .
4. Depreciation = 10% of direct fixed capital / yr .

5. Insurance , taxes and other fixed expenses = 8 % of direct fixed capital/
yr .
Steam = $ 4 . 30 /kkg of steam ($ 1 . 95 / 1 , 000 lb steam ) . Steam cost for Hot

Gas blancher includes cost of gas ( $ 0 . 04 /kkg ) .
7 . Electricity = $ 0 . 014 /kw -hr .

8 . Water = $0 .032/1,000 1 ($0.012/1,000 gal).
9 . Wastewater = $0 .018 / 1 ,000 1 ( $0 .062/ 1 , 000 gal ) , $0 . 022 /kg BOD ($ 0 . 01/
1b BOD ) , $ 0 . 044 /kg ss ( $0 .02 / 1b ss) .
The low capital investment needed for a water blancher is the reason for
its low cost of operation . The higher costs of steam , water and wastewater
treatment for the water blancher as compared to the Vibratory Spiral Blan
cher Cooler are not sufficient to compensate for the lower costs associated
with capital investment . A nine - fold increase in the cost of steam or a
16 - fold increase in wastewater cost would be required to give the Vibratory
Spiral Blancher - Cooler a lower operating cost than the water blancher . The
Hot -Gas Blancher ' s high cost is attributable mostly to high capital related
costs , while that of the Hydrostatic Steam Blancher is because of steam
costs .
No attempt was made in these calculations to account for the loss of vegeta
ble weight when air cooling is used . If frozen vegetables are valued at
$440 /kkg ($ 0 .20 / 1b ) , a 2% loss of yield would add the equivalent of $ 8 .80 /kkg
to the cost of blanching and cooling . Since frozen vegetables are marketed
by weight , such a large penalty for air cooling cannot be economically justi
fied . A change in the way frozen vegetables are marketed would be required
to take full advantage of the wastewater reduction possible with air cooling .
One should also note that at a price of $ 440 / kkg for frozen vegetables , the
entire cost of blanching and cooling is less than 0 . 2% of the cost of produc
tion . The small impact of blanching and cooling on the total cost of
production gives the processor little economic incentive for capital invest
ment in new blanchers .
Table 9 gives a comparison of the cost of the Vibratory Spiral Blancher

(without cooler ) and the water blancher (without flume ) as they would be
used for canning vegetables . All other conditions of the cost calculation
remain the same . The water blancher still gives the lowest cost of opera
tion , but here a five - fold increase in the combined cost of fuel , water and
wastewater cost would make the cost of operating the Vibratory Spiral Blan
cher about the same as that of the water blancher ( A five - fold increase
would be equivalent to a 17% annual increase for ten years) . By removing
the necessity of cooling, the fixed capital investment of the Vibratory
Spiral equipment is reduced by 53% , while for the water blancher the removal
of the flume reduces the investment by only 28 % .
CONCLUSION
Although water blanching has the highest hydraulic waste load , the low capi
tal investment of water blanching makes its cost significantly less than any
other blanching technique.
The steam efficiency of the Vibratory Spiral Blancher is higher than other
blanchers and , when combined with a Vibratory Spiral Cooler , its wastewater
generation is much lower than other blanching techniques except for Hot -Gas
Blanching .
Large increases in the cost of energy or wastewater treatment would make
the cost of blanching and cooling with the Vibratory Spiral system compara
ble to that of a water blancher .
95
Although the Hydrostatic Steam Blancher has a much higher steam efficiency
than conventional steam blanchers , its efficiency is still much less than
that of a Vibratory Spiral Blancher or a water blancher .
Since frozen vegetables are sold by weight , yield loss from air cooling
gives a large economic penalty .
TABLE 9 . COST OF BLANCHING WITHOUT COOLING FOR VIBRATORY SPIRAL BLANCHER

AND WATER BLANCHER
Vibratory Spiral Water

Blancher Blancher
Operating costs ( $ /kkg)

1. Operating labor 0 .63 0 .63
2. Supervisor , fringe 0 .41 0 . 41
benefits , etc .
3. Maintenance 0 . 33 0 . 08
Depreciation 0 .65 0 . 16
Insurance , Taxes , 0 .52 0 . 13
etc .
Steam 0 . 68 0 . 96
Electricity 0 . 01 < 0 .01
8. Water 0 . 00 0 .01
9. Wastewater 0 . 02 0 .02
$ 3 . 25 $ 2 .41
Fixed Capital Investment ( $ )

Purchase Cost 51 , 000 11 ,400
Delivery 2 , 550 570
Installation 10 , 200 2 , 280
Floor Space 2 , 030 ( 1 ) 1 ,730
Indirect Costs 16 , 440 4 , 000
$ 82 , 220 $ 19 , 980
(1) 7. 5m2
96
REFERENCES
1. National Canners Association . " Liquid Wastes from Canning and Freezing
Fruits and Vegetables, " Office of Research and Monitoring , Environmental
Protection Agency , Washington , D . C . ( 1971) .
Ralls , J . W . and Mercer , W . A . " Low Water Volume Enzyme Deactivation
of Vegetables Before Preservation , " Office of Research and Monitoring ,
U . S . Environmental Protection Agency , Washington , D . C . ( 1973) .
3. Lund, D . B . " Wastewater Abatement in Canning Vegetables by IQB Blan

ching , " Office of Research and Development, U . S . Environmental
Protection Agency , Washington , D . C . ( 1974 ) .
4. Ralls , J . W . and Mercer , W . A . " Continuous In -Plant Hot -Gas Blanching
of Vegetables , " National Environmental Research Center , Office of
Research and Development, U . S . Environmental Protection Agency ,
Corvallis , Oregon ( 1974 ) .
Bomben , J . L . , Dietrich , W . C . , Hudson , J . S . , Hamilton , H . K . and

Farkas , D . F . Yields and solids loss in steam blanching , cooling and
freezing vegetables . J . Food Sci . 40 :660 ( 1975 ) .
6. Lazar , M . E . and Rasmussen , C . R . Dehydration plant operations . In

Food Dehydration , Vol. 2 . p . 132 . Avi Publishing Co . , Westport , Conn .
( 1964 ) ,
1. Bomben , J . L . Unpublished data , USDA Western Regional Research Center ,

Berkeley , Calif.
8. Perkins, G . Private Communication . Artichoke Industries , Castroville ,
Calif. ( 1974 ) .
9 . Bomben , J . L . , Dietrich , W . C . , Hudson , J . S . , Durkee , E . L . , Rand , R . ,
Farquhar , J . W . and Farkas , D . J . Evaluation of Vibratory Blancher
Cooler for snap beans and lima beans. Proceedings Seventh National
Symposium on Food Processing Wastes , Atlanta , Georgia . Industrial
Research Laboratory , Office of Research and Development , U . S . Environ
mental Protection Agency , Cincinnati ( 1976 ) .
10 . Ray , A . Steam blancher uses 50 % less energy . Food Processing 36 ( 1 ) :64

( 1975 ) .
11. Layhee , P . Engineered F F line yields 5 big production benefits . Food

Engineering 47 ( 2 ) :61 ( 1975 ) .
12 . Peters , M . s . and Timmerhaus , K . D . " Plant Design and Economics for
Chemical Engineers, " 2nd ed . McGraw -Hill , New York ( 1968 ) .
97
DISSOLVED AIR FLOTATION TREATMENT
OF SEAFOOD PROCESSING WASTES --
AN ASSESSMENT
by
D . B. Ertz*, J . S. Atwell** , and E .H . Forsht** *
INTRODUCTION
Although dissolved air flotation (DAF ) has performed well for many years in
treating wastewaters of varying characteristics , it has not been as success
ful to date for seafood processing wastes . DAF with chemical addition ,
generally considered as primary treatment , represents one of the more soph
isticated technologies employed to control wastewaters generated by the
United States seafood processing industry . Interest in this physical
chemical process increased shortly after the adoption of PL 92 -500 into law
which required a reduction of pollutants for all industrial dischargers .
Prior to this time, seafood processors which are generally located adjacent
to tidal waters discharged process wastewaters with little or no treatment .
Pursuant to the provisions of PL 92 - 500 , the 1977 effluent limitations for

the tuna processing segment were based on DAF as the Best Practicable Control
Technology Currently Available (BPCTCA ) . In developing the 1983 require
ments , other segments of the industry including the processing of crab ,
shrimp, salmon , bottom fish , sardine, and herring were assessed with DAF as
the Best Available Technology Economically Achievable (BATEA ) .
As required by PL 92 - 500 , EPA is currently reassessing and updating the

promulgated regulations. The Edward C . Jordan Co . , Inc. , through EPA Con
tract No . 68 - 01 - 3287, is developing the technical information basic to re
assessing the effluent limitations and performance standards for the Canned
and Preserved Seafood Processing Industry . This paper traces the develop
ment of DAF as a viable treatment alternative for seafood processing wastes
and presents full -scale operating data from several treatment facilities .
It also evaluates current capabilities of the physical- chemical process in
light of established design criteria. Solids handling and disposal alter
natives are discussed along with the progress of recent investigations
concerning DAF and its applicability to other segments of the seafood in
dustry .
* Environmental Engineer , Edward C . Jordan Co . , Inc ., Portland , Maine

* *Project Engineer , Edward C . Jordan Co ., Inc. , Portland , Maine
onme
cer , U . S . Environmental Protection Agency , Effluent Guideliness
Division
98
BACKGROUND
The Development Documents ( 1 ) ( 2) which support the promulgated seafood

processing effluent guidelines review the applicability and implementation
of DAF within the industry . At the time of publication , four significant
pilot plant studies ( 3 ) (4 ) (5 ) (6 ) had been conducted to determine the ef
fectiveness of this physical- chemical treatment technology . In addition ,
two full- scale systems were operating ; the Canadian demonstration facility
at British Columbia Packers, Limited (Steveston , British Columbia ) and a DAF
unit treating tuna processing wastes at Terminal Island, California . A
third DAF unit was installed at a sardine plant in Maine; however , limited
information was developed due to mechanical problems .
The Canadian studies (7 ) conducted during the 1971 - 2 seasons reported re
moval efficiencies achieved for various seafood processing wastewaters as
listed in Table 1 .
TABLE 1 . DAF REMOVAL EFFICIENCIES - VARIOUS SPECIES
Percent Removal
Chemical Oil and
Species Additives TSS Grease
Salmon Alum and 92 90

Herring Polymer
Groundfish
Stickwater
The testing performed on the EIMCO flotator installed at Terminal Island for
treating tuna processing effluent was short - term and represented only three
trial runs under varying operating conditions . The results of this limited
testing program are shown in Table 2 .
TABLE 2 . DAF REMOVAL EFFICIENCIES
TERMINAL ISLAND - 1972
Influenţ Percent
Chemical Additive Parameter _ (mg / 1 ) Removal
Sodium Aluminate COD 2,850 37

Condition A?
Polymer TSS 1 , 170 56
Alum COD 5 , 100
Condition BP
Polymer TSS 667 65
1. Thaw water not included
2. Based on two runs
3. Based on one run
The pilot plant study ( 3 ) for tuna processing wastes preceded the instal
lation of the full - scale flotator at Terminal Island . Two similar inves
tigations were conducted by the National Marine Fisheries Service which
included the treatment of menhaden bailwater (4 ) and the wastewater from an
Alaskan shrimp processor (5 ) . The Gulf Coast shrimp canning study (6 ) was
undertaken by EPA Region VI and a local engineering firm . Presented in
Table 3 is a summary of the pollutant reductions achieved in all four in
vestigations . Research efforts concerning the use of DAF for treating
seafood processing wastewater realized the importance of chemical additives
such as alum and polymers to achieve significant pollutant removals and this
concept has been maintained through the design and operation of full - scale
systems. In some studies , optimizing pH was a recognized factor for achiev
ing effective operation .
DISSOLVED AIR FLOTATION TREATMENT OF TUNA WASTEWATERS
General
Five tuna processing facilities , three at Terminal Island , California , and
two in American Samoa , have been operating DAF treatment systems for more
than one year . Facilities in San Diego and Ponce, Puerto Rico , have recent
ly initiated DAF treatment of process wastewaters . An additional system in
Puerto Rico is currently in the construction stage .
With the exception of a few demonstration systems operating in other seg

ments of the industry , flotation cells treating tuna processing wastes have
been employed as an indicator of the capabilities of dissolved air flotation .
NPDES permit monitoring data and additional information collected by the
100
PERFORMAN
DAF
PLANT
PILOT
OF
S3. UMMARY CE
TABLE
Source
Wastewater Chemical
Additive Samples
.oNof Parameter %Reduction
Tuna 5)10
0H
-1(p.Lime BOD5
Polymers TSS
Cationic O&G
Anionic
Tuna Lime BOD

Chloride
Ferric TSS
O&G
Bailwater
Menhaden (pH
Acid
or
5-.3)Alum 5 COD 80
Polymer TSS 87
101
O&G 100
Near
Alaskan
Shrimp Alum COD 73
Polymer TSS 77
Shrimp
Gulf )(pH
5Acid BOD
Alum COD
Polymer TSS
Shrim
Gulf p (pH
5)Acid COD
Alum TSS
Polymer O&G
processors have historically provided the basis for technological eval
uation . However , much of this information was accumulated using sample
collection and analytical techniques which were inconsistent with EPA ap
proved procedures and Standard Methods (8 ) .
To evaluate in - place DAF systems, a field sampling effort was conducted at

the Terminal Island facilities. All sample handling and analytical pro
cedures were accomplished in accordance with EPA approved methods .
Description of Terminal Island Facilities

Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of the wastewater treatment system at the
tuna cannery sampled during May 1976 , T . I . No . 1 . The cannery includes
facilities which process fish meal from tuna scrap and non - tuna petfood in
addition to canning tuna for human consumption and red meat tuna for pet
food .
From the various processing locations , wastewater is pumped to screens

( 0 . 030 - inch openings) where coarse solids are removed . Equalization of the
waste streams is accomplished in the 210 , 000 - gallon surge tank . By throt
tling the discharge end of a constant speed pump , the equalized wastewater
is introduced into the flocculation tank at a controlled flow rate, usually
250 to 1 , 000 gpm . Approximately 50 mg / l of sodium aluminate is added and
mixed in the tank to encourage the formation of flocs .
Following the flocculation process , the flow is then split between two
similar flotators (designated as units " A " and " B " ) which are operated using
a pressurized recycle of 20 to 25 percent . Anionic polymer is added to each
cell at a 2 mg /l dosage to enhance the removal of suspended solids and oil
and grease .
Even though the two flotation cells are identical in structure, the piping
and polymer feed arrangements are dissimilar . As shown in Figure 1, the
manner in which the pressurized recycle enters the waste stream varies
between the two DAF units . For unit " A " , the untreated wastewater is fed
directly into the cell with the recycle injected perpendicular to the waste
stream prior to entering the cell. For unit " B " , the pressurized recycle
enters the cell directly with the untreated wastewater entering the pres
surized recycle stream at right angles . In addition , the polymer is fed
directly into the center feed well of the unit " B " , whereas polymer for unit
" A " is injected at a point just before the waste stream enters the cell .
During low flow periods, the chemical feeds are terminated and fresh water
is added to each flotator to inhibit the development of anaerobic conditions .
Incoming wastewater is stored and aerated in the surge tank . The treated
effluent is discharged to Los Angeles Harbor while the sludge (float ) is
removed by a skimming mechanism and collected in a holding tank . A cent
rifuge is available for dewatering the accumulated solids prior to transport
to a landfill site by a licensed hauler .
102
LEGEND
WASTEWATER
- - - - -- RECYCLE
PRESSURIZED
SLUDGE
B
UNIT
POLYMER
FLOCCULATION
SCREENED TANK SLUDGE
WATER
WASTE ,000
210 LOS
GALLON TANK
RETENTION
SURGE ANGELES
TANK HARBOR
TANK
103
NO2AL24
A
UNIT
POLYMER
TOLANDFILL
CENTRIFUGE
1.
FIGURE .DIAGRAM
FLOW
SCHEMATIC
SYSTEM
TREATMENT
D1NTI OAF
At T . I . No . 2 , the water pollution control facility , depicted in Figure 2 ,
includes screens ( 0 . 020 - inch openings) , a 300 , 000 - gallon surge tank , and a
DAF unit . The wastewater treated at this facility (400 - 2 , 000 gpm ) is
generated during the processing of red meat tuna and non - tuna petfood in
addition to canned tuna for human consumption . Process water from tuna
scrap reduction is discharged to a separate , but similar treatment system .
Total flow pressurization is employed with the back pressure in the reten
tion tank maintained between 42 and 67 psi in accordance with the flow rate .
The desired flow rate is controlled by throttling the pressure control valve
and pump discharge valve , and by varying the number of constant speed pumps .
Prior to entering the flotation cell , alum is added to the pressurized waste
stream at a feed rate between 40 and 60 mg/ 1 . Approximately 1 . 0 mg/ l of
anionic polyelectrolyte is introduced into the center of the cell . Fol
lowing treatment , the effluent is discharged to the harbor while the float
is collected in a storage vessel for loading into a tank truck . The sludge
which contains chemical additives is not dewatered with the available cent
rifuge. Disposal of the material is accomplished at an approved landfill by
a licensed hauler .
Terminal Island Sampling Program

Throughout the sampling program , the emphasis was placed on determining the
effectiveness of the DAF units operating at both tuna canning facilities .
At T . I . No . 1 , automatic samplers were employed to obtain hourly aliquots of
the DAF influent and effluent on a 24 -hour basis . Flow proportioning of the
influent samples was not possible; however , it should be noted that the
surge tank equalized the flows somewhat and aliquots were not collected
during periods when fresh water was added to the flotators . For effluent
samples , flow proportioning was accomplished over the entire 24 -hour period .
During the sampling effort at T. I. No . 2 , aliquots were obtained manually
for the DAF influent and effluent . A composite was formulated for each
sampling point through proportioning the hourly aliquots based on the flow
rate through the flotation cell.
Composite samples collected at both wastewater treatment facilities were
used in the determination of all analytical parameters with the exception of
oil and grease . In compliance with EPA approved methods, four grab samples
for oil and grease analysis were randomly obtained . The results of each
determination were arithmetically averaged to evaluate the effectiveness of
the DAF unit for removing oil and grease .
The sampling program for the Terminal Island tuna canneries consisted of two
10 - day sessions . At T . I . No . 1 , the effort was conducted during May 1976
while T . I . No . 2 was sampled the following month . Since T . I . No. 1 employs
two similar flotation cells with diverse piping and polymer feed arrange
ments , the effluent for each unit was sampled individually in an effort to
determine variations in their performance . The influent, originating from
the flocculation tank , is identical for each cell . Over the 10 - day sampling
104
LEGEND
- .- SLUDGEWASTEWATER
RECYCLE
- LOS
ANGELES
ANGELES
POLYMER ·HARBOR
,0GALLON
300
00 AIR
SURGE
TANK INJECTION
SCREENED
105
ALUM
WASTEWATER
GRIT
TO
LANDFILL
SLUDGE SLUDGE
CENTRIH TANK TANK
FUGE .2
NO .I
NO
OPTION
FIGURE
2. 2DTINOAF
SCHEMATIC
SYSTEM
FLOW
DIAGRAM
.TREATMENT
period , no significant differences were observed in the performance of the
units " A " and " B " . Verification is provided in Table 4 where the concen
trations and percent removals are shown for the various parameters of in
terest .
TABLE 4 . INFLUENT AND EFFLUENT CONCENTRATIONS WITH RESPECTIVE

PERCENT REMOVALS FOR DAF UNITS " A " AND " B "
T . I . NO. 1
Mean Range
mg / 1 % Removal mg / 1 % Removal
Influent
BOD . 2 , 563 1, 770 - 5 , 803
Total Suspended Solids 1, 263 576 - 2 ,910
Oil and Grease 475 267 - 571
Unit " A " Effluent
BOD . 1 , 262 45. 3 768 - 1 , 675 11 .0 - 79 . 3
Total Suspended Solids 248 76 . 8 184 - 320 59 . 7 - 90 . 0
Oil and Grease 81. 1 80 . 7 10 . 9 - 267 19 . 5 - 98 . 0
Unit " B " Effluent
BOD 1 , 374 40 . 5 550 - 1 , 795 4 . 6 -76 . 6
Total Suspended Solids 282 72 . 8 108 - 384 33 . 3 - 91. 4
Oil and Grease 60 . 4 86 . 4 11 . 2 - 173 67. 1 - 98 . 0
The overall removal rates for the treatment system were obtained by
averaging the values obtained for each DAF unit . The summarized removal
efficiencies for T . I . No . 1 are compared to the projected removals for the
tuna industry and BPCTCA as shown in Table 5 .
TABLE 5 . REMOVAL EFFICIENCIES - T . I . NO . 1
Projected
Parameter Mean Range for BPCTCA
BOD . 42. 9 % 7 . 8 - 77 . 9 % 40 %
Total Suspended Solids 74 . 8 % 46 . 5 - 89 . 6 % 70 %
hot suspended Solide
Oil and Grease 2.64
83. 5 % 2:37:42
43. 3 - 98 . 0 % 85 %
As can be seen from Table 5 , the removal efficiencies for BOD , and total
suspended solids observed for the entire DAF system exceeded the projected
106
removals . However , the 10 - day average for oil and grease was slightly below
the anticipated 85 percent . The operating pH in the flotation cell ranged
from 6 . 4 to 8 . 7 .
During June 1976 , a sampling effort was undertaken to evaluate the effec
tiveness of the T . I . No . 2 water pollution control facility which consisted
of one flotation cell. The influent and effluent concentrations quantified
over a period of 10 days are summarized in Table 6 .
TABLE 6 . DAF INFLUENT AND EFFLUENT CONCENTRATIONS - T . I . NO . 2
Mean (mg /1) Range (mg /1 )

Influent
BOD 883 563 - 1 , 149
Total Suspended Solids 367 306 - 418
Effluent
BOD 669 339 - 936
Oil and Grease 40 . 4 4.5- 123
Employing the daily concentrations determined over the duration of the

sampling effort, BOD ,, total suspended solids and oil and grease removals
were calculated . The effectiveness of the DAF unit in decreasing the mass
of pollutants discharged to receiving waters is exhibited in Table 7 .
TABLE 7 . REMOVAL EFFICIENCIES - T . I . NO . 2
Projected
BOD 24 . 3% 12 . 0 -47 . 0% 40 %
Total Suspended Solids 48 . 2 % 18 . 5 -62 . 5 % 70 %
Oil and Grease 64 . 3 % 0 - 96 . 8 % 85 %
For each of the three parameters listed in the table above, the observed
effectiveness of the wastewater treatment system was significantly less than
that projected for the 1977 tuna limitations and the efficiencies documented
at T . I. No . 1 . The operating pH was slightly more variable, ranging from
6 . 3 to 9 . 3 .
107
Since both DAF systems operate in the neutral pH range or slightly above ,
this cannot be considered as an overriding factor in T . I . No . 1 achieving
higher removal rates . It was also observed that the treatment facilities
were operated with almost equal proficiency . Therefore , the major consid
eration was the significant difference between the influert concentrations
measured . For each parameter considered , the influent concentrations quan
tified at T . I . No . 1 were at least three times greater than those observed
during the sampling period at T . I . No . 2 . Greater pollutant concentrations
can be partially attributed to the lower flow ratio , in terms of gallons per
ton of tuna processed , maintained by the T . I . No . 1 processing facility . A
thaw system which recirculates the water during a specific cycle while in
jecting steam and adding sulfuric acid has made a substantial contribution
in reducing the volume of wastewater requiring treatment . The resulting
flow ratio was determined to be an average of 47 percent of that documented
at T . I . No . 2 .
During the sampling program conducted at the Terminal Island tuna canneries ,
influent samples were analyzed for soluble BOD . A standard method is not
available for determining this parameter ; however , it is general practice to
use the filtrate from the total suspended solids analysis which has passed
through 0 . 45 micron filter paper . The relationship between the soluble
portion of the influent BOD , as measured and total BOD , removal is shown in
Figure 3 . For this data, the line of best fit was determined through the
method of least squares . A fairly good correlation ( r = - 0 . 80 ) indicates
that as the influent solubie BOD , portion increases, the percent total BOD
removal decreases . Therefore, minimizing the soluble portion of the influent
through pH optimization to the isoelectric point , becomes critical in
maintaining consistent BOD , removals .
At the present time, the sludge removed from the flotation cells operating
at T . I . No . 1 and T . I . No . 2 is landfilled . Samples of this material were
collected on a daily basis and subjected to chemical analysis . The results
of analysis as it relates to production and flow are shown in Table 8 .
TABLE 8 . DAF SLUDGE PRODUCTION - T . I . NO . 1 AND T . I . NO . 2
T .I. No . 1 T. 1. No. 2
Volume Ratio (gal / 11. 000 gal
, 000 gal :
wastewater treated) 19.4 5 .5
Average Percent Solids 9. 2 15 . 6

Production Rate - Dry Weight Basis
(16 / 1 , 000 lb of tuna processed ) 12 . 1 12 . 4
108
100
80
LEGEND
T. I. No. 1
T. I. No. 2
EMOVALT
PERCEN
,BOD
R
o 1 .20 .40 .60 .80 1.00

SOLUBLE BOD
- OF DAF INFLUENT
TOTAL BOD5
FIGURE 3 . PERCENT BOD5 REMOVAL AS A FUNCTION OF THE

SOLUBLE PORTION OF THE INFLUENT BOD5 .
109
Description of American Samoa Facilities
The tuna canneries in American Samoa operate wastewater treatment facilities

which are very similar to the system installed at T . I . No . 2 . However ,
the characteristics of the wastewater generated by A . S . No . 1 and A . S . No . 2
are significantly different . Neither cannery in American Samoa operates a
solubles plant, thereby requiring the precook water and presswater to be
discharged to the treatment system which results in higher raw waste loads.
In addition , petfood production in American Samoa involves red meat tuna
only .
Relative to the A . S . No. 1 and A . S . No . 2 wastewater treatment systems , the
incoming process flow is screened and subsequently pumped to a surge tank .
Following equalization , the total flow is pressurized and chemically con
ditioned with alum and polymer prior to entering the flotation cell . The
treated effluent is discharged to receiving waters while the DAF sludge is
collected and hauled to a land disposal site. Solids dewatering is not
accomplished at either facility . During periods of low incoming flows , the
treatment system at A . S . No . 2 is capable of recycling the effluent to the
surge tank as opposed to A . S . No . 1 which is not equipped to operate in this
mode .
American Samoa Sampling Program

In August 1976 , the EPA National Enforcement Investigation Center (NEIC )
conducted a compliance monitoring survey of the two American Samoa canneries
( 9 ) ( 10 ) . The DAF influent and effluent were sampled on a 24 - hour basis or
during the period of discharge to determine treatment efficiencies at each
facility . . Effluent aliquots were collected hourly and composited on a
flow -weighted basis for BOD , and total suspended solids analyses . Samples
for influent total suspended solids analysis were composited on an equal
volume basis . During each day , grab samples of the influent and effluent
were obtained to determine oil and grease removals . All samples were
collected and analyzed as specified by the NEIC chain of custody and an
alytical quality control procedures .
The NEIC sampling program was conducted during the period of August 18 - 26 .
During that time, samples were collected for six 24 -hour periods at A . S . No .
1 while the treatment efficiency at the A . S . No . 2 was evaluated based on
eight days of data . Due to analytical limitations , influent BOD , concen
trations were not determined at either facility .
The influent and effluent data collected during the NEIC compliance mon
itoring survey is summarized in Table 9. It should be noted , however , that
the oil and grease analysis of the DAF influent was performed on four of the
six sampling days .
110
TABLE 9 . DAF INFLUENT AND EFFLUENT CONCENTRATIONS - A . S . NO . 1
Mean (mg/ 1 ) Range (mg / 1 )

Influent
BOD .
Total Suspended Solids 4 , 880 2 , 700 – 13, 100
Oil and Grease 1 , 500 1 ,080- 2 ,770*
Effluent
BOD 2 , 480 1 , 500 - 3 , 900
Totài Suspended Solids 220 70 - 620
*Oil and grease concentration of 2 , 770 mg / 1 is based on one grab sample

and not the normal averaging of 3 - 4 grab samples .
The ability of the treatment system to remove constituents from tuna pro
cessing wastewater is measured in terms of removal efficiencies . Using the
respective concentrations for total suspended solids and oil and grease , the
appropriate removal rates were determined as shown in Table 10 .
TABLE 10 . REMOVAL EFFICIENCIES - A . S . NO . 1
Projected
BOD 40%
Total Suspended Solids 95 % 94 - 98 % 70 %
Oil and Grease 88 % 64 - 99% 85%
The removal efficiencies for both parameters substantially exceeded the

removals projected in developing the BPCTCA guidelines for the canned tuna
industry . The operating pH of the flotator ranged from 4 . 2 -6 . 5 , approaching
the isoelectric point for fish protein ( 4 . 5 - 5 . 0 ) .
Employing a similar method for A . S . No . 2 , monitoring data collected for a
total of eight days can be summarized . In Table 11 , the characteristics of
the wastewater treated by the DAF unit and the resulting effluent are pre
sented .
111
TABLE 11. DAF INFLUENT AND EFFLUENT CONCENTRATIONS - A. S . NO . 2
Mean (mg /1) Range (mg / 1)

Influent
BOD
Total Suspended Solids 860 520 - 1, 100
Effluent
BODE 970 820 - 1 , 120
To evaluate the effectiveness of the single flotation cell over the sampling
period , a comparison can be made between the removals achieved at A . S . No . 2
and the 1977 levels . This is accomplished in the data summary presented in
Table 12 .
TABLE 12. REMOVAL EFFICIENCIES - A . S . NO . 2
Projected
BOD 40%
Total Suspended Solids 66 % 23 - 93 % 70 %
Oil and Grease 57% 33 - 97 % 85%
Although BOD , removals were not monitored , it appears that the A . S . No . 2

treatment system is operating well below the desired levels . The operating
pH which is critical to the performance of the physical- chemical process was
maintained within a range of 5 . 9 - 7 . 4 , considerably higher than the iso
electric point of fish protein .
The DAF system with the addition of alum and polymer operating at A . S .
No . 1 , achieved significantly greater removal efficiencies than the A . S . No .
2 facility in addition to exceeding the projected removals for 1977 or best
practicable treatment. In evaluating the performance of the two facilities ,
the higher removal rates observed at A . S . No . 1 can be attributed , in part ,
to a lower operating pH range within the flotator . In addition , the greater
influent concentrations can provide a basis for better performance while
actual operation of the two systems also demands consideration . As docu
mented by NEIC , operating personnel at A . S . No . 1 were attentive and ap
peared to have a better understanding of the treatment process . The flow
112
rate was maintained relatively constant throughout the day . An evaluation
of the design of the two wastewater treatment systems by NEIC concluded that
the A . S . No . 2 DAF unit is overdesigned for the flow undergoing treatment .
Similar to the T . I . No . 1 facility , influent concentrations for total sus

pended solids and oil and grease measured at A . S . No . 1 exceeded those
observed at A . S . No . 2 by more than 300 percent . Effluent BOD , values were
also significantly greater at A . S . No . 1 . Recirculated thaw water with
sulfuric acid addition produced lower flow ratios (approximately 50 percent
of A . S. No . 2 ) , increased influent waste loads , and depressed the pH of the
wastewater subjected to treatment .
RECENT INVESTIGATIONS
Treatment technologies more sophisticated than screening are not required
for the remaining segments of the seafood industry until the implementation
of 1983 limitations. Therefore , investigations of DAF involving wastewater
generated during the processing of other commodities to date have not been
extensive .
On a pilot scale , the National Marine Fisheries Service has evaluated the
application of air flotation to treat the effluent from a cannery in the
Puget Sound area which processes salmon and tuna . The treatment system
included screening (20 -mesh ) followed by a wastewater concentrator with a
165 -mesh or 400 -mesh screen . During the concentration process , air is
entrained into the waste stream which is subsequently released within a
flotation cell placed in series with the concentrator . This scheme is
essentially a dispersed air flotation system with alum and lime added up
stream of the concentrator and polymer assisting in the flotation process .
The pH in the cell was maintained in the 8 . 0 - 10 . 0 range as opposed to the
isoelectric point of fish protein .
Additional information is currently being developed in Louisiana through an
EPA demonstration study . A full- scale DAF unit has been employed for the
treatment of shrimp canning wastes as well as the wastewater produced from
the oyster canning operation at the same processing facility . Further
investigations will be conducted during the 1977 shrimp canning season .
SOLIDS HANDLING AND DISPOSAL ALTERNATIVES
During the initial assessment of waste management within the seafood indus
try , byproduct recovery was emphasized . In - plant controls to prevent pro
duct related materials from entering the waste stream were thought to be an
integral part of the total waste management program . Incorporating solids
which are produced from the implementation of wastewater treatment tech
nologies , including screens and DAF , into a saleable product was given con
sideration as a viable alternative for ultimate disposal.
To minimize handling costs , sludge generated from relatively large scale

wastewater treatment systems should be concentrated prior to further pro
cessing or final disposal . Flotation sludge produced during the treatment
113
of wastewater containing fats and oils of animal origin can be difficult to
dewater . Currently , one facility which dewaters the DAF float generated
from treating seafood processing wastes has been identified . In this par
ticular case, a centrifuge has proven successful in substantially reducing
the moisture content of the sludge accumulated from a DAF system operating
within the tuna industry .
To determine current practices of industries producing sludge with charac

teristics similar to that experienced by tuna processors, a survey of meat
packers, poultry processers and renderers was conducted . Emphasis was
placed on identifying dewatering methods other than decanting and processors
rendering sludge which contains chemical coagulants such as alum and poly
mers .
A total of 40 processors employing DAF to treat their wastewaters were

contacted to discuss methods of float handling and disposal. The results of
the survey are summarized in Table 13.
TABLE 13. DAF FLOAT HANDLING AND DISPOSAL FOR RELATED INDUSTRIES
Red Meat Poultry Renderer

Total Number Surveyed
Render
Chemical Additives +
Render
Chemical Additives +
Dewater + Render
Land Disposal
Other
Only two red meat processors reduced the moisture content of the sludge
through mechanical means, which was identified as centrifugation . Gravity
settling with subsequent decanting was found to be the most common dewater
ing method with 15 processors employing this alternative. In some instances ,
the sludge was heated to encourage liquid - solids separation ; however , this
is generally employed in conjunction with in - house byproduct recovery
operations such as rendering. Slightly more than half of the facilities
contacted did not concentrate the float to yield a greater solids content
prior to further processing or ultimate disposal.
114
Approximately two - thirds of the facilities operating DAF units rendered the
float in -house or hauled it to an off- site rendering operation . As one
would expect, all renderers reintroduced their residuals into their oper
ations ; while nine of ten employed chemicals to aid removals . Seven of the
eleven meat packers and poultry processors using coagulants subsequently
subjected the recovered solids to a rendering operation .
The results of this survey are by no means conclusive relative to the abil
ity of the seafood industry to recover DAF sludge and incorporate it into
a useful byproduct. It does appear that rendering sludge containing chem
ical coagulants is feasible, reinforced by the current practices of other
food related industries. However , further investigation is required to
determine its applicability to the seafood processing industry . At the
present time, the major considerations include the effect of chemicals on
the quality of the rendered product as well as the economics of operating
this type of byproduct facility .
SUMMARY
In general , the seafood processing industry can be considered relatively
unsophisticated with regard to treating its process wastewaters . Much of
the industry provides either screening or no treatment before discharging to
inland or tidal waters . Prior to July 1 , 1977 , measures must be implemented
to provide coarse solids removal with the equivalent of 20 -mesh screens .
However , tuna processors which are generally large volume producers with a
somewhat consistent supply of raw material have been mandated to meet more
restrictive limitations based on DAF . The larger tuna canners located in
Terminal Island and American Samoa and most recently those in San Diego and
Puerto Rico have become the forerunners with respect to dissolved air flo
tation treatment on an industrial level for the entire seafood industry .
The capability of any treatment system is first dependent on the design and
secondly , actual operation . Based on the operating data presented herein ,
the facilities monitored meet the generally accepted design criteria and in
some cases fall on the conservative side . When evaluating DAF in light of
industrial waste treatment, the criteria of concern are overflow rate ,
solids loading, air to solids ratio , hydraulic retention time and the abil
ity to maintain the appropriate pH level . During previous investigations ,
it has been shown that the design criteria outlined in Table 14 will provide
acceptable results . The pH for effective chemical coagulation of a pro
teinaceous waste is optimal at the isoelectric point which for fish pro
cessing wastes falls into the 4 . 5- 5 . 0 range . In addition , the treatment
system should be designed to optimize flocculation of suspended solids with
the correct chemical dosages determined for the specific wastewater to be
treated . Incorporating flexibility and ease of operation into the final
design is also a necessity .
115
TABLE 14 . DAF DESIGN CRITERIA FOR SEAFOOD PROCESSING WASTES
Overflow Rate 2 gpm /sq ft

Solids Loading 1 lb /hour /sq ft
Air to Solids Ratio 0 .01 - 0 . 04
Hydraulic Retention Time 1 hour
With a well -designed system , the capabilities of the water pollution control
facility relies heavily on the operator and his working knowledge of the
treatment process . In other words, operation is the key to successful
wastewater treatment whether it is an industrial or municipal facility .
With regard to industrial wastewater treatment , in -plant measures to reduce
water consumption and concentrate individual waste streams gains importance .
These concepts are borne out when considering the American Samoa DAF system
which achieved the best removal efficiencies . A lower flow ratio for an
adequately designed system , in conjunction with an attentive operator and a
pH close to the desired range , produced excellent removals for suspended
solids and oil and grease .
It should be realized that data collected at the four tuna canneries was
summarized from information accumulated over a period which ranged from 6 to
10 days at each facility . In reviewing the monitoring data , two of the
canneries equalled or exceeded the removal efficiencies for total suspended
solids and oil and grease which were projected in developing the 1977 lim
itations. However , the level of consistent BOD , removal for tuna processing
wastewater has not been documented conclusively . The processing of non - tuna
petfood at Terminal Island , where extensive BOD , data was collected , creates
some uncertainty . The soluble portion of BOD , remains a critical factor
with increased removal rates being achievable through good operation and by
maintaining the optimal pH range. Further optimization will be required to
achieve the more restrictive 1983 limitations .
As operating experience increases and additional information develops at

these and other facilities within the tuna industry , the capabilities of
DAF will be more fully realized . This information will become the basis for
subsequent comparisons relative to the removals necessary to meet the 1977
limitations as well as those for BATEA in 1983 . Operating data for tuna
wastewater treatment will be further supported by information developed
through subsequent pilot plant investigations and ongoing full - scale demon
stration studies .
For the most part, the handling and disposal of residuals produced by DAF is
considered to be a difficult problem by the seafood processing industry .
Information has been presented outlining the approach other industries have
taken . While some meat processors are dewatering float through mechanical
devices , a greater number incorporate this material which contains chemical
116
additives into byproducts . Of prime concern is the value of the processed
material and the ability to meet acceptable specifications for certain
products . One tuna processor has found the means to successfully dewater
residuals by centrifugation ; however , byproduct recovery from this material
has not been implemented on a full- scale basis . The economics of solids
disposal requires further investigation with viable alternatives developed ,
especially for those segments of the seafood industry which experience more
seasonability and higher variability with raw material supply than the
tuna processors .
REFERENCES
1. Development Document for Effluent Limitations and Guidelines and Stan

dards of Performance for the Catfish , Crab , Shrimp , and Tuna Segment of
the Canned and Preserved Seafood Processing Industry , Point Source
Category , U . S . Environmental Protection Agency . Washington , DC 20460 ,
June 1974 .
Development Document for Effluent Limitations Guidelines and Standards

of Performance for Fish Meal , Salmon , Bottom Fish , Clam , Oyster , Sar
dine, Scallop, Herring and Abalone Segment of the Canned and Preserved
Seafood Processing Industry , Point Source Category , U . S . Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington , DC 20460 , September 1975 .
Jacobs Engineering Company, " Pollution Abatement Study for the Tuna
Research Foundation , Inc. ," 1971.
Baker , D . W . and C . J . Carlson , " Dissolved Air Flotation Treatment of

Menhaden Bailwater , " Proceedings of the 17th Annual Atlantic Fisheries
Technology Conference (AFTC ) , Annapolis , Maryland , 1972 .
Peterson , P . L . , Treatment of Shellfish Processing Wastewater by Dis
solved Air Flotation , Unpublished Report , Seattle : National Marine
Fisheries Services , U . S . D . C . 1973.
Mauldin , A . F . and A . J . Szabo , Shrimp Canning Waste Treatment Study ,

Project S 800904 , Office of Research and Monitoring , U . S . Environmental
Protection Agency , Washington , DC 20460 , 1974 .
Claggett , F .G ., Clarification of Fish Processing Effluents by Chemical
Treatment and Air Flotation , Technical Report No . 343 , Fisheries
Research Board of Canada , 1972 .
8. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater , 14th

Edition , American Public Health Association , American Water Works
Association , and Water Pollution Control Federation , Washington , DC ,
1975 .
‫ועון‬
9. " Compliance Monitoring and Wastewater Treatment Evaluation , Van Camp
Sea Food Company , Pago Pago , American Samoa , " EPA - 330 / 2 -76 - 035 , Office
of Enforcement, U . S . Environmental Protection Agency , December 1976 .
10 . " Compliance Monitoring and Wastewater Treatment Evaluation , Star -Kist
Samoa , Inc. , Pago Pago , American Samoa ," EPA - 330 / 2 - 76 - 036 , Office of
Enforcement , U . S . Environmental Protection Agency , December 1976 .
118
COMMERCIAL FEASIBILITY OF RECOVERING TOMATO PEELING RESIDUALS
by
W . G . Schultz * , H . J . Neumann * , J . E . Schade * , J. P . Morgan * ,

P . F . Hanni* , A . M . Katsuyama* * , and H . J . Maagdenberg * * .
ABSTRACT
In the United States , tomatoes are peeled for canning by first immersing
in a caustic bath to loosen the skin ; then , the peel is removed either
mechanically with rubber discs or with water sprays. When the peel is
removed mechanically , the peel solids are not diluted and therefore are
similar to the pulp of whole tomatoes . Since this removed peel is at least
12 % of the unpeeled weight and the peel is about 96 % pulp , this peel pulp is
a potential source of food material . It also is attractive economically
because there is a possible pulp recovery value of $ 230 /hr from a typical 40
t / hr peeling operation ; processing this material would cost about $ 188 / hr
the first year and $43 /hr thereafter , leaving a $ 187 /hr net return in the
second and subsequent years . A two - year project was undertaken and funded
jointly by USDA -WRRC , NCA , EPA , and the California tomato processors . In
1975 peel from regular cannery operations was processed through a 20 -gpm
(5t /hr) continuous - flow line. This processing consisted of acidifying
the peel to pH 4 . 2 with food - grade hydrochloric acid , then separating the
pulp from the skin with a paddle finisher . Recovered peel pulp was found
to be of food quality , but contained high peeling - aid residues ( 150 -450 ppm ) .
Practically all tomato peeling operations use a peeling aid in the caustic
bath to facilitate uniform peeling , particularly on the shoulder of the
tomato . Peeling aids in current use are approved for peeling but not as
additives to the final product . In 1976 , a l - t /hr pilot peeling line was
set up at a cannery to study modifications in the peeling process . The
purpose of the modification was to pretreat the tomatoes by immersion in
a 150 F aqueous bath ( pH 3 . 6 ) containing about 0 . 15% food - grade octanoic
acid . Recovered pulp could meet USDA Quality Grade A , and the octanoic
acid levels were low , about 30 ppm . Discussions are being held with FDA
on several aspects because the proposed use of this recovered peel pulp
is in combination with tomato pulp from regular sources for canned products ,
such as tomato sauce , puree, catsup , paste , and fill juice for peeled
tomatoes . The compositions of these products are governed by the FDA
Standards of Identity .
* Western Regional Research Center , Agricultural Research Service ,

U . S . Department of Agriculture , Berkeley , California 94710
* * National Canners Association , 1950 Sixth Street , Berkeley ,
California 94710
119
INTRODUCTION
In the United States , tomatoes are normally peeled by loosening the skin
with a hot - caustic bath and removing the peel (skin with adhering pulp)
either mechanically with rubber discs or with water sprays. The use of
water sprays has declined because of the large amount of water needed
(500 - 1500 gal/ t ) and the subsequent problem of waste disposal of the
dilute solution . Removal of the peel mechanically with rubber discs
reduces the water consumption to a negligible amount so that the peel
has about the same solids content as fresh tomatoes . This material is
currently discarded as solid waste. Peel removed that is recoverable
constitutes at least 12% of the original tomato weight . Since this peel
is about 96 % pulp , it is a potential source of food material. This pulp
is also attractive economically because there is a potential net pulp
worth of $ 187 /hr for a typical 40 t /hr peeling operation based on a raw
material value of $ 50 / t . There are about 1 . 3 million tons of tomatoes
peeled each year in the United States , resulting in at least 150 , 000 t / yr
of recoverable pulp . Currently that pulp is discarded as peel at an
expense of $ 2 .50 to $ 5 .00 / t , or as much as $ 750 ,000 / yr for the peeling
industry . Despite the economic incentive, there were several technical
obstacles such as insecticide residues , the lye and surfactants from the
caustic - peeling applicator , acidification of the alkaline peel , recovered
pulp quality , product labeling, etc . With these potentials and obstacles
in mind , a two- year project , beginning in 1975 , was undertaken jointly by
the USDA Western Regional Research Center , National Canners Association
Western Research Laboratory , and the tomato processing industry . The ini
tial plans were described in April 1975 ( 1 ) and were based on trends in
commercial practice and prior information on pulp recovery potential ( 2 )
( 3 ) (4 ) (5 ) . Experimentation was implemented during the 1975 tomato
processing season . The 1976 work was to develop methods to answer the
problems discovered in 1975 .
METHODS
1975 Experimentation - - Peel Processing & Pulp Characterization
Peel was experimentally processed on a daily basis during 1975 as received

from conventional caustic peeling at the Tillie Lewis Foods, Plant W ,
Antioch , California . This cannery processed VF - 145 tomatoes through washing
and sorting , then about 40 t /hr were diverted to their peeling operation .
The diverted tomatoes were next immersed in a caustic bath ; this was a
typical industrial situation using 10 - 12 % ( w / w ) sodium hydroxide with up
to 0 . 2% sodium 2 - ethylhexyl sulfate at 200 -210°F and a nominal half-minute
immersion . From this bath the tomatoes went into two types of mechanical
peel removers , a flat - bed disc type followed by peel - tag removal rolls ( FMC
PR - 20 Tomato Peel Remover , 1 machine) and rotary - cylinder , rubber disc
types (Magnuson Model C Peel Scrubbers, 4 machines ) . All of these peel
removers fed into a common pump which sent the peel to the experimental
peel - pulp recovery area . This peel , from the normal cannery peeling , was
received about 5 minutes after the clean tomatoes first entered the caustic
applicators .
120
Figure 1 shows the 1975 experimental equipment layout , and Figure 2 is a
diagram of the pertinent operations for both the conventional and the
experimental processing . The primary variables were : ( 1 ) the extractor
screen size and paddle clearance, ( 2 ) place of acidification , ( 3 ) hot -break
temperature, (4 ) lag time between the hot break and canning , ( 5 ) evaporator
temperature and degree of pulp - solids concentration , and (6 ) the heat
processing time of cans . These variables were evaluated in terms of:
( 1 ) pulp yield , ( 2 ) product quality , and ( 3 ) tomato Standards of Identity .
Peel was received continuously at 10 - 30 gpm , and acidified with food - grade
hydrochloric acid either immediately in the Peel Tank or later in the Hot
Break Vessel ; this acidification was continuously controlled by an automatic
pH recording controller . The Peel Tank volume was 48 gal . and the Hot - Break
Vessel was 250 gal . Peel flowed continuously into each of these vessels
and constant volumes were held by overflow weirs .
From the Peel Tank , the peel flowed into the Extractor which was used to
separate the pulp from the skin , seeds , and fibers; seeds and fibers are
present from tomatoes that disintegrate during peel removal . This Extrac
tor was a standard FMC Model 50 Pulper with a 0 .030 - in . screen and set with
a 0 . 5 - in . screen - paddle clearance .
A Hot - Break Vessel was provided to inactivate enzymes that might be pre
sent, to reduce subsequent microbiological growth if the incoming pulp
was to be held at the projected incoming pulp temperature of 120 F for an
extended period . It also provided thermal- exposure testing since caustic
exposed tomato pulp is more susceptible to color and flavor changes .
Next the pulp flowed into the Pulp Tank for a final check and recording
of pH . A material (mass ) balance was made for each trial by weighing
the Extractor waste and measuring the volume of the recovered pulp .
Recovery was determined with 400 - 1 ,000 gal. batches ; the weight of the
recovered pulp and Extractor waste was equal to that of the incoming
peel . Recovered peel pulp was concentrated in 1 ,000 gal. batches at
160 - 200° F to concentrations of 10 - 20% TS (total solids ) in the cannery
single - stage vacuum evaporator .
Both fresh and canned samples were made up for subsequent analyses . A11
canned samples were hand filled into size 211 x 400 unenameled cans ,
sealed with a double seamer , heat processed in boiling water for 40 minutes ,
and cooled to 100°F in 75°F water . These canned samples were analyzed and
judged on a 100 % recovered - pulp basis without blending with other tomato
materials .
1976 Experimentation - - Pilot Scale Modified Caustic Peeling

The 1976 experimentation was primarily directed towards solving the
peeling - aid residue problem which was identified during the 1975 pulp
recovery experimentation . This development was carried out during the
spring laboratory - peeling tests and the summer cannery pilot - peeling tests .
In the spring , laboratory peeling was conducted on tomatoes using a wide
121
PEEL
FROM
CANNERY
OPERATION
DISCARD PEEL
,ACIDIFICATION
TANK
Το
VACUUM
EXTRACTOR EVAPORATOR
PULP
122
PEEL HOT TANK
PUMP BREAK
)(OPTIONAL PULP
PUMP
TO
PULP
Figur
1. e 1975
Equip TANKS
. ment
Conventional Processes Experimental Process
Field Run Tomatoes

Puree Peeling
Wash Wash
Sort Sort
Crush Caustic Dip Acid
Hot Break Peel Removal → Peelings
Pulp Inspect Extractor - > Skin

Pomace Pulp
Finish Canning Hot Break
Concentrate Concentrate - an
Canning Heat
Process
Cool
Figure 2 . 1975 Flow Diagram ,
123
range ( about 70 ) of compounds including many surfactants ( surface active
agents ) to determine the chemical structure that aided peeling . The wetting
action ( interfacial tension ) of the potential peeling aids was checked ,
and this surface-wetting action was found to provide little assistance
in selecting peeling aids because much of their real benefit seems to be
in chemical activity . Potential peeling aids were applied in two ways :
( 1 ) directly in the caustic bath in the traditional manner , and ( 2 ) as a
pretreatment prior to immersing the tomatoes in the caustic bath ; these
were compared to peeling with a plain caustic bath . The purpose of the
pretreatment was to apply only enough peeling aid to permeate the skin as
needed to aid peeling or to allow the caustic to act more effectively in
the applicator . It was also assumed that the optimum temperature and time
for applying the peeling aid might differ from those existing in the caustic
applicator . The best conditions found in the laboratory peeling tests were
incorporated in a l - t /hr pilot - peeling line at Hunt -Wesson Foods , Plant A ,
Hayward , California during the 1976 tomato processing season . This line
operated with the regular cannery tomatoes , usually Variety UC - 134 . Washing ,
sorting , and pretreatment was carried out solely on the pilot equipment .
Typical operating conditions and equipment are shown in Figure 3 . Peeling
was performed continuously , typically in 45 minute runs . Since there was
insufficient peel flow from this pilot line to continuously acidify the
peel, acidification was performed batchwise at about 4 - 5 min . intervals .
Extraction of skin and pulp was done at the end of each run .
This cannery received tomatoes usually in bulk 20 - t loads (truck and trailer )
as is typical for California canners . The tomatoes were removed from the
trucks by the cannery personnel through a water wash - out and carried by a
flume into a sump ; from the sump they were elevated out and spray washed ,
passed over a screen to remove gross trash and tomatoes less than 1 . 2 - in .
in diameter and then flumed on to further rinsing and hand sorting . From
this flume, prior to further cannery washing and sorting , part of the toma
toes were diverted to the pilot - peeling line . These tomatoes were immersed
in water , elevated out , and passed over a l - ft x 10 - ft rubber disc flat -bed
scrubber having water sprays ; this was the final washing. The tomatoes
were then passed over a sorting belt for hand sorting ; the degree of hand
sorting was varied so as to compare mold counts in the recovered pulp .
The pretreatment immersion was in a 17 - in . x 10 - ft trough having a paddle
type conveyor which carried the tomatoes through in positive displacement
fashion . The heated solution was recirculated from entry to exit at about
20 - gpm , and was controlled and varied from 75 °F to 200°F , depending on the
experiment . Immersion time could be varied from 15 seconds to three
minutes. From this pretreatment , the tomatoes were removed on an open
mesh elevator for a variable draining time of 10 seconds to 2 minutes .
After draining , the tomatoes dropped into the Caustic Applicator for
10 - sec . to 2 -min . immersion in 11% ( w / w ) sodium hydroxide at 210°F . An
applicator such as the commercial FMC Hi- Ton Tomato Peeler has a drain
period of about 50 % of the immersion time , which not only removes excess
caustic solution but provides a further period for the caustic to act on
the tomato . The pilot applicator did not have a similar drain period
so this was simulated by a variable - speed , open -mesh belt normally held to
0 . 18 -min . residence time . Tomatoes then passed over rotating slitting blades
124
WASH SORT PRETREATMENT CAUSTIC
Material
Balance
HOLD PEEL peeled tomatoes ( pdt )

85 %
2010 SLIT
> 5L117— > PEEL REMOVAL
removal peeled tomatoes(pde) asz
ACID → peelings → FINISHER 5 skin (waste) 0.6%
peel pulp ( product) 14.4%

100 . 0 %
Nominal Conditions
Tomatoes : Variety 134 , field run ,
Washing : 1st and 2nd by water immersion ; 3rd by flat -bed
rubber discs wih spray rinse .
Sorting : hand .
Pretreatment : 0 . 5 min . , 150°F , 0 . 15% w / w octanoic acid .
0 . 5 min . drain on elevator .
Su tor :
Caustic Applicator: 0 .5 min ., 200°F, 11% w /w sodium hydroxide.
W
Drain & Hold : 0 . 18 min .

slitter : rotating knives .
Peel Removal : Flat - bed , rubber discs .
Acidification : (whole) peel with hydrochloric acid .
Peel - pulp & Skin Separation : paddle pulper with 0 . 030 - in .
screen and 0 . 5 - in . clearance .
Figure 3 . 1976 Pilot Peeling.
125
and onto a 12 - in . x 10 - ft set of flat -bed rubber - disc peel removers which
were operated without water sprays so as not to dilute the peel . This dry
removal of peel is increasingly being practiced commercially . Peel dropped
onto a full- length pan , flowed down to a 10 - gal . pot , where the peel was
acidified with hydrochloric acid to pH 4 . 2 + 0 . 2 . This acidified peel was
separated into skin and pulp fractions with a Langsenkamp Indiana Laboratory
Pulper equipped with a 0 .030 - in . screen . This recovered pulp was canned
in 211 x 400 enameled containers , processed for 45 minutes in boiling water ,
and cooled to about 100°F in 75°F water . For a material balance on each
trial, both the recovered pulp and peeled tomatoes were weighed , typically
1 , 000 to 2 , 000 lbs / trial.
Analyses
The analytical methods used in 1975 and 1976 are listed in the Bibliography ,
Analytical Procedures . In addition , all canned recovered pulps were graded
by the USDA Agricultural Marketing Service using the same U . S . Grade Stand
ards for Canned Tomato Pulp as for regular commercial products . The fatty
acids were analyzed by a solvent extraction , esterification , and GLC detec
tion method which is currently undergoing further refinements .
RESULTS & DISCUSSION

While the overall 1975 results (Table 1) showed there is food potential in
recovering pulp from caustic tomato peelings , there was one major detrac
tant - - the peeling aid residue at 150 - 450 ppm . Of the currently used commer
cial peeling aids ( sodium 2 - ethylhexyl sulfate, sodium mono - and di -methyl
naphthalene sulfonates, or fatty - acid mixtures which contain predominantely
odd - numbered carbons ) , none seemed suitable for clearance as food additives.
Even if an additive- grade peeling aid was currently available , the 150 - 450
ppm residue is large enough to raise questions as to whether it would need
to be declared on the product label as an intentional additive . These
questions on the peeling aid determined the direction of the 1976 work , the
second and final scheduled year of the project . While it is possible to
peel tomatoes without a peeling aid , it is generally acknowledged that higher
caustic concentration and temperature are required ; these lead to higher
peel loss , and as a result the peeled tomato quality suffers since the
vascular veins become more pronounced . If a peeling aid is used in the
caustic , the residue level possibly could be reduced to less than found in
1975 , but it was assumed to be impractical to reduce the residue to zero .
Therefore , means were developed in 1976 to minimize peeling -aid residues
by using potential food - additives as peeling aids .
In normal cannery operations , the juice and pulp supplies are interconnected
so that these materials can be shunted among the different sources and utili
zation points to satisfy changing production requirements . Therefore , in
actual cannery practice recovered peel pulp would be combined with juice
and macerate from other sources before processing into standard products
such as tomato sauce , catsup , fill juice for whole -canned tomatoes , or other
salted products . During acidification and possibly at the rubber - disc peel
removal point, a small amount of water will be incorporated in the peel . This
126
TABLE 1 . SUMMARY OF TYPICAL 1975 - 1976 RECOVERED PEEL PULPS
Typical Single -Strength Tomato Pulps
1975 1976 Conventional

Processing
(a )
Recovery of peel ( w /w )% 96 . 7 % 95 % n /a
NTSS , (natural tomato soluble 5 . 3 5 .2 5 .4%

solids) , % w /w
Salt, ( sodium chloride) , g /100 gm 3. 1. 1 0 . 08
Total Solids, (salt free) , % w /w 5 .6 5 .9 5 .71

Vitamin A , (beta-carotene) , 665 - - - (b ) 516
1 .0 ./ 100 gm
Vitamin C , ( ascorbic acid ) , nii nii 10 . 7
mg / 100 gm
Color Grade, (as puree) A-C
Flavor Grade , (as puree) A-C
Peeling Aid residue , pulp. 0 (d)

ppm ( c )
Insecticide residue , pulp trace trace

( f ) toxaphene ppm
Insecticide residue , skin , 5 - 60 7 (e )

toxaphene ppm
trace is positive amount less than 0 .08 ppm .

n/a not applicable (no current commercial recovery )
(a ) industry 4 - yr averages except Salt which is 2 - yr average .
(b ) not analyzed .
(c) sodium 2 - ethylhexyl sulfate in 1975 , octanoic acid in 1976 .
( d) no peeling aid used in conventional juicing / pulping .
( e) pomace from juicing , seeds with proportionallly less skin than in
peel - pulp recovery .
( f) tolerance is 7 .0 ppm in canned and fresh tomatoes .
127
water must be removed , either through subsequent concentration , such as for
tomato sauce, or during the evaporation that occurs from holding tanks .
This water can be removed after combining with other juices and pulps .
There seems to be little justification for keeping recovered pulp isolated
for use in a special product since economically there is an insufficient
quantity of recoverable pulp to establish a separate processing line .
Tomato Washing and Sorting
The 1975 cannery peel had low mold , insect fragment , and bacterial counts
that were well within regulatory tolerances . This showed that the cannery
( Tillie Lewis Foods, Plant w ) had an excellent washing and sorting system .
In 1976 , tomatoes were received before initial commercial processing ;
experimental sorting was varied and the results showed that hand sorting,
or the equivalent , is essential to removing mold prior to peeling . Sorting
was varied from zero to 20 % of the peeled tomato weight ; the higher sorting
was necessary when the California State Grade Certificate showed 3 % mold .
While the Grade Certificate is an indication of mold , the tomatoes were
graded about 24 hours prior so the actual mold count may be higher at the
time of processing . An alternative to hand sorting is the use of high
pressure water sprays (70 - 120 psig ) as practiced for a number of years by
most canners to remove broken and moldy tomatoes.
Peel Acidification
Early and rapid acidification is necessary because the tomato is more stable
at pH 4 . 2 than at pH 11 - 12 ; at the high pH , both color and flavor deteri
orate . A rapid decrease , in less than 10 seconds, from pH 11 to 4 . 2 is
necessary because off odor was sometimes observed when the acidification
paused at pH 6 - 9 for several minutes . Acidification was performed either
before or after the skin was separated from the pulp . Since recovery was
96 % or more , there was little reason to be concerned with acid economy by
acidifying after the skin removal. Therefore, the Peel Tank (Figure 1 ) is
the preferred location for acidification because it provides a quick pH
response and is an easy place to control pH .
Pulp Extraction
With the Extractor (Figure 1) , the best pulp recovery and skin extraction
was obtained with a 0 .030 - in . screen and 0 . 5 - in . paddle - screen clearance .
Larger screen sizes allowed too many skin particles and seed fragments from
broken tomatoes to remain with the pulp . The 0 . 5 - in . clearance was necessary
because closer clearances, as in normal cannery practice , would grind the
skin and incorporate it into the pulp . Caustic action has already loosened
the tomato cells so a wider clearance is necessary . Skin and seed fragments
are undesirable because they are graded as defects in products ; also , the
waxy skin layer carries the insecticide . Typically , the recovered pulp
contained 0 . 4 ppm toxaphene and the skin waste had 5 - 60 ppm .
128
Peeling Aids
During the Spring 1976 laboratory peeling study , the C , and c . saturated ,
monocarboxylic fatty acids were the most effective peeling aids . The 150°F
pretreatment was as effective , or more so , as using the peeling aid directly
in the caustic applicator . For easy - peeling tomatoes, such as those suitable
for steam peeling , it was possible to peel without caustic by using a l -min .
immersion in a 150°F aqueous bath containing 0 . 2 % w / w octanoic acid . While
it may be convenient to apply the peeling aid with caustic , there is no
inherent reason why a peeling aid requires the same application temperature,
pH , and immersion time as the caustic . Peeling aids are commonly referred
to as " wetting agents " but the most effective ones may do more than reduce
the interfacial tension between the tomato surface and the caustic . Some
wetting agents , such as sodium oleate or sodium lauryl sulfate, will show
high -wetting improvement , but they will have little effect on peeling ,
whether applied as a pretreatment or directly in the caustic bath . Others ,
such as sodium 2 - ethylhexyl sulfate and sodium mono - and di-methyl naphthalene
sulfonates , perform better when applied directly in the caustic bath than
when used as a pretreatment . The most effective peeling aids appear to react
chemically and (or ) to disrupt the cell structure and allow enzyme action .
This is illustrated by peeling tomatoes with only an acidic ( about pH 3 .6 ) ,
aqueous solution of octanoic acid at 150°F . While octanoic acid performed
best among the candidates, the C, to C saturated monocarboxylic acids
showed the most promise . The time was limited and an extensive pursuit of
the ideal peeling aid was not feasible . Octanoic acid occurs naturally .
in coconut oil , is readily available commercially in a food grade , and
is priced similar to the currently used peeling aids . A food - grade peeling
aid should be biologically metabolized in predictable fashion by both
humans and animals or microorganisms associated with man . Octanoic acid
fits these requirements .
Carboxylic Acid Peeling
The carboxylic acid peeling was done at about pH 3 . 6 with a 150°F aqueous
solution containing 0 . 2 % octanoic acid with a one to three minute immersion .
This completely peeled the tomato varieties Tropic , Walter , Roma-VF , and
VF - 145 - 21 - 4 (this last one contains a uniform -ripening gene) . For the VF
145 - 7879 , 134 , 198 , and 13L , which are typical California processing toma
toes, the skin was loosened and peeling aided , but a subsequent caustic
application was needed . With octanoic acid peeling , the peeling loss
averaged about 5% as compared to 12% for caustic using commercial peeling
aids . The difference was visually dramatic because caustic peel was red
due to the adhering pulp , whereas the octanoic acid peel was a translucent ,
pale yellow because no pulp adhered .
Peeling Aid Pretreatment
Pretreatment temperature was varied from 75°F to 210°F . Initially , 150°F

was chosen so as to be below enzyme - inactivation temperature . Experimenta
tion showed that below about 140° F the peeling aid pretreatment was less
effective or required long immersion , such as up to 10 minutes . Above
about 170° F , even with a short dip , the tomatoes became increasingly soft
and the peel loss increased . Overall , the 150° F temperature was best with
129
the range of 140 to 160°F being practical. Even a 150°F plain ( 100 % ) water
pretreatment usually showed some peeling improvement , but a peeling aid is
definitely better
Modified -Caustic Pilot Peeling
The 1976 pilot peeling at the cannery was mostly with the tomato Variety UC
134 , which usually was the only tomato available and is a more difficult
tomato to peel than the more prevalent VF - 145 - 7879 . When the VF - 145 , 198 ,
and 13L were used , they responded similarly to that of the 134 with respect
to peeling - aid pretreatment and residue in the recovered pulps .
When comparing peeling methods with a pilot line , it is possible to

simulate commercial conditions but nearly impossible to duplicate scale
because tomatoes change with each truck load and even within the load . Also ,
loading pilot equipment and duplicating caustic solutions can be quite
different . For example , the usual cannery caustic applicator takes about
one week to reach equilibrium between caustic and disintegrated tomato
solids . However , the experimentation necessitated changing the caustic
solution daily . The rubber -disc peeler is quite sensitive to the degree
of loading because peel removal depends not only on the discs contacting
the tomato but also on the inter -tomato rubbing and contact . The peeler
was operated at about l - t /hr so as to use nearly the same tomatoes from a
three - hour period for one set of experimental - peeling variables . From a
3 -hr supply period , three peeling comparisons were normally made : ( 1 )
plain caustic bath , ( 2) caustic bath containing peeling aid , and ( 3 ) peeling
aid pretreatment followed by a plain caustic immersion . Times, temperatures,
and loading were constant during these three variations .
Effluents & Wastes
One of the prime considerations when initiating the project was not only to
reduce liquid and solid effluents in terms of caustic , BOD , and COD , but to
avoid creating new ones ; this was successfully managed . There was no conti
nuous liquid discharge except from washing the tomatoes , and this is present
commercial practice . There was a carryover from the Pretreatment to the
Caustic Applicator , and from the Applicator to the disc peel remover . These
carryovers were food -grade materials , not inedible peeling aids nor efflu
ents . Since 96 % of the peel is recovered as pulp , the normal peel effluent
was drastically reduced . The skin , seeds , and fibers separated by the
Extractor are normal processing wastes. Since these wastes have been re
acidified , they are more acceptable than with the current caustic peel for
disposal on agricultural land or into a municipal waste treatment plant .
The Pretreatment bath liquid was not operated for extended periods and
through BOD and COD measurements were made, these likely do not represent
what might be experienced under commercial conditions. Some canners
currently operate their caustic applicators the full 3 -mo . processing
season without changing solutions , others change the caustic once a week .
The pretreatment aqueous solution of octanoic acid is biodegradable
whereas some of the current peeling aids are not . After peel removal,
all canners rinse or flume the peeled tomatoes , and this practice would
be continued with this 1976 modified - caustic peeling . Therefore, this
130
modified caustic peeling and peel recovery would decrease current peel
discharge by 96 % , and the discharge would have an improved pH character .
Product Mold , Insect Fragments , & Bacterial Counts
In 1975 the peel received from the Tillie Lewis peeling operation was almost
devoid of mesophilic and thermophilic bacteria . There was a slight increase
during the peel - pulp recovery , but the counts were very small in comparison
to those found in commercial operations at similar processing steps.
Therefore , it can be assumed that the caustic - peeling operation has a strong
bactericidal effect on the peel. Also in 1975 , the mold and insect - fragment
counts on the canned recovered pulp were uniformly low and reflect a thorough
washing and sorting system at the Tillie Lewis cannery. Therefore in 1976 ,
the experimental tomato washing was held constant , but the hand sorting was
varied from zero to 20 % of the peeled -tomato weight . The 1976 mold counts
showed that hand sorting , or the equivalent , would be essential to maintain
the mold level within tolerance . Truck loads with a California State Grade
Certificate showing 1 % or less mold required minimal sorting on loads above
3% mold , up to 20 % of the tomato weight might need to be removed to be
within tolerance on the recovered pulp . This 20% included both tomatoes
showing mold and broken tomatoes which would disintegrate in the bath and
not yield properly peeled whole tomatoes . Since there is normally about
a 24 - hr lapse between the time of picking and grading and actual processing ,
the mold count will increase . All this points to the necessity for an
efficient sorting of tomatoes prior to peeling if the recovered peel pulp
is to be usable . The results indicate that good manufacturing practices
will be necessary to control the mold and insect fragments .
Product Color , Flavor , & Vitamins

Product color and flavor differed between 1975 and 1976 , and this illustrates
how the peeling operation affects the recovered pulp . In 1975 the Caustic
Applicator liquid overflow went into the peel rather than to waste disposal;
it was a local situation which could not be altered at the time , but the
results show that recovered pulp could be food grade even under adverse
conditions of excessive ( 3 - fold ) caustic . The color and flavor ( Table 1 )
were degraded by caustic as were some amino acids Amino acids were used as
indicators of processing severity . The arginine :histidine ratios were 0 . 4
in 1975 , 1 . 1 in 1976 , and 1 .3 for conventional tomato pulp . Arginine is
more susceptible to caustic degradation than histidine. Flavor also
suffered when the pulp was exposed to excess caustic as seen in Table I .
Ascorbic acid is so easily decreased in the presence of hot caustic that
it was not present in pulps from either year . Beta -carotene is quite stable ,
and since the outer surface of the tomato is richer than the whole tomato
in this provitamin , the recovered pulp had a higher carotene value than
conventional tomato pulp . In general, the 1976 recovered pulps exhibited
improved color and flavor and reduced peel - aid residues compared to the
1975 pulps .
131
Consistency , Viscosity , and Pectin
In this pulp , there was a desirable above average number of tomato whole
cells which give the pulp a heavier , thicker appearance compared to
conventional tomato pulps. In general, this recovered pulp shows the
consistency and texture of a good cold -break processed pulp . Serum
viscosity was less than those of conventional pulps which indicates
degradation of the pectin as would be expected from the caustic exposure .
Evidently the consistency of this peel pulp is due to undissolved solids
(cells , fibers, etc. ) . Insoluble solids are the primary contributors
to tomato - product consistency , but pectin is important because it serves
to hold the insoluble solids in suspension and reduce the tendency for
syneresis . This recovered peel- pulp would be appropriate for pizza sauce
or soups, which normally may use a cold -break pulp because it is desirable
to thicken with starch . For other sauces or pulps where a hot -break
material is normally used , combining recovered pulp with conventional
pulp in a ratio of 1 : 3 will result in a material with the consistency
and character of a hot -break pulp .
U . S . Standards of Identity
Since the proposed process modifications and materials may or may not be
totally covered by the existing U . S . Food & Drug Regulations , a letter was
sent to the FDA Bureau of Foods requesting their judgment on these main
concerns : ( 1) utilization of pulp derived from caustic peeling, ( 2 ) acidi
fication of the caustic peel with food- grade hydrochloric acid , ( 3) use of
food - grade octanoic acid as a peeling aid with residue present in the
recovered pulp , and ( 4 ) the labeling requirements when recovered pulp is
utilized . Whether a commercial installation can be made under the existing
regulations or whether further technical and regulatory considerations are
needed will depend on the response to this letter . Pertinent regulations
are 21 CFR 53 . 10 - .40 , tomato products ; 21 CFR 121 . 1070 , food - grade fatty
acids; and 121 . 1091 , chemicals used in lye peeling .
Economics
The economics for a cannery peeling operation of 40 t /hr are summarized in
Table 2 . Such a peeling operation might use two lye applicators , such as
the FMC Hi- Ton , and either two FMC PR - 20 Peel Removers or four Magnuson
Model C Peel Scrubbers. The projected costs and savings are based on a 12%
recoverable peel loss , 60 days operation per year , 16 hrs of peeling each
day , and a $ 50 / t pulp value . Capital and operating expenses include only
those directly associated with pretreatment and pulp recovery , not the
balance of the peeling process that is presumed to already exist . The
capital cost could easily be greater or smaller , depending on whether
existing equipment and utilities are readily adaptable or entirely new
equipment would be needed . One example is that the pretreatment could be
applied with an existing flume or it might require a special , positive - flow
pretreatment such as that used in the pilot installation . Undoubtedly
132
TABLE 2 . PROJECTED ECONOMICS OF A COMMERCIAL INSTALLATION
Based on : 40 t / hr tomatoes x 12% peel 1st Year 2nd Year

= 4 .8 t /hr peel 96 % recovery Operation and
= 4 .608 t /hr pulp recovered . Thereafter
60 dy /yr x 16 hr /dy = 960 hr / yr $ /hr $ / hr
Recovered Peel - Pulp Value

Based on $50 / t gross value of pulp . + 230 .40 + 230 .40
Fixed Cost , installed Capital Equipment .
Depreciated in 1 yr , 960 hr .
Pretreatment (circulation , temp . control) - 15 ,000
Chemical Supplies ( tanks , pumps , piping ) - 16 , 000
Extraction (pulper , piping ) - 14 , 000
Acidification (pH control, agitator ) - 15 , 000
General (utilities , piping , etc . ) - 35 , 000
Contingency - 20 , 000
( installed total) -115 ,000 - 119 . 79 0 . 001
Variable costs
Direct Labor (operator , cleanup, QC , supv . ) – 12 .48
Startup labor , 1st year - 24 . 96
Indirect labor (mechanic , clerk ) - 3 . 13
40 .57 15 .61
Superintendence - 0 . 94
0 . 94 0 . 94
Utilities, steam , 7 , 230 lb /hr - 10 . 84
water , 10 gpm - 0 .07
electricity , 78 kw - 1 .57
12 .48 12 .48
Chemicals , fatty acid , 1 . 33 lb /hr - 1 . 33
hydrochloric acid , 150 lb /hr - 6 . 00
7 . 33 7 . 33
Maintenance Supplies, 5% /yr of capital - 5 .92
5 . 92 5 . 92
Miscellaneous (operating & cleanup supplies) - 1 . 00
- 1 . 00 1 . 00
Value + $ 230 .40 + $ 230 . 40

Costs - 188 .03 - 43 . 28
NET RETURN ON PEEL PROCESSING + $ 42 . 37 + $ 187 . 12
Saving on Caustic Peel Disposal ( $ 2 . 50 / t ) + 12 .00 + 12 .001
+ $ 54 . 37 + $ 199 . 12)
OVERALL RETURN ON PEEL PROCESSING or or
$52 , 195 . 20 $ 191, 155 . 201
1st year per year
thereafter
133
different canners will use pulp values different than the $50 / t which was
based on the approximate value of delivered fresh tomatoes before proces
sing .
SUMMARY
The objective of this evaluation and development was to determine the

" Commercial Feasibility of Recovering Tomato Processing Residuals for Food
Use" . The 1975 work was an evaluation and characterization of peel from a
typical commercial peeling operation . For 1976 , the caustic peeling
process was modified to reduce the unacceptable peeling - aid levels found
during 1975 . The commercial peel - pulp recovery operation envisioned
would have a tomato pretreatment with a food - grade fatty acid as used
in 1976 and the acidification and pulp extraction features used in 1975 .
The recovered 1976 pulp was Grade A , and with a capital investment which
can be depreciated ciated in less than one year , the pulp recovery has
a net positive value of possibly $ 187 /hr of operation after the first
year . As of now , pulp recovery from tomato peel appears to be both
technically and economically feasible .
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors appreciate the support given to this project by the tomato pro
cessing industry ; not only did it ease the burden , but tasks and judgments
were often shortened and made possible in a few months which otherwise might
have required several years . In particular , we wish to thank Tillie Lewis
Foods and Hunt -Wesson Foods at whose canneries the field work was performed .
This allowed a practical approach which could not be duplicated in a labora
tory or pilot plant . The U . S . Environmental Protection Agency supported in
part this experimentation , and this allowed the work and development to be
carried out in the short period of two years .
REFERENCES
GENERAL
1. Schultz , W . G . , Graham , R . P ., and Hart , M . R . Pulp recovery from

tomato peel residue. Proceedings of 6th National Symposium on Food
eenWastes
Processing residen umproceedings
, Madison of ,6thApril
, Wisconsin National
5 - 11 (Symposium
1975 ) . on"Ford
2. Hart , M . R . , Graham , R . P . , Williams, G . S . , and Hanni , P . F . Lye
peeling of tomatoes using rotating rubber discs . Food Technology
28 : 38 ( 1974 ) .
3. Schultz , W . G . , Graham , R . P ., Rockwell, W . C . , Bomben , J . L . ,

Miers , J . C . , and Wagner , J . R . Field processing of tomatoes , Part 1 ,
process and design . J . Food Sci . 36 :397 ( 1971) .
134
4. Miers , J . C . , Wagner , J . R . , Nutting , M - D . , Schultz , W . G . , Becker , R . ,
Neumann , H . J . , Dietrich , W . C . , and Sanshuck , D . W . Field processing
of tomatoes , Part 2 , quality and composition . J . Food Sci . 36 :400
( 1971 ) .
5 . Ostertag , R . and Robe , K . Waterless peel removal . Food Processing

36 ( 1 ) :60 ( 1975 ) .
Schultz , W . G . et al . Commercial feasibility of recovering tomato pro
cessing residuals for food use . Report for 1975 , Interagency Agreement
EPA - IAG - D5 -0795 . Western Regional Research Center , ARS , USDA , 800
Buchanan St . , Albany , CA 94710 .
U . S . Government Code of Federal Regulations.
U . S . Government Printing Office , Washington , D . c . 20402 .

21 CFR 52.5081- .5091. Canned tomato pulp grades.
21 CFR 53. 10 , . 20 , . 30 , .40. Standards of identity, tomato catsup, pulp,
and paste, and canned tomatoes.
21 CFR 121 . 1070 . Fatty acids.
21 CFR 121 . 1091. Chemicals used in washing or to assist in the lye peeling
of fruits and vegetables .
Analytical Procedures
Consistency National Canners Assoc . Laboratory Manual
for Food Canners and Processors , Vol . 2 .
Avi Publ. Co . , Westport , Conn . 294 - 6 ( 1968 ) .
Natural Tomato Soluble ibid. P 560 .

Solids (NTSS )
Mold and Insect Fragments ibid. pp 300 - 316 , 324 - 325 .

Peeling Aid , Modification of: Macpherson , J . K . and
Fatty Acids Buckee , G . K . Estimation of free fatty
acids ( C to C ) in wort and beer .
J . Inst . Brew . , 80 ( 6 ) : 540 ( 1974 ) .
Peeling Aids , Intercontinental Chemical Company . " Photo
(Na 2 - ethylhexyl metric Determination of Con - O Peel -Eze 1497 . "
sulfate, sodium Sacramento , Calif .
mono - and di -methyl
naphthalene sulfonates )
135
Pesticide ( Toxaphene) Food and Drug Administration . Pesticide
Analytical Manual , Vol . 1 . U . S . Dept . of
HEW , Washington , D . C . ( 1971) $ 212 . 13a ( 2 )
Quality Factors (color , U . S . Dept . of Agriculture . United States

defects , flavor , odor ) Standards for Grades of Canned Tomato
Puree ( Tomato Pulp ) .
Salt ( Total Chloride ) National Canners Assn . loc . cit . pp 291

292 .
Total Solids Horowitz , William (ed . ) . Official Methods

(Percent Moisture ) of Analysis of the Association of Official
Analytical Chemists . AOAC , Washington , D . C .
( 11th ed . , 1970 ) P 559 .
Viscosity ibid . p 369 .
Vitamin A ( Carotene ) ibid . pp 769-771.
Reference to a company and /or product named by the Department is only for
purposes of information and does not imply approval or recommendation of the
product to the exclusior of others which may also be suitable.
136
WASTE REDUCTION BY PROCESS MODIFICATION IN SWEET CORN PROCESSING
by
G . H . Robertson * , M . E . Lazar * , J . M . Krochta* and D . F . Farkas*
INTRODUCTION
The processing of sweet corn results in the generation of large quantities

of liquid and solid waste . Liquid wastes contain soluble sugars and starches
and are responsible for average wastewater loadings of 27 lbs of BOD ( 1 )
per ton of corn in husk . Nearly 2 . 6 million lbs of sweet corn ( in husk )
are processed ( 2 ) hence , 70 million pounds of BOD are produced annually .
Solid wastes are composed of husk , cob , and edible corn which are not
removed from the cob during cutting and constitute up to 2 / 3 of the weight
of the starting raw material .
The predominant form of preserved sweet corn is the " whole" or cut style ,
which constitutes 64 to 70% of all sweet corn and is produced by forcing
husked ears of sweet corn against revolving or stationary sets of knives .
Furthermore , most of the liquid wastes indicated above are attributed to
processing this style of corn and occur during the contact of the cut - corn
surface with water . Transfer of starch and sugars from the kernel to the
blanch , wash , and flume fluids occurs by diffusion and by bulk mixing
between the aqueous medium and the semi- solid endosperm .
The USDA Western Regional Research Center has conducted studies to ascer
tain whether sweet - corn kernels can be removed from the cob as intact units
(unit kernels ) which lack a cut surface , and whether this modification
would provide sufficient waste reduction and yield improvement incentives
for further development of new processing methods . Manual experiments
using market corn were conducted in 1975 ( 3 ) . These indicated 70 % decre
ments for washing and blanching effluents and 20 % increments for recovery
of kernels on a per kernel basis .
The work described here was conducted to continue effluent and yield com
parisons for intact kernels and cut kernels produced from commercial varie
ties of sweet corn harvested at their processing maturities, and to evaluate
three experimental processing methods relative to their potential for a full
scale application .
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
Sweet corn for these studies was grown during 1976 on irrigated land in
Gilroy , CA , by the Del Monte Corporation . The varieties Golden Jubilee and
Stylepak were grown as representative of commercial processing sweet corn .
The glumeless variety Golden Happiness was also grown .
* Western Regional Research Center , U . S . D . A . , ARS, Albany , California

137
When the corn attained processing maturity (monitored by moisture content of
cut kernels) , processing was begun ( Table 1 ) . Sweet corn was manually
harvested , transported by truck to Albany , CA , composited to eliminate
picker bias , divided into sublots of 35 to 70 lbs, and husked in a commercial
husking machine ( Food Machinery Corporation ) . The ears were then trimmed
to exclude insect, bird , and microbial damage at the tip end . The sublots
of trimmed corn were then delivered to the appropriate kernel generation
stations .
TABLE 1 . PROCESS SEQUENCE FOR SWEET- CORN EXPERIMENTS
Step Number Action Weight Kernel Effluent

Sample Sample
Harvest
Transport
Composite
Husk
Trim
Generate Kernels
(Four methods)
Clean
( Two methods )
Steam blanch
Air Cool
Freeze
Cut kernels were produced using a commercial rotating cutting machine

( Food Machinery Corporation ) . The machine was set to give approximately
the depth of cut obtained in commercial practice . Following production
of kernels the juices adhering to the inside of the cutter were washed
with a fixed volume of water and collected . This effluent was considered
as part of the wash effluent since in a continuous process it would normally
be included with the wash effluent .
Intact kernels were generated in three ways. The first alternative was to
use the conventional cutting machine by setting the depth of cut at its
maximum or deepest cut . Cutter washing was conducted as above . The second
alternative was to produce kernels by the whole - saw " technique . Here , ears
were processed in a fixed diameter cutting or sawing machine sized to the
138
ear diameter to produce a mixture including intact kernels , kernels
with attached cob fragments and saw dust ( 3 ) . These kernels were later
screened in a batch reel separator to eliminate loose fines. The proto
type hole - sawing machine was provided with a rotating sawing element into
which pre -sized ears were manually fed . A third alternative was to produce
intact kernels by rubbing , pressing , or plucking kernels row -by - row from
longitudinal half -sections of ears produced by mechanically splitting .
In the prototype for this process manually supported ear sections were
placed against the surface of a continuous , moving , textured silicone
rubber belt . An air stream heated to 350 to 400 F was directed against
the belt surface to evaporate juices from prior contacts so as to maintain
contact friction .
Normal- depth cut kernels , deeply cut kernels, hole- sawed and screened ker
nels , and pressed kernels were then washed in water using a pilot scale ,
shaker washer ( A . B . McLauchlan Co . , Inc . ) . The water used in washing was
collected and its volume recorded . In some cases a brine flotation in
5 % NaCl was applied to eliminate excessive cob fragments . Cleaned ker
nels then were blanched for 3 . 0 minutes on trays in a continuous steam
blancher operating at 210 F . Blancher effluent was collected during and for 12
minutes after blanching, its volume measured and recorded . Finally , the
blanched kernels were air cooled in forced air , and then frozen on trays in a
cross - flow , air -blast freezer operating at - 20 F and at 700 fpm .
Material balances and sample analyses . The mass of each sublot of corn was
measured before husking and after each step indicated in Table 1 . Weighed
kernel samples were drawn at the points indicated in Table 1 . A 70 - 90 gm
sample was drawn for moisture analysis and a 130 to 200 gm sample was drawn
for analysis of kernel characteristics . Material balances were corrected
for sample weights , when appropriate . Liquid samples were drawn from the
cutter wash effluent , the kernel washing effluent , and the blancher conden “
sate . Liquid samples were analyzed for total organic carbon ( TOC ) , chemical
oxygen demand ( COD) , total solids ( TS ) , soluble solids ( SS ) , and biological
oxygen demand ( BOD) .
Characterizations were made by visually segregating kernels into groups

according to whether they were cut kernels , intact kernels , intact kernels
with adhering cob tissues , or completely smashed kernels . Cob fragments
and miscellaneous debris were also identified here. Each group was weighed and
expressed as a percentage of the total sample weight . A classification of
each group into smaller subgroups according to the depth of cut and the type
of cob fragments, adhering to unit kernels will be reported later .
RESULTS
Effluent produced during the processing of sweet corn kernels from each of
the four kernel generating methods are summarized in Tables 2 . and 3 . These
data and those which follow represent 2 Stylepak , 2 Jubilee , and 1 Golden
Happiness harvest . The data are shown plus or minus one standard deviation .
Moreover , the basis of comparison is an equal mass of frozen product .
139
TABLE 2 . LIQUID EFFLUENT OBSERVED DURING SWEET- CORN WASHING
COD TOC ss TS
Kernel Style Sport
(pph ) Sport
( pph ) Sport
( pph ) (Sport
pph )
Intact (Pressed ) 0 .62 + 0 .51 0 .27 + 0 . 18 0 . 11 + 0 .07 0 . 79 + 0 .46

Cut (Normal) 3 .53 + 0.91 1 .33 + 0. 38 0 .73 + 0 .13 2.96 + 0 .77
Cut (Deep) 2 .12 + 0.43 0 .79 + 0 .17 0 . 36 + 0 .07 1.83 + 0 .40
Intact (Hole Saw ) 0 .87 + 0. 16 0 .31 + 0 .06 0 .17 + 0 .06 0.88 + 0 .03
Basis : 100 Mass Units of Frozen Product .
TABLE 3 . LIQUID EFFLUENT OBSERVED DURING SWEET- CORN BLANCHING
Kernel Style COD TOC SS TS

(pph ) (pph ) (pph ) ( pph )
ess
Intact (Pressed ) 0 .059 + 0 .035 0 .022 + 0 .013 0 .0035 + 0 .0017 0 .073 +0 .037
Cut ( Normal) 0 .148 + 0 .040 0 .056 + 0 .015 0 .0154 + 0 .0030 0 .095 +0 .0726
Cut (Deep) 0 . 155 + 0 . 040 0 .060 + 0 .016 0 .0137 + 0 .0059 0 . 173+0 .0529
Intact (Hole Saw ) 0.078 + 0. 041 0. 029 + 0.015 0.0043 + 0.0012 0. 099+0.040
Basis : 100 Mass Units of Frozen Corn
The characteristics of the kernels produced by each method are summarized in

Table 4 . This gross characterization into groups of cut kernels , intact
kernels , and intact kernels with adhering cob tissue indicated the overall
suitability of the material as well as the requirement for extensive cleaning
or separation .
The material balances for process runs in which all four methods were exa
mined are shown in Table 5 . All of the data except those in the last
line which are labeled " Frozen (gross yield) " are yields which include
cob fragments as well as kernels with adhering cob tissue . The last line of
entries labeled " Frozen -useable" is corrected by applying the percentage
140
4.MEAN
TABLE
MIXTURES
PREPARED
FRESHLY
FOR
DISTRIBUTIONS
PERCENT
WEIGHT
KERNEL
Kernel Cut Intact Intact

Kernels Smashed Cob
Mixture Kernels Kernels Cob
Attached
with Kernels Fragments
(% ) (% ) (% ) (% )
(Normal
)Cut 80 12
(Deep
)Cut 41 37
141
Saw
)(Hole
Intact 22 52
(Press
)Intact 95
Iscreened
TABLE 5 . MEAN EXPERIMENTAL YIELD DURING PROCESSING OF SWEET - CORN
( 71 . 8 + 1 . 3% MOISTURE )
Action Mass percent recovery
Husked 66.1 + 1.9

Trimmed 64 . 1 + 1. 3
Cut Cut Intact Intact
(Normal) ( Deep ) (Hole -saw ) ( Press )
Prepared
Kernels 38 .1 + 3.1 46 .3 + 3.0 46.4 + 3.3 40.9 + 2.3
Washed 36 .3 + 3.8 47.0 + 3.5 49.9 + 4.6 43.2 + 2.6
Blanched 35 .1 + 3. 8 44.2 + 2. 9 46.8 + 5. 3 42.8 + 2 .5
Air Cooled 33. 1 + 3.6 41.6 + 2.9 44 .0 + 5 .3 40.4 + 2. 1
Frozen 32.0 + 3.8 39.6 + 2.8 42.8 + 5.2 38. 8 + 1. 9
(Gross Yield )
Frozen
( Useable Yield )
31.0 + 3.8 34 .9 + 4. 1 34 .0 + 4 .0 37 .7 + 2.4
142
of useable corn determined from individual classification analyses similiar
to those described above . This line entry is assumed to approximate the
product which would be achieved after an ideal flotation separation .
DISCUSSION
The purpose of this investigation was to assess the merits of the alter
ative kernel producing methods in terms of effluent generated and yield
obtained . Analysis of the data presented above indicated that the most
likely candidate for further development was the intact kernel produced by
the pressing alternative . The factors entering this decision are described
below .
Effluent data based on crude yields (i . e . yields for kernel mixtures of

suitable corn with defective corn as produced in testing without a satisfac
tory flotation separation ) indicated that the pressing process would result
in the least generation of COD, TOC , ss , or TS of any of the four alterna
tives . Favorable reductions were also obtained for the hole - sawed intact
kernels . However , the effluent from deeply cut kernels was more like that
from normally cut kernels , the small difference being attributed to the
inclusion of more kernel mass in the deep cut sample and to the inclusion
of more intact kernels .
Organic loading in blancher effluents were much lower than in washer effluents
since the blanching operation represented the second contact with water
(See Introduction ) and since steam blanching is inherently a low effluent
method . However , the relative order of effectiveness in reducing waste
was the same as observed for washing .
The reasons for the different organic loadings for each of the different
kernel producing methods can be deduced from the kernel distributions shown
in Table 4 . Clearly , the loading is proportional to the proportion of the
sample containing cut kernels . Perhaps a lower loading than was realized
would have been expected from the unit -kernel, but since some kernels are
broken before and during the separation by pressing, and since the kernel
base is not a con.Pletely sealed unit at this stage of its maturity , this
expectation was not realized .
The quality of each mixture , ie . the relative amounts of corn which must be
separated and / or upgraded , can also be seen in the classification data . For
instance , the pressed intact sample contains small accounts of kernels with
adhering cob tissue (about 3% ) whereas the cut (normal) contains about 3 %
of smashed kernels. In a conventional line both of these , or a portion of
them would be separable by a flotation . Much larger amounts of both of these
defects occur in the deep - cut and hole - sawed product making a separation
and / or reclamation imperative .
The mean yield history for each style kernel is shown stepwise in Table 5 ;
Generally , there is a loss of yield for each kernel mixture due to leaching
and dehydration during the process sequence . However , this loss is greater
for the cut kenels than for either of the intact kernel mixtures and reflects
the greater susceptibility of the cut surface to losses .
143
A comparison of freshly prepared cut (normal) and intact ( pressed ) kernel
yields shows that the intact yields were higher by a factor of 3 . 2% for
Stylepak , 7 . 8 % for Golden Jubilee , and 17 . 8 % for Golden Happiness corres
ponding to cutting recoveries of 40 .8 , 37 . 1 and 34 .4 % respectively .
The value of the yield increase factor depends on the value of the cutting
yield , ie . , the higher the cutting yield , the lower the percentage
increase factor . However , large percentage increase factors do appear
to be realistic since normally cutting yields fall with the range of 28 to
40% ( 4 ) depending on variety and maturity . Haber ( 5 ) reported an average
recovery of 33 . 7 % for 9 commercial varieties over an 8 -year study
period . Moreover , higher yield factors might have been obtained for intact
kernels if all of the available kernels had been recovered . Tight ly
packed kernels near the butt end , ruptured kernels , and immature kernels
at the tapered end were not recovered effectively .
Judging from the results shown in Table 5 it would appear that the greatest
yield could be attained by either the hole - saw or the deep -cut options .
However , when these yields are corrected by applying experimentally
determined percentages of useable kernels , the balance shifts to favor
the pressed kernels. In an attempt to take advantage of the hole - saw
yield potential we proposed that the off- grade kernels of either deep - cut
or hole - saw mixtures might be upgraded to suitable kernels by mechanical
means. Many different approaches including abrasive milling of fresh ,
blanched and frozen hole -sawed kernels were applied , but were not successful
since failure of the sensitive kernel pericarp usually occurred before
failure at or near the kernel abscission layer . Orientation techniques
were investigated which would be applied along with a cutting or pinching
action to release the cob fragment . The large number of kernels and
the widely different shapes and sizes which would have to be processed
in this fashion precluded development along these lines .
Furthermore , when useable yield factors were applied to the effluent
data of Table 2 to assess the predicted effluent in terms of useable
kernels , differences obtained between the different styles are greater
and the balance shifts farther in favor of the pressing option . For
instance , the COD values for cut (normal) , cut (deep ) , intact (hole
saw ) , and intact ( pressed ) kernels became respectively 3 .64 , 2 .42 , 1 . 10 ,
and 0 .64 .
Real separations via density flotation are not as sharp as the ideal
separations utilized in the arguments described above . Preliminary
flotation data performed on freshly prepared and washed intact (hole - saw )
kernels indicated that the percentage of off- grade kernels can be reduced
to acceptable levels , but that this is achieved at the expense of loss of
yield of edible kernels . For instance , to reduce the proportion of off
grade kernels produced by hole - sawing from the 20 % level to the 3 % level
as found in freshly prepared intact ( pressed ) kernels would require immer
sion in an 11 . 0 % NaCl solution (or its density equivalent ) and would result
in the loss of nearly 30 % of the useable sweet corn . Because of this poor
separation factor , there is additional strong incentive to utilize the
preparation sequence which produces the cleanest sample to begin with ,
i . e . , the pressing procedure .
144
The yield and effluent inducements for substitution of the unit or intact
sweet corn kernel are augmented by consideration of the organoleptic
acceptability of intact kernels . For instance , untrained panels which were
served frozen and cooked samples of intact and cut kernels prepared from
the same harvest , consistently expressed a preference for the intact kernel
of 0 . 5 to 0 . 8 scoring units on a 1 to 9 hedonic preference ranking. This
preference appears to be due to improved flavor and mouth feel of the intact
kernel. Indeed , the product flavor resembles that of corn -on - the- cob .
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the experiments described above , it was concluded that :

1. Intact kernel mixtures provided for substantial effluent reductions
over conventionally cut kernel mixtures .
2. Intact kernel mixtures produced by pressing provided for substan

tially greater yields than normally obtained during cutting .
3. The intact kernels produced by pressing provided for the highest

yield with lowest effluent of the four experimental methods.
and
4. Intact kernels could have greater acceptability than cut kernels .
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors express their appreciation to Harold Thompson of the

Environmental Protection Agency , and John Farquhar of the American
Frozen Food Institute and their sponsoring agencies whose financial
support was utilized in this project . In addition , we acknowledge
the assistance of Bill Hagan ( Del Monte ) for sweet corn growing and
harvesting , Joe Ohler ( Libby , McNeill , and Libby) for arranging the
loan of FMC cutter and husker , Christina Merlo (NCA ) for analysis of
waste samples , and Joyce Hudson (WRRC ) for corn sample analyses .
REFERENCES
1. U . S . Environmental Protection Agency Pollution Abatement in the

Fruit and vegetable Industry . Vol. 3 . Wastewater Treatment in
the Food Processing Industry . Office of Technology Transfer ( 1965 ) .
2 . Anon . The Almanac of the Canning , Freezing , Preserving Industries .
Edward Judge & Sons, Westminster , MD ( 1973 ) .
3 . Robertson , G . H . , Lazar , M . E . , Galinat , W . C . , Farkas , D . F . , and
Krochta , J . M . Unit operations for generation of intact or unit
kernels of sweet - corn . Manuscript in preparation for J Fd Sci .
145
4 . Smith , G . M . " Sweet - Corn . " Chapter XI in Sprague , G . F . Corn and
Corn Improvement . Academic Press , Inc . New York ( 1955 ) .
5 . Haber , E . S . Variations in yield and cutting percentage of sweet
corn hybids. Am Soc for Hort Sci 53 302- 304 ( 1949) .
146
APPLICATION OF FINE SCREENS
IN THE
TREATMENT OF FOOD PROCESSING WASTEWATER
by
R . Neal* , R . Chaney* , and A . Bubp *
INTRODUCTION
Fine screens are used primarily as a pretreatment device in the treatment

of food processing wastewaters. That is, they perform an operation on
wastewater to make it more suitable for introduction into a more advanced
treatment system . In most food processing screen applications, waste
waters are discharged to publicly owned municipal treatment systems where
sewer use charges are assessed. Applications in privately owned treatment
systems are usually found at larger plants or in remote locations.
The major reasons for pretreatment include protection of treatment pro

cesses to insure maximum efficiency, protection of the receiving system
from damage , satisfaction of legal requirements imposed by sewer use ordi
nances, and reduction of treatment costs due to user surcharges.
Fine screens are presently used in numerous food processing plants to

recover suspended solids from plant effluents and process streams. Fine
screen devices include static screens, rotating drum screens, and vibrating
screens. This paper concentrates on the diverse application and benefits of
the static screen in the treatment of various food processing wastewaters.
A review of applications in the vegetable and fruit processing , meat packing,
poultry processing, seafood processing, dairy , and beverage industries is
included . Static screen acceptance , as illustrated by this paper, is the
result of proven effectiveness , simplicity , and economy.
The static screen , illustrated in Figure 1 ( a ) , is a very simple device . The

wastewater or slurry to be treated is introduced through a headbox to
dampen turbulence and provide even distribution over the weir and screen .
As the wastewater overflows the weir , it accelerates toward the screen . A
hinged baffle reduces turbulence and optimizes flow distribution . Most of
the wastewater is removed on the first slope ( 25° from vertical) of the three
slope screen as illustrated in Figure 1 ( b ) . Remaining wastewater is
removed on the second ( 350) slope and the collected solids begin to roll on
the surface due to their residual kinetic energy . On the final (45°) slope ,
* C - E Bauer, Division of Combustion Engineering, Inc. , Springfield , Ohio

147
the solids drain briefly before being displaced by oncoming material.
Screen openings vary from 0 . 010 - 0 . 080 inch depending on the specific
application. In practice , openings of 0 . 020 - 0 . 040 inch are most common .
Gravity feed
of liquids/ solids
Self cleaning,
non clogging stainless
steel screen for L Headbox
continuous dewatering
Alternate
feed inlet
Drain
Removed or
recovered
solids
Liquid
Ji(a ) Solids 1 (b )
Figure 1. Schematic of static screen operation .
VEGETABLE AND FRUIT PROCESSING

The vegetable and fruit processing industry uses fine screens to reduce sus
pended solids resulting from washing, peeling, slicing, rinsing , and packing
Essentially all processing plants , regardless of the produce handled , have
two potential screening applications in common . These are wash water
recycle systems and final effluent pretreatment.
The first step in vegetable and fruit processing is washing to remove dirt,
stems, leaves and other residue brought in from the field . Accumulation of
waste material in wash waters requires continual makeup and discharge to
maintain acceptable water quality for effective washing. Fine screens are
used to remove solids so wash water can be recycled . Screening and
recycle results in significant savings through reductions in water consump
tion and wastewater treatment requirements or surcharges.
148
Processing plant wastewaters, containing skins, seeds, trimmings , culls ,
stems, leaves, and dirt, have very high BOD5 and suspended solids
concentrations. Pretreatment is usually required to minimize municipal
sewer surcharges or treatment plant operating problems. Static screens
have been widely accepted for pretreatment of total plant effluents. The
static screen has replaced vibrating and rotating fine screens in many
installations due to lower operation and maintenance requirements.
Typical performance data reported by plant personnel from various instal

lations are presented in the following table .
TABLE 1. TYPICAL STATIC SCREEN PERFORMANCES
Suspended Solids BOD5 Screen

Raw Raw Opening
(mg/ 1 ) FR % R (inches )
Produce (mg/ 1)
Potatoes 5200 35. 0 4860 9. 7 0 . 060
Mushrooms 570 40 . 0 940 23. 0 0. 060

Tomatoes 84. 0 63. O 0 . 020
-
Pickles 51. 5 1726 39 . 7 0. 080
Screenings recovered in vegetable processing applications are usually

removed by pet food manufacturers for use in their products . Farmers
also use the waste solids as a cattle feed additive or plow it into fields for
the nutrient value . Solids disposal seldom incurs operating costs to the
processor.
Citrus processing plants use fine screens for pulp dewatering , pectin ex
traction , press effluent dewatering, and flume water clarification . The
recovered solids are frequently dried and used as a cattle feed additive .
Static screens have been used in wineries to remove 45 - 55 % of the avail

able juice from crushed grapes prior to the pressing operation . By
removing the free juice, a press can be fed thicker grape pulp and brought
8 pressure
SU quicker. Thus, the total capacity of the pressing
operation is increased considerably .
149
MEAT PACKING
It is common in meat packing plants to provide separate sewers for stock

pen wastes, manure wastes, grease wastes, clear waters (chilling, con
densing , and cooling ), and sanitary wastes. Newer plants often segregate
further to permit removal of waste materials before dilution with other
wastes. Much meat packing waste is originally solid (meat and fat) or
sludge (manure) . It is important to remove the solid material before it is
subjected to turbulence which breaks it down to soluble BOD and colloidal
solids that are more difficult and expensive to treat. As a result, screens
have found wide use in meat packing plants for the treatment of segregated
high concentration waste streams.
Screens are used to remove solids from stockpen wastes, recover paunch
manure , recover hog stomach contents, remove solids from stick water,
separate solids from expellar grease , dewater catch basin sludge , and
recover solids from total plant wastewater.
Prior to slaughter, the animals are held in stockpens . Runways and pens
are hosed down periodically producing a concentrated waste composed of
manure , dirt, straw , corn , and hair. This concentrated wastewater can
be effectively treated with static screens. In a typical application , a 72
inch screen with 0 . 040 in . screen openings would handle flows of 600 -
1100 gpm typically producing 12 tons per day of 40 % dry weight solids .
Paunch manure (cattle stomach contents) and hog stomach contents contain
fluids , corn , straw , and hair. This material is removed from the
stomach for the recovery of tripe . The material is segregated from the
total wastewater stream due to the extremely heavy loadings and operating
problems it would create for a treatment facility . The wet method of
paunch recovery consists of cutting the paunch open in a water flow .
Static screens with 0 . 040 in . openings provide excellent recovery of solids
from the paunch slurry . Flows of 600 gpm can be handled with a 72 inch
unit producing 25 % dry weight solids. Recovered solids, a usable feed
stock by - product, are usually picked up by local livestock producers for
use as a feed additive .
In hog processing, hogs are scalded at 150 - 1900 F and dehaired in a

beater - scraper type machine. Hair and scurf, a dandruff - like flake,
build up in the water along with foam produced by gelatin cooked from the
skins. By screening and recycling, the life of scald water can be extended
reducing the total volume of wastewater and conserving heat. A typical
hair recovery application would use a 72 inch screen with 0. 020 in .
openings to handle flows of 400 - 500 gpm .
150
Screens are used to remove solids from stick water in the rendering
process . Stick water is a combination of product and condensation water
produced in steam rendering. The stick water layer from the rendering
vessel is screened prior to evaporation to produce a high protein feed
additive . Solids in stick water are coarse and fibrous in inedible render
ing, and soft and stringy in edible rendering. Grease normally does not
accumulate on the screen because the stick water is hot (130 - 160° F ) when
processed .
An expellar or screw press is used to remove additional grease from ren

de red solids. This recovered grease contains solids which are normally
removed by gravity clarification before the grease is filtered. Static
screens with 0 . 020 in . openings have been used in this application elimi
nating the settling operation . Due to the fine screen openings ( 0 . 020 in . )
Cree
and high grease viscosity , flow rates are low (5 - 10 gpm for an 18 inch
screen ). Even with the low flows, screens are an attractive alternative
for this solids removal application .
Static screens have been used to dewater sludge from catch basins. Flows
of 200 gpm can be handled with a 48 in . x 0 . 040 in . screen . Solids
recovered from catch basin sludge are usually collected for landfill disposal.
Screens are used as a primary treatment device for the total wastewater
from packing plants. In many cases solids collected from the total waste
water stream can be rendered . A typical application using a 72 in . x
0 . 040 in . screen would handle a hydraulic loading of 500 - 700 gpm .
Suspended solids removals of 60 % or 25 , 000 lbs/ day of solids (40 % dry
weight) can be expected.
DAIRY
The modern dairy uses a considerable amount of water to wash down milk
ing stalls, pits, lanes , and holding pens. Fine screening this highly con
centrated manure laden flush water eliminates pipe plugging and secondary
treatment process operating problems. Typical dairy flush water applica
tions use a 0 . 040 in . screen opening to achieve 40 - 45 % suspended solids
and 30 - 35 % COD removals. Screenings are generally 15 % dry weight
solids with 95 % volatile material.
POULTRY GROWING AND PROCESSING

Wastewater from poultry growing farms is composed of manure , feathers ,
grain , wood chips, and grit from washing the growing barns. Screens are
effective for the treatment of these solids laden wastewaters to remove
151
approximately 50 % of the suspended solids prior to biological treatment
processes.
Poultry processing plants generally segregate wastewaters into offal and

feather streams. The offal wastewater normally passes through an offal
separator ( coarse drum screen ) to remove large renderable material.
The feather laden wastewater passes through a drum or stationary screen
where the feathers, a saleable by -product , are removed . Following these
coarse process screening operations , the two waste streamswhich still
contain significant quantities of small suspended matter are combined into
a total plant effluent. The Hydrasieve is generally used on the total efflu
ent to remove additional renderable solids and reduce the load on the plants
secondary treatment system .
Poultry processing plant applications normally use a 72 in . screen with

0 . 020 in . openings to handle up to 500 gpm . Suspended solids removals of
50 % are typical.
Texas A & M University recently conducted evaluation tests using a static
screen to pretreat chill tank effluents . Test results on this low flow , high
load application indicated 40 - 50 % suspended solids and 30 % BOD5
reductions.
SEAFOOD PROCESSING
Various seafoods , even though physically quite different, are processed
through a series of similar steps. Fresh catch arriving at the processing
plant is sometimes prewashed to remove loose dirt, silt, scales, and
other debris . The seafood is then conveyed through peelers, scalers, or
shellers to remove protective coverings. The roughly cleaned seafood
then passes through a series of washing operations where waste materials
are removed from the meat. Inspectors then remove culls and remaining
bits of waste solids prior to packaging. Wastewaters from the various pro
cesses flow to a collection sump from which they are pumped to a static
screen with 0 . 020 - 0 . 030 in . openings. The screen effectively removes
heavy solids ( scales, shells, feelers, viscera , culls , etc. ) which produce
high sewer surcharges if discharged to municipal systems or sea gull
problems if ocean discharged.
Due to the high protein and nutrient content of waste seafood solids, they
are usually sold to pet food manufacturers who pick up the waste solids at
the processing plant. Hydrasieves have been used as described in all
types of shell and finfish processing plants .
152
BREWERY, DISTILLERY, AND WINERY
Screens are used in the brewing industry to recover spent grains, dewater
spent hops, and remove labels , glass, caps, cork , etc . from caustic
bottle washing solutions.
Wineries use screens to remove stems from de - steamming operations

and free juice from crushed grapes prior to pressing.
SUMMARY
Static screen application guidelines are summarized on the following page .

As illustrated here , the fine static screen has gained wide acceptance for
solids removal in the food processing industry due to its effectiveness,
simplicity , and economy. It has replaced other fine screening devices in
numerous applications where minimum maintenance is required.
Extremely rapid return on investment has been experienced by many food
processing users through reduced sewer surcharges or by -product
recovery .
153
TABLE 2 . STATIC SCREEN APPLICATION GUIDELINES
Screen Susp. Solids % Flow Rate

Opening Removal Dry Wt. (72" Unit)
Industry / Application (in .) (% ) Solids (gpm )
Vegetable and Fruit
Processing 0 . 020 - 0 . 080 35 - 85 10 - 15 400 - 1000
Meat Packing
Pen Washing 0 . 040 30 - 35 40 600 - 1100
Paunch Manure Recovery 0 . 040 .30 - 35 25 600
Scald Tank Recycle 0 . 020 30 - 35 25 400 - 500
. Stick Water 0 . 020 30 - 35 - 10 300 - 400
• Expellar Grease 0 . 020 30 - 35 10 20 - 40
. Catch Basin Sludge 0 . 040 30 - . 35 20 300
• Total Plant Wastewater 0 . 040 30 - 35 40 500 - 700
Dairy 0 . 040 40 - 45 450

Poultry
. Growing Facilities 0 . 040 50 400 - 500
• Processing Plant 0 . 020 50 15 400 - 500
Seafood Processing 0 . 020 - 0 . 030 30 - 50 10 - 15 600
Brewery
· Grain - Hops Recovery 0 . 030 50 500
· Caustic Wash Water
Recycle 0 . 040 75 - 80 300
Winery
. Juice Removal 0 . 020 25 400
154
PRELIMINARY EVALUATION
OF ANAEROBIC SLUDGE DIGESTION FOR
THE TUNA PROCESSING INDUSTRY
by
A . Kissam * , H . Barnett * * , F . Stone* * , P . Hunter * *
INTRODUCTION
The tuna processing industry of southern California is somewhat unique among

the segments of the seafood industry in that considerable quantities of bio
degradable waste are routinely available to support biological treatment
processes. The plants are congregated and produce similar waste products
for disposal . Although one plant may close down for periods ranging from
days to several weeks , other nearby plants typically continue to produce
considerable amounts of waste solids .
Due to the high organic solids and lipid content of the processing wastes es
caping screening , the most suitable means of waste component capture is
dissolved air flotation (DAF ) . The flotation process is assisted by chemical
addition ( i . e . , lime, alum , polyelectrolytes , ferric chloride , sodium alumi
nate) to promote particle contact and coagulation . The coagulated organics
are buoyed to the surface by the dissolved air and removed by surface skim
ming paddles . The skimmed waste is called sludge.
Disposal of sludge has created operational and economic difficulties for the
tuna industry . Presently , the high water content tuna sludge is trucked to
land disposal at the rate of 9 , 000 GPD by one major processor located at
Terminal Island , California ( 1 ) . Although land disposal of unstabilized
sludge is presently practiced , restrictions concerning the disposal of such
material is envisioned . The cessation of land disposal would require barging
or incineration operations, both of which may be prohibitively expensive .
Sludge digestion is a common practice in municipal wastewater treatment

systems , with anaerobic digestion being the predominant process . Anaerobic
digestion reduces the sludge volume , improves dewaterability , and provides
a useful energy supplement in the generated methane gas . The process is
commonly termed as a two - stage biological process . In the first stage , the
complex organics of the wastes are converted to volatile acids . The second
stage involves the conversion of this volatile acid substrate to methane
and carbon dioxide gas . The bacteria responsible for the stages of treatment
are two distinct groups which must be in balance for the process to proceed .
*Lieutenant , N . 0 . A . A . Commissioned Corps

Assigned to Washington Sea Grant , Seattle
* * Utilization Research Division , Northwest and Alaska Fisheries Center , Nat
ional Marine Fisheries Service , N . 0 . A . A .
1:55
Anaerobic digestion has been considered as a sludge treatment application for
the tuna industry , but past in -plant practices have negated serious consid
eration ( 2 ) . Saltwater is used to partially thaw the catch aboard the vessel
and is transferred into the plant waste sump during unloading. The catch is
further thawed , prior to processing , in brine tanks located inside the pro
cessing facility . The saltwater used in these operations becomes highly
polluted and requires treatment by the processor prior to discharge . This
saltwater intrusion into an otherwise fresh water process creates periods of
high salt content in the generated sludge that could cause toxicity in anaer
obic organisms ( 2 , 3) . The net result on an anaerobic sludge treatment
process would be either organism acclimation to the salt concentration with
a reduced treatment efficiency or digester failure in the case of slug loads
on a digester . Proposed alternatives are :
(1) Provide fresh water thawing, with recycle capability , inside the plant .
This is presently practiced in many plants for reasons exclusive of
sludge salt concentration .
(2 ) Return holding water to the vessel upon completion of catch offloading .
The polluted water could then be pumped overboard at sea . With the
institution of fresh water thawing inside the plant , the salt discharged
from vessel holds may not be a significant source .
If such alternatives were instituted , more reliable wastewater treatment

would result , and the tuna sludge disposal costs may be reduced by incorpora
tion of the anaerobic digestion . Anchovie and mackeral sludge from other
lines would have to be segregated and disposed of without digestion due to
an unavoidable salt influx during processing.
In light of the potential for in -plant changes and the persistent sludge dis
posal problems , an anaerobic digestion demonstration project was undertaken
by the Utilization Research Division , Northwest and Alaska Fisheries Center ,
National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS ), Seattle , Washington .
slimooo
TABLE 1 . TEST SLUDGE ANALYSIS *

unionoooo
Average SD Units
PH 6 .4
Alkalinity 962 27. 5 mg / l as CaCO3 to pH = 4 . 6
no
wie
Ammonia NItro . 30 . 8 mg / 1
is
Protein 1. 9 % of Sludge
Lipids 3.5 % of Sludge
Total Solids 8. 2 % of Sludge
Vol. Solids 83 % of TS
Total COD 139 . 4 gm / 1 COD
Soluble COD 9.6 0 . 44 gm / 1 COD
Spec . Grav . 1 . 02
NaCl 0 . 07 . 01 % of Sludge
* Digester feed diluted 1 : 1 with distilled water
156
Test sludge was obtained from a pilot DAF unit operated by NMFS at Whitney
Fidalgo Seafoods , Anacortes, Washington . The sludge was essentially salt
free, as the tuna were offloaded partially frozen and air thawed at the
processing plant . Wastewater treatment consisted of screening , followed by
DAF using 200 ppm alum , 100 ppm lime , and 5 ppm anionic polymer. The test
sludge should adequately represent a sludge which would result from the
previously discussed in - plant changes at the major tuna processors . The test
sludge analysis is presented in Table 1 .
Toxicity
Toxicity of any substance must be discussed in terms of concentration . The
effect of any substance on the metabolic rate of an organism is a function
of the substance concentration . As evidenced in Figure 1 , the increase of a
substance concentration produces organism growth which may be described as
stimulatory , constant , and finally , toxic .
Specific
Growth
Rate
- - - - - -
En
(A)
Metabolitc Concentration (S )
Figure 1 . Effect of metabolite concentration on

growth rate ( 4 ).
Other factors which enter into a discussion of toxicity are antagonism , syn
ergism , and acclimation . Antagonism is the reduction in apparent toxicity
of a substance by the presence of another . Synergism is the increase in the
apparent toxicity of a substance by the presence of another . Acclimation is
an adjustment of the organisms to the adverse effects of a toxic substance
concentration . All three of the phenomena are concentration dependent , with
acclimation being additionally dependent upon the rate of increase in the
toxic substance concentration .
Five light metal cations have been investigated ( 5 ) with relation to their
effect on acetate - utilizing methane bacteria . The cations were studied
singly and in combination to validate the antagonistic and synergistic rela
tionships . The results are of little help to a design engineer due to the
specific nature of the organic loading, only one solids retention time, and
the definition of toxicity being related to a control reactor . However , it
is possible to categorize the cations for a slug feed system in order of
increasing apparent toxicity on a molar basis as sodium (Na + ) , ammonium
157
(NH4 + ) , potassium ( K + ) , calcium (Catt ) , and magnesium (Mg + t ) . In addition ,
the antagonist for the primary cation present in sea water (Na + ) was identi
fied as being potassium . The concentration of antagonist required to count
eract a toxin was very small , as evidenced in Table 2 .
TABLE 2 . EFFECT OF POTASSIUM ANTAGONIST ON SODIUM TOXIN
No Antagonist Range of Peak Peak Antagonism

Toxin Reaction Rate Antagonist Concentration Reaction Rate
Concentration % Control м % Control
.3 54 0 .002 - 0 .06 72
30 0 .005 - 0 .03 56
Because of the limitations of a control reaction comparison , the effects of

potassium and sodium combinations were studied at various solids retention
times (6 ) . By incorporation of various solids retention times , it is possible
to study the kinetic effects of toxicity and antagonism .
The effect of sodium on the organisms was manifest as a lowering of the cell
yield constant and an increase in the organism decay rate for increases in
sodium concentration . This is significant , because the ability of the organ
isms to process substrate was not affected while the organism population was
lower than would normally occur. With the addition of 0 . 03 M potassium to a
process retarded by 0 . 35 M sodium , the yield and decay rates returned to near
normal values . Therefore, achieved was a confirmation of the antagonistic
ability of potassium to sodium toxicity .
The significance of the kinetic approach to toxicity is that process design

variations dependent upon irregular cation concentrations can be systematic
ally approached . After obtaining the ionic character of a waste to be
treated anaerobically , the designer can more accurately predict effluent
quality and antagonist concentration required to achieve adequate treatment .
This is accomplished by adjusting the kinetic constants for the ionic con
centrations present in the waste .
For this study, insufficient data concerning the ionic character and kinetics
of tuna sludge digestion are available. This limits speculation as to the
ultimate value of the kinetic constants for high - salinity tuna sludge diges
tion . The effect of high - salinity sanitary waste discharges from vessles to
municipal biological treatment systems has been appraised for possible antag
onistic combinations of cations in sea water ( 7) . It was theorized that
sufficient antagonist cations are present in sea water to sustain the anae
robic process in a digester at 12 ,000 ppm Naci . Other investigators (8 )
surveyed municipal treatment systems in Florida which operate anaerobic di
gesters with constant Naci inputs of 7 , 000 to 10 , 000 ppm . The units operate
satisfactorily , but continuous levels above 13 , 000 ppm were considered to be
excessive for stable operation .
158
Star - Kist Foods ( 1 ) , located at Terminal Island , California , reports Naci
concentrations ranging from 6 ,000 to 14 ,600 ppm in the final sludge from
their DAF unit , with average NaCl concentrations being about 13 , 000 ppm .
Although the possible accumulated NaCl concentration in a digester cannot
be estimated , it is reasonable to expect a toxic condition due to variations
in salt loading and a high average salt concentration .
The tuna sludge used in this study was obtained from a brine - free process
and had a measured NaCl of 700 ppm . This sludge should adequately repres
ent a sludge which would result from the in - plant thawing operation changes
previously discussed .
Test Procedure
The study was conducted using three 2 ,000 ml flasks suspended from a wrist
action shaker into a controlled temperature (97°F) water bath . Generated
gas was collected over an acid /brine solution contained in calibrated 4 ,000
ml flasks .
Precautions were taken to assure a fresh test sludge by refrigerating the
sludge following collection . The sludge was transported to the laboratory
and divided into 400 ml packets prior to freezing at 0°F . Sludge packets
were thawed as required and refrigerated when not in use.
The digesters were seeded with 750 ml of digesting sludge obtained from a
municipal digester . Sludge feeding was commenced on the following day at
solids concentration less than 1 % , with a gradual increase to the test
solids concentration of 4 . 1 % (raw sludge concentration = 8 . 2 % solids) . The
raw sludge was diluted 1 : 1 with distilled water and warmed to 97°F prior to
feeding . The units were fed once per day using volumes consistent with the
desired digester detention time . Air contamination was avoided by using a
50 ml plastic syringe for all feeding operations. However , the feed sludge
may have been oxygen saturated due to vigorous mixing during syringe filling
operations .
Three digesters vere successfully operated at detention times of 8 , 12 ,
and 15 days . Prior to data collection , all digesters were operated a
minimum of 3 detention periods to assure greater than 95 % seed sludge
removal.
159
Laboratory Analysis
All analyses were conducted in accordance with Standard Methods (9) with the
following exceptions :
Raw sludge volatile solids analysis conducted as prescribed by
A . 0 .A . C . (10) . The method involved pre -drying of the sample
using heat lamps prior to ashing in the muffle furnace . This
was required to avoid flare- up in the muffle furnace due to
the high lipid content .
Protein analysis was conducted on a Kjeldahl apparatus using a

wet sample , Ammonia nitrogen content was subtracted from the
TKN prior to protein concentration calculation .
Total alkalinity of the sludge was determined by titration with

0 . 02N H2S04 to pH = 4 . 6 using electrode pH probe and magnetic
stirrer .
Gas samples were collected over acid /brine solution in glass

transfer bottles . Analysis for CO2 was by Orsat ; analysis
for CH4 by gas chromatograph . Methane percentage was a calcu
lated average using peak height on a strip chart recorder .
The instrument was calibrated prior to each day ' s use .
Nacl by Quantab # 1176 chloride titrator after glass fiber
paper filtration .
Results
The results are presented in Tables 3 and 4 , listing observed removal and
operating parameter values for each digester . Of particular significance is
TABLE 3 . SPECIFIC REMOVALS
Digester Detention -Days

12 15
Total Solids 41% 54% 47 %

Volatile Solids 49 65 57
Total COD 47 59 64 -70 *
Protein 26 47 47
Lipids 77 77 83
* COD -methane balance indicates the raw sludge packet fed to the 15- day diges
ter was of considerably higher COD concentration , 85 gm / 1 versus 69. 7 gm / 1
average .
160
4.DIGESTER
TABLE
PARAMETERS
OPERATING
Ő SD n 12 SD n 15 SD n . UNITS
pH 8.6 6.8 6.9

.
Alk
Total 2909 58 5 3450 20263580 8
141 /1as
mg
CaCO3
Solids
Total 2.3 0.3 11 2.1 0.28 2.3 0.210 %
.Solids
Vol .6
70 6.3 11 .1
63 5. 19 .967 .79
11 %of
TS
Total
COD .9
36 4.3 .8
28 1.5 .0
25 2.16 gm
/1
COD
Soluble 6.9 90. 3 7.2 1.2 3 96. 0 wa .23 m/1COD
Protein 0.7 0.1 0.5 0.1 3 .50 0.13 %of
sludge
Lipids 0.4 10. 4 0.4 .1 4 0.3 0.29 sludge
%of
161
.Acids
Vol 431 47 400 40 4 355 521 /1as
mg
acetic
-Nitro
.Ammonia 1000 890 42 3 1095 194 /l
mg
.
Prod
Gas 1279 90 1287 67 15 1306 13
39 /dTP
@Sml
ay
Gas
C-% H4 70 3.1 76 2.3 5 80 1.84 %
-%CO2
Gas 26 1.4 23 1.2 5 22 0.4 %
uw oo w WF w wa
Loading
vs 0.27 0.18 0.14 /F#vsT3
day
/VS
CH4 4.5 7.3 9. FT3CH4
#VS
added
the high methane content of the generated gases , which exceed the accepted
average production (67% CH4 ) achieved by municipal digesters. Rudolfs (11)
identified a high correlation between grease content and combustible gas
production .
As may be observed , the percentage removals for the 15 -day digester are some
what lower than one would expect . This may be explained by the fact that the
15 - day digester data were collected after completion of the 8 - and 12 - day
units . Although every effort was made to assure uniform distribution of the
test sludge during initial 400 ml packet proportioning , the sludge packet fed
to the 15 -day digester evidently was of a different content than previous
packets . The analysis of the feed sludge was conducted using samples from
different freezer packets, but the feed sludge was not continually tested
throughout the experiment . Although the removal percentage relationships
between the digesters are not consistent , the purposes of this experiment
have been achieved through successful digester operation .
Daily methane production , effluent COD , and the stoichiometric ratio of 350
ml methane per gram COD stabilized may be utilized to estimate the influent
COD concentration for a digester . The 8 - and 12 - day digesters balance within
8 % of the analytically determined influent concentration of 69. 7 gm / 1 COD .
The 15 - day digester , however , requires an assumed influent COD of 85 gm / 1
in order to balance . This value has been applied to Table 3 as indicated .
The non -degradable COD of the feed sludge was approximately 24 gm / 1 . This
assumes that the degradable COD remaining at higher retention times was com
parable to the COD levels experienced by O ' Rourke ( 12 ) . The work by O 'Rourke
demonstrated that the effluent degradable COD from a digester is predictable
and independent of the influent strength . Therefore , for a complex waste ,
the COD percentage removal by a digester depends on the temperature and
solids retention time .
The settling properties of the sludge were greatly improved as a result of

digestion . Although fines are evident in the supernatant during a short
settling period , laboratory centrifugation of the digester effluent produced
a visually clear effluent . This improved dewaterability is considered to be
a result of releasing bound water from the organic solids and the high remo
val of lipids from the sludge . However , it should be pointed out that the
sludge was frozen prior to digestion . Resuspension of the raw sludge after
thawing produced a sludge with poor settling properties . Centrifugation of
the raw sludge produced a multi - layered sample with considerable solid reten
tion in the lipid layer .
APPLICATION EXAMPLE
The costs for certain facets of discharge control may be minimized through
application of recognized techniques . It is the purpose of this paper to
discuss anaerobic sludge digestion in terms of sludge volume reduction , com
bustible gas generation rates , and sludge disposal frequency .
The industry is encouraged to conduct an investigation on a scale far greater
162
than undertaken by this study . The construction and operation of a pilot
scale system is advisable for two reasons :
( 1 ) Obtain specific design data ;

(2) Train and familiarize personnel with the process . This may prove to be
as important as the collection of the pilot plant operating data .
The application example presented in this section is sized for one plant
using conservative design values . In actuality , the most economical method
of sludge disposal would be a communally operated sludge processing facility .
The processors are located virtually next door to one another and have common
sludge disposal costs, which identifies cooperation as a major factor in
reducing overall sludge disposal costs .
Based on the results of this study , and Metcalf and Eddy (13 ) , it is reason
able to assume for a single complete mix heated digester :
8 FT3 CH4 per lb . vs added

55 % total solids reduction
9000 GPD raw sludge ( 1 )
Other sludge characteristics the same as the test sludge .
Tank capacity to meet the requirements of an actual installation should be

determined from pilot plant data and , hopefully , the application of a mathe
matical model. The digestion of industrial waste is a very specific process
and digester loading parameters may vary from successful municipal loadings .
In the interest of conservatism , a high sludge detention time will be used to
size the digester .
Metcalf and Eddy , Inc . (13 ) report that loading rates of 0 . 10 to 0 . 40 lb of
volatile solids per cubic foot per day and hydraulic detention periods of 10
to 20 days are practicable for high - rate digesters . The main purpose of
digestion of the tuna sludge is improved dewaterability and volume reduction .
In order to achieve these goals with a minimum of operational difficulty , a
30 -day detention period with a loading of 0 . 14 lb of volatile solids per
cubic foot per day will be proposed . This loading is conservative and well
within the above suggested loading range . A schematic of the example system
is presented in Figure 1 . The Port of Los Angeles reports that non -water
front sites, near the processors, could be leased . The land lease cost is
based on a 100 x 100 parcel and is listed in Table 5 .
163
Gas
20 GPM firm
9000 GPD Centrifuges Liquids
Raw Sludge 7 to D . A . F .
9000 GPD 3 . 6 % Solids 7700 GPD
8 % Solids
Complete Mix Solids
digester to disposal
1 , 300 GPD
36 ,000 FT3 25 % Solids
Figure 1 . Schematic diagram of example installation
The digested sludge observed during the course of this study exhibited good
settleability and, therefore , should centrifuge to approximately 25 % solids
after digestion (14 ) .
Projected Performance
A total dry solids loading of 6 , 100 pounds per day is calculated (sp . grav . =
1 . 02 ) . After digestion with a 55 % total solids reduction , the total dry
solids remaining is 2 ,750 pounds per day .
If we assume that this effluent (containing 2 , 750 pounds dry solids) is cen
trifuged to 25 % solids concentration and a specific gravity of 1 . 04 is
attained , the reduction in disposal volume and weight may be calculated .
These calculations result in approximately 86 % reduction for both disposal
weight and volume.
The combustible gas production achievable from such a system is insignificant

in comparison to the natural gas volumes used by a processor for cooking ,
canning , and can fabrication operations. However , the generated gas would
be too valuable to flare off and must be considered as a marketable item .
As suming the gas is 78 % methane and has a net heating value of 700 BTU per
cubic foot of digester gas, the equivalent value in terms of natural gas
( $ 0 . 14 / therm ) may be calculated . After consideration of the digester heat
ing requirements (15 ) , the residual gas value of $ 15 , 500 per year is
obtained .
Present Value Comparison
In the following section , the example system will be cost estimated and
subjected to a present value analysis versus the present disposal costs . An
important feature of this comparison is that the present disposal method is
severely affected by fuel inflation , since the costs incurred are primarily
for trucking . Inflation for trucking costs can be expected to exceed the
national overall inflation rate .
164
The comparison was conducted for various before- tax cost of capital , national
inflation , and fuel inflation rates . An 7 % investment tax credit was applied
against the construction costs and the capital equipment was depreciated
using the straight line method over 20 years . The tax savings due to depre
ciation (50 % allowed ) was applied against the yearly operation and mainten
ance cost. The equivalent value of the excess sludge gas in terms of natural
gas was computed by converting from BTU to therms and multiplying by the
local billing factor . This equivalent value is considered to be a positive
cash flow value, since plant energy requirements can be supplemented . Finan
cing costs are not included in the cash flow because they are inherent in
the present value calculation .
The cash flow result of this analysis is presented in Table 5 , which shows a
total annual reduction in expenditures of approximately $ 78 , 000 . Information
on present annual tuna sludge disposal costs was provided by Star -Kist
Foods ( 1 ) .
TABLE 5 . DISPOSAL OPTION COST SUMMARY

SEPTEMBER , 1976 DOLLARS
PRESENT EXAMPLE
Total Construction $ 500 , 000
$ 5 ,000 Yearly O & M $41,000
100 , 000 Yearly Disposal 12 ,000
Yearly Land Lease (Port of
Los Angeles ) 2 , 300
Yearly Gas Savings 15 , 500
Yearly Depreciation Tax
Savings 12 , 375
$ 105 ,000 COST PER ANNUM $ 27 , 425
TOTAL CONSTRUCTION COST $500 , 000
It should be pointed out that the construction , maintenance, and operation

costs were developed from graphs published by the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA ) (16 ) . The EPA graphs were produced for use in cost estimating
municipal plants , not small industrial applications . A complete engineering
cost study for a proposed installation may provide more accurate and current
cost figures on which to base management decisions. The costs obtained from
the EPA were updated to 1976 costs by data provided in the Engineering News
Record ( 17 ) .
Equations and values used in the present value comparison are :
165
Present Method
where
PV1 = present value of disposal cost and 0 /M cost over 20 years
= yearly disposal cost ; $ 100 , 000
B = yearly 0 /M cost ; $5 , 000
if - assumed fuel inflation rate; 5 to 25 % by 5 % increments
assumed national inflation rate ; 4 to 20 % by 2 % increments
c / c = assumed before - tax cost of capital 2 to 50 % by 2 %
increments
t = terms ; 20 years
Example System
where
PV2 = present value of construction , disposal, tax savings ,

excess gas , and 0 / M costs .
M = construction cost ; $ 500 , 000
N = yearly 0 /M and land lease costs ; $43, 300
= yearly disposal cost ; $ 12 , 000
Q = yearly excess gas value ; $ 15 , 500
T = yearly depreciation tax savings ; $12 , 375
if, il , c / c , t as before
These equations and values were run on a computer with the printout showing
PV2 - PV1 as a function of progressing rates of national inflation , fuel infla
tion , and before -tax cost of capital. The cross -over point , where PV2 - PV1
equals zero , occurs approximately at capital rates of 20 , 27 , 34 , and 40 %
for fuel inflation rates of 5 to 20 % by 5 % increments , respectively . These
cross -over points hold for all values of national inflation analyzed , which
implies that fuel cost and initial construction cost are the prime values.
Similarly , the point at which the 20 -year savings equals the initial con
struction cost ($ 500 , 000 ) can be determined . This point occurs at capital
rates of 9 , 15 , 21 , and 27 % corresponding to the 5 to 20 % rates of fuel
inflation analyzed .
A firm would have to achieve a before - tax return on an investment in excess
166
of the above capital rates in order to justify alternative uses for the
money . If the analysis parameters are excluded and consideration is given
only to the total construction cost and annual cost savings presented in
Table 5 , the minimum internal rate of return on the investment is 14 . 5 % for
a term of 20 years .
CONCLUSIONS
Admittedly, the installation and operation of a digestion system is a major

undertaking . However , unlike other treatment systems, anaerobic digestion
offers long- term operational savings. This savings would be realized pri
marily because of energy unavailability and energy - dependent industries
( trucking ) cost increases . This will be particularly true , according to
Business Week ( 18 ) , in southern California during the next five years . In
California , natural gas is the source of 55 % of energy . Curtailments of
natural gas supply to industry results in shifts to alternative energy
sources (petroleum - based ) and overtaxing of the alternative supply .
The resulting shift from natural gas to alternative fuels will certainly
strain the production / distribution capacity and the consumer ' s pocketbook .
Therefore , sludge disposal costs may rise disproportionately to normal
inflationary costs . This would tend to highlight the savings in disposal
volume due to solids reduction and improved dewaterability possible through
anaerobic digestion .
Such trends would only serve to accelerate the cost justification for instal
lation of anaerobic digestion facilities in the tuna processing industry .
Due to the close proximity of the plants , a communal effort would serve to
reduce the operating costs per plant.
REFERENCES
1 . Evich, V . J. , Engineering Manager , Star-Kist Tuna , T. I . , CA . Personal

communication , 1976 .
2 . Development Document ; Catfish , Crab , Shrimp , and Tuna ; Point Source
Category EPA -440 / 1 - 74 -020 - a ( 1974) .
3. Chun , M . J . , et al. , " A Characterization of Tuna Packing Waste . " Water

and Sewage Works , 117 : 10 , 3 - 10 , 1970 .
Kugelman , Chin , " Toxicity , Synergism , and Antagonism in Anaerobic Waste
Treatment Processes, " Advances in Chemistry Series 105, 1971.
Kugelman , I. J . , McCarty , P . L ., " Cation Toxicity and Stimulation in

Anaerobic Waste Treatment . I . Slug Feed Studies . " J . Water Pollut .
Contr . Fed . ( 1965) 37 , 97 and " . . . II. Daily Feed Studies , " Proc . Ind.
Waste Conf . , 19th , Purdue University , 1965 .
167
6. Chin , Kugelman , Molof, " The Effect of Monovalent Cations on the Methane
Phase in Continuous Digestion Systems , " as cited by reference ( 4 ) .
7. Lellelid , " Appraisal of Watercraft Waste Impacts on Municipal Waste

water Systems , " Masters thesis , University of Washington , 1977 .
Reynolds , Smith , Hills , " Engineering Report on Shore Disposal of Ship
Generated Sewage at Activities in the Eastern Area , " Naval Facilities
Engineering Command , NTIS : AD 747 998 , June , 1969.
Standard Methods for Examination of Water and Wastewater , American

Public Health Association , Wash . D . C . ( 1975 ) .
10. Assn . of Official Analytical Chemists , Washington , D .C . (1973) .

Rudolfs , W . , " Decomposition of Grease During Digestion , Its Effects on
Gas Production and Fuel Value of Sludges ," Sewage Works J . (1944 ) .
O 'Rourke , J . T . , " Kinetics of Anaerobic Treatment at Reduced Tempera
tures , " Doctorial thesis , Stanford University , 1968 .
Metcalf and Eddy , " Waste Water Engineering Collection , Treatment ,
Disposal , " McGraw - Hill Company , 1972 .
E . P . A . , " Processing Design Manual for Sludge Treatment and disposal, "
E . P . A . 625 / 1 - 74 - 006 (1974 ) .
15 . Water Pollut . Contr . Fed . Manual of Practices No . 8 ( 1972) .
16 . E .P . A . , " Estimating costs and Manpower Requirements for conventional
Wastewater Treatment Facilities , " E . P . A . 17090 DAN ( 1971) .
17 . Engineering News -Record , " Costs Scoreboard, " Vol . 197, No . 9 ; Vol. 187,
No . 1 .
18 . Business Week , " The Natural Gas Shortage Gets Worse . . . , " No . 2451 ,
9 - 27 - 76 .
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge the assistance of Dr . James Bray , economist
for Washington Sea Grant, and Dr . John Ferguson , Professor of Civil Engineer
ing , University of Washington . Any errors and /or omissions in this article
should not be attributed to anyone other than the authors .
168
REUSE OF BRINES IN COMMERCIAL CUCUMBER FERMENTATIONS
by
R . F . McFeeters* , M . P . Palnitkar* * , M . Velting * * , N . Fehringer * * * and W . Coont
INTRODUCTION
Spent brine remaining after cucumber fermentations is a difficult waste dis

posal problem . Usual fermentation practice will result in production of about
40% by volume spent brine in a fermentation tank . As a rule this brine will
contain 9 - 15 % Naci, the BOD will be 10 , 000 - 15, 000 ppm and the pH will be 3 . 2
3 . 5 . These characteristics make biological treatment of the waste relatively
difficult . In locations with limits on total dissolved solids it may be
impossible to discharge the salt produced by normal tankyard operations .
Recent efforts have been directed toward development of recycling procedures
for brines as a means of minimizing the waste generated by a tankyard . The
current project was designed to evaluate commercial application of pasteuriz
ation and chemical treatments for spent brine .
Potential for Waste Reduction by Recycling Brine

Figure 1 shows theoretical calculations of the pounds of NaCl which will be
discharged per bushel (50 lb ) of cucumbers in a normal fermentation . Curve
" a " shows the salt losses without brine recycling as a function of the salt
concentration in the fermentation tank . Curve " b " is the salt loss from
cucumbers which are desalted in fresh water to bring the salt concentration
down to acceptable levels. This loss will occur whether or not recycling is
practiced . The difference between curves " a " and " b " at any given salt con
centration is the potential saving of salt which can be realized as a result
of recycling .
It must be recognized that salt losses beyond the theoretical loss will occur
in most tankyards . First , the tank facilities are usually of wood construc
tion . A significant fraction of these tanks will leak . The amount of leak
age can vary from slight to very substantial depending upon the state of
repair . Secondly , the tank is normally open in order to utilize sunlight to
inhibit yeast and mold growth on the surface of tanks . During periods of rain
the tank will overflow with the loss of some brine . The salt loss from tanks
was calculated by subtracting the amount of salt in a tank based upon salt
concentration and the volume of brine and cucumbers in the tank from the total
amount of salt added as recycled brine, dry salt and make up brine . This
evaluation of salt balance showed a loss of about 1 lb of salt per bushel of
cucumbers brined .
* Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition , Michigan State University ,
East Lansing , Michigan 48824 .
* * Vlasic Foods , Inc . , W . Bloomfield , Michigan 48033 .
* * *Detroit District, Food and Drug Administration , Detroit, Michigan .
169
CUCUMBE
POUNDS
SALT ED
/ USHEL RS
BDISCHARG
10.ch
5 . 04
- b
20 30 40 50 60 70
SALT CONCENTRATION ( SALOMETER)
Figure 1 . Theoretical salt discharge from cucumber fermentations .

Calculations based upon a 65: 35 fresh cucumber : brine ratio .
Curve a - - salt discharge without recycling . Curve b - - salt
discharge with brine recycling .
170
Geisman and Henne ( 1 , 2 ) developed a chemical procedure for brine treatment .
Brine pH was raised above pH 10 and held for 24 -48 hr . A sludge layer was
removed and the pH of the brine was adjusted to near 7 with Hc1 . After
treatment, the brine could be reused as a cover brine in subsequent fermenta
tions with no apparent adverse effects on the fermented cucumbers. Further
investigations of this recycling technique ( 3) confirmed these results, but
also indicated that pasteurization of the brine followed by a pH adjusted to
4 . 5 - 5 . 0 would serve as an alternative treatment method .
The objectives of this project were to compare the chemical and pasteurization
procedures in commercial brining operations and to evaluate the adequacy of
the treatment procedures .
Brine Treatment Procedures
The primary purpose of brine treatment is to assure the processor that

recycled brine , which is normally held for a period of months in open brining
tanks, will be free of pectinase enzyme activity which could cause product
softening . A preliminary recommendation was to pasteurize brine at 175°F for
30 sec . Based upon data on inactivation of a heat stable commercial pectinase
from Aspergillus niger this treatment appeared to be marginally adequate (3 ) .
The inactivation of enzyme at high pH had received limited investigation . It
was decided to raise the pH of brine to 11 . 0 with NaOH and hold it at this pH
for 24 - 48 hr .
Studies of the thermal inactivation of pectinases from eight fungal species

reported to be commonly present on cucumbers and flowers ( 4 ) showed that
pectinase from Penicillium janthinellum was the most heat stable among those
investigated (5 ) . Detailed studies of the effect of pH and salt concentration
on the stability of this enzyme led to the conclusion that pasteurization of
brine at 175°F for 30 sec is sufficient to assure pectinase free brine over
the range of salt and pH conditions which are likely to be encountered in
commercial practice (5 ) . It was recommended that the pH of pasteurized brine
be adjusted to near 4 . 5 with NaOH just prior to use .
Dena turation studies of P . janthinellum pectinase at high pH showed complex

dena turation kinetics. This result contrasted with the results of the thermal
inactivation studies between pH 3 . 0 and 4 . 7 in which first order kinetics were
observed . To estimate the time required for chemical treatment in spent brine
denaturation experiments were done at a series of pH values and the time
required for 90 % or 99 % inactivation of the enzymatic activity was determined
( Table 1 ) . To assure destruction of at least 99 % of the initial enzyme
activity it is necessary that the brine be held at 72°F or higher , that the
pH is 11 . 0 or higher and that the time of treatment is at least 36 hr . After
treatment at high pH , the brine is adjusted to a pH near 4 . 5 by addition of
vinegar (acetic acid ) .
The pectinase activity in recycled brines before and after treatment and the
activity in brine samples taken from fermentation tanks at the time cucumbers
were removed were measured according to the procedure of Bell et al. ( 6 ) . No
significant pectinase activity was found in these samples . As a result it is
not possible to evaluate the effect of brine treatment procedures on pectinase
171
activity " naturally " present in the brines . This was not unexpected since
enzymatic softening is relatively rare in Michigan and the fermented cucumbers
obtained in these experiments were of normal firmness .
TABLE 1 . INACTIVATION OF PECTINASE FROM PENICILLIUM JANTHINELLUM

AT HIGH PH IN SPENT BRINE . TEMPERATURE 22°C (71 .6°F ) .
SALT CONCENTRATION 8 . 0 %
pH of Time for Time for

incubation 90 % inactivation 99 % inactivation
(hr) (hr )
10 . 6 50% inactivation in 70 hr
11 . 0 21
11 . 2 5 .0
11 . 3 6.5
11 . 6 2.5 13 (est)
On the scale that chemical treatment was practiced no large equipment was
required . Brine samples were titrated and the amount of vinegar or NaOH
required for pH adjustment of a tank were calculated . Vinegar ( 30 % acetic
acid ) was added as a liquid . Sodium hydroxide was added as pellets by a
person dressed in a protective rubber suit with mask and gloves .
Pasteurization of brine was done with a portable APV titanium alloy heat
exchanger which was developed for this application . This was a regenerative
heat exchanger heated by propane gas . The exchanger was set to heat brine at
190°F with a holding time of 30 sec . Under these conditions brine was treated
at a rate of 50 gal/min .
Design of the Commercial Evaluation of Brine Recycling
Figure 2 shows the path of brine through three fermentation cycles . The
project began in 1975 with the segregation of 1st cycle spent brine from the
general tankyard brines . After pasteurization or chemical treatment it was
used for 2nd cycle fermentations in 1975 . The 2nd cycle brine was saved and
treated in the spring of 1976 and used for 3rd cycle fermentations .
Control fermentations in which cucumbers were covered with fresh salt brine
were run in both 1975 and 1976 .
Samples of brines and cucumbers were taken at appropriate points and analyzed
to determine the effects of using recycled brine .
172
Fresh Salt Brine
1974 1st Cycle Fermentation
1st Cycle Spent Brine
Pasteurization Chemical
Treatment Treatment
1975 2nd Cycle 1975 2nd Cycle 1975 Control

Fermentation Fermentation Fermentation
2nd Cycle 2nd Cycle 1st Cycle

Spent Brine Spent Brine Spent Brine
Treatment Treatment
1976 3rd Cycle 1976 3rd Cycle 1976 Control

Fermentation Fermentation Fermentation
3rd Cycle 3rd Cycle 1st Cycle

Spent Brine Spent Brine Spent Brine
Figure 2 . General design of the commercial evaluation of brine recycling .
173
Changes in Recycled Brines
Table 2 shows the effect of pasteurization treatment on first cycle (1975 ) and
second cycle (1976 ) spent brines. The rise in pH and the decrease in titrat
able acidity are the expected results of NaOH addition . Salt and BOD would
not be expected to change significantly as a result of pasteurization treat
ment . There is an increase in BOD from the first to the second cycle.
TABLE 2 . ANALYSIS OF SPENT BRINES BEFORE AND AFTER PASTEURIZATION

TREATMENT AND PH ADJUSTMENT
1st cycle brine 2nd cycle brine

initial treated initial treated
Acidity (% ) 0 .41 0 . 17 0 .62 0 . 21

PH 3 . 56 4 . 57 3 . 52 4 . 54
Salt (% ) 12 . 5 12 . 6 11 . 4 11 . 8
BOD (ppm ) 10 , 000 9 , 900 12, 500 14 , 000
Table 3 shows the corresponding data on the effect of chemical treatment .

Similar changes in pH and titratable acidity were observed . Since vinegar is
added to drop the pH , there is an increase in BOD of about 3 , 000 ppm after
treatment . Like the pasteurized brines there is some increase in BOD between
the first and second cycle.
TABLE 3 . ANALYSIS OF SPENT BRINES BEFORE AND AFTER CHEMICAL TREATMENT
lst cycle brine 2nd cycle brine

initial treated initial treated
Acidity (%) 0 .47 0 .23 0 .63 0 . 33

pH 3 . 50 4 . 38 3 . 66 4 .83
Salt (% ) 12 . 8 12 . 8 11 . 1 10 . 8
BOD (ppm ) 10 ,100 13,000 14 , 500 17 , 400
Chemical Use with Brine Treatment
Table 4 shows the chemical use with pasteurization or chemical treatment of

the brine. The pasteurization process requires propane for the heat exchanger
174
and NaOH for pH adjustment from the original brine pH to pH 4 . 5 . Nearly a
doubling of the NaOH required for pH adjustment of pasteurized brine occurred
between 1975 and 1976 . Data obtained independently on experimental tanks , a
complete tankyard operation and analysis of spent brine titration curves (3)
all indicated a requirement of about 14 lb NaOH / 1000 gal of brine . Therefore ,
the 1975 result is believed to be incorrect . Chemical treatment results in
use of greater amounts of NaOH to raise the pH above 11 plus acetic acid to
drop the pH back to 4 . 5 . There was an increase in the use of both NaOH and
vinegar in 1976 compared to 1975 .
TABLE 4 . CHEMICAL USE FOR BRINE TREATMENTS PER 1000 GALLONS

OF TREATED BRINE
Pasteurization Treatment Chemical Treatment

Material
1975 1976 Ches
1975 1976
7 .5 14 44 52
NaOH (16)
Acetic acid (16 ) 36
Propane (gal) 4 .8
In the treatment operations about a 5 % loss occurs in the pasteurization pro

cess as a result of discarding a few inches of sludge in the bottom of brine
tanks which contain too much dirt , seeds and broken cucumbers to risk plugging
the screen on the pasteurizer . For chemical treatment a 17% loss of brine was
found . This occurs because a precipitate is formed which settles as a sludge
layer . Care was taken to pump off the clear layer without disturbing the
sludge layer . However, it is likely that this loss can be reduced to perhaps
10 % in commercial operation without great difficulty .
An economic ana. ysis of brine treatment is very much dependent upon the costs
associated with a particular locality . Tables 5 - 7 show an analysis of the
particular situation encountered in this project . Table 5 shows the savings
realized from not discarding spent brine. The variation in the cost of BOD
treatment in different localities would be the most significant variable in
the overall savings . There are almost exactly 100 lb BOD / 1000 gal of spent
brine. Therefore, a change of one cent in the cost of BOD treatment trans
lates in a $ 1 . 00 / 1000 gal change in treatment costs .
Table 6 shows the evaluation of costs for chemical treatment. The labor cost
was difficult to evaluate based upon the small scale of the operation . Since
the time required is intermittent rather than continuous as is the case with
the pasteurization operation , the labor cost for chemical treatment was esti
mated to be 50 % of the labor cost for pasteurization . The major costs are
NaOH and vinegar . There was a net cost for chemical treatment in both 1975
and 1976 .
175
TABLE 5 . SAVINGS FROM RECYCLING 1000 GALLONS OF SPENT BRINE
Dollars Saved
Naci, 1 .08 1b /gal @ $ 20 / ton 10.76

BOD, 12, 000 ppm at $ 0 .08 / 1b 8 . 00
Water, $ 0 .47/1000 gal .45
Total Savings 19 . 21
TABLE 6 . ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF CHEMICAL TREATMENT OF SPENT BRINES
1975 Cost 1976 Cost

(dollars / 1000 gal) (dollars / 1000 gal)
Labor 0 . 84 1 . 32
NaOH , 1975 19. 5 $ / 1b 8 .58 8 . 96

1976 17° / 16
Vinegar, 1975 101c / gal 11 .87 13.32

1976 94¢ / gal
Total Cost 21 . 29 23 .60
Total Savings 19.21 19 .21
Net Cost 2 . 08 4 . 39
Table 7 shows a similar analysis for the pasteurization process . These data
are based upon full - scale commercial operation . A person is assigned to con
tinuously monitor the pasteurizer operation . Some additional time is required
to adjust the pH of the pasteurized brine to 4 . 5 . Propane is used as fuel for
the pasteurizer . The pumping cost includes gasoline plus estimates of pump
maintenance. The pasteurizer depreciation is the major cost of treatment .
This cost is highly dependent upon the number of gallons of brine treated . In
1975 1 . 2 million gallons were treated . In 1976 this decreased to 0 .85 million
gallons with a corresponding increase in the cost / 1000 gallons. The manufac
turer has estimated a life span of 20 million gallons for the pasteurizer . No
pasteurizer has been in use long enough to test this estimate. However , if
176
the estimate were correct, the cost of the pasteurizer would be $ 2 . 23 / 1000
gal . Based upon the actual use and a 5 yr depreciation period a substantial
net savings was obtained in 1975 . In 1976 , with the pasteurizer cost / 1000
gal substantially increased , the net savings was much smaller .
TABLE 7 . ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF PASTEURIZATION TREATMENT

OF SPENT BRINES
1975 Cost 1976 Cost

(dollars/ 1000 gal) (dollars/ 1000 gal)
Labor @ $ 4 . 00 /hr 1 .67 2 . 64
Propane 1 . 23 1 .29
Pumping 0 . 71 0 .71
NaOH, 1975 19. 5c71b 2 . 76 2 .41
1976 , 17c/ 1b
Pasteurizer 5 yr depreciation 8915/yr 6 . 37 10 .51
Total Cost 12 .74 17 .56
Total Savings 19 . 21 19 , 21
Net Savings 6 .47 1 .65
Characteristics of the Fermentations
Tables 8 and 9 show summaries of the number of tanks operated in the project ,
the amount of cucumbers and the amount of brine used . The control tanks were
covered with 6 . 6 % Naci brines at the beginning of fermentation . This follows
recommendations of Etchells ( 7 ) for cucumber fermentation . Recycled brines
were used at the salt concentration present after treatment , approximately
11 - 12 % . The use of a high salt cover brine is a necessary aspect of recycling
since a 2 - fold dilution to 6 .6 % would make it necessary to discard a large
fraction of the spent brine because excess brine volume would be generated .
Cucumbers were held at 6 . 6 % NaCl during fermentation . The additional salt

required to maintain this salt oncentration as the cucumbers equilibrated
with the brine was added as dry salt on the top of the tank headboards .
177
TABLE 8. SUMMARY DATA ON FERMENTATION TANKS, 1975
Control
Heat Chemical
Treatment Treatment
No . of tanks 10 11 10
Bushels of cucumbers 7660 8668 7388

Gallons of brine 34321 31418 30881
Gallons of brine / bushel 4 .48 3 .62 4 . 18
Packout ratio 57 :43 62: 38 49 : 41
TABLE 9 . SUMMARY DATA ON FERMENTATION TANKS , 1976
Heat Chemical
Control Treatment Treatment
No . of tanks
Bushels of cucumbers 5727 5604 5727

Gallons of brine 19832 20780 19960
Gallons of brine/ bushel 3 . 46 3 . 71 3 .49
Packout ratio 63: 37 62: 38 63 : 37
TABLE 10 . FINAL PH , MAXIMUM TITRATABLE ACIDITY AND TIME REQUIRED

TO COMPLETE FERMENTATIONS WITH RECYCLED BRINE , 1975
Control
Treatment Treatment
Final pH 3 . 23 3 . 33 3 .44 *
Maximum acidity ( % ) 0 .80 0 . 92* 0 . 97 *
Completion of fermentation (days) 17 . 1 16 . 0 15 . 1
Reducing sugar (% ) .035 . 042 .032

* Significantly different from control at p < 0 .01 level .
178
TABLE 11 . FINAL PH , MAXIMUM TITRATABLE ACIDITY AND TIME REQUIRED
TO COMPLETE FERMENTATIONS WITH RECYCLED BRINE , 1976
Control
Treatment Treatment
Final pH 3 .55 3 .65* * 3 .72*
Maximum acidity (% ) 0.79 0 . 87 * 0 . 98 *
Completion of fermentation (days ) 19 . 8 15 . 0 * 16 . 6 *
*Significantly different from control at p < 0 . 01 level .

* * Significantly different from control at p < 0 . 05 level .
Tables 10 and 11 show summaries of the characteristics of fermentations in

recycled brines . There are several statistically significant differences
between control fermentations and recycled brines. First, the final pH of the
fermentations are higher with recycled brines . The chemically treated brine
was approximately 0 . 2 pH units higher than the control in both 1975 and 1976 .
The pasteurized brine is 0 . 1 pH unit higher . This difference was statistic
ally significant in 1976 , but not in 1975 . The average final pH values were
about 0 . 3 units higher in 1975 than 1976 . The reason for this difference is
not known . The titratable acidity is higher in the recycled brines . This is
not unexpected since there is significant titratable acidity in the treated
brines (Tables 2 and 3 ) . The average time of fermentation was significantly
shorter in 1976 , but not in 1975 . This is a result of a longer time for the
control fermentations in 1976 .
Despite some differences which are statistically significant, the changes

observed would not be significant from the standpoint of actual tankyard oper
ations. These data and the observations of tankyard operations using recycled
brines show that recycling can be done with no changes in the tankyard opera
tions during the fermentation period.
The data in tables 12 and 13 show the salt stock quality in 1975 and 1976 .
Good stock is that with no visible defects . Commercially acceptable stock
includes the good stock plus cucumbers with slight defects which do not sig
nificantly decrease the economic value of the product . Commercially unaccept
able stock is that with major bloater or honeycomb defects such that the
cucumbers are suitable only for relish products .
In 1975 , the quality of the salt stock was equivalent to that of the control.
In 1976 , the percentage of commercially unacceptable stock was somewhat higher
in recycled brines . However , the differences were not statistically signifi
cant . There was a large decline in good stock in 1976 . This was attributed
to a higher percentage of defects in the fresh fruit .
179
TABLE 12 . SALT STOCK QUALITY OF CUCUMBERS FERMENTED
IN RECYCLED BRINES , 1975
Good stock (% ) 72.8 72. 8 73 .0
Commercially acceptable ( % ) 85 . 3 86 . 5 86 . 5
Commercially unacceptable (% ) 14 . 7 13. 5 13 . 5
No significant differences among treatments .
TABLE 13 . SALT STOCK QUALITY OF CUCUMBERS FERMENTED

IN RECYCLED BRINES , 1976
Good stock (% ) 52. 1 46 . 0 54 . 0
Commercially acceptable ( % ) 84 . 9 80 . 2 82 . 6
Commercially unacceptable ( % ) 15 . 1 19 . 9 17 . 4
No significant differences among treatments .
These tanks were not gas purged . Based upon the data of Costilow et al. (8 ),
it would be expected that the level commercially unacceptable fruit could be
significantly reduced by power application of a side- arm purging system .
The texture of the salt stock was not significantly different from the con
trols . Commercial production and sale of cucumbers fermented in recycled
brines indicates no detectable differences in the flavor of products produced
from these cucumbers .
Table 14 shows the results of analysis for 12 elements in cucumber salt stock ,
desalted cucumbers and spent brine from the 1975 commercial recycling experi
ment. At the 0 . 05 level of significance there were few differences between
recycled and control spent brines , salt stock or desalted cucumbers . Among
the heavy metals only Pb showed any significant differences . The control salt
stock averaged about 0 . 2 ppm higher than the salt stock from pasteurized brine.
This was significant at the 0 .05 level . After desalting, the control cucum
bers were lower than the cucumbers from recycled brines . However , the differ
ences were not significant at the 0 . 05 level ,
180
.EFFECT
14
TABLE
IN
LEVELS
MINERAL
OF
DISTRIBUTION
THE
ON
RECYCLING
BRINE
OF
CUCUMBERS
,D
STOCK
SALT
COMMERCIAL
.C
BRINES
SPENT
AND
ESALTED
ON
AF975
ON
PPM
IN
EXPRESSED
ARE
.1CENTRATIONS
BASIS
WEIGHT
RESH
Samples Pb cd Hg P Ca Mg Mn Fe Cu B Zn Al
Cucumbers
Stock
Salt
Control .93 .057 .006 130 924 134 1.7 9.5 1. 1.4 3. 7.2
6. 9
Pasteurization .032 .009 145 920 136 1.8 13 1.3 1.5 3.4 .5
11
Treatment
Chemical .83 .061 .019 136 992 113 2.4 11 1.6 1.6 4.1 8.4
Treatment
Cucumbers
Desalted
181
Control .48 .039 .015 56 372 59 .06 6.1 .65 .59 .26 7.0
.82
Pasteurization .081 .019 58 327 56 .29 7.8 .72 .59 1.2 7.1
Treatment
Chemical .76 .064 .009 53 331 53 .06 6.0 .63 .58 .18 4.9
Treatment
Brines
Spent
Control .18 .008 0 1130
128 137 3.0 8.9 2.9 1.3 4.37
.18
Pasteurization .006 0 1180 142
134 3.1 10 1.8 1.4 .64712
Treatment
Chemical .18 .005 .001 127
1120 120 2.3 11 1.3 1.3 39.
Treatment
Tables 15 and 16 show 1975 data for the distribution of carbaryl and endo
sulfan in cucumbers and brines when cucumbers were sprayed in the field with
twice the prescribed levels of these materials . These cucumbers were fer
mented under laboratory conditions .
Three cycles of fermentation were completed with control cucumbers covered

with fresh salt brine. The brines for recycling were given the appropriate
treatment after each fermentation . Analysis of cucumbers and brines prior to
treatment and brines after treatment were done . The results do not show
buildup of endo sulfan in the second cycle. There is an increase of 1 . 1 ppm
of carbaryl in the cucumbers fermented in pasteurized brine. This is probably
a result of a 0 . 6 ppm residue in the first cycle brine after treatment .
Very low initial levels of carbaryl and endosulfan were present in the fresh
cucumbers for the third cycle as a result of rain shortly after spraying .
The presence of carbaryl in brine after the second cycle pasteurization treat
ment resulted in 0 . 5 ppm of carbaryl in the third cycle cucumbers.
The endo sulfan is an example of a substance which remains primarily in the

cucumbers . As a result , if it enters fermentation vats on cucumbers, it
should be removed with the salt stock and not cause significant buildup in the
recycled brine . The pattern of parathion distribution is similar to endo
sulfan . A significant proportion of the carbaryl diffuses into the brine.
Therefore, if cucumbers are put into tanks with excessive levels, it may be
possible to have significant contamination of the next batch of cucumbers .
The high pH chemical treatment of brine caused breakdown of carbaryl, endo
sulfan and parathion .
DISCUSSION
The use of fermentation brines for 3 cycles of fermentation shows no differ

ences between fermentations in recycled brines and those carried out in con
trol brines. The differences observed in pH , titratable acidity and time of
fermentation would not alter the way in which fermentations are carried out.
The salt stock produced by recycling is equal to that obtained in control
fermentations . There have been no differences between the cucumbers obtained
from pasteurized vs chemically treated brine which indicate any preference for
either treatment method .
The pasteurization treatment will allow about 95 % recovery of brine . Chemical

treatment will result in a somewhat higher loss of brine, but a recovery of
90 % is feasible . The chemical treatment did degrade the pesticide residues of
those materials tested in this project , while the pasteurization treatment did
not . Other than these two factors it appears that selection of either of the
brine recycling procedures test can be made on the basis of economic factors.
Economic analysis of the two treatment procedures show a small net savings for
the pasteurization treatment . This saving could be quite substantial if the
pasteurizer is used to capacity and if the useful life of the pasteurizer
proves to be equal to advance predictions. The chemical treatment shows a net
cost . This major factor in reducing this cost would be to use less expensive
chemicals or to decrease the amount of chemicals utilized . Chemical treatment
does not require any large capital investments .
182
TABLE
C15
LEVELS
TREATED
.INARBARYL
CUCUMBERS
FERMENTATION
AND
BRINES
RESULTS
ARE
FEXPRESSED
AAS
ON
BASISRESH
WEIGHT
1.PPM
975
Cycle Sample Cucumbers After

Control Pasteurization
Chemical
Fermentation Treatment Treatment
1 Cucumbers 0.3 2.7 2.3 .42
Cucumbers 5, 2.5 3.6 5.2
Cucumbers 0.1 Tr 5.0 Tr
183
Untreated
Brine 1.0 .60 ,80
Brine
Untreated 1,2 1.4 1.3
Brine
Untreated Tr 1. 4 Ir
1 Brine
Treated 6.0
Brine
Treated 1.5
.
16
TABLE .
BRINES
FERMENTATION
AND
CUCUMBERS
TREATED
IN
LEVELS
ENDOSULFAN
AF975
ON
PPM
AS
EXPRESSED
ARE
.1RESULTS
BASIS
WEIGHT
RESH
Unwashed
Fresh After
Control Chemical
Pasteurization
Cycle Sample Cucumbers Fermentation Treatment Treatment
Cucumbers .31 4
.3 .42 .37
2 Cucumbers .36 .34 3. 5 .31
Cucumbers 0. 5 .06 0. 7 .08
184
Brine
Untreated .012 .005 0
. 19
Brine
Untreated 0
. 13 0. 28 .013
Brine
Untreated 0 .002 .001
Brine
Treated .004
Brine
Treated .017
Data on the potential buildup of toxic substances in cucumbers as a result of
recycling is not yet completed . Results of 1975 experiments do not indicate
any buildup of compounds as a result of recycling which would limit the appli
cation of recycling procedures . However , final conclusions cannot be made
until analysis of the second year of data is completed .
REFERENCES
1. Geisman , J . R . and Henne, R . E . Recycling food brine eliminates pollution ,

Food Engr . 45 ( 1 ) : 119 (1973) .
Geisman , J. R . and Henne , R . E . Recycling brine from pickling . Ohio Report

58 : 76 ( 1973 ) .
Palnitkar , M . P . and McFeeters , R . F . Recycling spent brines in cucumber
fermentations . J . Food Sci. 40: 1311 ( 1975 ) .
Etchells, J . L . , Bell , T .A ., Monroe, R . J ., Masley , P . M . and Demain , A .L .

Populations and softening enzyme activity of filamentous fungi on flowers ,
ovaries , and fruit of pickling cucumbers . Appl. Microbiol . 6 : 427 (1958 ) .
Chavana , s . and McFeeters , R . F . Thermal inactivation of fungal pectinases
in cucumber brines . Lebensmittel -Wissenschaft Tech . ( in press ) .
6. Bell , T . A . , Etchells , J . L . and Jones , I . D . A method for testing cucumber

salt -stock for softening activity . U . S . Dept . Agr . , ARS - 72 - 5 (1955) .
7. Etchells, J .L . and Moore, W . R . 1971 . Factors influencing the brining of
pickling cucumbers - -Questions and answers . Pickle Pak Science 1 : 1 (1971) .
8 . Costilow , R . N . , Bedford , C . L . , Mingus, D . and Black , D . Purging of natural
salt - stock pickle fermentations to reduce bloater damage. J . Food Sci .
42 : 234 ( 1977 ) .
185
TREATMENT OF PACKINGHOUSE
WASTEWATER BY SAND FILTRATION
by
M . L . Rowe, Ph . D . *
INTRODUCTION
During the past five years the W . E . Reeves Packing Plant in Ada , Oklahoma
has been used as the site for a number of wastewater treatment investigations .
These investigations have been conducted as a cooperative effort of the
Reeves ' company, East Central Oklahoma State University , and the Environmental
Protection Agency . The research conducted at the site has been funded by
contracts and grants from the Environmental Protection Agency, Food and Wood
Products Branch , Corvallis, Oregon .
The investigations conducted at the Reeves ' facility have been directed toward
finding treatment methods which are economically feasible and simple to oper
ate and maintain , but which also produce a discharge which will meet effluent
guidelines . Earlier publications by Witherow ( 1 ) ( 2 ) reveal the results of
aerobic and anaerobic lagoon treatment , extended aeration lagoon treatment ,
and overland flow irrigation .
However , there is a need for a variety of proven treatment methods which can
be reviewed by management , for each plant operator must consider the cost ,
volume and concentration of wastewater , land requirements , climatic conditions ,
etc . in order that the best method of treatment can be selected for each plant.
This paper will be concerned with the treatment of meatpacking wastewater by
intermittent sand filtration .
HISTORY OF SAND FILTRATION
The use of sand filtration for the treatment of water and wastewater is not a
recent innovation in the United States . A survey of the literature reveals
the existence of sand filtration for the improvement of drinking water supplies
in the United States as early as 1828 ( 3) . Much of its use and further devel
opment immediately following the introduction of the sand filter took place
in Europe . However , the population growth in the United States , especially
in the eastern cities of the United States , created a demand for larger volumes
*Director , School of Environmental Science, East Central Oklahoma State

University , Ada , Oklahoma .
186
drinking water and around the turn of the century , a number of slow sand fil
ter units were in use in the United States for the treatment of drinking water
supplies .
Just as the population growth in the United States had created a demand for
methods of treating larger volumes of drinking water , the need arose for
methods of treating the increasing volumes of wastewater produced by the
municipalities . An experimental intermittent sand filter unit for the treat
ment of domestic wastewater was built in Lawrence , Massachusetts in 1888 (4 ) .
The operation of the intermittent sand filter unit proved successful . How
ever , a rapid increase in the number of sand filter units for the treatment
of sewage was not experienced in the United States until the 1940 ' s . The
limiting factors for the increased usage of intermittent sand filter units
were apparently the availability of natural sand sources meeting the desired
specifications and the requirement of large tracts of land .
Following World War II , the rapidly increasing number of subdivisions , mobile

home parks , and resort areas in Florida created a need for economical and
practical treatment systems which would produce an effluent of suitable qual
ity . This need for simple and economical sewage treatment units for small
volumes of wastewater led investigators at the University of Florida to test
various designs for intermittent sand filter units (4 ) . Much of the present
knowledge concerning intermittent sand filters has come from these early studies
at the University of Florida .
The early designs of intermittent sand filters have seen little change over the
years that they have been in use . The units usually consist of an underdrain
of open - jointed tile or perforated pipe. The underdrain network is covered
with approximately 18 inches of gravel ranging from 1 /8 to 3 inches in diameter .
Filter sand is placed on the gravel at a depth that varies from 24 to 60 inches .
In the design of an intermittent sand filter, emphasis must be placed on sand
specifications . It must be a well graded sand with the proper effective
size and uniformity coefficient . The effective size is usually between 0 . 15
and . 35 mm , and the uniformity coefficient is usually less than 3 . 0 . Hydraulic
loading rates for sand filters vary depending on the filter media and the amount
of suspended solids in the raw was tewater . All of these factors must be
considered in order to design a filter unit capable of experiencing a feasible
period of operation before clogging of the filter media occurs .
In the past few years , workers have demonstrated the effectiveness of inter
mittent sand filters in reducing the suspended solids values of domestic waste
which has received prior treatment in lagoon systems . Evidence of the effec
tiveness of intermittent sand filters for the reduction of suspended solids
can be found in the published works of Reynolds (5 ) , Marshall (6 ) , and Walter
( 7 ) . Other supportive evidence for intermittent sand filters as a means of
lowering suspended solids values can be found in reports by Grantham ( 8) and
Furman ( 9 ) .
PILOT SCALE OPERATION
A review of the work by the authors cited above led Witherow and Rowe to con
sider the use of intermittent sand filters as a means of polishing the wastewaters
187
from the lagoons at the W . E . Reeves Packing Company in Ada , Oklahoma . Other
investigations were being conducted at these treatment facilities at that time
which made evaluation of pilot scale intermittent sand filter units feasible .
Two pilot scale units were constructed in close proximity to the treatment
system . Each unit was formed by welding two 55 -gallon barrels end - to - end .
Effluent lines were installed in the bottom of the units and each unit was
filled with gravel and sand to serve as the filter media .
The pilot scale filter units contained 18 inches of gravel , ranging from 0 . 25
to 1 . 25 inches in diameter , with the larger gravel particles in the bottom
of the unit. The gravel was then covered with 36 inches of sand which had an
effective diameter of 0 . 2 millimeters (mm ) . Investigations were then conducted
by applying wastewater from the extended aeration lagoon and the secondary
aerobic lagoon to the filter units at a rate equivalent to 0 . 5 million gallons
per acre per day (mgad) .
Analysis of the influent and effluent samples collected during the pilot scale
study revealed a 5 - day Biochemical Oxygen Demand ( BOD5) removal of approximately
70 percent and a suspended solids reduction of approximately 50 percent . The
concentrations of BOD5 and suspended solids in the effluent from the pilot
units were converted to lbs/ 1000 lbs of Live Weight Kill (LWK) and compared
to the Best Practical Treatment (BPT) and Best Available Treatment (BAT)
guidelines for small packinghouses . The results showed that the effluent
from the filter units could meet the suspended solids limits for BPT and BAT
guidelines . All BOD5 samples from the pilot units were below the BPT values and
only one was slightly in excess of the BAT guidelines . The results of the pilot
scale study led to the development of the large scale project at the W . E .
Reeves ' facilities .
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
Since the treatment facilities had been used for previous investigations ,
information pertaining to the daily volume of wastewater from the plant and the
concentration of various pollutants in the wastewater was readily available
to the investigator . The investigator also had access to information pertaining
to the average suspended solids concentration and average BOD5 values of the
effluent from the extended aeration lagoon and the secondary aerobic lagoon in
use at the treatment facilities . Other information pertaining to sand and
gravel specifications, recommended loading rates onto the filters , filter
design , etc . were available from the literature and the pilot study previously
conducted by the investigator . All of this information was used in developing
the preliminary design of the filter units .
The preliminary design for the filter project was based on an average waste
water flow of 18 , 000 gallons per day with a maximum daily flow of 30 , 000 gal
lons . During preliminary design , a site adjacent to the existing lagoon system
was selected for the proposed sand filter units so that loading from either
the extended aeration lagoon or the secondary aerobic lagoon would be possible
by gravity flow . The proposed site for the sand filter units also had the
advantage of providing a means of diverting the flow from the filters to the
existing lagoons in case of an accidental spill or necessary filter repairs .
Figure 1 shows the layout of the facilities .
188
manhole
K - - - from plant
-
- -
-
-
E manhole
extended secondary - - - stabilization
aeration aerobic
pond
Tagoon lagoon
sand
filters distribution box
collection
VI
VIL
box
- to stream
Figure 1 . W . E . Reeves ' Treatment Facilities .
During the planning of the project, it was decided that instead of one filter
unit, two small units of unequal size should be constructed . This would offer
the advantage of having two different surface areas for the purpose of invest
igating different hydraulic loadings and would have the added advantage of
providing one operable filter to be used while the second was being cleaned .
By following the recommendations for the bottom dimensions , slope of interior

dike, and depth of sand gravel, the completed structure consisted of two
filter units with sand surface areas of approximately 880 and 1220 square feet .
When a wastewater flow of 18 , 000 gallons was applied to the small sand filter ,
the hydraulic loading would be 0 . 90 mgad , and with one-half of this average
day flow onto the small filter , the resulting hydraulic load would be 0 .45 mgad .
Corresponding loading rates of 0 .64 and 0 . 32 mgad could be obtained by using
the larger filter .
CONSTRUCTION
The filter units were formed by clay embankments on three sides , and the
fourth side of each filter unit was formed by a common concrete wall between
the two units . The purpose of the common wall was to reduce the amount of
land required for the filters . Each unit would consist of 36 inches of sand
over 18 inches of gravel and each filter unit would have a separate under
drain system .
The bottom of the filter units was formed of six inches of compacted clay .
The bottom of each filter was sloped toward the effluent drain to insure
proper drainage from the filters .
189
The embankments were constructed of clay and were built so that the interior
of the dikes were sloped at a ratio of 2 . 5 horizontal units to 1 . 0 vertical
units . The elevation from the bottom of each filter unit to the top of the
dike was a minimum of 9 . 5 feet, thus allowing a freeboard of at least 5 feet
above the surface of the sand . The tops of the embankments were 8 feet wide
so that vehicles and machinery could be used at the treatment site .
A factor which determined the dimensions of the bottom of the sand filter units
was the space required for the normal operation of heavy equipment, such as
a dozer , during the construction phase of the project. The final specifica
tions for the bottom of the structure called for a wi. Í f 12 feet and a
length of 42 feet. After the bottom was compacted , the 6 inch concrete wall
was to be poured to form two filter units with bottom dimensions of 12 feet
by 14 feet and 12 feet by 28 feet respectively .
The underdrain network of each filter consisted of a series of five inch dia
meter perforated pipes on the bottom of the filter bed . Spacing of the pipes
was approximately 3 feet , and each lateral line was connected to a siv inch
diameter pipe serving as the main drain from the filter unit . The main drain
line projected through the walls of the dike and emptied into a sample col
lection box . Effluents from the filters were discharged from the collection
box to the stream that runs from the Reeves ' property .
A manhole already existed between the extended aeration lagoon and the sec
ondary aerobic lagoon . A six inch line was installed from this manhole to
a distribution box constructed in close proximity to the sand filters . A six
inch line was then installed from the distribution box to each of the filters .
By using this scheme, the wastewater from the extended aeration lagoon could
be discharged to the existing secondary aerobic lagoon or to the filters via
the distribution box . Wastewater from the extended aeration lagoon discharged
to the distribution box could be loaded into one or both of the filters .
OPERATION
The construction of the sand filters was completed in December, 1975 , and op
eration began in early 1976 . During the early stages of operation , many
mechanical problems were experienced with the timers and valves , but these
difficulties were corrected and routine monitoring of the system began in
March , 1976 .
The monitoring operation consisted of the collection and analysis of raw

wastewater samples , effluent from the extended aeration lagoon , and effluent
from the filter units . Composite samples of the raw wastewater and lagoon
effluent were collected , but grab samples were collected from the sand filters .
The extended aeration process was in a single lagoon and operated in a batch mode .
The aerator in the lagoon was operated from 9 : 00 a .m . to 11 : 00 p . m . Solids
in the lagoon settled for five hours and then at 4 : 00 a . m . a hydraulic valve
was activated discharging the supernatent from the lagoon to the filters . The
valve automatically closed after four hours .
During the first part of this investigation , March until September , the filter
media in the filters consisted of washed sand with an effective diameter of
190
0 . 2 mm and a uniformity coefficient of 4 . While this sand was in use the length
of filter runs was unsatisfactory . Loading rates of 0 . 55 mgad and 0 . 86 mgad
were evaluated in this portion of the study . For the loading rates of 0 . 55
mgad and 0 . 86 mgad, the average length of filter runs was 15 and 10 days
respectively . The filter run was the length of time from the first loading
of a filter to the time the filter was plugged and the filter was considered
plugged when the water loaded onto a filter remained on the filter surface
for more than 24 hours .
In an attempt to increase the length of filter runs , the original sand was
removed from the filter and replaced with sand having a uniformity coefficient
of 2. 5 and an effective diameter of 0 . 35 mm . Also , the hydraulic loading was
reduced to 0 . 36 mgad . The increased sand size and the reduced hydraulic load
lengthened the filter run to 109 days . This portion of the study was conducted
during the period of time from October until late February . The results are
shown in Table 1 .
TABLE 1 . LENGTH OF FILTER RUNS
Loading Rate Sand Mean Filter Runs

(MGAD ) (Eff . Dia . ) (Unif . Coeff . ) (Days) (Number of Runs)
0 .86 0 . 20 mm 4 .0 10
0 .55 0 . 20 mm 4 .0 15
0 . 36 0 . 35 mm 2.5 109
RESULTS
The wastewater samples collected during the investigation were analyzed for
a number of parameters . However , only the results for those parameters which
are of most concern to meat packers are presented in this paper . These para
meters include BOD5 , Total Suspended Solids ( TSS ) , Fats , Oil and Grease (FOG ) ,
Ammonia Nitrogen (NH3-N ) , and fecal coliform . Table 2 lists the average
concentration for each of these parameters for the raw wastewater , extended
aeration lagoon , and sand filter effluent . This table also includes the reduc
tion which was accomplished for each of these parameters by the treatment system .
The average flow for the project period was 19 , 756 gallons per day and the
average live weight kill was 24 ,617 lbs / day .
191
TABLE 2 . SAND FILTRATION PROJECT
Wastewater Characteristics and Percent Removal
Raw Ext . Aer . Filter Percent

Parameters Num . Waste . Num . Eff. Num . Eff . Removal
51
BOD5 (mg / 1) 46 672 . 0 31 . 0 10 . 4 98 . 5
Tss (mg/ 1 ) 27 392 . 0 - 43 41 . 0 11 . 1 97 . 1
FOG (mg/ 1 ) 16 138 . 7 10 29 . 1 < 5.0 796 . 4
NH3-N (mg/ 1) 16 14. 8 14 3. 1 14 9 1. 8 7.2

Fecal Coli .
(MPN / 100 ml) 37 1.88 x 104
During the investigation , a sand with a uniformity coefficient of 4 was used

at hydraulic loading rates of 0 .86 mgad and 0 .55 mgad . Also , one sand source
with a uniformity coefficient of 2 . 5 was used with a hydraulic loading of
0 . 36 mgad . The average values for BOD5 , TSS , NH3- N , fecal coliform , and FOG
are listed in Table 3 .
Table 4 gives a comparison of the test results to the 1977 (BPT) and 1983 (BAT)
guidelines for small packinghouses . The pH and fecal coliform values are not
presented in the table . All pH values of effluent from the sand filters were
between the pH limits of 6 to 9 units with an average pH value of 7 . 4 . A total
of 56 pH readings were taken . All coliform values for the sand filter effluent
exceeded the 400 MPN / 100 ml limit with the exception of a one - day value .
The effluents from the sand filter units meet the 1977 (BPT) guidelines for
30 - day average and maximum day average for BOD5, TSS , and FOG . Also , the
new source limitations for ammonia nitrogen were met .
The 1983 (BAT) limitations were met for FOG . However, the effluent did not
meet the BOD5 and TSS limitations . An examination of Test B ( Table 4 ) reveals
that the 30 - day average and maximum day average for BOD5 were slightly exceeded .
Also , the TSS values of the effluent slightly exceeded the 30 -day average , but
did meet the maximum day limitation . Test B was conducted between October 21,
1976 to February 23 , 1977 and only eight TSS values and 10 BOD5 values were
collected . A longer evaluation is recommended .
COST
One of the objectives of the project was to develop a treatment system which
would be economical to construct and maintain , and one which would be simple
to operate .
192
3.RESULTS
TABLE
TESTS
OF
0.86
MGAD 0.55
MGAD 0.36
MGAD Combined
Parameters A
Sand .Num
A Sand
A .Num BSand Nu
. m Data
(mg
/1)BOD5 .2
10 .5
10 .2
10 57 .4
10
(mg
/1)TSS .6
10 .8
11 8 .6
10 63 .1
11
-N(mg
/1)NH3 2.4 1.9 1.6 1.9
193
FOG /1)(mg 0.25 <5.0 <5.0 .0
45
Coliform
Fecal
)/1ml
(M00
PN 15 x2.71504 16 1 1x.3904 6 2
x1.004 37 1.8x 04
8
of
udiameterffective
ecoefficient
02mmniformity
A-.of
4;Sand
B-u5niformity
25;eSand
03coefficient
of
.diameter
mm
ffective
4.
TABLE LIMITATIONS
EFFLUENT
AND
RESULTS
TEST
OF
COMPARISON
limit
Packisnghouse A
Results
Test B
Results
Test
Parameter m-d30ay
.avg ax .m30ay
-davg
ax 30
.may
d ax
-avg
ay
1977
Limitatio ns
BOD5 1. 7 .34 0. 7 .17 0. 7 .10
TSS .24 .45 .07 .30 .07 .11
FOG 0
.8 .16 0
.4 3 K.03 <.03 <.03
Limitations
Source
New
(include
+N
)above
H3 .24 .48 .01 .03 .01 .02
-N
NH3
(BAT
Limitations
)1983
BOD5 0. 4 .08 .07 .17 U
. T
.10
TSS .06 .12 .07 .30 0. 7 .11
FOG /1
mg
10 /1
mg
20 /1<5mg /1<5mg /1
mg
25 /1<5mg
A-D65ata
Results
8Test
of
rates
loading
at
filter
from
0.5collected
uniformity
with
sand
and
mgad
4amnd
of
02mcoefficient
of
diameter
.effective
B-D6ata
Results
0.3Test
of
rate
loading
at
filter
from
collected
uniformity
with
sand
and
mgad
25a5nd
of
03coefficient
of
diameter
.effective
mm
4a000
Table
/1All
lbs
,in
values
FOG
1983
except
LWK
lbs
re
Earlier publications by Witherow ( 10) indicated that the cost of construction
of the extended aeration lagoon , sewer, and manholes was $ 14 , 000 . The sand
filter units were constructed at a cost of $ 13 , 000 . However none of these
figures include the cost of land . Additional expenses to be considered
are the cost of electricity for the aerator and maintenance cost of the
aerator .
The later part of the investigations revealed that the sand filter units could
be operated in excess of 90 days before clogging of the filters occurred .
Based on a continuous operation of 90 days for the sand filter, annual main
tenance cost of the filter should not exceed $500 . This figure allows for the
labor cost for four cleanings per year and also covers the sand replacement
costs . These cost figures are presented in Table 5 .
TABLE 5 . COST OF EXTENDED AERATION AND SAND FILTRATION

SYSTEM AT THE W . E . REEVES ' PACKING PLANT
er
(a ) Sewer and Manholes $ 2 ,000
(b ) Extended Aeration Lagoon 12, 000
(c) Sand Filter 13, 000
( d ) Annual Maintenance of Filter 500
Note : Items ( a ) and (b ) taken from an earlier report ( 10 ) . Also , cost of

land, electricity for aerator , and cost of maintenance of aerator
not included .
SUMMARY
The original objectives of the project were to develop an economical treat

ment system capable of meeting the effluent guidelines . Cost figures presented
in this study indicate that the extended aeration lagoon and intermittent sand
filter system would meet the criteria of being an economical system to
construct .
During the early stages of operation , the test raul n required much attention
frequ facility
and involved a great deal of manpower for frequent ici ima ? of the filter
cleaning
units . However , after the filter media and hydraulic loading rates were
modified , maintenance and operational problems were minimal which indicates
that the system would also be economical to operate and maintain .
The effluent from the test facility met the 1977 (BPT) effluent guidelines
for all parameters, with the exception of fecal coliforms . Upon the incor
poration of a disinfection system , the test facility would meet all the 1977
(BPT) effluent guidelines for small packinghouses . The effluent also met the
ammonia nitrogen new source limits .
195
The 30 - day average and maximum day average values for the 1983 (BAT) limita
tions with respect to BOD5 and the 30 - day average value for suspended solids
were exceeded slightly . The 1983 (BAT ) limitations for FOG were met .
REFERENCES
Witherow , J . L . Small Meat Packers Waste Treatment Systems. Proceedings

of the 28th Industrial Wastes Conference, Purdue University , Lafayette,
Indiana , May 1973 .
Witherow , J . L . Small Meat Packers Waste Treatment Systems - II . Proceed

ings of the 30th Industrial Waste Conference, Purdue University , Lafayette,
Indiana , May 1975 .
Daniels , F . E . Operation of Intermittent Sand Filters , Sewage Works

Journal 17 : 1001 - 1006 (1945 ) .
Reynolds , J . H . , Harris , S . E . , Hill, D . W . , Filip , D . S . , and Middlebrooks,

E . J . Presented at EPA Technology Transfer Seminar on Wastewater Lagoons ,
Boise , Idaho , November 19 - 20 , 1974 .
Reynolds , J . H . , Harris , S . E . , Hill , D . W . , Filip , D . S . , and Middlebrooks,

E . J . Intermittent Sand Filtration for Upgrading Waste Stabilization Ponds ,
Presented at Water Resource Symposium Number Nine , University of Texas ,
Austin , July 22 - 24 , 1975 .
6 . Marshall , G . R . , and Middlebrooks , E . J . Intermittent Sand Filtration to
Upgrade Existing Wastewater Treatment Facilities , PRJEW 115- 2, Utah Water
* Research
mengurane Laboratory
seng konsert
, College There are facilitetertreatments
of Engineering , Logan , Utah , February , series
1974 .
7. Walter , C . M . Progress Report , Blue Springs Lagoon Study , Blue Springs ,
Missouri . Prepared for presentation at the Symposium on Upgrading Waste
water Stabilization Ponds to meet Discharge Standards , Sponsored by EPA
and Utah State University , Logan , Utah , August 21 - 23 , 1974 .
8 . Grantham , G . R . , Emerson , D . L . , and Henry , A . K . Intermittent Sand Filter

Studies , Sewage Works Journal 21 : 1002 - 1014 ( 1949) .
Furman , T . , Calaway , W . T . , and Grantham , G . R . Intermittent Sand Filters .

Multiple Loadings , Sewage and Industrial Wastes 27 : 261 - 275 ( 1955) .
10 . Witherow , J . , Tarquin , A . , and Rowe, M . Manual of Practice - Waste Treat
ment for Small Meat or Poultry Plants , Food Processing Waste Research ,
EPA , Corvallis , Oregon , 1976 .
196
ECONOMIC RETURN ON POLLUTION CONTROL EXPENDITURES
FOR THE PICKLED FOOD INDUSTRY
by
James G . Meenahan , P . E .
Vice President
Johnson & Anderson , Inc .
BACKGROUND
Plants which ferment, store and pack pickled food products have a significant need for
wastewater control and treatment in order to comply with NPDES discharge permits
and municipal sewer ordinances.
The waste can be generally characterized as high in BOD ,, TSS, ciº and Acid ; also
during periods of ordinary rainfall there is a serious contamination of stormwater run
off.
HOW DO YOU RESOLVE THESE PROBLEMS?
Detailed investigations were made of water usage and the sources of waste generation .
Wastewater treatment technology was reviewed as it might apply to the nature, volume
and frequency of the discharges.
INITIAL RESULTS
These studies showed that approximately 35 % of water usage could be readily reduced
and through the use of improved housekeeping and screening , raw waste loading could
reduce by 40 % .
ALAS, THE REAL SERIOUS CULPRIT SURFACES
As pickle processing plants perform more frequent and detailed wastewater characteri
zations and as regulatory agencies perform more frequent and detailed monitoring of
receiving streams and municipal sewers, the plot thickens. It becomes abundantly clear
that there is a high level of total dissolved solids, principally in the form of chlorides.
The history of regulatory agencies, both State and Federal, shows little concern for TDS
or chlorides until the last two years. Even at this time there is little uniformity of
action . EPA has chosen to stay out of the controversy by not establishing Effluent
Limitation Guidelines for TDS or chlorides for the Flood Industry Categories. They say
that this is a matter for state regulation in accordance with each state's goals for
maintenance of water quality standards for individual receiving streams. This is
contrary to the basic EPA philosophy of " technology - based" effluent limitation
criteria .
197
Most states have not made definitive analyses of the impact of TDS of chlorides upon
stream usage and have chosen to adopt the most restrictive use - drinking water . The
municipalities, in turn , have adopted the same limitation , that for drinking water, for
wastewater discharges to sanitary sewers.
Therefore , it has become apparent that several plants within the pickled food industry
must drastically reduce the chloride level in their wastewater .
HOW DO YOU ACCOMPLISH THIS ?

Treatment is not the answer - distillation and reverse osmossis have high capital and
operating costs, land application is generally toxic to most vegetation and precipitation
with silver nitrate is a little ridiculous!
What's Left ? Reduce it at its source . The area which contributes approximately 75 % of
chlorides in the wastewater is the tank yard operation of fermentation and storage of
pickles .
The two papers proceeding this one described two major efforts to reduce the use of
chlorides: one by James Harris recommending chloride reductions through the use of
controlled fermentation ; the other by Dr. Roger McFeeters, recommending reuse of
spent brines by utilizing various conditioning processes to deactivate softening enzemes
and screen gross solids.
While each of these actions will drastically reduce the quantities of chlorides in waste
water, they do not address two more sources of chloride Toss - those of tank leakage and
stormwater overflow and run -off contamination .
Rainwater accumulating and overflowing the top of the open tanks not only causes
waste problems but can be disturbing to the fermentation process.
One of Johnson & Anderson , Inc. clients was given a severe restriction of chloride
discharge to the sanitary sewer. The only hope for compliance was through replacement
of all leaking tanks, no overflow caused by rainwater, recycle of spent brine and
possibly controlled fermentation .
HOW DO YOU DO THIS AND STAY COMPETITIVE ?
Combining the research work on brining practices and some successful full scale work at
a couple of plants , we applied basic process engineering techniques with generous
applications of imagination . The results are shown on Figure 1, 2 and 3.
The three basic process changes that provide the opportunity for chloride reductions
plus significant operating and maintenance cost reductions are:
1. Pumping of cucumbers and pickles
Degassification and recirculation of fermentation brine
3. Adjustment of fermentation brine constituents
198
These process steps open the way for the following cost reduction features:
Nininio
Clustering of tanks, thereby reducing real estate requirements by a factor of

3.0
Permanently sealed tops, eliminating spillage and rainwater contamination
Sluicing cucumbers and pickles eliminating damaged stock
Uniform , accelerated and controlled fermentation
Reuse of spent brine
Elimination of many forklift trucks and tote boxes and their associated
maintenance
HOW DID WE ASSESS THE ECONOMIC IMPACT?

We established the present costs for operating and maintaining the tank yard. A plant
audit was performed ; all cost categories were identified; overhead and indirect costs
were allocated. This gave us a baseline for reference.
Then several cost categories were modified, eliminated or added, to reflect the
proposed conditions. The capital costs were distributed over a three year period;
depreciation and interest were distributed accordingly . The annual costs summaries
yielded the required cash flow and return on investment.
DO IT YOURSELF - BASIC PROCESS CHANGE
We feel this exercise can be repeated in many food industries by considering some of
the following :
Look at individual process steps
2. Ask , "Why do we do what we do ?"
3. Should this operation be batch or continuous
What are the advantages of system monitoring
5 .
Where
WW are the losses, the wastes
We all have a great reluctance to change. Change only occurs when there is a
significant potential difference between existing and projected conditions. The greater
the difference the greater the driving force, the greater the rate of change.
Crisis and subsequent threats to economic existence are excellent modivators for
change. EPA and FDA are presently providing liberal applications of these modivators.
Don't fold up your tent - try the water of process change, it can be rewarding and
exciting!
199
AN EFFECTIVE WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT PROGRAM
FOR A FOOD PROCESSOR
by
George E . Wilson * and Jerry Y . C . Huang *
INTRODUCTION AND DILEMMA
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 . PL 92 - 500 .

without doubt comprise the most far reaching pollution - control legislation
in history . The net effect of the new legislation in many cases means
increased costs to industry for treating its wastewater discharge . Under
PL 92 -500 , the industry is classified in two categories depending on the
final destination where the wastewater effluent discharged to . The first
and more complex situation is that in which industry discharges wastewater
effluent to a publicly owned treatment system . This type of industry is
called user industry . The other situation involves industry providing
treatment of its own effluents for direct discharge to a receiving body of
water . This type of industry is called direct discharger .
The comparison of the two effluent discharge categories is illustrated in

Table 1. For the user industry , in which the industry discharges its
wastewater effluent to a public wastewater treatment facility , there are
two constraints : industrial payback provisions and pretreatment standards .
Under this provision , no grant for any publicly owned treatment works has
been approved since March 1 , 1973 , unless the applicant has met the follow
ing requirements :
a. Made provisions for payment to the applicant by industrial users
of that portion of the cost of construction which is applicable
to the treatment of industrial waste to the extent of the federal
share of the cost of construction .
b. Adopted a system of charges such that each recipient of waste
treatment services will pay its proportionate share for the cost
of operation and maintenance of waste treatment services .
In addition to the repayment of the federal share , pretreatment standards
are required by the local agency for introducing the pollutants into
publicly owned treatment works . Therefore , the permissible effluent limits
are varied depending on the requirement by the local agency .
For the direct discharger , who discharges its wastewater effluent to a
receiving body of water , there are also two constraints : effluent standard
* EUTEK , Inc. , Process Development and Engineering, Sacramento , California
200
1.COMPARISON
TABLE
CATEGORIES
DISCHARGE
EFFLUENT
TWO
OF
Item User
Industry Discharger
Direct
A.Effluent
destination
discharge system
owned
Publicly water
of
body
Receiving
B.Constraints provisions
payback
Industrial :
standards
Effluent
201
standards
Pretreatment permit
NPDES
1,1977
July
by
BPT
1,1983
July
by
BAT
1985
by
discharge
Zero
monitoring
stringent
More
C.Permissable
limit
effluent Varied Fixed
requirements and stringent monitoring requirements .
The act calls for a National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)
which clearly states that any effluent discharge is illegal unless a permit
has been issued for it . By July 1 , 1977 , effluent limitations for existing
sources of liquid waste from industrial plants will require the application
of the best practicable control technology (BPT) currently available . By
July 1 , 1983 , effluent limitations require the application of the best
available control technology (BAT ) economically achievable . The act
establishes zero discharge , the complete elimination of all discharges of
pollutants into navigable waterways , as a national goal for 1985 . The act
contains stringent requirements on the establishment and maintenance of
records , waste stream monitoring , sampling , and analyses .
For either type of industry , the wastewater management program objective

is identical : namely ,
The development of a performance guaranteed wastewater treatment

system at optimum cost .
For the user industry , the optimum cost represents the best combination of
in - plant treatment of certain waste material with the remainder treated in
the municipal treatment system . On the other hand , the optimum cost for
the direct discharger represents the least cost system which will produce
an effluent within the fixed allowable limitations .
This paper presents a phased approach for a carrot processor in developing

the most cost effective wastewater management program .
WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT ALTERNATIVES
A carrot processor , processing approximately 20 tons /hr of raw carrots ,
cleans and transports the product hydraulically resulting in significant
amounts of soil solids in the wastewater . In the past , the carrot pro
cessor discharged his was tewater directly into a nearby drainage ditch .
However , in 1975 , the carrot processor was issued a cease and desist order
by the Regional Water Quality Control Board on the discharge of untreated
wastewater to a drainage ditch . The cease and desist order required the
plant effluent to have average biochemical oxygen demand (BOD ) and
suspended solids (SS ) concentration of 20 mg / l with the maximum of 40 mg/ l
each . The settleable matter was limited to an average of 0 . 5 ml/ l with
the maximum of 1 ml/ l .
The management alternatives were :
1. Do nothing and shut down the plant;

2. Install treatment equipment without careful engineering
evaluation , thus risking failure of meeting effluent requirement ;
3. Adopt a three - phase approach based on sound engineering evaluation
for developing a performance guaranteed system .
202
The first alternative was unacceptable as the business was healthy and
worth preserving. The second alternative , however , risked the failure in
meeting the effluent requirement . The third alternative required time for
engineering evaluations , and was guaranteed to meet the requirement. The
management chose the third alternative as the one most consistent with the
long range growth plans .
OBJECTIVES AND PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT
Two objectives which had to be accomplished in the wastewater management
program were removal of settleable , suspended and colloidal materials from
the wastewater , and reuse of the reclaimed water in product cleaning opera
tion . Three - phase program formulated for achieving these objectives was :
Phase I - Evaluation of soil solids removal and water reuse system

Phase II - Pilot evaluation of the system for suspended and colloidal
solids removal and water reuse
Phase III - Design , installation , and start -up of the full - scale solids
removal and water reuse system
Phase 1 - Evaluation of Soil Solids Removal and Water Reuse System
A flow diagram of the Phase I water recycle and solids removal facilities is
depicted in Figure 1 . A submersible pump was placed at the bottom of the
washwater mud pit to pump the washwater through a teacup solid separator ,
4 foot diameter and handling wastewater flow of 500 gpm , for soil solids
removal and hydra - vibe screen for removal of screenable vegetable material .
The water was then recycled back to the mud pit . The water in the mud pit ,
which was free from the settleable soil solids , was reused in the product
cleaning and transporting operation .
The teacup solids separator , consisting of integrated teacup separator and
solid thickener compartments , has a flow regime similar to that of a
stirred teacup . Solids separation is efficiently achieved within the unit
by a combination of " teacup " secondary velocities , vortex , gravitational ,
and inertial forces of the settleable particles . No hydraulic flow occurs
between the separator and the thickener , thus, the settling zone is
quiescent . Separated solids are sweeped in the quiescent zone by the
teacup secondary velocities . The teacup solid separator produced dense
settled solids and water discharged from the teacup solids separator and
the screen contained primarily colloidal material, both inorganic and
organic .
The soil solids removal performance of Phase I facilities is tabulated on

Table 2 . The system was placed in operation on May 19 (Wednesday ) at noon
and continued as a closed system with no addition of make - up waters through
noon Friday , May 21 , 1976 . Shift operations began with fresh water in the
mud pit on Saturday , May 22 , and on Monday , May 24 , 1976 .
203
TO
DISCHARGE
TEACUP
(333
)SCREEN
gpm
-VIBE
HYDRA
SCREEN
SOLIDS
TEACUP
SEPARATOR
FOR
GONDOLA
SCREENINGS SOLIDS
SETTLEABLE
204
SUPER LA
GONDONATAN T IEEE
NË MUD
| RETURN
PIT -SCREEN
DISCHARGE
SCREEN
PIT
MUD
TO RESEVOIR
-SUBMERSIBLE
PUMP
1Flow
IfFigure
Phase
of
.diagram
acilities
2.SOLIDS
IFTABLE
PHASE
OF
PERFORMANCE
REMOVAL
ACILITIES
Duration
Closed
of Pit
Mud
Accumulated
Run
Pit
Mud Solids
Colloidal Teacup
by
Removed
Solids
Settleable
Date )(8hshift
r )/s1(mhift
6s
g SSand )(%T/s1fthift
solids
olids
bs
hift
otal /ton
1bs
products
)(W/75169ed 0.5 , 00
012 1,000
)(T/752hurs
60 1.5 ,000
23 640 150 ,71245 .2
95
205
)(F/75261ri 5.2 ,000
30 500 150 , 45
712
)(S/7526at
2 0.5 1,2* 00
)(M/75246on 1.0 *
400
* resh
was
water
cleaning
the
to
operation
F,added
.
dry
in
expressed
are
weight
solids
All
The soil loading contributed to the wastewater varied daily depending on the
amount of soil solids associated with the incoming product . As shown in
Table 2 , the accumulated suspended and colloidal solids per shift varied
considerably , ranging from 17 to 1 ,000 lbs/ shift. The portion of settleable
solids removed by the teacup represented approximately 95 % of the total
solids contributed to the wastewater flow . The amount of total solids (dry
weight ) was about 83 lbs/ ton of product , representing approximately 5 % of
the weight of the product processed .
The soil solids removal system effectively removed almost all the settle
able solids from the system , which eliminated the discharge of the soil
solids to the drainage ditch and the water free from the soil solids was
reused for product transport and cleaning.
Phase II - Pilot Evaluation of the System for Suspended and Colloidal Solids
Removal and Water Reuse
The objective of the Phase II pilot study was to determine the most cost
effective means for producing water for high quality water reuse and for
meeting the effluent requirement.
The pilot apparatus consisted of chemical feeding pump and diffuser , decayed
gradient flocculator , gravity sedimentation tank , and granular media filter .
The screen discharge water was coagulated by decayed gradient flocculator ,
settled in the gravity sedimentation tank , and finally polished by the
filter . The summary of the pilot filtration performance is presented in
Table 3 .
Two sizes of filter media were investigated , one passing through 1 . 2 mm and
retained by 0 . 8 mm openings , and another passing through 3 . 2 mm and
retained by 1 . 6 mm openings . In filtering wastewater of high solids
loading rate , it was found that the media size of 1 . 6 / 3 . 2 mm (retaining/
passing ) was more effective in producing high quality filtrate with a
reasonably long filter run . It was also determined that the most effective
mode of chemical addition was to inject the chemical coagulant immediately
upstream of the filter media . The coagulation - flocculation and filtration
of the colloidal solids occurred within the filter bed , eliminating the
chance of surface cake formulation on top of the filter media . Therefore ,
excessive pressure drop across the filter media was eliminated .
The characteristics of the filtered wastewater varied , from recirculated
wastewater to wastewater with fresh water added. The filtration rates
tested ranged from 2 . 5 to 10 gpm / ft2 . The coagulant used was cationic
polymer , trade name Cat - Floc (product of Calgon ) and the chemical feeding
rates varied , ranging from 20 to 100 mg/ l . The influent turbidity ranged
from 40 to 300 FTU (Formazin Turbidity Unit ) and the filtrate turbidity
ranged from 2 to 50 FTU . A significant reduction in turbidity was achieved .
Therefore , with the proposed clarification and filtration system , the
reclaimed water should be suitable for reuse as cull pit and/ or mud pit
make - up water .
206
PERFORMANCE
FILTRATION
PILOT
OF
STABLE
3. UMMARY
Filtration
.(Cloc
Conc
)-FCoagulant
at Performance
Filter
Filter Wastewater -Floc
.CCoag
ontact Run
Pressure Run
for
Reasons
Date Media ,
Rate Characteristics Filtration
-Sediment Effluent
Influent Length
Drop Termination
)(mm f?)/(gtpm /1)(mg /1)(mg )a(FTU rt
wh(.f) ater
/75261 0.8-12 's2-3day 100 -210
170 10-28 37 1 deteriorated
effluent
recirculated
water and
quality
pressure
excessive
drop
207
/75262 0.8-12 5 added
water
fresh 150 -24
17 32 deteriorated
effluent
and
quality
pressure
excessive
drop
/75262 0.8-12 2.5 In
added 0
water
fresh 50 200 2-10 1 2 pressure
excessive
drop
5/24
76 1.6-32 5.10 's
day
first -58
42 9-15 deteriorated
water
recirculated 70 9-20 1/2 effluent
-90
52 -5200 1/2 quality
à ormazin
FTurbidity
Unit
Phase III - Design , Installation , and Start- up of the Full Scale Solids
Removal and Water Reuse System
Based on the results of the Phase II pilot studies , the full scale solids
removal and water reuse system included :
1 . Decayed gradient flocculator/gravity clarifier ; and

2 . Coarse media contact filter
The flow diagram of the complete system is shown in Figure 2 . The portion
of final polishing was designed to handle a continuous flow of 100 gpm of
screen discharge wastewater . The layout of the proposed facility takes
best advantage of the limited available space without infringing on traffic
patterns .
The decayed gradient flocculator is a series of enclosed square channels

coiled around the 6 foot diameter gravity clarifier . The size of the
enclosed channels increases gradually downstream such that the most inten
sive chemical mixing occurs at the upstream at the point of chemical
injection and the mixing intensity decreases as the floc travels downstream
to enhance the flocculation . The flocculator / clarifier was elevated to
gravity discharge the settled liquid slurry to haul equipment.
The contact filter was designed as a constant flow device , capable of

accommodating a 10 foot pressure drop over the bed prior to backwashing.
A novel backwash system allowed use of coarse filter media , thereby
assuring effective solids removal with minimum buildup of pressure drop .
Following the completion of each filtration cycle , the filter would be
backwashed with transfer of filter solids to the flocculator / clarifier for
final thickening and disposal.
The typical performance of flocculation / clarification and filtration system
is presented in Table 4 . The turbidity , SS , BOD , and COD of the screen
discharge wastewater were 600 to 1 ,000 FTU , 1 ,200 to 5 , 300 mg/ 1 , 20 to
55 mg/ l , and 100 to 240 mg/ 1 , respectively . In comparing the wastewater
characteristics of the effluent from the flocculation / clarification with
that of screen discharge , a significant reduction in all the parameters was
noted. Further reduction of all the parameters was achieved by the filtra
tion . The turbidity , SS , BOD , and COD of the effluent from the filter were
7 to 20 FTU , 10 to 30 mg/ 1 , 5 to 10 mg/ l , and 25 to 50 mg/ l , respectively.
The quality of the filtrate meets the discharge requirement and is suitable
for reuse in the carrot processing operation .
SUMMARY
This plant, a direct discharger , installed a process water recycle and final
effluent polishing system which produces a treated water quality commensur
ate with the plant' s potable water . By taking the phased approach in
developing an effective wastewater management program , the carrot processor
obtained a performance guaranteed system . An approximate 35 % savings in
the total investment was realized relative to the comparable system .
208
COAGULANTI SLURRY
FLOCCULATOR /CLARIFIER
... SLURRY HAUL
BACKWASH FLOW
COAGULANTE
CONTACT FILTER GONDOLA
SUMP & CHLOR INATOR

(OPTIONAL)
TEACUP SOLIDS
SEPARATOR
STORAGE
TANK - SCREEN
Sumu .......... SCREENINGS
MUD PIT
MAKE-UP
MAKE-UP
LEGEND
> LIQUID FLOW
100.. .... ..... .SOLID / SLURRY FLOW
- - - > 'OPTIONAL
SCREEN
SCREENINGS
OVERFLOW TO
FRESH WATER DRAINAGE DITCH
CULL PIT
MAKE - UP AS
REQUIRED
Figure 2 . Flow diagram of Phase III facilities.

209
4.
TABLE SYSTEM
FILTRATION
AND
C
FLOCCULATION
/OFLARIFICATION
PERFORMANCE
TYPICAL
Clarifier
from
Effluent
Clarifier
to
Influent )(Influent
Filter
to Filter
from
Effluent
Turbidity
SS BOD COD Turbidity
SS BOD COD SS
Turbidity BOD COD
210
)(FTU /1)(mg /1)(mg /1)(mg )(FTU /l)(mg /l)(mg /l)(mg )(FTU /l)(mg /l)(mg /l)(mg
-
600 -1,200 20- -
100 40- -50628 ?- 10- 5- 25
1,000 5,300 55 240 150 11
50
180 20 30 10 50
RECOVERY OF SOLUBLE SERUM PROTEINS
FROM MEAT INDUSTRY WASTES
by
Richard W . Greiling *
INTRODUCTION
Wherever animals are slaughtered , decisions must be made on how best to

dispose of the blood . For most meat and poultry packers the options are few .
There was a time when the blood could be discharged into any receiving body
of water along with other wastes . That time is gone. As effluent limita
tions became stricter , blood wastes in most abattoirs were retained for
treatment with other renderable materials .
Blood is the largest single waste originating on the killing floor and, in
terms of BOD , the strongest pollutant in the entire meat packing industry .
Some studies suggest that 5 -day biological oxygen demand (BOD ) reductions
of greater than 40 percent can be achieved by shifting from a no - recovery
to a recovery of all blood wastes . In 1967, 80 percent of all packing plants
in the United States were recovering blood . On a live -weight- kill (LWK )
basis , 96 percent of the blood from slaughtered animals was recovered and
treated in some form ( 1 ) .
Standard sizes for blood recovery equipment are 5 ,000 lbs /hr (2 , 275 kg /hr)
and 10 , 000 lbs /hr (4 , 550 kg /hr) . Most recovery systems operate at a blood
feed rate of 10 , 000 pounds per hour . In the most common blood recovery
system blood is pumped through a steam - jacketed heat exchanger ranging in
length from 10 to 20 feet ( 3 to 6 meters) . To obtain a blood temperature
of 90°c , at which rapid coagulation occurs , requires a blood retention time
of 15 to 20 seconds , and 550 pounds (250 kg) of steam per hour . The blood
clots are then centrifuged out of suspension for drying ( spray drying is
common ) and packaging; the centrate being set to evaporation facilities or
discharged to the sewerage system .
The biochemcial behavior of blood proteins in pure solutions has been under
stood for several years . The biochemical relationships , and influencing
factors such as pH , ionic charge , temperature, and solids concentrations
have been reported . What the literature fails to present is the biochemical
behavior of blood proteins in a heterogeneous solution that has been sub
jected to the thermal and physical treatment mechanisms associated with
blood recovery facilities .
*Washington Department of Ecology , Olympia, Washington
211
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR PROTEIN RECOVERY
A minimum of constraints were placed on the development of a serum protein
removal process , Aware of capital limitations that confront many abattoirs,
certain factors concerning any final recommendation for a pretreatment and
recovery facility were of fundamental importance and necessitated constant
consideration throughout the investigation .
First , the initial cost of facility construction must be low . Approximately
25 percent of the nation ' s slaughtering is done in small establishments (2 ) ( 3) .
A truly effective treatment scheme will be one that can be utilized by all
meat packers . Low capital investment is a constraint on such a facility
design .
Second, the process must be simple and relatively " foolproof" . Operation
should not require careful control or unpleasant tasks . Good treatment
results should be visable to encourage the operator and convince him that his
plant is really accomplishing its purpose.
Third , mechanical equipment should be held to a minimum to prevent shutdown

due to failure and to cut maintenance costs . Duplicity of equipment should
be avoided . Processes utilizing chemical and energy inputs should operate
at the most optimum conditions to minimize operational costs .
OBJECTIVES OF THE INVESTIGATION
The literature suggests that increasing the temperature of a protein solution ,

particularly at its isoelectric point , enhances protein precipitation . Can
the increased yield , however , justify the increase in thermal inputs ? In a
heterogeneous protein solution is there an optimum pH at which precipitation
is most likely to occur ? Is there a quantitative limit to protein recovery
due to protein solubility relationships ? And how close can a protein
recovery system approach a limit of solubility and still be justified by
economics ?
The stimuli for effective blood recovery are a need for product recovery ,
and a determined need on the part of industry for effluent abatement . Perhaps
the single most motivating force which will induce industry to consider
further improved protein recovery is the energy costs associated with present
recovery facilities . Most recovery systems are designed such that the liquid
fraction of blood is mixed with other tank waters and dried by evaporation .
Threatened unavailability of natural gas and fuel oil and rising energy costs
associated with evaporators and driers are already forcing several abattoirs
to change their rendering operations . One system improves centrifugation of
blood particulates yet still discards the centrate to the sewer system (4 ) .
212
What his facility fails to recover is the high quantity of dissolved serum
proteins which represent a salable product ,
Another objective of this research was to produce as pure and natural as
possible a protein by - product which can be marketed . Fractionated proteins
in a pure state yield the highest market price . However , facilities for such
a treatment process are inaccessible to all but a few of the nation ' s meat
packers . To meet the constraints previously discussed it became apparent
that singularly or in combination heat, chemical, and physical methods may be
necessary for protein extraction . The resultant protein solid is no longer
in its natural state and losses the qualities necessary for pharmaceutical
and highly specialized protein applications . It is cautioned , too , that the
heat and pressure conditions found in an autoclave may make certain labile
amino acids unavailable for nutriative purposes .
The markets of animal feed and fertilizer could be the receiver of such a
controlled recovery product . Because of the pressing need for protein , it
was hoped that a product could be recovered which can be marketed as an
animal feed supplement . This objective is constrained because the Federal
Food and Drug Administration does not allow the feeding of ruminants or
other animals any feedstuffs chemically removed with synthetic polyelectro
lytes (5 ) . This constraint led to the investigation of the serum protein
recovery capabilities of the organic polymer chitosin .
PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATIONS
Preliminary investigations were performed on a blood serum waste to asess
the physical and chemical dependency of protein denaturation upon pH ,
temperature , protein concentration , and the presence of a coagulant aid .
The intent of the investigations was to reduce the number of variables in
question . A final design could be performed which would then provide data
that could be used for the development of an operational protein recovery
facility .
This blood serum waste stream , pH 6 . 7 to 6 . 9 , has an organic nitrogen

concentration of approximately 1 ,650 mg/ l . Total solids are about 23,000
mg / l of which 15, 000 mg / 1 are volatile. Assuming serum protein is 6 . 4 times
the measured nitrogen assay at least 10 , 500 mg / l of the volatile solids
fraction is attributable to serum proteins (6 ) .
Variable Selection
The literature suggests that pH and temperature most strongly influence

protein denaturation . Either variable alone can induce denaturation and
coagulation , but no data have been reported on their combined influence on
protein denaturation in a blood serum waste stream .
Protein denaturation occurs most rapidly at the isoelectric point of the

solution . Consequently it was recessary to determine that pH point and
then bracket it for subsequent analyses of protein recovery . The isoelectric
point of the serum waste stream was to be determined by microelectrophoresis .
213
Denaturation is accelerated at elevated temperatures . Several temperature
levels were used for preliminary investigations to determine the relation
between temperature , protein solubility, and protein removal.
The literature suggests that protein stabilization against denaturation is
inversely proportional to concentration . The effect of protein concentration
on removal efficiencies was studied . In a recovery operation will the
addition of wash -down waters sufficiently dilute the serum waste stream
therefore hindering protein recovery ?
Chitosin , an organic polymer composed of glucosamine residues , was used to

help remove the suspended protein aggregates from solution . Chitosin has
been shown to be an effective coagulant aid with protein - containing was tes (7 ) .
Approval for its use as a polymer for industrial applications and subsequent
marketing in feedstuffs is pending before the Food and Drug Administration (5 ) .
Determination of the Blood Serum Isoelectric Point
Protein mobility within an electric field was determined by measuring the

time required for the aggregate to travel across a Howard counter microscope
grid . Protein mobility is dependent upon the pH of the solution for the
net ionic charge of the protein molecule changes with ph .
Microelectrophoresis was used to determine the isoelectric point of this
heterogeneous solution . The sample was diluted with distilled water to make
a 2 . 5 percent solution . Samples of the serum dilution were drawn and the
pH randomly adjusted by using either 0 . 1 N KOH or 0 . 1 N HCl. The sample
was then placed in the Briggs cell and a portion drawn thrų the cell . Voltage
was applied to the cell electrodes and the time of travel for a protein
aggregate was recorded . After each set of observations , pH and specific
resistance of the sample , and line current were recorded . For each pH the
electrophoretic mobility was calculated .
The observed electrophoretic mobilities for a 2 . 5 percent serum solution are
plotted against ph (fig . 1) . The isoelectric point is where protein mobility
is zero . For this 2 . 5 percent solution it occurs near pH 4 . 6 to pH 4 . 7 .
Denatured Protein Settling Tests
Three settling tests were conducted to determine if denatured proteins would

settle out of suspension . A stock solution of the serum waste and distilled
water ( for dilution ) were heated to 60°C . Protein solutions were made up in
serum : distilled water ratios of 1 : 0 . 25 , 1 : 0 . 5 , and 1 : 1. Each solution was
adjusted to pH 4 .6 and poured into a graduated cylinder.
Organic nitrogen and volatile solids tests were conducted on the supernatant
in each column over a 24 hour period . All reported concentrations are
adjusted for dilution . Solids concentrations were also determined on the
settled solids at 24 hours .
A plot of residual organic nitrogen (fig . 2 ) suggests that blood serum protein
removal by pH denaturation is independent of the concentration to at least a
214
0
.1--1.0 1
10 11 12 13 14
pH
215
+ 5
Protein Mobility S2 = 4•cm / V . sec

0.+1
Figure
E
Mobility
Serum
P
Stream
Waste lectrophoretic
a2Blood
.51 ercent
of
pH
of
.as
aFunction
1800
Serum Dilution Tests :

A A = ( 1 :0 .25)
© B = ( 1 : 0 .50 )
1600 C = ( 1 : 1 . 00 )
1400
Residual
Nitrogen
Organic
1)/(m g
200
800
100
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 " 22 24
Settling Time (hrs .)
Figure 2 . Organic Nitrogen Residuals for Three Serum

Dilution Ratios at pH 4 . 6 .
216
dilution of one. Within one hour all settleable solids have been removed
from suspension .
At the end of 24 hours, a sample of the supernatant was centrifuged for five
minutes at about 1 ,500 - g . No additional removal of residual nitrogen
concentration was observed . It was concluded that gravity settling for
one hour will remove nearly all of the denatured protein aggregates .
Centrifugation of the chemically treated serum was te stream would not be
necessary to remove the denatured proteins .
At 24 hours , the settled solids are approximately 7 percent solids by weight

and are 93 percent volatile. Visual examination of the graduated cylinders
would suggest the settled solids to approximate 10 percent of the initial
blood serum waste stream volume . The solids data indicate that few of the
inorganic dissolved solids are being removed by either chemical complexation
or entrainment in the protein aggregate . This suggests that dewatering of
the settled solids could lead to a highly pure product with very little
ash content .
Protein Recovery in a 2 - Level Factorial Design
In an attempt to reduce the number of variables an investigation was conducted

to determine the effect of pH , temperature , and protein concentration on
recovery efficiency . The settling tests suggested that recovery was
independent of concentration at low dilution . It was felt a factorial design
would statistically varify that fact .
A 2° factorial design was developed . Temperature levels were 20°C and 60°C .
The lower temperature was selected for convenience and the higher temperature
approximated the temperature of the serum waste stream of the centrifuge from
which the samples were obtained . pH 4 . 6 was chosen for its proximity to the
isoelectric point and pH 5 . 1 as a point in the range of high anionic mobility .
Protein concentration levels selected were raw serum (dilution 1 : 0 ) and a 50
percent concentration ( 1 : 1) .
Table 1 presents nitrogen and volatile solids concentrations and the observed
standard errors for the design corner points . Standard errors for both
nitrogen and solids concentrations are within the accuracy of the analytical
procedures . To determine the significance of the main effects , an F -test
with a 95 percent confidence level was conducted (table 2 ) . At that level ,
" ( 1 , 18 ) = 4 . 41.
Both organic nitrogen and volatile solids data suggest that the main effects
of pH and temperature are statistically significant . The third level inter
action is significant in nitrogen assays . The pH and temperature second
level interaction and the third level interaction are significant in volatile
solids data . Neither the main effect nor the second level interactions of
protein concentration is significant . This lack of significance suggests the
variable may be dismissed from subsequent investigations .
Both nitrogen and volatile solids results suggest that for the levels under
investigation protein recovery is much greater near the isoelectric point
217
2F1.O-TABLE
FOR
CONCENTRATIONS
SOLIDS
VOLATILE
AND
NITROGEN
DESIGN
RGANIC
ACTORIAL
RESIDUAL
NITROGEN RESIDUAL
SOLIDS
VOLATILE
.
No St
Average
rror .E%St
.Eror No
. St
.Error
Average .E%St
Test .
Obsv /1mg .
Obsv /1
mg
Raw 1,570 40 .52 350
,500
12 2.8
1,070 4.3 9,560 510 .35
907 5.7 38, 90 510 6.1
1,200 12 1.0 ,400
10 120 1.
985 54 5. 9,050 250 2.8
53
1,210 4. ,700
10 170 .61
29
777 3.7 ,27 00 310 4.3
12, 80 26 2.0 ,900
10 110 .01
1,260 00 .05 ,500
10 330 3.1
218
wwwAWWA WW
wwWAWWA ww
s_'=1,950 E4rror
.1=4St ,9s'=160
03 .E22
=3St
rror
Effects
of
Analysis Effects
of
Analysis
-223 6,-1 10
+175 +1,250
+76 +475
pHẤT 7+ 5 730
+ +
pHxD -34 -345

TxD +71 +500
pHxTxD +101 +820
than at higher pH . Both tests suggest that a temperature of 60°C decreases
the amount of protein recovered compared to that at 20°C . This result is
opposite that expected . It may be hypothesized that protein solubility has
increased with temperature and that the temperature selected was not high
enough to induce thermal denaturation . Factorial design analysis suggested
that thermal denaturation must occur above 60°c . This hypothesis is
supported by later investigations .
The recovery of soluble proteins has again been shown to be independent of

concentration up to a dilution of 50 percent . For this reason , the protein
concentration was dismissed as an experimental variable . This conclusion
suggests that small volumes of wash waters can be added to blood recovery
operations without adverse effects to any subsequent protein recovery . From
an operational viewpoint, volumes should be held to a minimum . Subsequent
investigations were conducted using undiluted blood serum wastes .
TABLE 2 . SUM OF SQUARES AND F - TEST FOR 2 FACTORIAL DESIGN

ORGANIC NITROGEN VOLATILE SOLIDS
Effect Sum of Squares D .F . F Sum of Squares D .F . F
49 , 729 1 25. 50 2 , 576 , 025 24 . 78
I 30,625 15 . 70 1 ,562 , 500 15 .03
5 , 776 2 . 96 225 ,625 2 . 17
pHxT 5 , 625 2 .88 532 ,900 5 . 13
pHxD 1 , 156 0 .59 119 ,025 1 . 14
TxD 5 ,041 2 .59 250 , 000 2 . 40
phixTxD 10 , 201 5 . 23 672 ,400 6 . 46
1 , 950 s. 103, 960

F (1,18) 0.025 = 4.41
Establishment of the Polymer Dose
Investigations were conducted to determine the effectiveness of chitosin as a

coagulant aid for the removal of suspended denatured proteins . Two investi
gations were conducted at 75°C and pH 4 .65 and pH 5 . 4 Organic nitrogen and
volatile solids analyses were performed on all samples . A subsequent investi
gation was conducted at 80°c and pH 4 .65 to look at chitosin dosage levels and
to determine any change in protein recovery due to a slightly higher tempera
ture . Only organic nitrogen concentrations were measured .
Results for nitrogen concentrations plotted against chitosin dose (fig . 3 )

suggest that protein removal is enhanced with increasing polymer dosage up to
219
Temp PH
Trial 1 75°C 5 .4
Trial 2 75°C 4 .65
Trial 3 80°C 4 .65
1600
1400
Residual
Nitrogen
/1) g
Organic(m
Trial 1
Trial 2
600
Trial 3
400
0 50 100 150 200 250

Chitosin Dose (mg / 1)
Figure 3 . Organic Nitrogen Residual vs . Chitosin Dose .
220
a chitosin concentration of about 100 mg/ 1 . Beyond that dosage there is a
leveling off of the yield of protein recovered . The proteins remaining in
solution appear no longer influenced by the presence of the chitosin .
In order to establish the range of pH values over which any final analyses
should be performed , a series of investigations was conducted at 90°c .
ph ranged from 5 . 8 to 3 . 8 at intervals of 0 . 4 pH units .
Figure 4 suggests that protein recovery is strongly influenced by both pH

and chitosin dose, Two significant observations may be noted . First, at
low chitosin concentrations , the maximum recovery of proteins occurs well
below the isoelectric point of the protein solution ; protein yield is
greatest at pH 3 . 8 . Second , at a chitosin concentration of 100 mg / l
protein recovery is maximized over a range of pH 5 . 0 to pH 3 . 8 . The
recovery has been maximized for the given variables and that the residual
protein concentration is most likely limited by protein solubility .
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND CONCLUDING INVESTIGATIONS
Selection of Design Variable Levels
It has been determined that a minimum temperature of about 60°C is required

for thermal denaturation of proteins . Theoretically , thermal denaturation
of all proteins occurs at 100°C . The variable levels for temperature were
thus limited by these two temperatures . Complications arise with operating
temperatures near the boiling point of the serum solution . Excessive steam
would create operating problems . Heat inputs would be nearly as great as
present evaporation facilities . As such , a maximum operating temperature of
90°C was hypothesized . Temperature levels to be investigated were 60°c , 75°C ,
and 90°c .
Preliminary investigations suggest that protein recovery is greatly improved

with polymer doses of 20 to 100 mg/ 1 . Chitosin doses of 20 , 60 , and 100 mg / 1
were used in the final design .
A strong interaction between pH and chitosin dose suggest that a wide pH

range can yield maximum protein recovery . Preliminary investigations suggest
this pH range to be from pH 5 . 0 to at least pH 3 . 8 . In an attempt to fully
bracket the pH range , final investigations were conducted from pH 5 .4 to
pH 3 . 4 . Six levels 0 . 4 pH units apart were selected for observation .
Procedure
The final design is a matrix with variable levels of 3 x 3 x 6 . The design

was to be run in duplicate , with any remaining serum samples being used to
triplicate the experiment . The order in which samples were run was only
partially randomized . Because of equipment restraints , only one temperature
level could be conducted at a time. Both pH and polymer dose levels were
randomized for a particular temperature level .
A large serum sample was heated to the desired temperature . A 300 ml sample
was withdrawn and pH adjusted at random . A 100 ml sample was then added to
221
Organic Nitrogen Residuals
20 mg /1
Organ
Nitro gen
ic
| 60 roll
1)x/1(m00
g
100 mg /1
Raw Serum Org .N . = 1, 580 mg / 1

-
3 .8 4 .2 4 .6 5 .0 - 5 .4 5 .8
Volatile Solids Residuals
20 mg/ 1
,0)/1xVolatile
Solids
60 ng/ 1
(m00
g
- 100 mg / 1
Raw Serum V . S . = 12 , 500 mg/ 1
4 . 2
3 .8 4 .6 55 .0. 0 5 .4 5 .8
FIGURE 4 . Residual Organic Nitrogen and Volatile Solids Concentrations

as a Function of pH and Chitosin Dose at 90°c .
222
each of three bottles containing the amount of chitosin to yield the desired
am
polymer concentration . The bottle was stoppered and placed in the warm air
oven for a reaction and settling time of one hour . After clarification the
supernatant was tested for organic nitrogen and volatile solids .
A total of 134 tests was conducted . This provides for triplication of about
ma
one
0
half of the design matrix . All other test conditionsS were duplicated .
el
Results
Protein recovery was determined as percent of nitrogen or volatile solids

removed from solution and suspension . Protein recovery efficiency varies
from 31 to 62 percent. Efficiencies are slightly higher for organic nitrogen
assays than for volatile solids . Earlier mass balance approximations
suggested that proteins accounted for about 70 percent of measured volatile
solids . The solubility of dissolved salts will limit the efficiency of
volatile solids removal . This limitation will tend to depress the percent
reduction of volatile solids independent of the reduction of dissolved
organic nitrogen .
Regression Analysis of Protein Recovery Efficiencies
Isometric projections of protein recovery efficiencies ( as measured by

organic nitrogen ) were drawn to assist data interpretation (figs . 5 - 7) .
The projections suggest recovery is highly dependent upon pH and polymer
dose and nearly independent of temperature ,
Recovery is most effective in the range of pH 3 . 8 to pH 4 .6 . Within that
range recovery is nearly independent of the chitosin dose. At pH values
above 4 . 6 the recovery is highly dependent upon polymer dose . Both of these
observations confirm earlier investigations into the effectiveness of pH as
a denaturant and chitosin as a coagulant aid . That recovery efficiencies
do not significantly improve with increasing temperatures is contrary to
earlier hypotheses . Protein solubility in the high dissolved salt solution
must be limiting protein recovery efficiencies .
To facilitate ease in using experimental results an attempt was made to
develop a model which would predict protein recovery efficiency as a function
of pH , temperature , and chitosin dose . Isometric projections of organic
nitrogen removal efficiencies suggest a second order response to both pH and
dose . A linear response to temperature is suggested by the three projections .
Several models were used in a multiple regression analysis . The model was
to fit an equation , through the 54 data points collected in the test matrix .
The parameters ( T) and (T x Dose) were insignificant. A six - parameter model
(linear in the parameters ) for predicting the removal efficiency for organic
nitrogen is :
F = 0 .54 (T ) + 52 . 0 (pH ) ? - 6 .56 (pH) 2 - 0 . 44(Dose) - 0.09 (pH x T)
+ 0 . 12 (pH x Dose) – 59 .87
where F is organic nitrogen removal efficiency as percent (see table 3) .
223
Percegen
Remov
Nitro nt
ed
30 3.4 3.8
100
4.2 in
tos e
Chi Dos (mg / 1 )
pH 4.6 60
5.6
5:4
Figure 5 . Organic Nitrogen Removal Efficiencies as a

Function of ph and Chitosin Dose at 60°C .
224
Nitrogen
Percent
Removed
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
--
30
30
. 3 .4 3 .8
100
4 .2
гр in
tos e
н hi os (mg / 1 )
4 .6 C 60D
5 . 0 5 .4

Function of ph and Chitosin Dose at 75°C .
225
Nitrogen
Removed
Percent
-
- --
- - -
- -
w 3.4
3 .8 100
4.2 to sin
PH 4.6 Chi Dose (mg /1 )
5.0
5.4

Function of pH and Chitosin Dose at 90°C .
226
重重重重
)+9。xDT0(pB6.F= Hes32ose
HH
VariableMean Standard Correlation Regression .EStd

rror Computed
No
. Deviation YXvs Coefficient Coef
Reg
.of VT alue
27.5000E01 1.2363E01 2.5340E
-0 1 -05.3847E
1 -01,7002F
1 +03.1670E
0
.40000E
14
+0 -06.8954E
1 -05.6012
1 5 984E01
.1 7.6656E00 6.7815E
+0 0
41.9827E01 6.0814E
+0 0 -05.8526E
1 6.5528E
-0 1 8. 027E
-0 1 -8.1883E00
6.0000E01 3.2967E01 4.11
-0 808 4.4068E
-0 1 6.3- 758E
0 2 -6.9117E
+0 0
063.3+ 000E2 7.5529E01 2.1404E
-0 1 9.1489E
-0 2 3.8184E
-0 2 -2.3960E
+0 0
23456
+072.62400E +01.52251E -03. 1550E -01.11927E -01.4319E
2 8.3293E400
Dependent
15.4172E01 6.60312E
+0
Intercept -5.98778E01
Correlation
Multiple -09.412796E
.Error
Std
Estimate
of 2.34752E00
Regression
the
for
Variance
of
Analysis
Variation
of
Source of
Degrees of
Sum Mean FValue
Freedom Squares Squares
to
Attributable
Regression6 2 7156E03
.0 3.425260E
+0 6.21
+0 6510E
Deviation 47
Regression
from 2.59010E02 + 1085E
5.5
0 0
Total 153 2.33057E03
3.REGRESSION
TABLE
EFFICIENCY
REMOVAL
NITROGEN
ORGANIC
FOR
ANALYSIS
The correlation between the variables and the removal estimates are
intuitively satisfying. There is a small , but significant, positive
correlation with temperature. The greatest correlations for the model
related estimated protein recovery with ph . For the pH range under study,
the lower the pH the greater the recovery . There is a fairly large
positive correlation between chitosin dose and product recovery for both
chitosin in the first order and its interaction with pfi .
Dissolved Protein Removal by Carbon Adsorption
A laboratory investigation was conducted to determine if dissolved protein

removal, beyond that recovered by denaturation and polymer coagulation ,
could be achieved with activated carbon . The extension of carbon capacity
may be very significant under certain conditions . Decreasing pH and
increasing temperatures increases the adsorptive characteristics of
activated carbon . These two conditions are attained in the chemically
treated blood serum waste , and the high dissolved organic content should
enhance surface adsorption .
A preserved serum waste was heated to 60°c , pH adjusted to 4 .6 , and mixed

with chitosin at a dose of 100 mg / 1 . After one hour of settling the
supernatant was withdrawn and 300 ml samples were added to six test vessels
containing measured amounts of powdered carbon . The stirrer and carbon
suspensions were maintained at 60°C in a heated room . Carbon suspensions
were stirred at 40 rpm for a two hour activated carbon residence time .
A five minute centrifugation at about 3 ,600 - g provided excellant solid /
liquid separation .
Organic nitrogen , chemical oxygen demand (COD ) , and volatile solids analyses
were conducted on the raw serum waste , the waste chemically treated for
protein recovery , and on the six carbon adsorption centrates ( table 4 ) .
Analyses were conducted to determine carbon adsorption capacities for
protein removal .
The adsorptive capacity for the powdered carbon was determined by comparing
the amount of COD removed per unit of carbon versus the COD loading rate.
The total COD used in the adsorptive capacity test was determined by
measuring carbonaceous COD and adding to that the theoretical oxygen
demand of the organic nitrogen concentration .
When the adsorptive capacity of the activated carbon is plotted against

residual COD (fig . 8 ) , the curve shows that carbon adsorption removal
improves with increasing concentration of dissolved organics . It is noted
here, too, that as the concentrations of dissolved organics increase , the
rate of unit increase in adsorptive capacities is less that unity .
That protein removal by activated carbon is significant leads to the

development of unit processes beyond protein recovery . Spent granulated
carbon from removal operations involving low organic concentrations may yet
have sufficient adsorptive capacity to polish the organic - rich supernatant .
Following protein recovery by denaturation and coagulation , the supernatant
228
Sample Carbon COD .N
Org COD
Total T.S v.s mg
,C
COD mg
COD
Dose
Carbon
mg Carbon
mg
g/1 /1
mg /1
mg 1/
mg /1
mg /1
mg .
Raw - -- ,400
12 1,760 ,400
20 ,800
23 ,200
16
Serum
Tre
a ated
,900
10 8,420 3,990 -- - -
7,780 680 -- - -
Serum
4 7,080 407 ,98 40 ,68 30 3,560 2.73 0.49
8 5,860 274 7,720 7,770 2,680 1.36 0.40
3,150 209 4,110 7,160 2,040 0.55 0.34
2,300 149 2,980 ,66 70 ,51 30 .20 7 0.20
80 1,090 71 1,410 6,570 1,150 0.14 0.12
229
160 804 52 1,040 7,130 1,080 0.07 0. 6
/1=mg hitosin
;C4.6T6ap00
H0°c
cOCCOD
T).N(COD arbonaceous
+45=b 7otal
rg
oncentration
1Carbon
omg CODg
ading
/(Xm,9=)c. 000
loading
REMOVAL
CARBON
ADSORPTION
4.COD
TABLE
removed
Carbon
COD
mg
/mg
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Residual COD (mg/1 x 1000)
All COD is Total COD
Figure 8 . Adsorption Capacity vs . Residual COD.
would pass through a granulated carbon adsorption unit prior to disposal .

Sorbed proteins would be wasted .
Once the optimum loading rate has been determined , powdered activated
carbon may be added to the treated serum supernatant . When slaughtering
has ceased the slurry could be returned to the centrifuge at the head of the
blood recovery operation . The centrate would be discharged to the sewerage
system . Depending on the market for recovered proteins and the ash content
of the activated carbon solids , the solids removed during centrifugation
would either be mixed with the blood cell and recovered protein solids or
wasted .
Estimated Costs for Recovery of Soluble Serum Proteins
A recovery system for which costs are estimated chemically treats the serum
waste stream from a blood centrifuge. Following pH and thermal denaturation
and protein coagulation , the settled solids are evaporated and marketed
and the supernatant is wasted .
Chemical addition can be either continuous feed or batch feed . Concentrated

acid should not be added directly to the serum due to localized severe
230
protein structural deformation and also because of the hazards associated
with working with strong acids . Thus both pH and polymer mixing tanks and
feed systems will be required . Some heat exchange unit (steam jacket around
the tank ) will be necessary to maintain elevated temperatures sufficient
to induce thermal denaturation . The tank can be covered to minimize the
release of odors and loss of heat .
Cost estimates assume a large slaughterhouse kills 5 , 000 hogs per day and
each hog loses one gallon ( 3 . 7 liters) of whole blood (8 ) . Following
centrifugation of coagulated blood cells , the serum is sent to a 1 , 000 cubic
foot (29 cubic meter) holding tank . Temperature is maintained between 60°c
and 70°c. After slaughtering is complete, the serum temperature is raised
to 70°c, pH adjusted to 4 . 2 , and chitosin added to enhance coagulation .
After a reaction and settling time of four hours ( as determined by particle
settling velocity ) settled proteins are withdrawn for evaporation and the
supernatant is wasted . The tank and lines are cleaned , wash waters being
sent to the sewer .
Because of corrosive acidic conditions , the entire system is made of

stainless steel . Both pH and chitosin solutions are made once a week . The
small daily requirements make this possible. Chemical treatment is done on
a batch basis at the end of the work day . The operator reads the level of
serum in the settling tank and manually adjust the polymer feed for the
desired dosage . ph is monitored and is either manually or automatically
adjusted . Valves are located in several lines to direct waste and product
stream flows .
A cost estimate for the capital investment suggests this design to cost
approximately $ 17 , 000 . Operation costs ( excluding labor ) for the heat
exchange unit , evaporation unit , and chemical precipitation have been
generated for cost comparison purposes . Conventional evaporation costs
were computed on a daily loading rate of 5 , 000 gallons ( 18, 700 liters) of
serum . Capital investment was amortized over ten years (at 10 percent) and
daily costs established on the basis of 250 work days per year .
Table 5 shows operational costs and benefits associated with the protein
recovery system . Total operating expenses ( excluding labor and carbon
adsorption ) are about $ 41 per day . Recoverd proteins have a value of
$ 34 per day . When cost savings associated with present evaporation systems
( $ 140 /day ) are added to the value of the protein by -product , a net savings
in treatment costs results with the protein recovery system . These savings
could be used to polish the chemically treated serum supernatant in an
activated carbon unit . This would reduce the organic load to the sewer
system .
Simplicity of design affords the use of this system in all industries that
require treatment of blood wastes . Energy needed to evaporate blood water
is the greatest cost associated with present blood recovery operations . By
precipitating dissolved proteins and reducing blood waste volume by 90
percent , costs of evaporation are greatly reduced . That savings , plus the
marketing of a protein by - product , can most probably cover the costs of the
recovery system for both a small and large slaughtering operation .
231
TABLE 5 . PROTEIN RECOVERY OPERATION COSTS AND SAVINGS
( 5 , 000 gpd Raw Serum )
Chemical Supplies
Chitosin ( 0 . 8 lbs / day @ $ 5 / 1b ) = $ 4 .00
Acid (6 .5l conc . h , so, @ 90c / l ) 5 . 80
Steam
Heat Exchanger ( 3 , 200 lbs / day @ $ 3 . 50 / 1000 lbs) 11 . 20

Evaporation ( 3 , 400 lbs /day ) 11 . 90
rd
Capital Recovery (10 years, 10 percent)
$ 16 , 670 x 0 . 06275 = $ 1 , 050 /yr
$ 1 , 050 / 250 work days 4 . 20
Neutralization and Treatment of Supernatant ( $ 1 / 1000 gals ) = _ 4 .50

Total Daily Cost = $ 41 .60
Salable Protein Feedstuffs
340 lbs /day @ 10c / lb = $ 34 .00
Steam Savings from present Evaporation Facilities

(39,050 lbs/ day @ $ 3.50/ 1000 lbs) = 136 . 70
Total Daily Savings = $ 170 . 70
Total Savings - Total Costs = $ 130 . 00 per day
CONCLUSIONS
Laboratory investigations reveal that dissolved serum proteins may be

recovered economically by ph and temperature denaturation . The organic
polymer chitosin is an effective coagulant aid . Laboratory investigations
suggest :
1. Dissolved serum proteins can be removed most effectively when the pH
of the solution is at or below the isoelectric point of the solution .
2. Protein recovery is enhanced by thermal denaturation . A minimum
operating temperature of 60°C should be maintained for maximum
recovery .
In the pH range of 3 . 4 to 5 . 4 and in the presence of the polymer
chitosin , protein removal efficiency is nearly independent of
temperatures above 60°c .
232
4 Both organic nitrogen and volatile solids tests suggest protein
removal to be approximately 60 percent efficient. Both analytical
procedures yield similar efficiencies for given variable levels .
5 . Protein removal efficiency as measured by organic nitrogen can be
predicted with a six parameter model . Removal efficiency is more
dependent upon pH and polymer dose than on temperature .
6 . Denatured protein aggregates are sufficiently large to settle out of
suspension be gravity . The volume of settled solids is about 10
percent of the volume of the original waste stream .
Settled protein solids approximate 7 percent solids by weight. Over
90 percent volatile , the solids can be withdrawn , dried , and
marketed as a protein -rich feed Supplement.
8 . The supernatant from chemical treatment of the serum waste stream can
be polished further by using activated carbon to adsorb dissolved
organics . COD reductions of 90 percent can be accomplished when the
serum waste stream is treated to recovery dissolved proteins and then
treated with activated carbon .
9. Dissolved salts in the serum waste stream are not significantly
reduced by either chemical protein coagulation or activated carbon .
The high dissolved salt concentrations may tend to limit protein
recovery because of protein solubility in saline solutions .
Because daily operating costs are low , protein recovery from blood
wastes should be an attractive alternative to present blood recovery
techniques . The estimated net worth of the dried protein product
plus cost savings from present treatment systems should be more than
sufficient to amortize the required capital investment and also cover
preliminary cost estimates .
12 . Chemical treatment for the recovery of serum proteins appears even
more attractive in light of the fact that rising energy costs are
making evaporation operations prohibitively expensive .
REFERENCES
1. Jones , H . R . Pollution Control in Meat , Poultry , and Seafood Processing .

Noyes Data Corporation , Park Ridge , New Jersey ( 1974) .
2 . Steffen , A . J. "Waste Disposal in the Meat Industry : A Comprehensive
Review " . Proc . of the Meat Industry Research Conference, American Meat
Institute Foundation , Chicago , Illinois, pp 115 - 144 (March , 1969) .
3. Stiemke , R . E . "Disposal of Wastes from Small Abattoirs " . Proc . of the
4th Industrial Waste Conference , Purdue University , West Lafeyette ,
Indiana, pp 178 – 202 ( 1948 ) .
233
4. Anonymous. " Blood System Solves Processing Problem " . Reprint from
Meat Processing, April ( 1971) .
5 . Bough , W . , Landes , D . , Miller, J . , Young , C . , and McWhorter , T .

" Utilization of Chitosin for Recovery of Coagulated By - Products from
Food Processing Wastes and Treatment Systems" . Reprint from the
Department of Food Sciences , Univ . of Georgia College of Agriculture
Experiment Station , Experiment, Georgia ( 1975 ) .
6 . Watson , D . " Factors for Calculating Serum Albumin and Total Protein
from the Nitrogen Conten " . Clinica Chimica ACTA , 16 : 322 - 333 (1967) .
7 . Bough , W . Personal Communication (1975 , 1977)
Ullmann , J .E ., editor . Waste Disposal Problems in Selected Industries .
Hofstra University Yearbook of Business , Series 6 , Vol . 1 . hofstra
University ( 1969) .
234
IMPROVED BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT OF FOOD
PROCESSING WASTES WITH TWO - STAGE ABF PROCESS
by
B . W . Hemphill* and R . G . Dunnahoe*
INTRODUCTION
Biological treatment of food processing and combined food processing/municipal

was tes has historically presented unique problems because of : 1) highly
erratic flows and wastewater strengths ; 2 ) high soluble organic concentrations ;
and 3 ) tendencies to contribute to operational problems such as bulking of
activated sludge due to the presence of high levels of carbohydrate materials
( 1) . Traditional fixed - film treatment systems such as trickling filters have
often been used on these wastes because of their relative stability under
changing loads and low operating costs ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . However, they are limited
because of high land area requirements , high capital costs , and inferior
effluent qualities . Suspended growth systems ( activated sludge ) have been
used because of their lower first cost , higher effluent quality , and lower
land requirements . The success of these systems has been hindered by their
operational complexity , their sensitivity to shock loadings and tendency to
be unstable under conditions such as those typically imposed by food pro
cessing plants .
The activated bio - filtration (ABF) process has been developed to make use of
the advantages of both the fixed- film and suspended growth treatment systems
while minimizing the disadvantages . A superior process stability is realized
over a wide range of wastewater characteristics and treatment problems . This
paper will summarize the development of the ABF process in treatment of food
processing waste and will present operating data from both pilot scale
studies and full - scale plants .
ABF PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Figure 1 shows the flow schematic for the ABF process . After primary
treatment , the wastewater is combined with return sludge from the secondary
clarifier and Bio - Cell recycle to form a mixed liquor which is then pumped
to the Bio - Cell. The Bio- Cell reactor contains horizontal bio -media , to
which fixed - film organisms attach . The suspended growth organisms combine
with the fixed - film to oxidize the biodegradable organics . The Bio - Cell
underflow is split , with a portion being returned as Bio - Cell recycle and the
remainder proceeding to a short - term aeration basin . The aeration basin acts
as a complete mix activated sludge basin , which further oxidizes organic
materials and provides a flocculent mixed liquor prior to final sedimentation .
Settled biological solids are recycled to the Bio - Cell lift station with a
portion going to waste . For roughing applications, the aeration basin is
often deleted from the flow scheme .
*Neptune Microfloc, Incorporated, Corvallis, Oregon
235
Schematic
Flow
Process
ABF
-Film
Fixed
3t
-Cell
Bio
V
EIDUALI
IN
RUM
ingning in
OTOMUUD
Aeration
PROCESS
236
PROCESS EFFLUENT
INFLUENT CONTROL
FLOW
&SPLITTING
di
17 CLARIFIER
-CELL
BIO
STATION
LIFT
Waste
Sludge
Return Sludge
1.
Figure
The horizontal ABF bio - media consists of individual racks made of wooden lath
fixed to supporting rails , as shown in Figure 2 . The horizontal configur
ation of the media provides turbulent conditions , which are necessary to main
tain a high dissolved oxygen environment and particle-microorganism contact .
Oxygen transfer is provided by the dual action of wastewater continually
moving in a film across the biota , and splashing between layers . The open
design permits free flow of air in all directions , and prevents ponding or
bridging.
Sludge Recycle
One of the keys to the operation of the ABF process lies in the application
of biological solids to the fixed - film Bio - Cell. Numerous studies have
verified the advantages of this. These include studies at Corvallis , Oregon
(4 ) , Turlock , California (5 ) (6 ) , and Tracy , California ( 7) .
At Corvallis , direct comparisons were made between identical fixed - film Bio
Cells , with one unit utilizing sludge recycle (ABF ) , run next to a unit
operated as a conventional high - rate trickling filter (HRTF ) . Horizontal
media were used in both systems . The wastewater consisted of domestic and
combined beet processing / domestic waste . Comparative data for the two
systems are shown in Figure 3 . The soluble removal efficiency for the ABF
tower was approximately twice as great as for the HRTF tower . Similar
measurements were taken when the Bio - Cells were followed by high rate acti
vated sludge systems . Further evidence of the increased Bio - Cel1 removal in
the ABF mode was found in the measurement of the aeration basin oxygen uptake
rate ( OUR ) for the two systems . The OUR of the ABF system was approximately
50 % less than that of the parallel HRTF -activated sludge system .
Similar tests were made at Tracy , California (7) , where side -by -side studies
were run of ABF- activated sludge and HRTF - activated sludge systems . Measure
ments taken during the study indicated a significantly greater soluble COD
reduction across the Bio - Cell with the application of return sludge .
An additional process benefit that has been associated with recycling of
sludge to the fixed -film unit is that of increased process stability . This
was demonstrated in the Tracy , California (7) , and Turlock , California (5 ) (6 ) ,
pilot studies . Both studies were run on combined food processing and domestic
wastes . Both included side- by - side comparisons of the ABF process with hori
zontal media and the HRTF - activated sludge process with vertical media . At
Turlock , mechanical problems early in the study caused a period of dissolved
oxygen deficiency in both systems , resulting in development of filamentous
organisms . After the problem was corrected , the ABF system recovered readily ,
reaching full treatment efficiency in 7 to 10 days . However , the HRTF
activated sludge mixed liquor settleability did not improve as did the ABF
mixed liquor . Throughout the study , the HRTF system continued to have
problems with solids settleability and carryover of solids into the final
effluent. The HRTF - activated sludge system did not meet the discharge
requirements of 30 mg / 1 BOD and TSS during the test periods with yam canning
contributions, while the ABF system averaged 16 mg / 1 BOD and 11 mg / 1 TSS .
Similar results for both systems were observed at Tracy .
237
Figure 2 . Horizontal media .
238
Comparison of
Soluble Organic Removal
ABF (Without Aeration ) &
HRTF Processes
REMOVAL
SOLUBLE
Percent
BOD
HRTF
50 100 150 200 250

BIO - CELL SOLUBLE BOD LOAD
(lbs. BOD /1000 ft / Day )
Figure 3 .
239
Further details of the studies of combined food processing / domestic waste
water at Tracy and Turlock are given later in this paper .
EXPERIENCE WITH ABF ON FOOD PROCESSING WASTES
Pilot Plant Studies
Numerous pilot plant studies have been conducted to demonstrate the effective
ness of the ABF process on various types of food processing wastewaters .
Some of the results of these studies are shown in Table 1 and are discussed
in further detail below .
Corvallis , Oregon ( 1974 ) ; Beets / Corn /Domestic ( 4 ) : The was tewater composi
tion tested during the study was 46% corn , 26 % beets , and 28 % domestic , based
on BOD5 . As shown in Table 1 , the system loadings were extremely high in
this study , with the Bio - Cell load over 240 lb /BOD5 / day / 1000 cu . ft . , and
aeration detention time less than 45 minutes . Despite the high loadings of
highly soluble carbohydrate wastes , the ABF system maintained excellent set
tling characteristics , with the SVI below 60 for all three runs . Sludge
production ranged from 0 . 5 to 0 . 6 lb VSS / 1b BOD5 removed .
Tracy , California ( 1972) ; Domestic / Tomato /Potato ( 7) : During the canning

portion of the study , the primary industrial contributor was from tomato
processing and the BOD of the waste was 92% soluble . ABF was compared with
HRTF - activated sludge and pure oxygen activated sludge systems . ABF with
horizontal media was selected as the most efficient system studied , and con
sistently provided an effluent with less than 20 mg / 1 BOD , sludge settling
velocities greater than 6 . 0 feet per hour , and SVI less that 75 ml/ gm .
Turlock , California ( 1975) ; ( 5 ) (6 ) : This 1975 study included domestic wastes

combined with poultry processing , tomato cannery , apricot , peach , and yam
processing wastes . The results in Table 1 are broken down into five phases
representing different mixes of these wastewaters . In this study , as in
Tracy , ABF was compared with pure oxygen activated sludge and HRTF- activated
sludge . ABF produced the highest quality effluent , and based on an economic
analysis , has been selected for the full- scale plant.
Corvallis , Oregon ( 1975 ) ; Beets / Corn /Domestic ( 8 ) : During the study of a
prototype 50 , 000 gpd ABF package plant at Corvallis , seven weeks of data were
collected, during which a significant portion of the waste was contributed by
a local canner processing corn and beets . The was tewater characteristics
were similar to those studied in Corvallis in 1974 . The aeration basin
detention time was about 2 hours . The Bio- Media depth was varied from 6 feet
to 9 feet and the Bio - Cell organic loadings ranged from less than 50 to over
400 lb BOD5 / day / 1000 cu . ft . Excellent effluent quality and stable mixed
liquor characteristics were observed throughout the range of loadings tested .
Full Scale Plants
Table 2 contains a partial listing of full scale plants utilizing ABF for
treatment of combined food processing/ municipal or straight food processing
wastes . Summaries of operating data from the Idaho Falls , Forest Grove ,
Madera and Hood River plants are summarized in Table 3 .
240
TABLE I
OPERATING CONDITIONS AND RESULTS
PILOT PLANT STUDIES
Iniluent
Bio - CellDepth Aeracion Bas in
Effluent
BOD SBOD TSS BOD SBOD TSS cu ft /day ft
# BOD / 1 , 000
MLSS MLVSS ISR * SVI
Time
Hrs .
System 02
# BODS
F/M
Corvallis, Oregon (1974 )
Beets (26 % ) , Corn (46 %) , 349 278 161 49 31 44 300 4 , 110 3 , 210 6 . 2 45 0 . 55 4 . 74 0 . 19
Domestic (28 % ) 415 302 194 281 3 , 500 2 ,860 5 . 5 56 0 . 73 4 . 75 0 . 15
344 271 143 48 25 242 3 ,110 2 ,520 8 . 3 50 0 .67 9 .91 0 . 19
Tracy, California
Tomato / Pota co /Domestic 437 400 163 16 4 23 192. 14 3,650 2 ,290 7. 8 61 6 . 20 0 .77 0 .63
Turlock , California
Domestic / Poultry 180 72 98 25 72 1 ,430 - - 2. 80 1 . 07
Domestic / Poultry / Apricot 311 177 154 23
‫يا‬
‫منا‬
116 2 , 530 5 . 9 73 6 . 20 0 . 80 1 . 10
Domestic / Poultry / Tomatol
Peach
314 193 193 11 219 3, 120 5 . 3 69 3 .40 0 . 75 0 . 70
Domestic /Poultry / Tomato 180 69 211 7 122 2 , 790 3. 2 74 3. 40 0 .47 1 . 10
Domestic/ Poultry / Yam 295 121 260 15
‫نسیاا‬
157 2,580 2. 7 105 4 . 20 0 .61 0 .70

Corvallis , Oregon ( 1975)
Beets/Domestic 170 119 158 14 6 118 O
3, 220 2, 160 1.2 51 2 .00 1 .01 0 .50
Corn /Beets/Domestic 337 241 153 14 5 302 3,860 2, 970 2.8 57 1. 90 1.48 0 . 30
* ISR - Initial settling rate, ft/hr.
TABLE 2
PARTIAL LIST OF ABF PROCESS INSTALLATIONS
FOR FOOD PROCESSING WASTE
Industrial
Name / Location Process* Design Flow Waste Descripcion Contribution Startup
Madera, California ABF (W /O Aer . ) 7.0 MGD Olive/Domestic 25 % Mar 1973

Aberdeen , Idaho ABF 0 .6 MGD Potato /Domestic 85% Oct 1973
Idaho Falls , Idaho ABF 17 MGD Potato / Domestic 80 % Jan 1974
Ore- Ida Foods
Ontario , Oregon
ABF 3.5 MGD Potato 100% Apr 1973
Crece , Nebraska ABF (w /o Aer .) 1.0 MGD Corn /Domestic 80 % Jan 1975
Hood River , Oregon ABF 3.5 MGD Fruit/Domestic 85% Apr 1975
Forest Grove, Oregon ABF 5.0 MGD Fruit /Vegetable/
Domestic
90 % May 1975
Twin Falls , Idaho ABF 8 MGD Potato /Domestic 80% May 1976
Tracy , California ABF 10 . 2 MGD Tomato /Potato /Domestic 85 % Feb 1977
Oscar Mayer & Company ABF 1.2 MGD Meat Packing 100 %
Perry , Iowa
Consolidated Badger
Marshfield , Wisconsin
ABF (w /o Aer. ) 0 .15 MGD Dairy 100 % Jun 1977
* ABF : Bio - Cell followed by aeration

ABF (w / o Aer . ) : Bio -Cell with Sludge recycle ; no aeration .
241
3
TABLE
INSTALLATIONS
ABF
RESULTS
AND
CONDITIONS
OPERATING
PLANT
-Cell
Bio
Load
.
No e Effluent
Influent Day
BOD
/lb
|Months MGD TSS
TSS
BOD 1,000
CuFt
,ID
Falls
Idaho 34 8.5 255 207 128 50
,OR
Grove
Forest 15 .2 440 120 12
15
3
,OR
River
*Hood 19 1.3 470 300 18 20 67
242
Aeration
Without
ABF
,CA
*Madera 21 2.3 246 135 35 14 51
in*Tdays
inoperable
was
system
disposal
sludge
when
omitted
data
of hree
1975
-l;fNovember
off
basin
aeration
when
omitted
,days
September
in
our
ine
.
1976
(9m*Includes
only
season
processing
olive
during
)./ydata
ear
onths
PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
The factors influencing ABF system performance are numerous . As a result ,
classical fixed - film and suspended growth analyses are not easily applied to
system design . Fortunately , empirical approaches have been used with success .
A convenient analytical tool which will be used herein quantifies the system
organic loading in terms of System F / M ( 9) . This is defined as :
System we
F / M = lb Influent BOD / day to Bio- Cell
lb MLVSS in Aeration Basin
This equation does not include the mass of biological solids contained in the
Bio - Cell or clarifier . Because of this , the numerical value of the System F / M
will be several times greater than those normally used in activated sludge
process design .
The following sections deal with effect of loading on process performance .
Effluent Quality
In Figure 4 the effects of System F /M on ABF effluent quality for a variety of

wastewaters are shown graphically . No marked deterioration of final effluent
quality can be seen over the wide range of loadings represented . More bio
logically resistant organic materials may affect effluent quality .
Mixed Liquor Settleability
As discussed previously , the design of conventional activated sludge systems

are often limited by the settleability of the mixed liquor . This is
especially true for food processing wastes in which high soluble organic
content was tes contribute to sludge bulking ( 1 ) . In Figure 5 , the relation
ship of system loading in terms of System F /M is shown as it affects the
settling characteristics of the mixed liquor in the ABF process . The values
of the initial settling rate and sludge volume index remain excellent even at
System F /M ' s greater than 4 . 0 . Sludge settleability , therefore , does not
limit the allowable System F / M for the ABF process .
Aeration Basin Oxygen Requirements
Oxygen requirements for the ABF aeration basin can be identified as follows:
Aeration Basin Oxygen Demand _= lb . 02 to Aeration Basin
1b . BOD Removed in System
As in the System F /M definition , the influence of the Bio - Cell is not consid
ered in this equation . The denominator is computed as the total BOD to the
Bio - Cell minus . the clarifier effluent soluble BOD . For ease of analysis ,
oxygen demand data are tabulated and presented as shown in Figure 6 , in which
System F /M is plotted versus aeration basin oxy gen demand . It can be seen
that the oxygen demand decreases as the System F / M increases . The data
indicate that aeration power requirements are minimized by selection of the
System F / M at a value above 0 . 8 . Nitrification is observed to occur at
243
Effect of System F/ M
ognjos
4091/@w- on ABF Effluent
2 .0 3.0
SYSTEM F/ M
lbs. BOD / Ibs. MLVSS
Effluent
BOD
bu1/
Suspended
1.0 2.0 3 .0
Effluent
SYSTEM
Ibs. BOD / lbs.MLVSS
bw/1
jos
Sp!-
2 .0 3 .0
SYSTEM F/M
Ibs. BOD / lbs.MLVSS
Figure 4 .
244
Effect of System F/ M on
Settleability of ABF Mixed Liquor
Settling
Initial
Rate
/hr
.ft
1.0 2.0 3.0

SYSTEM F/M
Ibs.BOD / lbs.MLVSS
Volume
Sludge
150
Index
30
2 .0 3.0 4 .0
SYSTEM F/ M
lbs. BOD / Ibs. MLVSS
Figure 5 .
245
Aeration
Basin
Oxygen
Demand
VS
M/F tem
Sys
.–N,O•Corvallis
re
ITRIFICATION
.-C,OCorvallis
re
ARBONACEOUS
.-C,OBre
end
ARBONACEOUS
.-N,OIBre
ITRIFICATION
end
inn
.-N,MARochester
ITRIFICATION
Turlock
,C
MOD a
.–/Yun
ams
,2 urlock
MTProc
.F-C un
a
ood
,C
T3 racy
–M
Proc
./F a
un
ood
4PWaste
otato
Proc re
un
ood
MOC.F,–5 orvallis
246
Ib . Oz/ Ib . BODR
AERATION BASIN OXYGEN DEMAND
0.5 1.0 12.05 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
SYSTEM
F/M
/IBbsOD
M
.lbs
LVSS
6.
Figure
System F /M less than 0 .6 , hence the increased oxygen demand and greater degree
of data scatter .
Bio - Cell Loading and Media Depth
The ABF aeration basin oxygen requirements , effluent quality , and mixed liquor
characteristics have not been found to be appreciably affected by the Bio - Cell
organic loading . The relationships observed in Figures 4 , 5 , and 6 hold true
for loadings ranging from 50 to 300 lb BOD / day / 1 ,000 cu . ft . Normal design
values range from 100 to 350 lb / day / 1, 000 cu . ft , with a value of 200 at
average day loading being most commonly used . Media depth can range from 7
feet to 22 feet , again with no deleterious effect on performance .
Typical ABF System Design Criteria
Table 4 shows typical design criteria for the ABF process which may be applied
to most domestic/ food processing waste , treatment situations . It should be
noted that design criteria are specific to the type of wastewater and that
some difficult - to - treat was tes may call for more conservative design in order
to meet stringent effluent standards .
Power Requirements For ABF Process
The ABF process can offer significant power savings compared to conventional
processes . The reason for this is the high organic removal that occurs in
the Bio - Cell in relation to the power input required for pumping.
Table 5 shows a typical comparison between ABF and activated sludge for a
food processing waste . All as sumptions are indicated and reflect typical
design values . For this example , the ABF system required about only half of
the power input required for the activated sludge process . The magnitude of
the power savings is dependent upon the particular conditions but generally
falls in the range of 25 to 55 percent.
Operational Flexibility
Quite often , consideration must be given to treatment of wastes not only

during design conditions but also for time periods during which reduced
organic loadings are expected . Because the ABF process consists of two
stages , a great deal of operational flexibility is available without the need
for construction of multiple Bio- Cells , aeration tanks , etc .
A good example of the operational flexibility which can be designed into the
plant by simple piping installations is shown in Figure 7 , which shows the
alternatives available at the Forest Grove , Oregon , Wastewater Treatment
Plant. For low organic loadings , the system can be operated as either a
standard high -rate trickling filter or a conventional activated sludge system .
For moderate loadings, the conversion can be made to ABF without aeration or
high - rate trickling filter with activated sludge . At high loadings , a stan
dard ABF with aeration system is utilized . Thus , operation costs and opera
tional complexity can be matched to the incoming loading .
247
TABLE 4 .
Typical ABF Design Criteria
Effluent Criteria Units Typical Value Range
BOD5 mg / 1 10 - 30
Suspended Solids mg / 1 10 - 30
NH3N (Nitrification Design Only ) mg / 1 1. 0 0 . 5 - 2. 5
Bio-Cell Parameters
Organic Load lb BOD /Day / 200 100 - 350
1 , 000 cu . ft .
Media Depth Feet 14 7- 22
Hydraulic Parameters
Sludge Recycle (1) 0 . 50 0 . 3 - 1. 00

Bio - Cell Hydraulic Load gpm / sq . ft . 3. 5 1 .0 -5 .5
Bio - Cell Recycle - as required to maintain media wetting rates .
Aeration Parameters
System F /M (2 )
Carbonaceous Design 1b . BOD / day / 1b . vsS 1.4 0 . 8 - 3. 5
Nitrification 0.3 0 . 2 - 0 .6
Oxygen Utilization
Carbonaceous Design 1b 02/ 16 BOD rem . 0 . 37 0 .2- 0.8
Nitrification ( 3 ) 0 . 65
MLVSS Concentration mg / 1 3 ,000 1500 - 4000
MLSS Concentration mg / 1 4 , 000 2000 - 5000
Oxygen Uptake Rate mg02/ 1- hr 65 50 - 100
Clarifier Parameters
Overflow Rate gpd / sq . ft . 600 300 - 1200
Solids Loading lbs /hr /sq . ft . 1 . 25 0 . 5 - 2.0
Sludge Production
Carbonaceous Design lb VS / 1b BOD rem . 0 .65 0 . 5 - 0 . 75

Nitrification lb Vs / 1b BOD rem . 0 . 45 0 . 3 - 0 . 55
( 1) Based on average flow

(2) Based on primary effluent BOD5 (process influent) loading to
MLVSS in aeration basin
( 3) Total 0 required = Carbonaceous + 4 . 6 lbs . 02 / 1b NH3- N removed
248
TABLE 5 ,
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF POWER
REQUIREMENTS FOR ABF AND ACTIVATED SLUDGE
TREATMENT CONDITIONS AND REQUIREMENTS

Flow = 2 . 0 MGD Effluent Required : 30 mg / 1 BOD
BOD = 500 mg/ 1 ( 8 , 340 lb /day ) 30 mg / l TSS
ABF * Activated Sludge* *
Bio -Cell Pumping Requirement , 2 , 980

gpm ( TDH = 22 feet )
Bio - Cell Horsepower
Aeration Oxygen Supply , lb /hr 125 348
Aeration Horsepower 174
Total System Horsepower 174
* Assumed : Bio - Cell loading = 200 lb BOD5 / 1 , 000 cu ft /day

Media depth = 14 ft ; pump efficiency = 75 %
Flow sufficient to provide 1 . 0 gpm / sq ft wetting rate
System F /M = 1 . 5 ; 02 required = 0 . 37 lb / 1b BOD5 removed
* *Assumed : 1 . 0 lb 02 / 16 BOD5 required
Aerator field transfer efficiency of 2 .0 lb 02 /hp -hr
249
SECONDARY
CLARIFIER
PRIMARY SECONDARY
EFFLUENT BIOLOGICAL EFFLUENT
FILTER
FILTER - WASTE
RECYCLE SLUOGE
HIGH RATE TRICKLING FILTER

SECONDARY
CLARIFIER
PRIMARY SECONDARY
EFFLUENT AERATION EFFLUENT
BASIN
RETURN WASTE
ACTIVATED ACTIVATED
SLUDGE SLUOGE
ACTIVATED SLUDGE
- SECONDARY
CLARIFIER
PRIMARY SECONDARY
EFFLUENT BIOLOGICAL EFFLUENT
FILTER
FILTER RETURN WASTE
RECYCIE ACTIVATED ACTIVATED
SLUDGE SLUDGE
ACTIVATED BIOFILTER
SECONDARY
CLARIFIER
PRIMARY SECONDARY
EFFLUENT BIOLOGICAL AERATION EFFLUENT
FILTER BASIN
RETURN WASTE
FILTER ACTIVATED ACTIVATED
RECYCLE SLUDGE SLUDGE
16
( 4 ) HIGH RATE TRICKLING FILTER -ACTIVATED SLUDGE
- SECONDARY
CLARIFIER
PRIMARY SECONDARY
arologica
EFFLUENT
AEGATION
BIOLOGICAL
FILTER
AERATION
BASIN
EFFLUENT
FILTER RETURN WASTE

RECYCLE | L ACTIVATED
SLUDGE
ACTIVATED
SLUDGE
ACTIVATED BIOFILTER - ACTIVATED SLUDGE
FIGURE 7
FOREST GROVE WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS
SECONDARY TREATMENT ALTERNATIVES
250
SUMMARY
The ABF process offers a viable alternative for secondary treatment of food
processing wastes . The system offers a high level of process stability , an
important criterion in treatment of such was tes. Operational flexibility is
inherent in the two - stage process .
System design criteria can be expressed in terms of Bio - Cell organic loadings
and aeration basin loadings expressed as System F / M .
Significant power savings are achievable , due to the energy - efficient fixed
film Bio -Cell . Overall cost - effectiveness has been verified by others ( 10 ) .
257
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Pipes , W . 0 . , " Bulking of Activated Sludge . " Advances in Applied

Microbiology , 9 ( 1967) , 185 . .
2 . Was te Reduction in Food Canning Operations. Water Pollution Control
Research Series No . 12060 . FWQA, 1970 .
Trickling Filter Treatment of Fruit Processing Wastewaters . Water

Pollution Control Research Series No. 12060 EAE , U . S . E . P . A . , 1971.
4. Owen , W . F . , and Slechta, A . F . , Soluble Organic Removal with the
ABF Process , presented at the Third Annual Industrial Water and
Pollution Conference and Exposition by WWEMA, Chicago , Illinois
(April , 1975 ) .
5 . 1975 Wastewater Treatment Pilot Study for the City of Turlock ,
California , CH2M /Hill , ( June, 1976 ) .
6 . Mattli , G . P . , Turlock , California , 1975 , Pilot Plant Study of the
ABF System , Final Report for the City of Turlock , California ( 1975) .
7 . Williams , C . R . , et al , Results of Pilot Studies on Biological
Treatment of Combined Food Processing/ Domestic Wastewater at Tracy ,
California , presented at the Annual Industrial Water and Pollution
Conference and Exposition by WWEMA, Chicago , Illinois (March , 1973) .
8. Booty , W . F . , and Slechta , A . F . , Performance Evaluation 50 , 000 god
ABF Package Plant , Technical Publication No. KT- 7272 , Neptune
Microfloc , Incorporated , Corvallis , Oregon (1976 ) .
9 . Slechta , A . F . , and Mattli , G . P . , Activated Bio -Filter Process for
Biological Wastewater Treatment , Wastewater Treatment and Reuse Seminar,
South Lake Tahoe , California (October , 1976 ) .
10 . Benjes, H . , Jr . , Evaluation of Biological Wastewater Treatment
Processes , Wastewater Treatment and Reuse Seminar , South Lake Tahoe ,
California , (October , 1976 ) .
252
SINGLE CELL PROTEIN FROM FOOD WASTES BY THE DEEP TANK PROCESS
by
M . L . Jackson * and C . C . Shen * *
ABSTRACT
Recent papers describe the development of deep tank aeration - flotation for
fermentation processing including the activated sludge process for waste
water treatment. Extension of the concepts, which include design factors for
scale -up from laboratory -size equipment , to the production of single cell
protein (SCP) is straightforward . The procedures are reviewed briefly and
provide a design basis for oxygen supply and solids separation for the pro
duction of biomass .
The economics of SCP production presently are marginal when the carbon source
is provided by petroleum derivatives . In contrast , the use of a suitable
waste stream for the substrate is shown to offer a potentially profitable
operation for the production of a protein material and simultaneously solve
both liquid and solid waste disposal problems . An economic estimate of the
conversion of 1 . 25 million gal / day of a potato waste on a continuous basis ,
and sale of SCP for animal feed indicates that the profit margin should be
favorable , with income about double the annual cost of production . The
largest unknown in the operation is that of the method and cost of drying , if
indeed a dried product is desired .
Following the suggestion of another investigator , the economics of producing

SCP by batch processing , possibly to avoid the need for sterilization of the
incoming waste, were evaluated for the deep tank . Costs for tankage were
increased two to three times over that for continuous flow , depending on
processing variations , with capital costs increased 30 to 40 % . However ,
operating costs remained unchanged with annual costs increased somewhat .
This confirms a report for a similar process , in one case employing a potato
waste, where potential profit was shown to be substantial .
SCP AND THE DEEP TANK PROCESS

The production of single cell protein (bacteria , yeast , fungi, termed SCP ) is
currently of much interest as it is expected to ultimately fulfill a major
food need for mankind ( 1 ) , either directly for human consumption or as an
animal feed . Carbon sources for cell growth have been proposed from petro
leum derivatives such as methane , alcohol, methanol and other compounds. The
*Professor and * * Ph .D . candidate , Department of Chemical Engineering ,

University of Idaho , Moscow , Idaho 83843.
253
cost of these materials is such that the protein produced by microbial growth
does not yet appear to be competitive although a large plant for the utiliza
tion of methanol is under construction . The use of a waste can provide a
cheap substrate particularly , as with potato wastes , where appreciable
amounts of phosphorus and nitrogen are also present for cell growth , thus
saving the cost of added nutrients . Simultaneously treating a waste stream
and solving a discharge problem by producing a product with a monetary value
is especially attractive , and producing at a profit is an evaluation to be
made .
The Environmental Protection Agency , acting on the Federal Water Pollution

Control Act Amendments of 1972 , imposed limitations for the discharge of
wastewaters . These regulations apply to industrial and municipal sources
alike and are particularly severe for situations where land availability is
limited for conventional treatment . Further , capital investment and energy
consumption are currently major considerations in new plant construction .
Federal requirements are for best practical technology currently available
(BPTCA ) by July 1977 , and best available technology economically achievable
(BATEA ) by 1983 . These requirements impose a need to develop processes which
are applicable to small land areas and are economical of capital and energy .
Past practice for the growth of organisms , aside from activated sludge and
similar waste treatment plants , have not been directed toward large tonnage
biomass production on a continuous basis . The problems are those of meeting
the large oxygen demand , controlling the temperature of the fermenting
medium , and separating , dewatering and drying the cell solids . Most fer
mentors currently in use employ mechanical agitation as part of the aeration
and mixing process in the fermentor , usually in the form of a draft tube .
Mechanical agitation appears to contribute to the heat generation problem ,
along with that from the oxidation process occurring in the fermenting
medium .
Recent development of the deep tank aeration - flotation process offers a

simple , less costly system which supplies oxygen at needed requirements,
effects rapid mixing , and when the liquid depth is sufficient , provides dis
solved gas for the flotation separation of solids (2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ) . It also appears
that some cooling can be effected by evaporation of water to the air input .
This would be particularly useful for situations which operate at higher
temperatures . The small liquid surface area of a deep tank facilitates
temperature control, especially in cold climates .
The aeration tank is as tall as is feasible for ground support and space
availability , preferably 50 feet or higher , with simple nozzle air inlets
(holes in pipes ) distributed uniformly over the bottom of the tank ( 3 ) . The
greater liquid depths do not add to air compression costs , but rather reduce
the air volume requirement markedly because of the greater amounts of oxygen
transferred during the longer rise times . A rough rule of thumb is that 1%
of the inlet oxygen in air will be transferred to clean water for each foot
of liquid depth as shown to be valid for depths to 70 feet in narrow columns
(6 , 7 ) . The depletion of the oxygen in the gas phase with increasing height
is compensated by a corresponding increased pressure at the lower tank levels.
254
Mixing of the contents of tanks at 6 - and 25 -foot diameters has been shown
to be rapid ( 2 , 3 ) .
The dissolved air flotation method separates cells from the liquid and takes
advantage of the inherent supersaturation of dissolved gases . Auxiliary
equipment for a pressurized air - liquid contacting system , as required in
conventional dissolved air flotation processes ( 8 ) , is expensive and unneces
sary . Reduced capital costs, compressor horsepower and pumping energy for
extending tank height , as shown later , are reduced for the deep tank process
which also has a much smaller land space requirement.
Problems associated with the recovery of SCP cells and the actual isolation
of protein from the cells have been discussed (9 ) . For cell separation , it
is indicated that bacterial cells are more difficult to settle , in comparison
to yeasts , and that centrifugal separation may not be suitable for a bacterial
organism . The possibility of utilizing air flotation , where large cell size
is not a necessary factor and may be less desirable , was not discussed . Dis
solved air flotation creates a buoyancy of the cells which results in a
separating force substantially greater than that for settling . In deep tank
aeration , the gases have time to diffuse to the innermost portions of the
cell flocs , and when the pressure is released , appear to effect an expansion
which increases buoyancy .
The aeration -mixing- flotation process was demonstrated for the treatment of
0 . 7 million gal / day of a pulp - paper mill waste stream by the growth of sus
pended bacteria ( 3) . Although the settling of bacteria by conventional
gravity settlers is normally considered to be a slow process , the separation
by flotation using the supersaturated dissolved nitrogen and carbon dioxide
gases was demonstrated to be a rapid process giving an underflow stream of
very low solids content . Flotation tank performance exceeded conventional
design criteria and is attributed to gases diffusing to the floc interiors
and expanding upon pressure release . Conventional air dissolving arrange
ments , where liquid - gas contact times are only a few minutes , do not permit
such diffusion to occur . Supersaturation is also absent . Further , the cells
were readily filtered on rotary belt equipment when admixed with settled
fiber and wood - ragments from a clarifier . The activated sludge contained
some fiber from the input waste stream and this also was filtered directly
on occasion without admixture to give a firm cake. This suggests that mixing
fibrous food processing wastes with cell solids would facilitate dewatering
and drying where these are available and have merit as an animal feed
supplement.
FERMENTATION PROCESSING
The kinetics of cell growth , types of organisms which can be employed to

produce protein , conventional design of fermentors , nutrients required , and
related topics are beyond the scope of the present discussion . Such topics
are treated in cogent form by Humphrey and others ( 10 , 11, 12 , 13) . Of interest
here are the economics of producing protein materials from food processing
wastes by relatively large continuous or batch processes . The deep tank
aeration - flotation design , though employing higher compression and pumping
255
pressures has been shown to be economical of both energy and capital for
waste treatment (4 ) . The costs of further processing and recovery of the
cell solids in dry form for an animal feed supplement are of additional
interest . In some cases , the cake produced may be sufficient as an animal
feed without the need for drying and storage . It is assumed that the solids
will have a protein content of about 50 % , that they are bacterial in nature
and therefore show the fastest growing rate, that the organism utilized
either is developed from contaminating organisms or is from innoculation ,
and that growth conditions are controlled such that the desired organism
predominates . This avoids the somewhat costly procedure of sterilization
of the incoming waste liquid and air . It has been suggested that batch
processing and proper control of pH and other conditions can be employed to
avoid the need for aseptic culture ( 14 ) .
The continuous process has not been employed extensively on a large scale and
requires that the rate of growth of cells equal the dilution resulting from
the incoming waste ; otherwise washout of cells occurs and growth declines.
Alternatively , the recycle of some cell solids to maintain high solids con
centrations and high utilization rates can be employed . However , bacterial
growths of mixed cultures have been carried out in the activated sludge
process for many years although studies of the types of organisms adapting
to particular waste and the related protein content have not been pursued
extensively . Filamentous organisms occur in some situations under some
conditions and lead to what is termed bulking or floating in settling equip
ment . With flotation separation this should not be a problem . A high pro
tein content has been reported for some such organisms in the aeration basin
treatment of potato wastes from a potato processing plant (personal communi
cation ) .
DESIGN OF A CONTINUOUS DEEP TANK FERMENTATION PROCESS

To provide an approximate evaluation of the growth of a cell protein on
potato waste solubles , calculations were made for a deep tank aeration
fermentation continuous process . The basis selected was a waste stream from
a potato processing plant , which has been reported in detail , and for which
an activated sludge lagoon system with mechanical surface aeration was con
structed and employed as a demonstration project ( 15 ) . Thus , a direct cost
comparison can be made with a deep tank design . Potato wastes contain
readily available carbon as the food source along with quantities of nitrogen
and phosphorus sufficient for cell growth .
Table 1 gives the general conditions assigned for the production of single
cell protein . The carbon : nitrogen :phosphorus ratios were reported to average
100 : 6 . 2 : 1 . 1 and such that no additional nutrients were needed because 80 - 90 %
BOD reductions were obtained .
The calculations employed a computer program which has evolved through
several stages and gives deep tank designs in considerable detail ( 4 , 16 ) , and
for a wide range of variables . It provides tank and related costs, as a
function of tank depth , and includes operating costs. The flotation ,
filtering and drying operations are constant factors and were added as a lump
256
sum which was considered to be on the conservative (high ) side of actual
costs .
TABLE 1 . CONDITIONS FOR CONTINUOUS SCP PRODUCTION
Waste flow 1 . 25 million gal/ day
1
BOD concentration 1350 mg/1
BOD loading 14 ,100 lb /day
Cell solids produced 0 . 5 lb / 1b BOD
Operation 9 months /year
Alpha ( reduced 0 , 0.8

transfer rate )
Dissolved oxygen residual 2 mg/ 1
BOD reduction 80 %
Motor - compressor efficiency 0 . 75
Motor-pump efficiency 62%

Tank material Carbon steel, rubber lined
pH Neutral or acidic
Previous calculations (4 , 16 ) indicate that tank and aeration costs do not

increase significantly after a minimum annual cost condition is attained at
about 40 -50 feet . Table 2 gives the initial capital costs for tank , pumps ,
compressor, and piping as determined for tank heights from 22 to 82 feet .
Certain operating costs , including the cost of electrical power for pumps
and compressor , are also shown and are seen to vary little with depth with
a minimum at 50 ft . The oxygen transfer efficiency increases with liquid
depth , and less air needs to be compressed even though the pressure
required is higher . Capital costs reach a minimum at 30 - 40 feet and then
increase with tank depth , because compressor and piping costs decrease but
tank and pump costs increase. However , the differences in costs are not
large being only 15 % greater at 82 ft as compared to 32 ft .
Table 3 summarizes the details of capital equipment costs, gives equipment
sizes and indicates the results for one tank depth , taken as 80 feet to
indicate that deep tank aeration is not a costly procedure . Acid resistant
materials and lining for the tanks were specified .
257
TABLE 2 . PARTIAL CAPITAL AND OPERATING COSTS FOR VARIOUS TANK HEIGHTS
( 1976 Dollars)
Tank Height Pump , Compressor , Tank 12 -month Power
Feet __ and Piping Costs and Related Costs
22 $ 165 , 300 $ 16 , 900
162 , 700 16 , 800
166 , 500 16 , 700
169, 300 16 ,400
175, 800 16 ,500
182 ,500 16 ,600
189,200 16 , 700
TABLE 3. CAPITAL EQUIPMENT AND RECOVERY FOR SCP PRODUCTION UTILIZING

A POTATO WASTE STREAM COMPARED TO LAGOON WASTE TREATMENT
Deep Tank Aeration Lagoon Surface Aeration
Flotation Clarification ( 14)
(1976 Dollars) ( 1970 Dollars)
Aeration volume 260 , 000 gal 3 , 750 , 000 gal
Liquid depth 80 ft 16 ft
Aerator size 24 ft diameter 70 x 150 ft plus
150 x 150 ft
Solids separator 450 sq ft (24 ft 3850 sq ft (70 ft
equivalent diameter , dia .) plus 710 sq ft
depth of 8 ft ) ( 30 ft dia . )
Aeration time 4 hr 3 days
Solids separation time 21 minutes
Tanks , pumps , compressor $ 189,000
piping
Flotation unit , filter , $215 ,000
drying
Added for contingency 35 %
escalation ,
instrumentation
Total capital investment $545 ,000 $646 ,000
ANNUAL FIXED COSTS $ 67,600 (at 9% and $ 61,000 (at 7% and

15 years ) 20 years)
258
The total costs for equipment in Table 3 include added factors for contin
gency (20% ) , escalation ( 12 % ) , and instrumentation ( 3 % ) . Flotation tank
costs were from an EPA publication ( 8 ) , were much higher than needed for the
deep tank system , and were therefore assumed to include costs for the filter
and dryer . Capital costs and annual charges are seen to be similar for the
SCP production facility and the lagoon treatment system even though the
collection and drying of the cell solids is an added cost for an SCP product.
Table 4 gives estimated operating costs on the high side, and the total costs
indicated are believed to represent a conservative estimate of the costs of
production . Again , annual operating costs are similar for the two processes .
TABLE 4 . OPERATING COSTS FOR SCP PRODUCTION UTILIZING A POTATO

WASTE STREAM COMPARED TO LAGOON WASTE TREATMENT
(1976 Dollars)
Deep Tank Aeration Lagoon Surface Aeration

Flotation clarification
Installed power 120 hp 500 hp

Electrical power 0 . 01 $ /kwh 0 .01 $ /kwh (est . )
Cost of electrical power $6500 $23,500
Heat for drying $7100
Operating labor $ 30 , 000 $ 18 , 100

Repair labor , materials $ 1400 $ 13 ,500
Miscellaneous $ 10 ,000 $ 10 ,000
ANNUAL OPERATING COSTS $55 ,000 $65 , 200
Table 5 shows total annual costs for the production of 810 tons of SCP for
the nine -month period considered in both cases. The selling price of the
dried product would need to be $ 150 / ton to meet production costs but at this
figure there would be no cost for pollution control although at 80 % BOD
reduction the discharge would be higher than may be allowed . 90 % BOD reduc
tion could be achieved with little added costs as was demonstrated ( 3 ) . With
a selling price of $ 300 , indicated to be a current reasonable value , the
profit margin over production costs can be considerable , taxes excluded .
Operation for 12 months per year , rather than nine as used for comparison
with the lagoon process , would increase profit margins assuming a suitable
substrate to be available .
259
TABLE 5 . COMPARISON OF ANNUAL COSTS FOR SCP PRODUCTION AND
LAGOON WASTE TREATMENT
( 1976 dollars , 9 months)
Annual capital recovery $ 67 ,600 $ 61 ,000

Annual operating costs 55 , 000 65 , 200
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS 122,600 126 , 200

Disposal of Cell Solids 810 tons at 14 ,000
$ 150 / ton =
production costs
NET COST $ 140 , 300
PROFIT AT $ 300 / ton $122,600 /year ( - $140 ,300)
Church , Erickson and Widmer ( 17) give costs for the growth of a fungus on a
corn canning waste at conditions similar to the above for the potato plant
waste : 1 million gal/ day and 12 ,000 lb BOD / day loading for an income of
$ 140 , 000 per year and a small profit with nutrient costs being high . The
amount of solids produced and the assigned value were not indicated . A
larger operation ( 17) showed a profit of 0 . 75 of the production costs
( income = 1 . 75 x total annual production costs) . This value compares
favorably with the income ratio in Table 5 of about twice the cost of pro
duction . The possibility of producing a profit by growing single cell
protein on a waste substrate appears to be favorable for some situations .
BATCH TANK OPERATION
The suggestion was made by Tomlinson ( 14 ) that non -aseptic operation on a

batch basis could be an alternative to the need for sterilization to produce
a given organism . Using the above potato waste example, a calculation of
tank costs only was made for a fixed tank height of 50 feet with the number
of tanks , and hence diameter , determined from cycle and fill times. For
multiple tanks , the cycle time is the sum of the fill time, aeration time,
and drain time (equal to the fill time) where
Number of tanks = ( cycle time) / (fill time)
The design was such that the input to the series of tanks and the passage of
the cell- liquid stream to the flotation tank were continuous but with the
required number of tanks being filled, aerated or emptied as the sequence
requires .
260
The basis of calculation was the continuous process with a residence time of
four hours , waste feed of 1 . 25 million gal/ day and a recycle rate of 25 % of
the float containing 2 % solids . Thus , the flotation unit for batch process
ing would be the same as for the continuous process , the compressor duty
would be about the same , and an additional pump would be required to maintain
the pressure drop at the flotation cell inlet during final stages of drainage.
Anticipating operation at low pH values , to suit certain types of organisms ,
the tanks were selected as rubber lined , and the additional pump made acid
resistant .
Table 6 shows the number of tanks , and relative tank and total capital costs
for various fill -drain and aeration times . Some aeration would also be
accomplished during the fill time which is not included in the aeration times
indicated . Tank costs increase from twice to nearly four times over the
continuous arrangement . Total capital cost increases range from 1 .2 to 1 . 7 ,
the latter requiring ten tanks for a half - hour fill time , and the minimum
being for a three -hour aeration time and 1 . 5 or 3 . 0 filling times. Certain
advantages might accrue from the use of a combination of a larger number of
tanks and a reasonably long filling time , as experience might dictate modi
fications of procedures , and surge storage could be accommodated by a varia
tion of conditions .
TABLE 6 . RELATIVE COSTS FOR BATCH TO CONTINUOUS FERMENTATION
Aeration Filling Number Diameter Relative Relative Total

Time Time of Tanks of Tanks Tank Cost Capital Cost
Continuous Fermentation
4 hr 30 ft 1.0 1. 0
( $ 97 , 000 ) ( $ 544 , 000 )
Batch Fermentation
4 hr 0 . 5 hr 10 11 ft 3.9 1.7
1. 0 6 15 3 .0 1. 5
2.0 1.4
3. 0 1 3 30 1.4
W
3 hr 0. 5 hr 8 11 ft 3.1 1.5
1 .0 5 15 2 .5 1 .4
1 .5 4 18 2. 3 1. 3
3 .0 2 .3 1.3
w
261
The capital costs for batch treatment are seen to be considerably higher than
for a continuous process , but if the need for sterlization is thus avoided ,
the problem of cost and availability of energy is reduced . Operating costs
for the fermentation - separation step should be about the same for the batch
and continuous processes .
EUROPEAN PRACTICE
Two recent papers (14 ) describe the laboratory investigation of a

variety of food wastes and the growth of several types of " yeasts and other
fungi" for protein yields . Wastes considered were malting , brewing , distil
lation , carmelization , beet sugar processing , canning (two types ) and two
different potato processing wastes . Sixteen different organisms were
investigated but not all organisms for each waste. Conditions and results
are reported briefly for operating pH , carbon to nitrogen ratio , carbon to
phosphorus ratio , cell yield , percent substrate removal , final total organic
carbon content , percent crude protein , and batch growth times . Also reported
are the initial flow rates of the waste , BOD and COD concentrations, organic
carbon content , nitrogen and phosphate levels and initial pH . For present
purposes only the potato processing wastes are considered .
Certain details not described in the papers ( 14 ) but developed through per
sonal correspondence , are that one potato processing waste, PP - 1 is that
from the production of frozen chips (U . s . terminology = french fry ) and PP - 2
is that for potato crisps ( U . S . = potato chips ) . Both streams were " from
the primary production lines" and were relatively clean and free from soil.
PP - 1 had passed through a crude starch removal stage .
Waste PP - l at a flow of 420 gal/min had an initial BOD of 3150 mg / l and COD
of 3800 , organic carbon of 1510 , pH 4 .5 , and substantial nitrogen and some
phosphate with c / N = 10 . 3 and c / P = 250 . The reduction of the substrate was
from 60 to 80% . Additions of phosphate to give ratios of c / P of 35 and 70
made little difference in substrate reductions or in crude protein contents
of 40 to 56 % on cell yields of 300 to 600 mg / 1 .
The waste designated PP - 2 , at a flow of 290 gal/min had a BOD - 3250 , COD =
5800 , organic carbon = 2280 , C / N = 162 , c / P = 36 and pH = 4 . 8 . Laboratory
results for three organisms gave substrate removals of 60 to 80 % , cell
yields of 2000 to 3500 mg / l , and crude protein contents of 20 to 45 % .
A personal communication concerning the wide difference in cell solids from

PP - 1 and PP - 2 , a factor of 10 in some cases , indicated that no reason was
known . This was indicated as especially difficult to understand because
of the high utilization of BOD and the similar reductions in the total
organic carbon . A toxicity problem might be suspected if the substrate
reductions were substantially less for PP - 1 .
In a second paper (14) the non -aseptic batch culture was proposed and tested
on a laboratory scale of six wastes each with an organism selected from the
previous screening procedures . The procedure was to investigate whether
contamination of organisms could be minimized by close control of operating
conditions rather than by sterilization of the feed waste. Low contamination
262
was demonstrated by imposing three conditions : at innoculation the desired
organism greatly out - numbered the contaminating organisms, the batch opera
tion was completed in a relatively short time , and the pH was optimum for the
desired organism . Operating at a low pH and the method of innoculation were
important factors in minimizing contamination .
The results of an economic feasibility study were also presented for an

arrangement similar to that for aeration in an activated sludge treatment
plant with added costs for dewatering and drying which were on a conservative
basis . Operating costs were based on an oxygen transfer efficiency of
1 .6 lb 0 , /hp -hr at 2 . 2 cents /kwh . The life of the plant was taken as 10
years and interest rates on capital costs were computed at both 10 and 15 % .
A survey of the value of protein solids was stated to vary from $ 200 to " at
least" $400 per ton (18 ) with $ 300 /ton selected as a reasonable figure for
estimation purposes .
Estimates of annual costs were made for the six wastes for conventional
activated sludge treatment and for plants for the production , drying and sale
of the protein solids . Design details were not provided . In all cases ,
receipts for SCP production paid for the annual costs which were in excess
over that for conventional treatment except in one case where costs were just
met . However , considering annual receipts and annual costs for SCP produc
tion , without an allowance for needed conventional treatment, a profit was
shown in only two cases but PP - 2 wastes showed an annual income more than
twice that for the annual costs of production . Based on 1975 costs in
British pounds, and using an approximate exchange of $ 2 . 00 /pound (now about
1 . 75 ) the capital investment was $ 740 , 000 , and annual costs $ 250 , 000 for the
SCP production plant at 15 % interest . The estimated annual receipts were
$540 , 000 .
Imperial Chemical Industries, in England, has been interested in the growth

of single cell protein on methanol , and recently recognized the merit
of deep tank aeration for fermentation and growth of SCP (19) . This confirms
the results of present work as to the feasibility of the procedure , the merit
for large scale processing , and quite important , the ability to supply large
quantities of molecular oxygen from air and meet the demand of the organisms.
The simplicity of the procedure is recognized which does not require the use
of mechanical agitators .
LITERATURE CITED
1. Scrimshaw , N . S . and D . I . C . Wang , " Protein Resources and Technology :

Status and Research Needs " , National Science Foundation , No . NSF RA - T - 75
037 , Dec . (1975 ) .
2.
tation " , presented at the 69th Annual meeting , American Institute of
k Fermen
Jackson , M . L . and C . C . Shen , " Aeration and Mixing for Deep Tank Fermen
Chemical Engineers , Chicago , Dec . 1976 (under review for publication in

the AICHE Journal ) .
263
3. Jackson , M . L . , C. C . Shen and C . Plopper , "Deep Tank - Flotation Biologi
cal Treatment : Groundwood Paper Mill Wastewater " , Water Pollution
Control Federation meeting , Seattle , October 1976 (under review for
publication ) .
Shen , C . C . and M . L . Jackson , "Economics of Deep Tank Aeration
Flotation for Wastewater Treatment" , a report to the Northwest Pulp
and Paper Assn . , Feb . 1977 (to be submitted for publication ) .
Jackson , M . L . , " Continuous Fermentation Process and Apparatus" , patent,
assigned to the Idaho Research Foundation , May , 1976 .
6. Urza , I . J . and M . L . Jackson , " Pressure Aeration in a 55 - foot Bubble
Column " , I& EC Proc . Des. and Develop . , 14 , 106 (1975 ) .
7. Jackson , M . L . , James, D . R . and B . P . Leber , " Oxygen Transfer in a
23 -Meter Bubble Column , " AICHE Symp . Ser . , WATER - 1975 , No . 151 , Vol. 71,
159 ( 1975 ) .
8. Environmental Protection Agency , " Sludge Treatment and Disposal , " (1974)
and " Suspended Solids Removal , " ( 1975 ) .
9. Wang, D . I . C . , " Protein Recovery Problems , " in " Engineering of Uncon

ventional Protein Production , " Chemical Engineering Progress Symposium
Series , No . 93, Vol. 65 , p . 66 ( 1969) .
10 .
Humphrey , A . E . , " Current Developments in Fermentation " , Chemical
Engineering , Dec . 9 ( 1974 ) , p . 98 .
1 . Humphrey , A . E . , " Starvation : Chemical Engineering Can Help Fight It" ,

Chemical Engineering, July 18 , ( 1966 ) , p . 149.
12 . Aiba , A . , A . E . Humphrey , N . F . Mills , " Biochemical Engineering" , second
ed . , Academic Press , 1973.
13. Humphrey , A . E. , " Engineering of Single Cell Protein : State of the Art,"
Chem . Engr . Prog . Symposium Series , No . 93, Vol. 65 (1969) , p . 60.
14 . Tomlinson , E . J . , " The Production of Single- Cell Protein from Strong
Organic Waste Waters from the Food and Drink Processing Industries -
1 . Laboratory Cultures ; 2 . The Practical and Economic Feasibility of
a Non -Aseptic Batch Culture : , Water Research , 10 , 367 , 372 (1976 ).
15 . French , R . T . , Co . , " Aerobic Secondary Treatment of Potato Processing
Wastes ," EPA Program , 12060 EHV , WPRD 15 - 01 -68 , 1970 .
16 . Edwards , L . L . , Leber , B . P . , Jr . , and M . L . Jackson , " An Economic

Evaluation of Deep Tank Aeration , " AICHE Symp . Ser . , WATER - 1975 , No. 151,
Vol . 71, 154 ( 1975 ) .
264
17 . Church , B . D . , E . E . Erickson , and C . M . Widmer , " Fungal Digestion of
Food Processing Wastes" , Food Technology , 27 , 36 (1973) .
18 . Smith , R . N . , P . Houslay and A . Whitaker , " Recycling of Food Wastes -
Microbiology and Economics , " J . Applied Chem . and Biotechnology , 24
376 (1974 ) .
19. Anon ., " IÇI to Scale Up Single Cell Protein Process ," Chemical Engineer
ing News, P . 25 , Oct . 11, ( 1976 ) .
265
EVALUATION OF INSTANT NOODLES PROCESSING
WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS AND TREATMENT ALTERNATIVES
by
P . Y . Yang* and Victor S . Luis , Jr . * *
INTRODUCTION
An instant noodles processing plant located on the industrial estate at

Minburi, Thailand , produced instant noodles at the rate of 1 ,670 packages per
8 - hour day of operation , with each package containing 30 x 60 gram bags of
instant noodles .
Water consumption in the factory was primarily for soup -making , process equip
ment washing , removing spent alkali from the oil used for baking and boiler
feed . Most of the washings inside the factory were channelled into a common
drainage system which in turn discharged into a rectangular concrete collect
ing tank . The contents of this tank was pumped out daily to a nearby canal .
Toilet wastewaters and floor washings from the administrative office were
flown to a separate sewer .
Factory wastewater , containing substantial quantities of biodegradable organic

material , was discharged without treatment to the nearby canal at locations
SP1 , SP2 and SP3 shown in Figure 1 . The present study was proposed to deter
mine the quality and quantity of the wastewater and recommend possible
treatment alternatives to remove effectively oil , solids and organic matter .
It was expected the results of this study would provide basic criteria for
functional design of wastewater treatment processes .
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
Wastewater characteristics and treatment studies were included in the present

study .
Wastewater Characteristics
The factory washing contained a mixture of soap , grease (from chicken dressing
and oil refining ) , flour and noddle strands ,
Daily samples of wastewaters from SP1 , SP2 and SP3 in Figure 1 were collected
continuously for a period of 2 weeks , but not on Sundays (the factory was
closed on Sunday ) . The quantity of the wastewater was determined by measuring
the depth in the receiving tank ( fixed volume) at SP1, SP2 and SP3 , The
quality of the wastewater , including solids , BOD5 , COD , nitrogen , phosphorus ,
grease and pH , was analyzed using the procedures recommended in Standard
Methods (1) .
* University of Hawaii at Manoa , Honolulu , Hawaii

* * University of Philippines , College Laguna , Philippines
266
SI
Ingredient
Cold Storage
Mixer Spillage
(Flour , water
other) Chicken Soup
and Spillage and
Spillage Seasoning Washwater
Preparation
Dough SP 3
Breaker
Roller
Steam From Boiler
Condamente | Steaming
Floor and Machine
Wa shwater
БР 1
Prippings Çutting
spillage Souping
011
pings'Dr& to Frying 011 Alkali
Addition
Demmings Refining
- -- Salt & Washwater
Cooling
br lomings
Packing Marketing
Stortne
Storing
Figure 1 . Plant Layout Showing Process Flow , Sources of Washwater and

Location of Sampling Points (SP 1 , SP 2 , SP 3).
267
Wastewater Treatment Studies
The studies were conducted in three phases :
Sedimentation / Flotation Study - Experiments were carried out using a

sedimentation column 127 cm high and with square cross sectional surface
area of 161 . 3cm2 , as shown in Figure 2 . The column was equipped with
sampling points, spaced at 20 . 3 cm intervals with the first sampling
point located 4 cm below the overflow pipe at the top of the column .
Simultaneous samplings were made from all points immediately after
filling the column and then at 5 , 10 , 20 , 40 , 60 , 90 and 120 minutes
lapsed times . Withdrawn samples were analyzed for suspended solids ,
total COD and grease .
Coagulation Study - The jar test method was adopted for the coagulation
study. Alum was the chemical coagulant used and flocculation was carried
out with a stirring machine manufactured by Phipps and Bird Laboratory ,
Richmond , Virginia . The optimal pH and alum dosage to achieve suitable
removal of turbidity were evaluated by using the Hach Laboratory
manufactured by Hach Chemical Co . , Ames , Iowa. Color , COD
and grease were the other parameters whose removals were determined in
this phase of the work .
Biological Treatment Study - This phase of the work was divided into two
parts dealing with batch and continuous - flow biological treatment processes .
In the batch study , acclimatized organisms were developed using instant
noodle wastewater as substrate . Two batch activated sludge units were
then fed with different forms of the factory wastewater . One unit
received the raw waste , while the other unit received wastewater which
had been subjected to a process whereby 60 -86 percent of the grease
content had been removed . Analyses for COD , BOD5 , suspended solids and
grease were carried out at different time intervals . In the continuous
flow completely mixed biological treatment study , the extended aeration
activated sludge process shown in Figure 3 was used . Two aeration tanks
were used and fed with two forms of the factory wastewater which had been
used in the batch treatment study . Again , COD , BOD5 , suspended solids
and grease were analyzed in the feed , mixed liquor and effluent .
RESULTS
1. Wastewater Characteristics
Since the factory only operates 8 hours a day , 6 days a week and uses small
quantities of water for washing , the average daily flow rate was considered
suitable for treatment process design . This average daily rate was observed
to be small , with a mean of 1 .24 + 0 , 17 m3 /day .
Originally , washings from the factory were discharged at three locations ,
designated SP1 , SP2 , SP3 in Figure 1 . A pond near the
factory received the wastewater from SP2 and SP3 . At that time , the waste
water characteristics at the three points were as shown in Table 1 .
Subsequently it was found that the flow rates at SP2 and SP3 were small
(< 0 . 022 m3 / day) compared with the flow rate at SP1 . Moreover , from August
268
for 14
y
3 cm 0.D. Overflow Port . -

-
0 .7 cm I .D . Sampling Points - -
@ 20 cm c -c
Sedimentation Column
0 . 5 cm Plexiglass
ko 1401
128
L1.5 cm 1.D . pvc Tube
Details of Sedimentation Bottom
Pump
Note :
Open Top in All Dimensions in Centimetres
Feed Tank in
0 . 5 cm Plexiglass Scale: 1 cm - 10 cm
31 Figure 2 . Sedimentation Apparatus .
269
Feed Tank
12 . 5 0 . 5 Thick Plexiglass
Pump
-
. 36
30 . 3
22 Liter Feed Reservoiy

Glass Jar
y
To Air Suppl
Reactor 18 .5
1cm Thick Plexiglas
ta -
37
Note :
All Dimensions in Centimetres
Scale : lcm = 6 cm
Figure 3 . Extended Aeration Apparatus.
270
TABLE 1 . WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS
Sampling Points
Characteristics Unit SP1 SP2 SP3
BOD5 mg / l
Filtrate 303 76 257
Total 845 380 738
COD mg / l
Filtrate 1000 300 755
Total 3013 1184 2147
Total Phosphate mg/ l as P 4 . 88 5 . 31 5 .49
Kjeldahl Nitrogen mg/ l as N 60 . 0 24 . 5 20 . 0

BODF / BODT 0 . 36 0 . 20 0 . 35
CODF/CODT 0 .40 0 . 25 0. 35
BODE/ CODE 0 . 25 0 .25 0 . 34
BODT/ CODT 0 . 28 0 . 32 0 . 34
BODT : N : P 173 : 12 : 1 72 : 5 : 1 134 : 3 : 1
BODE:N :P 61: 12 : 1 15 : 5 : 1 43 : 3 : 1
Suspended Solids (SS) mg/ l 640 185 1000
Volatile SS mg/ l 590 150 880
Temperature 30 .0 28 . 0 38 .0
pH 7.0 7.0 - 7.2
Grease mg /l 3700 3500
Flow Rate m3/ day 1 . 24 + 0 . 17
BOD , COD , Nitrogen , Phosphorus , Temperature and pH values are 50 percentile
probability levels .
271
1975 , a central drainage system in the factory channeled all factory waste
waters to the discharge point SP1 . The characteristics of the combined
wastewater at SP1 were considered representative of the future discharge and
this was used in subsequent treatability studies .
Table 1 presents 50 percentile probability values of wastewater character

istics . The BOD5 to COD ratios of the wastewater are lower than expected for
a food industry waste (usually about 0 .5 ) , probably due to the poor degrada
bility of the grease in the analysis of BOD5 . Other characteristics of the
waste , such as temperature , pH , and nutrient (nitrogen and phosphorus) concen
trations are found to be optimal for the growth of microorganisms which is
necessary for the functioning of biological treatment processes .
2. Wastewater Treatment Studies
2-1. Sedimentation / Flotation Process - The sedimentation / flotation

process was studied for removal of suspended solids , COD , and
grease . In Figures 4 and 5 , they can be seen that total COD and
suspended solid removal are less than 35 % and 58 % respectively
with the time and depth of column applied in the present study .
Since the higher percentage of volatile portion (about 92 . 2 % )
presented in suspended solid ( Table 1) , the removal of suspended
solid by using sedimentation process become unnecessary . How
ever , grease could be removed by the sedimentaiton / flotation
process , as shown in Figure 6 . It can be seen that if 1 . 25 m
depth of tank is provided , it takes only 2 hours to achieve
90 % grease removal by flotation .
2 -2 . Chemical Coagulation Process - The purpose of this study was to
optimize the coagulating chemical dosage and pH so that maximum
total COD and grease removal could be achieved . A summary of
the results is given in Table 2 . It can be seen that removals
of 57 -61 percent COD and 3 . 7 - 14 percent grease are possible using
chemical coagulation . Optimal conditions are 80 mg / l of alum
dosage and pH of 6 . 5 . However , using these conditions , the
quality of the effluent from chemical coagulation still cannot
meet the effluent standards set by the Ministry of Industry of
Thailand .
2 -3. Biological Treatment Process - Batch and continuous -flow system

studies were carried out to investigate the BOD5 and COD removal
efficiencies of biological treatment processes since both physical
and chemical methods were not found to be able to remove oxygen
demand materials ( BOD5 or COD) to the required levels to meet the
effluent standards .
The results of batch studies on the factory wastewater with and without grease
skimming are shown in Figures 7 and 8 . In general , the removal efficiency of
BOD5 ( filtrate ) and COD (Filtrate ) are within the ranges of 96 - 97 percent and
84 -93 percent , respectively . Residual BOD5 contents in this study range from
7 . 5 to 20 mg /l , which meet the required effluent standards (< 20 mg / l ) . The
effect of the presence of grease in the wastewater on the BOD5 or COD removal
efficiency of the batch activated sludge process is found to be negligible .
272
in
Test
Removed
ss
of
Percent
and
Indicated
of
Depth
Time
1
.0 25
‫ا‬
3
.0 3
0 11
0 180 \O21 014
‫و‬O2Io04 14O
‫ورة‬
‫ق‬
24
OI O
21 O21 0 O
58 O42
273
‫ا‬15 \
Depth , feet
‫و‬
‫ا‬
|.709 012 015 7 O
14 70
‫و‬ 1046
|140 17 0 190 0 0 6 55
0
‫نا‬
‫و‬
10 20 0 60 90 120
minutes
Time
.Depth
and
Time
vs
Removal
Solids
.S uspended
4Figure
in
Test
Removed
COD
Total
of
Percent
and
Depth
Time
Indicated
Oat
0.125
10
b 160
0.33 . ‫ه‬
‫ط‬۷۰ 35
0|034
|
35
0.58 3
)5
274
Depth , feet
‫دهه‬
on
7.0 9 , : 034
‫مدل‬ ‫د‬ ‫و‬ ‫و‬
‫ل‬ ‫ل‬ on
‫ل‬ 3O 2
0.96
‫همه نقا‬
10 20 40 60 90 120
,m inutes
Time
.5Figure Depth
.and
Time
vs
Removal
COD
Total
Flotation
Column
Depth
c.0-1
• m25
+-1.7" 03
80-.4" 5
".0-64
275
Flotation Efficiency , %
0 10 20 30 40
80
70
60
50 90 100 110 120
,MDetention
Time
IN
Influenced
Time
Detention
Efficiency
Figure
Flotation
as
.by
G6 rease
TABLE 2 . COAGULATION STUDY
I. Sample Characteristics :
PH = 6 .66 CODT = 1247 mg/ l
Turbidity = 38 , 5 FTU Grease = 267 mg /l
II . Determination of Optimum Dosage :
Alum Dose , mg/ l _
20 40 60 80 100 120
PH 7 .02 6 . 98 6 . 98 6 . 92 6 .89 6 . 84
Turbidity (FTU ) 37 . 0 36 . 0 33 .5 23. 0 16 . 0 9 . 0
Alkalinity (mg / l ) 510 460 450 440 410 430
Color Dull - at Clear
CODT (mg/ l) 415 415 405 324 405 283
Opt . Dose
III . Determination of Optimum pH at Optimum Dosage of 80 mg / l Alum :
PH
5 .5 6.0 6 .5 7.0 7 .5 8 .0
Turbidity (FTU ) 7.0 7 .5 17 . 5 33 40 38 . 5
PH 5 . 35 5 .89 6 .45 7 .09 7 . 18 7. 39
Color Clear + greyish
Opt. pH
IV . Grease and CODT Removal at Optimum pH and Dosage :
Optimum Dosage and pH

Untreated
1 2 3 4 Sample
Turbidity (FTU ) 27 27 32 25 33
pH 6 . 79 6 .84 6 . 91 6 .9 6 . 59
COD . (mg/ l ) 487 555 536 526 1247
% COD., Removed 61 55 . 5 57 57 . 8
Grease (mg / l) 238 257 242 230 267
% Grease Removed 10 .8 3.7 9 .3 14
1 and 2 adjusted to pH 6 . 5 ; 3 and 4 unadjusted pH .
276
100005
90001 Legend :
a Total con
8000 Filtrate COD
O Suspended Solids
- Filtrate BOD ,
700045
1/m,SgOD
CBOD S
I kao
4000ko Leo
sooo ea
2000F
1000
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Aeration Time, hr
Figure 7 . Batch Biological Process Without Grease
Skimming Wastewater
10000
Legend :
90007
a Total COD
8000 - Filtrate COD
a Suspended Solids
Filtrate BOD5
) gOD
nC1/,sBO s
soodpor
coann
30001 ees
1000 ,
1
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Aeration Time, hr
Figure 8 . Batch Biological Process With Grease
Skimming Wastewater .
277
Based on the wastewater characteristics and batch activated sludge studies,
the extended aeration activated sludge process was selected for further study
which could be possible for future practical application . By applying
averaged organic loading rate of 0 .413 and 0 .23 of Kg Total BOD5 /KgVSS -day
and Filtrate BOD5 / KgVSS - day , the BOD5 removal efficiency was always above
90 % and the BOD5 content of the effluent was consistently lower than 20 mg/ l .
However , the suspended solid concentration in the effluent was generally
higher ( 160 - 300 mg / l ) than the effluent standard of the Ministry of Industry
( less than 60 mg / l ) . The loss of suspended solids in the effluent would be
that the grease accumulated on the sludge . In the present study , it was also
observed that the range of grease removal was varied from 3 % to 54% . Appa
rently , the removal of grease becomes necessary before further biological
process is proceeded . Certainly , it will improve the effluent quality based
on the suspended solid concentration .
For further studies of biological treatment processes ( including extended

aeration , low - rate trickling filter , rotary tube filter and anaerobic contact
processes ) by using the same wastewater employed in the present study , Luis
( 2 ) concluded that the order at which high COD removal was observed was
extended aeration > rotary tube filter > trickling filter > anaerobic contact
process within the range of organic loading of 0 . 3882 to 0 . 9705 Kg COD /m3-day
as shown in Figure 9 . Also , it was concluded that the order of overall per
formance for grease removal was trickling filter > rotary tube filter >
anaerobic contact > extended aeration process as shown in Figure 10 . Both
rotary tube and trickling filters exhibited higher grease removals which may
be that the slime (fixed film ) is able to " adsorb " the grease from wastewater
and which is finally slowly degraded . Relatively , the trickling filter shows
a higher grease removal than the rotary tube filter because the specific
surface area of the medium (corrugated PVC ) used in the trickling filter is
195 m2 /m3 compared to 76 , 4 m2 /m3 for rotary tube filter .
RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUMMARY

1. The results of the studies suggest grease should be removed from the
wastewater before other treatment processes are applied . This can be
done by providing a grease separator as first stage in the process or ,
if batch or semi -continuous flow treatment is preferred , by arranging
for surface skimming of grease from a holding tank .
2. Since the quantity of wastewater is very small , averaging 1 . 24 m3 / day ,
and the plant operates and produces wastewater only 8 hours per day ,
semi- continuos flow operation of a treatment plant is possible .
3 . Raw wastewater sedimentation , even with chemical coagulation , is not
recommended .
Biological treatment is necessary because of the high BOD5, COD and

volatile solids contents of the factory wastewater .
Considering the low flow and high grease content of wastewater , the
extended aeration activated sludge process incorporating with prior
removal of grease is recommended as most suitable for this wastewater .
278
Aeration
Extended
Filter
Tube
Rotary
Filter
Trickling
days naerobtic
2SA-:Contac
A 0RT
days 0RT
3SContact
=:Anaerobic
Contact
Anaerobic
of
Values
Average
COD Removal, %
279
- - - - --
5.0 /mApplied
,kgay3
d-COD 1.5
Figure
9.Comparison
of
COD
Efficiency
Removal
the
of
Biological
Process
Applied
COD
with
.
70 A
Δ o
Δ
p
Δ
o
Δ
to
0
D
280
Ao ctivated
Sludge
Grease Removal, %
Rotary
Tube
Filter
TA rickling
Filter
SRT Anaerobic
-d:3Contact
0ay
Contact
d-: 0naerobic
A2VSRT ay
oo
* verage
Values
Anaerobic
Aof
Contact
0.5 0.1
,kGrease
/m»-Applied
dgay
10
CFigure
. omparison
Grease
of
Removal
Efficiency
the
Biolog
Proces
with
Grease
Applie
. dsical
6. Either a semi- continuous or continuous flow activated sludge process
would be appropriate forms of biological treatment ,
7. The semi -continuous flow extended aeration process with grease skimming
is outlined in Figure 11 . This form of operational process would cost
less in terms of construction cost but would involve more operational
attention than a continuous flow process .
The continuous flow process alternative is outlined in Figure 12 . This

process would operate continuously with intermittent removal of grease
from the holding tank and occasional removal of excess sludge from the
activated sludge aeration tank . The sedimentation tank should be an
integral part of the aeration tank , with the settled sludge returning
by gravity to the aeration compartment .
At the present time , the factory has been treating its wastewater with the
semi- continuous flow operation process and giving a satisfactory result . The
present treatment facility was constructed by two times the figure recommended
because the factory processing plant was expanded two times the original
plant .
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was supported in part by Wan Thai Foods Corporation , Thailand ,
through the Asian Institute of Technology , Bangkok , Thailand ,
REFERENCES
1. STANDARD METHODS FOR THE EXAMINATION OF WASTES AND WASTEWATER . 13th Ed . ,

Amer , Pub . Health Assn . , New York ( 1971) .
2 . Luis , Victor s . Biological treatment of noodle wastewater Masters

Thesis , Asian Institute of Technology , Bangkok , Thailand , No . 981 (1976 ) .
281
Combined Westwater J Flow Rate - 1. 24 +0 . 17 m ' /day
Holding Tank , (Existing Tank )

Volume 2, 3. 0 m3 with depth of 1. 3 m
BOD , (Total) - 845 mg/1
BOD, (Filtrate) - 303 mg /1
Suspended Solids - 640 mg /1
Grease
Volatile Suspended Solids - 590 mg /1
Skimming
Pumping Capacity to Pump

Pump Daily Flow Over 2 hours
Activated Sludge Aeration and Aeration - 20 - 22 hr

Excess Sludge Sedimentation • 2- 4 hr
Wastage when the
MLSS Concentration Settling Tank with Volume of 3 m 'l
Reaches 8000 mg/ 1
Supernatant
Final Effluent
BOD , < 20 mg / 1
Suspended Solids < 60 mg/ 1
Grease < 50 mg /1
Figure 11 . Recommendation of Semi-Continuous

Flow Treatment Process .
282
Combined Westwater Flow Rate - 1.24+0.17 m3/day
Holding Tank , (Existing Tank )

Volume = 3.0 m with depth of 1 .3 m
BOD, (Total) - 845 mg/ 1
BOD , (Filtrate) - 303 mg/1
Suspended Solids - 640 mg /1
Volatile Suspended Solids - 590 mg / l
Grease
Skimming
Pump Pumping Capacity - 1 . 5 milday = 0 .062 m /hr
Detention Time :
Extended Aeration Activated Sludge
Aeration - 20 hr
Process (Combined Aeration and Settling Settling - 6 hr
Tank with 100 % Sludge Recycle) Volume of Tank :
Aeration - 1 . 24 m + 30 %
Supernatant Settling - 0. 37 m3
Occasional Sludge Wasting
Final Effluent
BOD, < 20 mg /1
Suspended Solids < 60 mg / 1
Grease < 50 mg / l
Figure 12 . Recommendation of Continuous

Flow Treatment Process .
283
POTATO JUICE PROCESSING *
by
* *
J . R . Rosenau , L . F . Whitney , and J . R . Haight
ABSTRACT
Various options are available for processing of potato juice into animal
feeds. These include reverse osmosis , ultrafiltration , heat and acid coag
ulation of protein , vacuum evaporation , drum or spray drying , and acid solu
bilization and alkaline precipitation of solanine. The most promising flow
chart is discussed in light of economics , solanine toxicity , lysine availa
bility , trypsin inhibiter inactivation , and product characteristics .
INTRODUCTION
Traditionally , potato starch processes have involved grinding cull potatoes

followed by sieving and refining operations which used large amounts of
water ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . The water was used to separate the starch from
the pulp and to refine , i . e ., wash , this starch to a high degree of purity.
At the Seventh National Symposium on Food Processing Wastes , we presented a
process (6 ) that reduced water usage , which has been as high as 1000 pounds
per cut, of input potatoes , to 25 pounds of water per cut . We have since
tuned and modified that process (see Figure 1 ) to eliminate an air classi
fication step . The starch processing system (discussed in the following
section since it affects options available to juice processing ) produces a
juice stream of about 5 % solids. This paper summarizes factors influencing
possible processing schemes for the juice .
STARCH PRODUCTION PROCESS

Figure 1 depicts the current modified starch production process . Potatoes
are ground by hammer milling and the slurry wetsieved with recycled juice.
The pulp remains above the 140 mesh screen while juice and starch pass
through . The slurry is pumped to a liquid cyclone wherein the starch is
spun to the underflow while the overflow is largely recycled to the screen .
Excess juice at 5 % total solids ( w . b . ) passes to the juice processing
* This investigation has been supported by the U . S . Environmental Protec

tion Agency (Grant No . R -803712 - 02- 0 ) , Agway , Inc . , the Main Potato Com
mission , and the University of Massachusetts.
* * Department of Food and Agricultural Engineering , University of Massachu
setts, Amherst , MA 01003.
284
CULL POTATOES
so , Grinder
Grinder
Sieve
I pulp
JUICE
sieve e Press
Press
CONC. DE PROT. JUICE
Tank Dofoamer Drior

Ink Dotoamer Drier
PULP
Pump
Cyclone
Pump Cyclono
WATER
WAT ER Centrif. Pum
Pumpp
cake
Drior - STARCH
Fig 1. Starch and Pulp Processing Flowchart .
285
system . A defoaming device such as the Cornell Machine Company' s " "Vesator"
can be used as shown to control foaming - a problem of major importance if
frozen or especially off - grade tubers are to be processed . The underflow
from the liquid cyclone is pumped to a second liquid cyclone . The overflow
from the second liquid cyclone is recycled to the tangential elutriation
inlet of the first liquid cyclone (the design is a patented feature of the
Bird Machine Company* * ) . The underflow from the second cyclone passes to
the basket centrifuge for final purification . Wash water in the amount of
only 25 pounds for every 100 pounds of potatoes processed is introduced at
this point . All of the liquid spun from the starch in the centrifuge is
recycled to the liquid cyclone system .
The second liquid cyclone as shown , overcomes the problem of incomplete

starch removal from the juice by a single liquid cyclone if the flow rates to
the device are not very carefully tuned .
Centrifuged starch (60 -65 % T . S . (w . b . ) ) is dried - preferably in a flash

drier to obtain maximum whiteness . Reflectance values in the range of 93 . 5
96 % are obtained , however , even with simple tray drying at 600 . The crude
protein content is about 0 . 06 % . Air classification as previously used is
unnecessary in the revised process .
ULTRAFILTRATION
The first obvious system for processing juice would include ultrafiltration
to concentrate a protein stream in a similar manner to the now widely used
system for cheese whey . Unfortunately , however , potato proteins, like soy
bean proteins, contain trypsin inhibitors which must be inactivated with
heat. With little more heat than required for inactivation , the proteins
are coagulated such that they can be collected and dewatered to 20 % solids
by centrifugation . It thus seems pointless to include a superfluous ultra
filtration step .
WHOLE JUICE CONCENTRATION
Juice can be concentrated by evaporation (with or without a reverse osmosis

preconcentration step ) and spray or drum dried to produce 50 % crude protein
meal. The Eastern Regional Research Laboratory of the USDA (ERRL ) has
recently investigated this option at some length (7 ) . The dried juice is
very hygroscopic unless lime is added before the drying step . Sufficient
heating again must be done to inactivate the trypsin inhibitor . Chick feed
ing trials performed by R . Gerry at the University of Maine have shown that
inclusion of this material at levels above 6 % of the diet slow growth rates.
* Cornell Machine Company , 45 Brown Avenue, Springfield, NJ 07081 .

* * Bird Machine Company , Inc . , South Walpole , MA 02071 .
286
E . 0 . Strolle (ERRL ) , in attempting to pinpoint the cause of this poor per
formance , has noted up to 80 % losses in available lysine , apparently due to
simple Maillaird browning , at evaporation temperatures as low as 60C (140F )
(7 ) . Armed with only the above facts , one would conclude that potato juice
is only good for ruminant feeding . However , E . 0 . Strolle , in earlier
trials , has conducted rat feeding trials with potato protein obtained by
very rapid heat and acid precipitation followed by filtration and drum dry
ing and has obtained PER ' s equal to casein . This suggests that the protein
can be made to coagulate fast enough into a form wherein browning is inhib
ited . Braverman ' s text on food chemistry ( 8 ) supports the idea that reac
tion rates are very slow with materials not in solution . Moreover, acidic
conditions also tend to slow browning reactions . This suggests a third
general approach to juice processing .
HEAT PRECIPITATION
By rapid (i . e . , by steam injection or infusion ) heat and acid precipitation ,

potato juice proteins can be coagulated , centrifuged to roughly 20 % solids ,
and dried ( 9 ) ( 10 ) (11) . While the approach only collects about 35 % of the
crude protein of the juice , it yields a protein that is nonhygroscopic ,
concentrated ( i . e . , about 70 % protein ( d . b . ) ) , and without antitrypsin ac
tivity . The 35% figure includes nearly all the TCA precipitable protein .
The rat feeding tests mentioned above suggest that the protein is well
balanced . The deproteinated juice can be concentrated (with or without
reverse osmosis preconcentration ) to 70 % solids without serious foaming pro
blems. Since there is no way to prevent lysine destruction with this mate
rial, the obvious way to dispose of it is to add it back to the pulp (which
serves as a drying aid ) and dry it for ruminant feeding . (Ruminants do not
require a balanced protein . ) Where feed lots are in close proximity to the
factory , this drying step can be eliminated . A final question with respect
to the heat coagulation process (see Figure 2 ) is the distribution of glyco
alkaloids naturally occurring in cull potatoes .
SOLANINE
Solanine is the principal component of the toxic glycoalkaloids found in

potatoes . (The word " solanine " is also used to denote the whole family of
these materials (12) (13) . ) Dutch researches (14 ) have suggested that up to
half of the solanine is associated with heat coagulated protein . Our recent
results with juice heated at pH 4 do not confirm this . Rather , the solanine
seems to act as if it were soluble and can be found in the various output
streams in rough proportion to the water content of these streams at the
point of separation . In particular , the solanine content of heat and acid
precipitated protein is about the same, on a dry -weight basis , as the par
ent potatoes . The deproteinated juice is rich in solanine but by blending
this fraction with the pulp , the solanine is diluted . The resulting pulp
mixture contains about twice the solanine content (again on a dry -weight
basis ) of the parent potatoes . T . J. Fitzpatrick and S . F . Osman (ERRL ) ,
who have worked extensively with solanine , feel that , at this level , solanine
should not pose a problem with feeding of the pulp to ruminants which are
the only animals that can utilize it . This is a reversal from the viewpoint
287
JUICE
ACID
Heater
T sludge
Nozzle Centrif. Spray Drier
PROTEIN MEAL .
Rev. Osmosis WATER
WATER
Evaporator
Evaporator WATER
CONC. DEPROT . JUICE

(to Pulp Stream )
Fig . 2 . Juice Processing Flowchart.
288
that solanine would have to be solubilized by acid extraction and then pre
cipitated and removed by raising the pH followed by centrifugation with a
disk type automatic desludging centrifuge .
FOAMING
Potato juice has a great tendency to foam . Juice from partially frozen pota
toes is especially troublesome . Defoaming chemicals , if used in sufficient
quality , can control the problem but are expensive .
The Cornell Machine Company " Versator " has been used under plant conditions
and has proven effective in breaking foam . The machine is based on the prin
ciple of sheeting the foam onto a spinning curved disk within a vacuum chamber .
The defoamed liquid , of course , maintains its foaming characteristics and , if
again agitated with air , will refoam . The " Versator " is of no use in handling
foaming problems during evaporative concentration .
An ultrasonic probe was tested to see if high energy sound could be used to
break up the foam but the results were totally negative .
Heating to the point of coagulation greatly reduces the foam stabilization

properties of the protein . Juice treated in this manner can be evaporated
without serious foaming problems .
YEAST FERMENTATION
The last remaining starch plant in the Northeast has installed , in a coopera
tive venture with Bio -kinetics, Inc . , a yeast fermentation system . They are
experiencing some start -up problems with foaming since they are aerating , in
open tanks , whole juice without heat treatment .
An additional problem with fermentation systems is that starch plants use

high levels of so , to overcome enzymatic browning . We feel that these levels
pose problems for any single cell process unless it is precipitated or
stripped .
PRELIMINARY ECONOMICS
The present economic picture remains satisfactory although the current de

pressed price of cornstarch is not helpful . One hundred pounds of incoming
potatoes should produce 12 . 2 pounds of 18 % moisture starch which , at 11c per
pound , yields $ 1. 34 ; 1 . 1 pounds of protein meal (10% moisture ) ( $ 180 / ton ) ,
$ 0 . 10 ; and 8 . 9 pounds of pulp (10% moisture ) (100 / ton ) , $ 0 . 45 for a total of
$ 1 . 89 .
* Bio -kinetics , Inc . , 914 Mission Avenue, San Rafael , CA 94901
289
It is difficult to place a value on cull potatoes . A recent Canadian pub
lication mentions $ 0 . 27 per cwt . In some seasons , this value might increase
to $ 2 . 00 per cut. Current Maine prices are approximately $ 0 . 75 . Energy
costs will be $ 0 . 16 per cut processed assuming $ 3 . 00 / 106 Btu . This leaves
a gross margin of $ 0 . 93 per cwt processed if we assume miscellaneous supplies
will be $0 . 05 per cut .
If we assume an average of 400 ton of potatoes are processed each day of a

200 - day campaign , that we have a labor force of 10 persons with an average
cost of $ 20 , 000 /year each , that the plant costs about $ 2 , 000 , 000 and that 20%
of this must be used per year to cover maintenance , taxes , depreciation , etc . ,
we find a 42% R . 0 . 1 . Obviously a more detailed cost analysis must (and will
be ) be performed to confirm the economic feasibility of the processes pre
sented .
SUMMARY
In light of the apparent retention of lysine availability in heat coagulated
protein , its loss in soluble protein processing , the apparent solubility of
solanine , and the reduction in foaming ability by heat coagulation , a logical
juice processing scheme becomes obvious . Juice is heated quickly and centri
fuges . The resulting protein sludge ( roughly 20 % solids, 70 % crude protein
( d . b . )) , which accounts for about 35 % of the crude juice protein , is spray
dried as a high protein meal . The remaining juice is concentrated to 15%
solids by reverse osmosis followed by evaporation to 70% solids . It is then
mixed with the pulp for drying which acts as a carrier for the otherwise dif
ficult to dry hygroscopic material .
REFERENCES
1. Hemfort , H . , Huster , H . and Heimeier , 1975 . Low water consumption in

preparing potato starch . Reviewed by Peterson , N . B . Edible Starches
and Starch -Derived Syrups . Noyes Data Corp . , Park Ridge , NJ .
Hicks, C . P . , 1970 . Starch refining 2 - quality , yields and equipment.
Process Biochemistry 5 (7 ) : 30 .
Howerton , W . W . and Treadway , R . H . , 1948 . Manufacture of white potato
starch . Industrial and Engr. Chem . 40 ( 8 ) : 1402 .
Treadway , R . H . , 1959 . Potato starch . Potato Processing , ed . by

Talburt, W . F . and Smith , 0 . , AVI Publishing Co . , Westport , ct .
Treadway , R . H . , 1967. Manufacture of Potato Starch , ed . by Whisler ,
R . L . and Paschall, E . F . , Starch : Chemistry and Technology Vol . II ,
Academic Press , NY .
6 . Rosenau , J .R ., Whitney, L . F . and Elizondo , 1976 . Low wastewater pota
to starch / protein production process - concept , status, and outlook .
Proceedings of the Seventh National Symposium on Food Processing Wastes.
290
7. Strolle , E . O . , 1977 . Verbal communication . Eastern Regional Research
Laboratory , 600 East Mermaid Lane, Philadelphia , PA 19108 .
8. Braverman , J . B . S . , 1963. Introduction to the biochemistry of foods .

Elsevie Publishing Company .
Anon . , 1968 . Protein . Protein recovery from potato starch , Process

Biochemistry . May , 1968 , p . 51 .
10 . Stabile , R . L . , Turkot , V . A . , and Aceto , N . C . , 1971 .
Economic analysis
of alternative methods for processing potato starch plant effluents,
Proceedings of the Second National Symposium of Food Processing Wastes ,
Denver , co .
11 . Strolle , E . o . , Cording , J . , Jr . , and Aceto , N . C . , 1973 . Recovering

potato proteins by steam injection heating . J . Agr . Chem . 21 (6 ) : 974 .
12 . Jadhav , S . J . , and Salunkhe, D . K . , 1975. Formation and control of
chlorophyll and glycoalkaloids in tubers of Solanum tuberosum L . and
evaluation of glycoalkaloid toxicity . Advances in Food Research , Vol.
21. ed . by Chichester , c . 0 . Academic Press , NY .
13 . Alvarado , R . , and Fagerson , I .S . , 1976 . Personal Communication . Dept .
of Food Science and Nutrition , University of Massachusetts , Amherst ,
MA 01003 .
14 . deNoord , K . G . 1976 . Personal communication . Avebe , P . 0 . Box 15 ,

Veendam , Holland .
291
RECOVERY AND APPLICATION OF ORGANIC WASTES
FROM THE LOUISIANA SHRIMP CANNING INDUSTRY
by
B . E . Perkins and S . P . Meyers *
INTRODUCTION
Since 1968, investigations from our laboratory have documented the value of
" waste" proteinaceous substrates from Louisiana shrimp and crawfish process
ing industries ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . Overall efforts have been directed toward material
recovery and development of a diversity of applications of proteinaceous by
products . With regulatory requirements necessitating screening of solids from
effluent discharges , shrimp canning operations are experiencing an abundance
of solid waste materials . Efforts to upgrade the quality of meals from shrimp
and other crustacean wastes are in progress , especially in terms of the effect
of processing conditions on nutritional and pigment value. This is particu
larly important in view of the demonstrated variability in analyses and poten
tial nutritional composition of shrimp meals ( 4 ) . Further attention is being
given to reduction of BOD loads of discharge streams and economically sound
use of recovered proteinaceous material.
The magnitude of shrimp waste in the Gulf Coast area for recovery and applica
tion is by no means insignificant . The total heads -on landings for the Gulf
Coast canned and frozen shrimp industry , including both brown and white shrimp,
amounted to 179 . 5 million lbs in 1976 . Based upon a loss of 75 . 9% of the
heads - on weight , the total potential waste , including materials such as heads,
shells , legs , etc . , from both the Gulf canned and frozen shrimp industries is
136 . 3 million lbs (Fig . 1 ) .
The calculated waste generated in the various effluent streams from the pro
cessing operations is noteworthy (Fig. 2 ) . Based on an approximate 3 . 3 gal
water / lb shrimp processed , as much as 600 million gal are used in shrimp pro
cessing in the Gulf . Included in this volume is a total potential dissolved
and suspended microscopic waste load of 4 . 7 million lbs . Approximately 3 . 3
millions lbs dry wt (16 . 5 million lbs wet wt) of this waste is from the frozen ,
peeled tail operations , while the canning portion ( raw and blanch wastes ) con
tributed 1 . 4 million lbs dry wt ( 7 . 0 million lbs wet wt ) . In the main , recov
ery and use of this dissolved shrimp protein has been neglected with prime at
tention being given to macroscopic solids recovery as a meal substrate .
* Department of Food Science , Louisiana State University , Baton Rouge , Louisi

ana 70803 .
292
GULF SHRIMP
LANDINGS
1976
(HEADS - ON )
uazzwo
XMILLIONS
.WEIGHT
LBS
OF
POTENTIAL
WASTE
ΟΝΟ
YIELDS
PROCESSED AS FROZEN CANNED

FROZEN CANNED
Figure 1 . Gulf shrimp landings , yields and potential waste , 1976 .
293
500
MILLIONS
GALLON
WATER
OF
BLANCH
WASTES
RAW 51. 4 X 106LBS.

WASTES I (DRY WT.)
PROCESSED AS
FROZEN CANNED
Figure 2 . Amount of water used in Gulf Coast shrimp processing, 1976.
294
The general waste flow from shrimp canning involves largely three separate
components : a ) material from the peeling, separating and deveining opera
tions ; b ) that from the blanch tanks ; and c ) the shrimp meat and debris dur
ing the several inspection phases . Primary attention has been given to the
blanch portion of the process in terms of recoverable proteinaceous material
from the hot brine liquor . Aspects considered in this study have included in
plant characteristics, notably ratio of blanch load to total discharge and to
volume and meat / liquid ratio , load fluctuations and seasonal peak features ;
variations between plants , i . e . , process flow , blanch time , salinity and tem
perature , and shrimp load and characteristics; analyses of potential biochemi
cal/nutritional application of product in terms of facility logistics. Changes
in dissolved organic and suspended meat levels as related to averages or
trends in shrimp size also are important and must be tabulated in overall
analyses of recovery variability .
Many facets of the shrimp canning operation have been presented in earlier re
ports ( 5 ) (6 ) directed toward development of an economical, practicable method
of effectively and efficiently treating waste waters from such plants .
Studies involved characterization of the BOD - 5 and suspended solids , includ
ing that of the water flume dumps , canning , and retort cooling and inspection .
It was calculated that the peeling operation contributed approximately 70% of
the BOD- 5 (4 . 89 lbs / 100 lbs shrimp ) and suspended solids ( 2 .63 lbs/ 100 lbs
shrimp ) to the total discharge , compared with < 5 % for the blanching phase.
Data generated in the previous and current studies will be used for evaluation
and application in design , construction and operation of wastewater treatment
systems for the shrimp canning industry , particularly on the Gulf Coast .
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sampling Techniques
Samples of effluent streams were taken from three major shrimp canneries in
Westwego and Harvey , in the greater New Orleans vicinity . More than 20 such
facilities of various sizes are located in the Louisiana - Mississippi Gulf re
gion , the majority of which are found in the New Orleans and Houma , Louisiana
area . Logistics of areal plant concentrations are important in any projection
of economics of by - product recovery and ultimate use.
Blanch water was taken directly from the blancher overflow valves. While a
batch process was used in early stages of the industry , most plants now employ
a continuous system in which shrimp are passed through the tank via a screw
conveyor and brine water is continually added , with surplus washed from the
tank . In blanching or pre- cooking operations ( 7 ) shrimp are processed in a
boiling brine which extracts moisture and solubles , curls the meat , and devel
ops the characteristic pink to red color of the final product . During this
treatment, both particulate and dissolved shrimp protein is concentrated in
the liquor which is discarded usually at the end of the daily processing .
The three facilities studied all use continuous blanchers in which the greater
portion of the water is recirculated within the tank and a lesser amount dis
carded through an overflow valve . As noted , overflow loss is compensated for
by addition of fresh brine, procedures for which vary from plant to plant .
Since processing equipment used in the three canneries sampled is more or less
295
similar in operation , differences in by -product loading rates as a result of
dissimilar equipment may be discounted .
Raw wastewater was collected from effluent streams carrying wastes from the
washing, peeling , and deveining operations . All liquid material was collected
and stored for transport in 5 - gal plastic carboys . Samples of solid waste
composed of detritus remaining after initial picking , bits of shell not re
moved during peeling, and broken pieces of cooked shrimp were also collected .
Samples were collected from the discharge chute of the after -blanch air
cleaner . All solid samples were packed in plastic bags and stored in ice
chests . Subsequently , all material was transported to the LSU Department of
Food Science at Baton Rouge and frozen at - 5 C until analyzed .
Shrimp Blanch Water Analysis

Blanch water samples were filtered through cheesecloth to remove suspended
meat fragments , dried in a microwave oven (Amana Touchmatic Radarange Model
# RR -6 - w ) , and the resulting dry weights recorded . Unless otherwise indicated,
all dry weight determinations were made in this manner .
The protein liquor obtained after removal of suspended meat was adjusted to
pH 4 . 2 via 12 M reagent - grade ( 37 - 38 % ) HCl, thus allowing for isoelectric pre
cipitation of dissolved proteins . After precipitation was complete (60 - 75
min ) , the supernatant layer (sugar liquor) was removed and the precipitate
centrifuged at 10 ,000 rpm for 10 min . The supernatant was added to the
previously - siphoned sugar liquor . Dry weight of dissolved protein removed was
determined .
The sugar liquor obtained after removal of dissolved protein was adjusted to
pH 9 . 5 with technical - grade Ca (OH ) 2 . Adjustment to pH 9 . 5 in the presence of
Ca + + ions permitted isoelectric precipitation and salting out of the dissolved
sugar. Following this, the supernatant layer (final effluent) was siphoned
and the precipitate centrifuged at 10 , 000 rpm for 10 min . The supernatant was
added to the previously - siphoned final effluent . Dissolved sugar removed was
dried and weighed .
To determine the amounts of dry solids in the unused blanch water (brine
water ) and the final effluent , samples of each were vacuum - dried at 85 C / 30 in .
Hg pressure.
Raw Shrimp Processing Water Analysis
Raw shrimp processing water was filtered through cheesecloth to remove sus
pended meat fragments and shells which were dried and weighed . The remaining
protein liquor obtained was adjusted to pH 4 . 2 with 12 M HCl , permitting pre
cipitation of dissolved proteins. The supernatant layer was siphoned and dis
carded, and the precipitate centrifuged at 10 , 000 rpm for 10 min and dried and
weighed .
296
Determination of Total Carbon
in Shrimp Blanch Water
Samples of each of the previously - dried components , i . e . , dry material from
fresh brine solution untreated blanch water , protein liquor, sugar liquor , and
final effluent , were ground in a mortar and pestle and weighed in 0 . 1 g
amounts . All of these were taken uniformly at 1 hr after start - up of process .
Each sample was analyzed for total carbon with a Hoskins electric furnace
( 1000 C ) . Total carbon was converted to CO2 gas , which was captured in an
Ascarite- containing vessel. Changes in weight in the Ascarite- containing ves
sel indicated the weight of the CO2 absorbed . From these values , total car
bon contents of each of the components was calculated and recorded .
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Isoelectric Point Precipitation
Major attention has been given to isoelectric point precipitation with HCl and
preliminary centrifugation , as well as use of specific coagulants such as chi
tosan (Hercules Co . , Kytex H® ) . In initial tests (Table 1 ) , concentrated
H2S04 , concentrated HNO3 , and glacial acetic acid appeared to be good pre
cipitating agents , although none were as effective as concentrated HCl .
TABLE 1 . EFFECTIVENESS OF DIFFERENT ACIDS

ON ISOELECTRIC POINT PRECIPITATION
Precipitated shrimp
Acid protein /gal '
Concentrated HCl 303 g

Concentrated H2SO4 152 g
Concentrated HNO 3 175 g
Concentrated CH 3 COOH 230 g
'Precipitated within 2 hr.
Isoelectric precipitation of suspended and dissolved proteins is more rapid

when fresh blanch water is used . Samples frozen and stored at - 5 C for < 2 wks
also showed good precipitation . Those stored at - 5 C in excess of 2 wks re
quired additional levels of concentrated HCl for effective recovery of pro
teins. This may be due to molecular destruction caused by ice crystal forma
tion or chemical modification under prolonged storage . Precipitation occurs
more rapidly at low temperatures .
Addition of Ca (OH ) 2 at concentrations of 2 . 5 g / L acidified blanch water re
duced overall flocculation time by 50 % , from several hours to less than one
hour. Neither Ohº alone (added as NaOH ) or Catt (added as CaCl2 , Ca (No 3) 2 or
CaHPO4) achieved a similar effect . In one test , using a 2 % chitosan - acetic
297
acid (100 ml of a 10 % solution ) mixture , flocculation of the blanch water was
not observed , even at the isoelectric point of pH 4 . 2 . Comparable results
were obtained when varying amounts of CaC12, Ca (NO3) 2 , and CaHPO4 were added
to the chitosan -acetic acid blanch water mixture . However , supplementation
with 0 . 5 % Ca (OH ) 2 resulted in excellent flocculation , comparable to that ob
tained with HCl and 0 . 5 % Ca ( OH ) 2 . Noteworthy differences in hardness and tex
ture of the proteinaceous precipitate were seen with the various treatments .
The addition of calcium hydroxide or chitosan in conjunction with isoelectric

point precipitation caused a change in the appearance of the precipitated pro
tein . With increasing concentration of Ca (OH ) 2 , the sediment becomes some
what harder or " cake - like , " rather than the usual consistency , much like that
of toothpaste. Chitosan , on the other hand , causes the sediment to become
softer , with the consistency of mucus . It appears that Ca (OH ) 2 is superior
to chitosan as an additional clearing agent of the supernatant layer . Fur
ther testing is needed to see whether texture of the final product can be
manipulated through use of agents such as Ca (OH ) 2 or chitosan to suit a par
ticular application . Additional evaluation of other acids and coagulants for
protein precipitation is also worthwhile .
Dry Weight Determination - - Shrimp Blanch Water
Dry weight determination of the various components or groups in shrimp blanch

water represent averages from fifteen collections over the period May through
December, 1976 (Table 2 ) . This period includes samples of both the brown
shrimp (Penaeus aztecus ) and white shrimp (Penaeus setiferus ) .
TABLE 2 . CHARACTERIZATION OF SHRIMP BLANCH WATER
Average concentration (dry wt)

g / gal 1b / 100 lb
Component H20 raw shrimp
Suspended meat fragments 9. 5 0 . 11

Dissolved protein 33 . 5 0 . 39
Dissolved sugar 4 .6 0 . 05
Other solids* 194 . 0 2 . 27
Total 241. 6 2.82
* Includes salts, trace elements , miscellaneous organics .
Mauldin and Szabo (6 ) reported suspended solids in shrimp blanch water as much
as 0 . 19 lb / 100 lb raw shrimp processed . Currently , discounting that component
noted as " other solids" (Table 2) , total suspended and dissolved solids are
0 . 55 1b / 100 lb raw shrimp processed . On a gallon basis , recoverable dissolved
protein is 7. 5 % of the total . Both suspended meat fragments and dissolved
protein are in sufficient amounts for economical recovery , and while the
298
dissolved sugars are not present in large concentrations , their removal may be
necessary to comply with pending EPA " zero discharge" regulations . It might
be possible to accumulate the remaining sugar liquor following removal of the
proteinaceous fractions , concentrate the dissolved solids, and remove these
together .
Dry Weight Determination - -Raw

Shrimp Processing Water
Results obtained on the various portions of the raw shrimp processing water
are averages from the same fifteen collections made for the shrimp blanch
water (Table 3) .
TABLE 3 . CHARACTERIZATION OF RAW SHRIMP WASTEWATER*
Average concentration (dry wt )

g / gal 1b / 100 lb
Component H20 raw shrimp
Dissolved protein 3 . 39 2 . 44
Shells , legs , heads 21. 10 15 . 16
Total 24 . 49 17 .60
* Includes peeling, washing , deveining , and miscellaneous uses .
Mauldin and Szabo (6 ) report suspended solid loads in raw wastewaters of 3 .68 1b /
100 lb raw shrimp processed . Table 3 shows an amount of total suspended and
dissolved solids of 2 . 44 lb / 100 lb raw shrimp processed . Grams of substrate /
gal recovered , less solids , is approximately 50 % of that found in the blanch
water effluent . Applications for raw dissolved shrimp protein have not been
fully investigated. Possibly , the nutritive value of the extracted raw pro
tein is superior to that of the material extracted from the blanch tanks ,
since the former has not been subjected to heat treatment which might cause
protein denaturation and destruction of thermolabile amino acids such as
lysine .
Waste loads in the various effluent streams may vary on a daily or even hourly
basis . Analyses of variability in dissolved proteins in random collections of
shrimp blanch water are shown in Figure 3 . Waste load variability also is
found in effluent blanch streams of the three canneries examined on the same
day ( Table 4 ) . Dissimilarities exist not only in total dissolved and sus
pended wastes , but also in the relative amounts of the different components
comprising the effluent loads . Variability may be due to such factors as size
of shrimp , whether shrimp have been deveined , blanch period , temperature, and
salinity . Nevertheless , plant - to - plant and day - to - day dissimilarities , de
pending on the tonnage being processed , ultimately can be calculated to pro
vide an average amount of potential waste product recovery .
299
DISSOL
)WT
GG MS VED
PROTEIN
RY
(, AL
./D
MAY 14 MAY 19 JUNE 23 JUNE 30

COLLECTION DATES , 1976
Figure 3 . Variability of dissolved protein in shrimp blanch water (Plant A ) .
300
TABLE 4 . VARIABILITY IN CONCENTRATION OF PROTEINACEOUS MATERIAL
IN SHRIMP BLANCHING WATER *
Component Plant A Plant B Plant C

Suspended meat fragments 40 . 8 0.8 7 .4
Dissolved protein 12 . 5 25 . 2 25 . 0
Total 53. 3 26 . 0 32 . 4
* Expressed as g (dry wt ) / gal blanching water .
Another source of valuable shrimp meat is that from the discharge section of
the forced -air apparatus used to remove debris ( small meat pieces and shell
fragments ) originating from the turbulence of the blanching operation . In
another plant, this material was separated by hand . In both facilities , the
debris , including the food - grade shrimp meat pieces , are traditionally treated
as waste and either are incorporated into the meal or are discarded entirely .
Hand- separation of meat particles and shells revealed as much as 82% edible
food - grade meat present. Based on a discard solid shrimp load weight of 500
1000 1b /8 hr , as much as 410 -820 lb of valuable shrimp meat are discarded
daily . Considering that often peak - load days run as long as 15 - 16 hr , along
with the total number of processing days in a season and number of plants in
volved , clearly , multi - tons of valuable shrimp meat may be recovered .
Problems in load variability as noted earlier make any attempt to establish an

average treatment of shrimp blanch water extremely difficult . Therefore , to
effectively treat effluent streams , a monitoring system must be devised to in
dicate types and amounts of waste materials contained in such discharges . In
a study of dungeness crab protein in Kodiak , Alaska in 1971 (8 ) it was postu
lated that the protein solubility of dissolved crab protein in blanch water at
the isoelectric point, in the main , was a linear function of the salt concen
tration . However , as noted in Figure 4 , such a linear function is not totally
applicable to shrimp blanch water. Although there appears to be a direct re
lationship between protein solubility and increasing salt concentration from
specific gravity 1 . 025 to specific gravity 1 . 030 , with increase in the speci
fic gravity of the salt concentration to 1 . 040 , the linear response becomes
negative. This is also true when the salinity is decreased from specific
gravity 1 . 040 to 1 . 030 , accompanied by an increase in protein concentration .
Thus , monitoring of salt concentration in shrimp blanch water does not appear
to be a valid criterion of protein solubility ; however , more detailed monitor
ing is necessary to detail quantitative aspects of salinity and dissolved pro
tein levels . The extreme variations that occur in salt concentration over
relatively short periods of time is also noted in Figure 4 . This is due pri
marily to inadequate methods of monitoring blanch water salt concentrations
during processing , which can give rise to an inconsistent product of less than
optimal quality .
301
1 .040
PROTEIN
GRAMS
SPECIFIC
GRAVITY
.HCL
AND
ML
GRAVITY
SPECIFIC
1 .035
1 .025
GRAMS PROTEIN
DRY WT. / 250 ML . H2O
1. 020
A ML . 12M HCL
ADDED / LITER
1 . 015
4.
TIME (HRS.)
Figure 4 . Blanch water concentration and recoverable protein (Plant A ) .
302
Total Carbon Determination - -
Shrimp Blanch Water
The effectiveness of nutrient removal from the blanch water , using procedures
of screening of meat fragments followed by chemical removal of dissolved pro
tein and sugar , is seen in Figure 5 . Data on carbon reduction are only quali
tative representations of total reduction since no differentiation has been
made between total organic and inorganic carbon levels .
30
BON
MSAL
UNTREATED
/, AL
CAR
TOT
H2O
BLANCH
G
WATER
UNUSED
PROTEIN
BLANCH
LIQUOR
WATER
EFFLUENT
FINAL
LIQUOR
SUGAR
Figure 5 . Reduction of total carbon in blanch water .
303
The maximal single reduction of total carbon occurred following removal of
dissolved protein , i. e. , an average of 7. 3 g / gal. Since the shrimp contribute
an average of 10 . 1 g C / gal of blanch water , dissolved protein removal alone
accounts for a 73% removal of total carbon . The two other extraction proce
dures , i . e . , removal of suspended meat fragments and dissolved " sugar , " ac
counted for 26% and 4 % reduction of total carbon , respectively . These values
add up to a total of 103. 0 % of the 10 . 1 g C / gal contributed by the shrimp to
the blanch water , suggesting that a portion of the carbon initially present
in the fresh blanch water was also removed . Based upon the initial total car
bon value of 18 . 1 g C contributed by each gallon of unused blanch water , and
the final total carbon value of 17. 8 g C in the final effluent , this method
of treatment of the blanch water may be an effective means of reducing levels
of biologically - active components present .
The overall potential shrimp protein recovery from a single plant , not includ
ing the multi- tons of solid waste incorporated into meal , is diagrammed below .
POTENTIAL SHRIMP PROTEIN RECOVERY

( Based on 8 -hr day )
Peeling , Separating, Blanch Raw / Cooked Debris

and Deveining Streams Stream and Shrimp Meat
900- 1100 1b /day 200 - 260 1b /day 500 - 1000 1b /day
Extrapolation of the above data to numerous localized plant operations over a

concentrated processing season , with often 16 - 20 hours processing / day , indi
cates the significant magnitude of resource available for application .
Applications of Shrimp By - Products
Various uses for materials recovered from the shrimp processing operation are
listed in Table 5 . A diversity of applications are seen , including use in
aquaculture diets, pet foods, concentrated flavor sources , additives to tex
tured vegetable proteins for fabrication of shrimp products , and as a pigment
source in broiler diets. Proposed usages for chitin and its derivative chito
san suggest further markets for exoskeleton waste .
An increasing amount of data is accumulating on analytical properties of
shrimp meal and its application in animal rations. Use of such meals in poul
try diets has been well demonstrated , especially for purposes of imparting de
sirable pigmentation to meat, skin or egg yolk . Frequently , source and type
of the meal is not documented , a factor of considerable importance in view of
the significant variability in proximate analysis of different processed
shrimp meals ( 4 ) .
304
TABLE 5 . APPLICATION OF SHRIMP BY- PRODUCTS
Livestock Feed Ingredient Source of :

Tropical Fish /Bird Diets
- Shrimp Protein Concentrate
- Flavor Concentrates
Aquaculture Diets
- Carotenoid Pigments
Pet Food Supplement - Chitin /Chitosan
Use in Fabricated Shrimp Products
Earlier work from our laboratory ( 7 ) on analyses of nucleotides and amino acids
in shrimp blanch water from batch tanks has revealed significant amounts of
such materials. Concentrations of flavor enhancers such as IMP in blanch li
quors are of particular interest . These studies have relevance to other fish
eries industries using blanching procedures or where discharge streams carry
large organic loads . Furthermore , analyses and quality evaluations of shrimp
meal and in -plant streams, and development of nutritionally - sound shrimp meal
fortified diets , are needed for production of least -cost diets for cultivation
of economically valuable aquatic animals . Analyses of shrimp waste protein ,
designated SWP (9 ) , have revealed proximate values of protein as high as 59% .
Further evaluation of such material ( 10 ) has shown that SWP has significant
nutritive value , improving protein quality by 74 % when soybean protein in the
diet was replaced by 50 % of SWP . Use of SWP in canned or processed pet foods,
or as an additive to textured vegetable proteins , has been projected .
There is an increasing need to develop and improve aquaculture diets, based on
workable feed formulation practices and good animal husbandry . More and more
emphasis is being placed in aquaculture on effective use of industrial by
products or "wastes " as dietary ingredients to replace traditional feed com
modities . Diet formulation practices must relate to current economics of ma
rine and agricultural feedstuffs , problems of the seafood industry , and the
state of the art in processing techniques . These food / feed related considera
tions are important in achieving economic viability in the nutrition and diet
development phases of aquaculture . It has been demonstrated in our work , as
well as in that of others , that shrimp by - products have valuable application
in fish and crustacean diets (11) .
Shrimp - based flake diets developed at LSU (12) have been used in nutrition of
various fishes , especially freshwater and marine tropicals, specialty diets
to enhance pigmentation , breeding, etc . , and supplementation and ultimate re
placement of currently used live food in aquatic animal culture. The tropical
fish market is by no means insignificant . In analyses of sales of aquarium
related products , foods of various types showed a 17. 5 % increase in 1973– 74 ,
from 57 to 67 million dollars . Shrimp meals and pigment- fortified marine sub
strates are receiving increasing attention as skin / flesh coloration agents in
salmon and trout diets ( 13 ) . Shrimp protein , obtained as a by - product of a
chitin - recovery operation , has been effectively used as a pigment and protein
305
source in diets for pond / pen raised salmonid fish .
Recent studies have evaluated water - soluble proteins from autolyzed shrimp
wastes as microbiological growth media . Data showed that a peptone derived
from such wastes compared favorably with commercially available peptones in
supporting growth of several microorganisms .
Considerable interest is being shown in recovery of chitin and chitosan , a
polyglucosamine substance from chitin , from shellfish processing wastes . Com
mercial use of materials from the shrimp exoskeleton is being proposed in
paper -making , pharmaceutical, food - processing , agricultural , waste treatment
and monitoring , and adhesive industries . For instance , chitosan has been
found to be an effective coagulating agent for poultry processing wastes
wherein treatment reduced suspended solids in the composite effluents by as
much as 74 - 95% . Savings in water and waste treatment costs , plus the value
of coagulated solids as feed ingredients , may commend use of chitosan for pre
treatment of poultry wastes and recovery of coagulated by - products .
Application of shrimp meat fragments is readily apparent in development of

flavor concentrates , reconstituted shrimp and for use with texture soy pro
tein in fabricated shrimp products . Lyophilized cooked shrimp protein con
centrate has a strong shrimp flavor and a pinkish - orange color , along with a
salty taste from the brine used . Both aspects can be adjusted via rehydra
tion and comminution with vegetable protein extenders. A product such as this
could be used as a mock shrimp for human consumption , requiring only formation
of the shrimp- TSP mixture into a shape resembling a fantail or butterfly
shrimp . Recent studies have shown that the shelf life of minced fish can be
extended by comminution with shrimp meat . Rehydrated shrimp protein concen
trate conceivably could be used in this process. Interest is being shown by
food flavor industries in the potential of concentrated shrimp flavors in sea
food products . The shrimp industry as a whole is looking into processes and
products that will " extend" shrimp using procedures that combine shrimp meat
and flavor with vegetable proteins and fillers (soy or rice) , forming new pro
ducts that can be competitive with other staple proteins .
Certainly , any consideration of economic recovery of blanch discharge , as well

as materials from other plant streams, must involve specific plant character
istics as well as plant - to - plant variation , and logistics of collections . How
ever , the volume of valuable proteinaceous material involved and increasing
applications in food and feed industries is well documented . Further study of
the reduction of waste loads in shrimp processing is warranted , coupled with
in - depth evaluation of economics involved in use of the various recovered
shrimp by -products .
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
These studies were supported by the Office of Sea Grant (NOAA ) , U . S . Depart
ment of Commerce , through the Louisiana State University Agricultural Experi
ment Station .
306
REFERENCES
Meyers , S . P . , and Rutledge , J . E . Economic utilization of crustacean

meals . Feedstuffs 43: 16 ( 1971 ) .
Meyers , S . P . , and Rutledge , J . E . Shrimp meal- - a new look at an old

product . Feedstuffs 43: 31 - 32 ( 1971 ) .
Meyers , S . P . , and Rutledge , J . E . Utilization of economically - valuable

byproducts from the shrimp processing industry . Food - -Drugs from the Sea
Proceedings , 1972 (ed . L . R . Worthen ) , Marine Technology Society , 75 - 85
( 1973) .
Meyers , S . P . , Sonu , s . C . , and Rutledge , J . E . Variability in proximate

analysis of different processed shrimp meals . Feedstuffs 45 : 34 ( 1973) .
Mauldin , A . F . , and Szabo, A . J . Gulf shrimp canning plant wastewater

processing . Proc . Fifth Nat. Symposium on Food Processing Wastes .
EPA -660 / 2 - 74 - 058 , p . 199 – 217 ( 1974 ) .
Mauldin , A . F . , and Szabo, A . J . Shrimp Canning Waste Treatment Study.

U . S . Environmental Protection Agency Rept . No . EPA -660/ 2 - 74 - 061 . ( June
1974 ) 1 - 130 .
Meyers , S . P . , and Sonu, s . C . Nucleotides and amino acids in shrimp

blanching water . Feedstuffs 46 : 23 ( 1974 ) .
Johnson , E . L . , Peniston , Q . P . , and Braun , F . W . Pollution Abatement and

By -Product Recovery in Shellfish and Fisheries Processing . U .S . Environ
mental Protection Agency Rept . No . EPA 12130 F - JQ 06 / 71. ( 1971) 1 -85 .
Toma , R . B . , and Meyers , S . P . Isolation and chemical evaluation of pro
tein from shrimp cannery effluent . J . Agric . Food Chem . 23 :632 -635 (1975 ) .
10 . Toma, R . B . , and James , W . H . Nutritional evaluation of protein from

shrimp cannery effluent (shrimp waste protein ) . J . Agric . Food Chem .
23 : 1168- 1171 ( 1975 ) .
New , M . B . A review of dietary studies with shrimp and prawns . Aquacul

ture 9 : 101 - 144 ( 1976 ) .
Meyers , S . P . , and Brand, C . W . Experimental flake diets for fish and

crustacea . Progressive Fish Culturist 37 :67 - 72 (1975) .
Meyers , S . P . Use of crustacean meals and carotenoid - fortified diets in
aquaculture . Feedstuffs 49 : ( 1977) .
307
TOXICITY OF SOME CANADIAN
FRUIT AND VEGETABLE PROCESSING EFFLUENTS
by
A . Lamb * , C .W . Fulton * , and P . Mulyk *
INTRODUCTION
Fruit and vegetable processing operations are the source of a concentrated

biologically - active effluent and highly putrescible solid wastes which must
be treated and ultimately discharged to the land surface or a water body .
Stringent control measures are likely to be required in many cases to avoid
overloading the local assimilation capacity , while in other cases much less
stringent controls would be appropriate . An objective of regulatory agencies
is to establish rational effluent standards which will prevent pollution by
fruit and vegetable processing wastes, yet which will represent practical,
attainable goals . The costs of alternative abatement strategies must be
carefully evaluated as these will either be passed directly to the consumer
or , if this is prevented by competitive forces , may threaten the continued
economic operation of the facility .
In recent years there has been a growing awareness of environmental issues by

Canadians. The Federal Government responded to this public concern by putting
forward a major legislative program , the focal point of which was the
Government Organization Act resulting in the formation of a Department of
Environment in June 1971. The Environmental Protection Service ( EPS) was
developed to cover the specific responsibility for environmental protection .
The role of EPS is one of problem identification and solution , being con
cerned with the control and abatement of pollution by formulating a realistic
program of pollution control for Canada in cooperation with provincial author
ities and industries concerned .
The approach of the Environmental Protection Service to pollution control is

to adopt a strategy of containment at source by means of the best practicable
technology . The regulations and guidelines developed to achieve this strategy
are based on control methods which are the best from both an economic and
environmental standpoint. Every effort is made to ensure the fullest parti
cipation of provinces and industries concerned , the first steps being to
identify the problem in terms of an environmental inventory of the industry
and to conduct a " state - of- the- art " review including waste characterizations ,
and process and waste treatment technologies . A Federal/ Provincial / Industrial
task force assesses this information and recommends best practicable in
process and treatment technology on which to base effluent regulations or
guidelines. These regulations or guidelines , as formulated by the
Environmental Protection Serivce, are subsequently reviewed with the provincial
pollution control agencies , the appropriate Canadian industry associations and
* Stanley Associates Engineering Ltd . , Edmonton , Alberta
308
international experts in the field with the objective of obtaining a
general concensus on the soundness of the regulations or guidelines.
The work described in this paper is the result of two projects carried out
by Stanley Associates Engineering Ltd . for the Canadian Federal Government ;
a state- of -the - art review of waste treatment technology in the fruit and
vegetable industry , and an inventory of plants in Canada .
This work is now completed and will be published shortly by the Federal
Government .
DATA SOURCES
Prime sources of data for plants in the Canadian fruit and vegetable pro
cessing industry were those individual plants at which site visits were
carried out during the course of the state - of-the - art review and the
responses to questionnaires distributed by Environment Canada to all known
Canadian fruit and vegetable processors during the Inventory Study .
Data have been presented in this paper in the metric system of units. A
table showing various conversion factors applicable to the fruit and
vegetable industry is given in Appendix 1 .
FRUIT AND VEGETABLE PROCESSING INDUSTRY

Canadian Operations
It is recognized that the fruit and vegetable industry is complex ; thus

eleven major commodities were designated in the original work .
Apples and apple sauce

Peaches, pears and apricots
Cherries and plums
Berries
Corn
Peas and beans (Blanched vegetables )
Beets and carrots
Tomatoes
Sauerkraut
Pickles and relishes
Jams and Jellies
It is considered that the above list of commodities reflects the major fruits
and vegetables processed in Canada based on a review of Canadian statistics .
It should be pointed out that this list is not exhaustive with respect to
the total processing industry in Canada nor does it include all the specific
commodities discussed in recent publications by the United States
Environmental Protection Agency .
The Canadian fruit and vegetable processing industry is a multi -million

dollar manufacturing activity. The value of shipments of manufactured goods
309
in 1974 totalled approximately 865 million dollars . Three provinces ,
British Columbia , Ontario and Quebec are the major processing areas con
tributing 9% , 62% , and 15 % of the total value of shipments, respectively .
Based on information available from Statistics Canada and other sources , the
weights of raw fruits and vegetables processed in Canada in 1975 were
estimated to be as follows:
Raw fruit processed 249, 870 metric tonnes
Raw vegetables processed 851,580 metric tonnes
The total number of plants in Canada processing raw fruits and vegetables is
estimated to be 221. Large plants , that is those processing greater than
10 , 000 metric tonnes of raw material annually constitute only 10 % of the
total number of plants , yet account for 51% of the total Canadian production .
In contrast , small plants, or those processing less than 2 ,000 metric tonnes
of raw material annually constitute 50 % of the total number of plants but
account for only 7 % of the total production . The remaining 40 % of the plants
process between 2 , 000 and 10 , 000 metric tonnes annually and account for 42%
of the commodities produced .
Wastewater Loadings
Using data for the year 1975 obtained from questionnaires developed by
Environment Canada and distributed to all known Canadian fruit and vegetable
processing plants, estimates of total potential raw wastewater BOD, and
suspended solids loadings from the industry were as follows :
BOD , (kg) S . S . (kg)

Small Plants 0 .82 x 106 0 . 30 x 10
Medium Plants 5 . 73 x 102 1 .87 x 10 .
Large Plants 5 . 47 x 10 2 .99 x 10°
Total 12 .02 x 106 5 . 16 x 106
Existing (1975 ) treatment systems are removing 76 . 2% of the total BOD , and
79 . 8 % of the total suspended solids loadings broken down as follows :
BODE s.s.
% Removed by Industry
operated biological
treatment systems 30 . 7 30 . 8
% Removed by municipal
systems 29. 8 31. 0
% Removed by land application
systems 15 . 7 18 . 0
Total Removed (% ) 76 . 2 79 . 8
310
EFFLUENT REGULATIONS
Effluent regulations are being established for many Canadian industries by

Environment Canada . These regulations generally specify a permissible
quantity of pollutant which can be discharged per ton of material processed
or per ton of finished product (eg . lbs . of BOD , or suspended solids per ton
of product ) . Effluent toxicity is another parameter frequently specified
in effluent regulations . The toxicity clause specifies a concentration of
diluted effluent in which rainbow trout must survive for 96 hours in a flow
through bioassay test .
The reasons for specifying a toxicity limit are twofold. First , fish have
direct value to the public both as a food source and for recreational
purposes . The Canadian Government is interested in protecting this resource .
Secondly , from the point of view of the regulatory agency , a toxicity standard
simplifies the effluent monitoring program . It would be difficult if not
impossible to perform routine testing for all toxic compounds which may be
present in a waste . Specifying a toxicity standard enables the agency to
control pollutant levels for many toxic parameters by performing the bioassay
test .
WASTEWATER TOXICITY
Wastewater may contain many materials which can cause mortality or adversely
upset biochemical functions of aquatic organisms . The bioassay test measures
acute lethal toxicity ; that is, the ability of a waste to cause death of the
test organisms usually within a period of four days . Such effects as a pH
change which inhibits the transfer of soluble materials and gases or the
presence of high concentrations of suspended solids which result in physical
abrasion or clogging of the gills are frequently responsible for acute
toxicity .
It should be noted that the bioassay test gives no indication of sub - lethal
effects such as destruction of habitat or food chain organisms or inter
ference with behavior or reproduction patterns . These could be as lethal
as acute effects in the long term .
A direct physical or chemical analytical procedure can be used to measure the

level of those physical and inorganic sources of toxicity . Receiving water
and effluent standards can then be set to protect fish and other aquatic
species . However , where complex organic compounds cause acute or sublethal
toxicity , direct analytical techniques have not been developed for water
quality control purposes .
In many wastewaters the specified compound causing toxicity is not definitely
known . Bioassay testing is therefore utilized to detect the presence and
concentration of toxic compounds in wastewater effluents . Any aquatic
species which are sensitive to pollutants could be utilized as a test
organism but fish have been chosen as the test animals for most toxicity work .
In Canada , the Fisheries Act is the legislation under which water pollution
311
control regulations are promulgated and therefore the use of fish species
for bioassay testing is appropriate . Although fish may not be the most
pollution sensitive species in the adult form , they have the most direct
value to the public as a food source or sporting activity .
Bioassay Test Method
The bioassay test involves observations of fish mortality in varying concen

trations of effluent. Rainbow trout are used as the test species because :
( 1 ) there is an abundance of data on their response , (2 ) they are a common
and popular game fish , and ( 3 ) they are a particularly pollutant intolerant
species .
Large volumes of wastewater are collected over a 24 hour period, refrigerated

to 5°C and shipped to the test facility. Varying concentrations of waste and
dilution water are prepared in the range of 0 - 100 % . The 0 % or control
sample , consisting entirely of dilution water , must have less than 10 % deaths
or the test is considered invalid .
The test conditions are defined and are carefully controlled . Temperature
is usually maintained at 15°C + 1°C . Aeration is supplied to provide a
minimum dissolved oxygen concentration of 8 mg/ 1 . pH may or may not be
adjusted depending upon the objectives of the test . Fish size and volume of
test solution are also controlled . Fish which have been acclimated to
dilution water are then introduced into each of the vessels containing a
different concentration of waste .
Ideally , a continuous flow (once through ) system is used to prevent

accumulation of waste materials generated by the fish or depletion of toxic
materials in the effluent sample . However , continuous flow bioassays require
elaborate equipment and relatively large waste samples (up to 1000 gallons
as compared to 50 to 100 gallons for static testing ) . Continuous flow
testing therefore tends to be much more expensive and difficult to run than
the simpler static test . As a result there is usually an attempt to develop
a correlation between flow through and static tests so that the latter can
be used for routine monitoring purposes .
Fish deaths are observed and recorded at regular intervals for a 96 hour
period . The percent mortality at 96 hours in each test vessel is then plotted
against the effluent concentration in the vessel on semi- logarithmic probabil
ity paper and the best straight line fitted through the data as shown in
Figure 1. The parameter used to describe effluent toxicity is the LCG value
or the lethal concentration for 50% mortality . It is the effluent concentra
tion at which 50 % of the test organisms would die in 96 hours . It should
be noted therefore that the smaller the LC50 value the more toxic the waste.
The toxicity levels utilized in reporting results were as follows :
Non Toxic - no mortality during the 96 hour test at any effluent concentration
including undiluted effluent .
312
98
MORTALITY
PERCENT
HOURS
AT
96
- - - LC 50 = 34 % by volume
LLILIT
10 20 30 50 70 100
EFFLUENT CONCENTRATION ( % ) BY VOLUME
FIGURE 1 . Plot of Bioassay Test Results (After Bissett ; 1975 ) .
313
Partly Toxic - a number of fish die in the test but less than 50 % of them .
LCG - 1 - 100 % - half of the fish die in a 96 hour period in the concen
tráťion of effluent specified .
FRUIT AND VEGETABLE PROCESSING WASTEWATERS
Raw Screened Wastewater Quality
The data presented in Table 1 was compiled as a result of site visits to

eight Canadian fruit and vegetable processing plants . Raw waste samples
could only be obtained at the five plants shown . Raw screened wastewater
from all plant samples was high in biologically degradable material as
evidenced by BODc values generally ranging between 500 and 2000 milligrams/
litre. Suspended solids concentrations typically fell between 300 and 500
milligrams / litre .
LC values were also obtained for the wastes using 96 hour static bioassay
tešťing . All wastes exhibited acute toxicity to rainbow trout with LCG
values ranging between 12 and 36 % . From inspection of these results, it
would appear that the toxicity is probably due to the high concentrations of
suspended solids and organic material. The number of samples obtained during
the study were not sufficient to state the cause of the toxicity with any
statistical reliability .
An examination of the raw waste toxicity in terms of LC was also made at

24 , 48 , and 72 hours as shown in Table 2 . It is appareně that the 72 hour
value is in virtually all cases identical to the 96 hour static bioassay
test results . Similarly , in most cases the 48 hour LCc value is also in
very close agreement with the 96 hour value. However , as there is a signifi
cant difference between the 24 hour and 48 hour values , it would be advisable
to utilize a minimum duration of 48 hours in future testing .
Treated Effluent Quality

Treated effluent quality for the eight plants surveyed is illustrated in
Table 3 . These plants demonstrated performance somewhat better than the
Canadian average with BOD, and suspended solids removals generally greater
than 80 % .
Toxicity was eliminated in effluent from all plants with the exception of two
of three corn processors .
At plant number 3 where effluent LCge values of 50% , 71% , 75 % and 100% were
recorded , treatment consisted of an aerated lagoon with settling . Raw
screened effluent samples were not available from this plant and consequently
raw waste toxicities could not be determined . However , treatment of corn
processing wastewaters exhibiting raw wastewater toxicity of 18 . 0 and 17. 0 % at
plant numbers 5 and 8 , respectively , was successful in reducing the effluent
toxicity to the point where less than 50 % of the test fish died in full
strength effluent .
314
1
TABLE
CHARACTERISTICS
WASTEWATER
SCREENED
RAW
Plant
.
No Commodity BOD5 SS pH P
Total TKN LC50
4 Tomatoes -610
100 -364
183 .247-10 4.-97 2.5-18 0%13
.5-36
Corn -1400
494 -488
162 4.6-53 0.30-12 5 .92-14 %
18
Beets -4940
1650 -675
402 5.0 .043-12 0-16
.610 .5%
12
Apples –2880
748 -178
56 7.3-4 .298-11 .809-16 N.T-P
315
,OApple
rangess
P
& ears
Plant
)(Juice -5300
875 -2510
26 5.6-82 0.5-38 .508-18 - - --
8 Corn
,P lums
,BJam
roccoli -5108
1182 -580
320 5.3-72 1.0-46 0.5-2 -17
%13
:NOTE -NT.N on
t oxic
P-.TP artly
toxic
TABLE 2
COMPARISON OF LC FOR VARIOUS STATIC TEST DURATIONS -

RAW SCREENED WASTEWATER
Commodity 24 Hr 48 Hr 72 Hr 96 Hr
Apples 24 . 0 24 . 0 24 . 0
38 . 0 38 . 0 38 . 0 27. 0
Beets 21. 0 12 . 8 12 . 5 12 . 5
Corn 23 . 0 20 . 0 18 . 0 18 . 0
Corn 16 . 0 13.0 12 . 5 12 . 5
18 . 0 17 . 0 17 . 0 17 . 0
Tomatoes 45 . 0 36 .0 36 . 0 36 . 0
Tomatoes 42 . 0 42 . 0 13 . 5 13 . 5
316
3
TABLE
TREATED
CHARACTERISTICS
EFFLUENT
Waste
Plant Treatment
.No Commodity Process BOD5 ss pH Total
P TKN 50
1 Tomatoes Spray
Irrigation81
-90 28-48 7.3-4 0.75- 1.-4 N.T
2 Pears Spray
Irrigation
&Holding
Pond 924
-1532 -89
86 6.-71 2.91- 2.-3 N.T
3 Corn Aerated
&
Lagoon
Sedimentation 415
-435 -3250
1730 7.0- .95-026 40
.4-726 %
100
%1
7
%75
317
P.T
4 Tomatoes Trickling
Filter
Aerated
&
Lagoon
Settling 5-19 -16 9 6.2-74 .4–0 0.4-23 N.T
5 Corn Spray
Irrigatio -374
n 366 -55
26 7.0-6 0.5-1 .4-16 P.T
Beets 148
-234 -22
21 6.3-71 2- 5
0.2 1.0-6 .TN
6 Apples Lagoo
Aeratned 158
-1400 -42
31 7.3-4 .98-211 .809-16 N.T
7 A,OApple
erate
range
&Lagoo snds
Pears
)SJPlant
( uice -95
edimentation15 -63
15 7.-81 01.35- 1.0-2 N.T
8 PCorn
,O xidat
Ditch
lums ion
SB&Jam
ettli
roccong
li 1145
-1685 -370
240 6.0-73 .1-043 1.0-26 N.T
:
NOTE Non
-N.Tt oxic
P
P.T- artly
toxic
Examination of the chemical analyses of the toxic effluents shows that there
is no firm relationship between toxicity and measured parameters , with the
exception of suspended solids concentration . In the case of the treated
corn processing wastes which exhibited LCG values ranging from greater
than 50 % to 100 % , there were high total Kjelkahl nitrogen concentrations
indicative of high protein content . It should be noted that wastewater
effluents from the meat processing industry exhibiting high protein levels
have been shown to exhibit high toxicity.
Conclusions
A number of conclusions can be reached regarding the toxicity of effluents

from the fruit and vegetable processing industry based on the limited amount
of data obtained from the plant surveys .
1. Raw screened wastewaters from the following commodities demonstrate
toxicity to rainbow trout , based on static 96 hour bioassays :
Tomatoes
Corn
Beets
Apples
Corn , plums, jam
Corn , plums , broccoli , jam .
2. No definite chemical cause for toxicity could be determined from
the limited testing program .
Corn processing wastes were the most toxic of the wastewater effluents
examined . Since corn makes up a considerable percentage of Canadian
vegetable processing, further investigation is required to determine
the causes and methods to reduce the toxicity of corn processing
effluents .
The high organic nitrogen content of the corn processing effluents

may have beencontributorycenteffluentheoricheprocessing
may have been contributory to effluent toxicity .
It was found that 48 hour LCG values on raw screened wastewater

were in very close agreement with 96 hour static bioassay test
results . However , it is recommended that a minimum duration of 48
hours be used in future testing, as there was a significant difference
between 24 and 48 hour LCc values.
6. The toxicity level which could be specified in the regulations for
fruit and vegetable processing wastewater effluents is no acute
toxicity in full strength effluent .
Only a limited number of raw and treated effluents from selected fruit and
vegetable commodities were tested . For each industrial effluent sampling was
also limited . Since acute toxicity was found to be a problem with corn wastes ,
processing wastewaters from all commodities should be tested for toxicity
318
before and after biological treatment on a statistical reliable number of
samples. As well , where toxicity persists after secondary treatment ,
specific cause of toxicity should be determined .
319
TABLE Al.
CONVERSION FACTORS
English Unit Multiplier S . I. Unit

2
acre 4 , 046
acre 0 .405
ಓಹ
acre - ft 1 ,234
cu ft 0 . 028
cu in 16 . 39
cfm 0 . 2832 m /min
cfs 1 . 70 m /min
ft 0 . 3048
°F 0 . 5555 (°F - 32)
gal ( Imp ) 0 . 004546
gal (US) 0 . 003785
gpd/sq ft (US) 0 . 0408 m3/day /m2
gpm ( Imp) 0 . 2728 m3/hr
gpm (US ) 0 . 2271 mº/hr
in 2 . 54 cm
lb (mass ) 0 . 4546 kg 3
1b / cu ft 16 .02 kg /m3
1b / 1000 cu ft 16 . 02 8 /m3
1b / day / acre 0 . 112 g/day /m2
1b / day / acre - ft 3 . 68 g / day / m
1b /day / cu ft 16 . 02 kg / day /
1b / day / sq ft 4 . 880 g / day /m
1b / day / 1000 sq ft 4880 g / day /m ?
lb / ton 0 .5 kg / t
4546 m3/ day
mgd ( Imp )
mgd (US ) 3 , 785 m3/day
sq ft 0 .09290
ton 9072 kg
ton 0 . 9072
320
TABLE A2
SYMBOL DEFINITION
Symbol Definition
cu ft cubic feet
in inch
cfm cubic feet per minute
cfs cubic feet per second
gpd gallons per day
lb pound
sq ft square foot
ton short ton
mgd million gallons per day
m metre
ha hectare
cm centimetre
kilogramme
metric tonne
321
REDUCTION OF WASTES FROM CUCUMBER PICKLE PROCESSING
BY USE OF THE CONTROLLED CULTURE FERMENTATION PROCESS
by
L . W . Little * , R , Harrison * * , J , Davis* , J , Harris * * , and S . J , Dunn * *
INTRODUCTION
Several years ago Hoover ( 1 ) posed the question which must be answered in
regard to prevention of food processing wastes : " Can we change existing pro
cesses so that less waste is produced , while maintaining or improving product
quality ? " The objectives of the project described herein were addressed to
answering this question in regard to the cucumber pickle industry :
( 1 ) to demonstrate on a commercial scale a substantial reduction
in salt usage in brining cucumbers by substitution of the
controlled culture fermentation (CCF) procedure for the
currently used natural fermentation (NF ) procedure
( 2 ) to compare progress of controlled culture fermentations and
natural fermentations under actual tankyard conditions
( 3 ) to compare quality of brinestock and pickles produced by
CCF with those produced by NF
Currently about 50 -60 per cent of the cucumber pickles which are produced in
this country are prepared from brinestock . In this case , the cucumbers are
brought in from the fields , placed in a salt brine of approximately 25°
salometer strength and allowed to ferment naturally . The bacteria and other
microorganisms indigenous to the cucumbers and attached soil ferment sugars
which leach out of the cucumbers , converting them to acid endproducts. The
main function of the brine is to inhibit growth of undesirable microorganisms
while favoring growth of lactic acid producers such as Lactobacillus species.
After the active fermentation period , when the sugars have been consumed ,
the pH has dropped to about 3 , 5 , and sufficient acidity has developed , the
brined cucumbers may be stored for 3 months or more before they are used to
* Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering , University of

North Carolina at Chapel Hill , 27514
* *Department of Plant Science , North Carolina Agricultural and Technical
State University , Greensboro , North Carolina , 27411
322
prepare finished pickles . During the storage period the salt concentration
is gradually increased to 45 -60° salometer in order to stop bacterial acti
vity and preserve the cucumbers .
When the cucumbers are removed for processing , the spent brine is drained
off and is usually discharged directly (via a pipeline) or indirectly (via
drainage onto the tankyard and subsequent runoff ) into the plant ' s waste
water treatment system . The discarded brine has a high pollution potential
( Table 1 ) and accounts for most of the salt in the wastewaters from pickle
manufacturing ( 2) . Since salt is unaffected by activated sludge or aerated
lagoons, the usual methods of wastewater treatment , it passes into the
effluent and thence to a receiving stream or to a municipal wastewater treat
ment plant . If inadequate dilution with freshwater is not available , the
salt can cause high total dissolved solids levels which render the receiv
ing stream unfit for aquatic life , for irrigation , or for a potable water
source . It is anticipated that effluent guidelines will soon require
greatly reduced dissolved solids levels in effluents from pickle plants
which discharge to freshwater streams or to municipal wastewater treatment
plants ,
TABLE 1. TANKYARD BRINE COMPARED TO TYPICAL DOMESTIC SEWAGE
Parameter Brine Sewage
TOC , mg / 1 3400 124

Ss , mg / 1 330 170
Kjeld -N , mg / 1 732
TP , mg / 1 87
ci , g / 1 111
pH 3 .4
In addition , the high salt levels can interfere with operation of the plant ' s
biological treatment system , and they represent loss of salt , ar ingredient
which is cheap on a cost per unit weight basis but which is expensive in
terms of the total amount required for pickling or in terms of cost to re
move it from the wastewater . These and other pollution problems associated
with tankyard operations have been analyzed extensively in a previous re
port (2) .
Despite the heavy use of salt , natural fermentations have been described as
" unrestricted , heterogeneous , highly complex , and variable , " often leading
to production of defective brinestock ( 3 ) . Lowered brinestock quality is
especially apt to occur if pectinase - producing yeasts or coliform -type
bacteria grow in the brine,
323
Because of the problems and the unpredictability of natural fermentations ,
the U . S . Food Fermentation Laboratory has developed the controlled culture
fermentation (CCF ) process ( 3 ) . CCF brining procedure includes washing the
cucumbers before they are tanked , sanitizing the cucumbers and the tanks
with brine containing a small amount of chlorine, and inoculating the brine
with concentrated cultures of rapid - growing lactic acid bacteria . Because
most of the undesirable microorganisms have been eliminated by the washing
and sanitizing procedures , and because the heavy inoculum of the lactic acid
bacteria tends to suppress growth of any which have survived these proce
dures , the fermentation takes place rapidly and high levels of acidity are
quickly achieved . If freezing weather conditions are not a consideration ,
the brinestock can be stored at 25° salometer (6 .6 % ), requiring about half or
less of the salt commonly used ,
The CCF process had been extensively tested in the laboratory and in rela
tively small tankyard studies ( 3 ) . However , studies on a larger scale ,
accompanied by assessment of the potential for reducing pollution , had not
been conducted .
This project was initiated in 1976 . Funded jointly by the U . S . Environmental

Protection Agency and the Perfect Packed Products Division of the Heinz Co . ,
Henderson , N . C . , the project was conducted by scientists from North Carolina
A & T State University and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
with aid of Heinz personnel and the U . S . Food Fermentation Laboratory ,
Three tankyard experiments were conducted during the 1976 green season . In
each case, CCF and NF tanks were set up and fermentation progress , brinestock
quality and quantity , spent brine quality and quantity . and finished product
quality and quantity were compared ,
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Materials
Tanks . The Heinz Company provided 800 - gallon wooden vats coated with fiber
glass and fitted with stainless steel sampling channels . Vats used for CCF
were fitted with a nitrogen purging system comprised of a loop of tubing
pierced with holes ( 1 /64 - in ) connected to a tank of compressed nitrogen . A
rotometer and flow - control valve were used to measure and control N2 flow .
CCF tanks were purged continuously during the initial phases of the fermen
tation at a rate sufficient to keep Co , concentrations below 20 mg / 100 ml.
NF tanks were not purged . Before the tanks were covered with plastic netting
the tanks were headed by widely spaced wooden boards in which holes had been
drilled to facilitate gas exchange .
Cucumbers . Size 3 ( 1 1 / 2 - 2 " in diam ) cucumbers were used for all experi
ments as it was felt that the large size would be the most likely to bloat
and would thus provide the most stringent test of the CCF procedure. The
green stock was obtained from that being supplied to the pickle company.
The percentage of solids to liquids was 65% cucumbers and 35 % brine (wt /wt) ,
324
Salt . The salt used was the rock salt commonly used at the plant ,
CCF procedure . The CCF procedure was that suggested by Etchells et al ( 3) .
In - tank shrinking was employed , Chlorination was achieved by addition of
calcium hypochlorite (Lo - Bax , olin Corporation ) , The only exception to the
procedure was omission of the second chlorination 10 - 12 hours before inocu
lation . It was assumed that sufficient sanitizing was provided by the wash
ing and initial chlorination and that further chlorination after the cucum
bers had been soaking in the brine might cause production of undesirable
chlorinated organic compounds .
Cultures. Cultures of Lactobacillus plantarum were obtained from Chr .
Hanson Laboratories and Miles Laboratories.
NF procedure . The NF procedure was that commonly used by the pickle com
pany .
Routine analyses , Salt concentration was measured with a salometer , Acid

ity was measured as lactic acid by titration with 0 . 1 N sodium hydroxide ,
using phenolphthalein indicator . Temperature was measured with an ordinary
laboratory thermometer . C02 was estimated by a modification of the Harleco
procedure (4 ) .
Brinestock evaluation . Representative samples of brinestock were obtained
by passing a lucite cylinder ( 1 ft ID ) to the bottom of the tank and remov
ing all the brinestock by netting . Two cores were removed from each tank .
The brined cucumbers were cut longitudinally and examined for balloon ,
honeycomb , and lens type bloaters (5 ) . Texture was evaluated with a Maagde
borg pressure tester .
Finished product evaluation . The brinestock was used to prepare hamburger
chips and whole dill pickles, packed in 5 -gal plastic pails . Chips and
whole pickles were taken from selected pails , coded , and evaluated by a
panel of 6 to 8 persons , using the rating sheet devised by the U . S , Food
Fermentation Laboratory ,

During the project three experiments were conducted . During experiment I
two tanks were brined , one NF and one CCF ; during experiment II , two NF and
two CCF ; and during experiment III, one NF and two CCF . Figure 1 shows the
progress of fermentation in the tanks , as indicated by lactic acid product ,
In the case of duplicate tanks , the average value is shown . The median
afternoon brine temperatures were 80 , 5 °F (Experiment I ) ; 84 , 2 °F ( Experi
ment II) ; and 84 . 8 (Experiment III) ,
The initial acidity was higher in CCF tanks due to the initial addition of
acetic acid , as directed in the CCF procedure . Note that the rate of acid
production was generally more rapid in CCF tanks and that higher final
acidities were attained in these tanks . This indicates the rapid and
desirable activity of the bacteria used for the inoculum , and it also indi
325
31.
1.2
1
.1 7
1.0 +
0.9+
0.87
0.7
326
".
.0
:1
..
. .
. .
.
.
. .
..
. ..
0.
..
. Fermentat
Culture ion
C• ontrolled
O. o
atural ion
ONFermentat
0.13
% Acidity as Lactic Acid

Ś ó 1 ó 5 ló uŹ11 is is 1io
id ,ils
8 9 0 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
1
(days
)Time
CFigure
1. omparison
lactic
of
productio
acid
controlle
in
culture
and
natural
fermentat dnions
).(three
experiments
cates that the fermentation time can be shortened by use of the CCF proce
dure ,
In each case the brinestock produced in the vats was evaluated for texture
and for defects , especially evidence of bloating . The overall acceptability
and determination of usable brinestock was computed by numerical systems
developed by Fleming et al (6 ) and by S . D . Rubin of the Heinz Co . A summary
of the evaluation is shown in Table 2 , which indicates that CCF brinestock
had slightly better texture than NF brinestock and that CCF brinestock typi
cally had a low bloater index , It is also apparent that the quality of CCF
brinestock was much more consistent and predictable than that of NF brine
stock , despite the fact that the NF experimental tanks received much more
attention than would a tank in the average tankyard . It can be concluded
that there would be considerably less waste of brinestock from CCF tanks,
TABLE 2 , EVALUATION OF BRINESTOCK FROM NATURAL FERMENTATIONS AND

FROM CONTROLLED CULTURE FERMENTATIONS
Natural Fermentations Examination for Freedom from

Pressure Test Defects 1 Bloater ?
Expt . # Tested Average ( lb ) # Examined Estimated Yield (% ) Index
1 40 16 .7 200 82 , 4 13 . 8
20 . 0 200 97 . 0 1. 1
17 . 0 200 96 . 0 1,6
III 40 20 ,5 160 78 ,0 17 , 2
Average 18 . 6 88 . 4 8 ,4
Controlled Culture Fermentations
I 40 17 . 8 200 97 . 5 2.1
40 19 , 5 200 93 . 0 1.9
12
40 18 . 5 190 92 , 5
III 21 , 5 200 97 , 5 1 .0
22. 0 200 95 . 5 2.3
Average 19 . 9 95 . 2 1.7
Using system devised by S , D , Rubin , Perfect Packed Products, Inc ,

Fleming et al (6 )
327
The finished products from 6 of the experimental tanks have been evaluated by
a six -member panel made up of USDA , Perfect Packed Products , and A & T per
sonnel . Hamburger chips and whole dills were prepared . Figure 2 indicates
that in terms of appearance , taste , and texture, the chips are very similar
in quality and compare well with those produced commercially . Figure 3 indi
cates that appearance and texture of whole dills prepared from CCF is notably
better than those from NF , while taste ratings are similar .
Table 3 shows the volume and salt loading of the wastewaters from the two
processes. Unexpectedly, the volume of wastewater generated by the two pro
cesses did not differ greatly . Part of this can be explained by the failure
to sufficiently desalt the NF brinestock in the first experiment . In addi
tion , it was observed that the plant personnel tended to vary time of desalt
ing based on the amount of salt left in the cucumbers . On the other hand , in
terms of salt to be discharged in the wastewaters there is a very striking
difference in the two types of fermentations . This difference would be great
er if the tanks were held for longer periods and salt addition to NF tanks
continued .
In summary, the following conclusions may be drawn :

1 ) CCF fermentations proceed more rapidly and result in higher levels
of acidity than do natural fermentations
2 ) CCF produces superior brinestock quality
3 ) CCF results in dramatic reduction in amount of salt to be dis
charged
4 ) Whole dills produced from CCF are equal in taste and superior in
appearance and texture to those from NF
5 ) Hamburger chips from the two processes are similar .
This study was conducted as part of a contract under the sponsorship of the
U . S . Environmental Protection Agency in cooperation with Perfect Packed
Products Co . , Inc . , Division of H . J . Heinz Co .
REFERENCES
1 . Hoover , s . R . Prevention of food -processing wastes, Science 183 : 824

( 1974 ) .
2. Little , L . W . , Lamb , J , C . , and Horney , L . F . Characterization and Treat

ment of Brine Wastewaters from the Cucumber Pickle Industry . UNC Water
Resources Research Institute Report No , 99 ( 1976 ) .
3. Etchells, J , L . , Bell, T. A . , Fleming , H, P . , Kelling , R , E . , and
Thompson , R . L . Suggested procedure for the controlled fermentation of
commercially brined pickling cucumbers - - the use of starter cultures and
reduction of carbon dioxide accumulation , Pickle Pak Science 3 : 4 ( 1973) .
Fleming , H . P . , Thompson , R . L . , and Bell . T . A . Quick method for esti
mating co , in cucumber brines . Advisory statement from the U . S , Food
Fermentation Laboratory , Agricultural Research Service , USDA , Raleigh ,
N . C . ( 1974 ) .
328
Commercial
Natural
ZACCF
TT
ember
-mRating
panel
asix
by
Appearance Taste Texture
Average ratings : Appearance Taste Texture

NF 8.2 7 .4 . 7.6
CCF 8. 3 7.2 7 .4
Figure 2 . Evaluation of hamburger chips prepared by natural fermentation

( including a commercial product ) and by controlled culture
fermentation .
329
Natural
VICCF
TTTTT
panelember
Rating
-a ix
msby
Appearance Taste Texture
Average ratings : Appearance Taste Texture

NE 7. 0 6.3 6.9
CCF 8.2 6.1 7.8
Figure 3 .. Evaluation of whole dill pickles prepared by natural fermentation

and by controlled culture fermentation ,
330
CULTURE
CONTROLLED
TO
COMPARED
FERMENTATION
:TABLE
3.NATURAL
WASTED
BE
TO
SALT
AMOUNT
AND
WASTEWATER
OF
VOLUME
COMPARISON
Brine
Spent Water
Process
1st Proce
2nd ss
Water Total
Type .
Expt )(1gVol
S0alt gVol
(1)S0alt 0°8
ol
g)(1S%VVol
0alt
NF ,61575
212 790 .2
63 -- -- ,8
275
2366
II 1285 .5
173 200 ,5
12 1040 0,
65 2525 ,0
251
1015 ,0
142 200 ,8
14 1060 3.
72 2275 ,1
229
III 1350 ,8
145 1260 .5
89 - - -- 2610 .3
235
Average 248
331
CCF I 1230 .6
102 770 ,2
39 2000 .8
141
II 1190 ,3
102 1350 ,1
50 2540 .4152
1250 ,7
99 1255 ,2
45 2505 ,9
144
III 1180 ,6
111 850 .1
53 2030 .7
164
1170 ,6
79 885 .2
44 2055 .8
123
1
Average 146
5. Etchells, J. L . Bell, T. A . , Fleming , H , P . , Kelling, R . E . , and Thompson ,
R. L, Bloater chart . Published and distributed by Pickle Packers Inter
national , Inc., St . Charles, 111, (1974 ) ,
6 . Fleming, H . P . , Thompson , R . L . , Bell, T , A . , and Monroe , R . J. Effect
of brine depth on physical properties of brine - stock cucumbers . In press.
-
- -
--
332
SALMON PROCESS ING WASTEWATER TREATMENT
by
P . A . Bissonnette * , S . S . Lin * , and P . B . Liao *
INTRODUCTION
The Skokomish salmon processing plant was built to provide a more efficient
system for handling fish from the Indian commercial fishery on the Skokomish
River . It is located on the Olympic Peninsula near the mouth of the Skokomish
River about 45 miles southwest of Seattle, Washington (Figure 1 ) . The
processing plant was designed in 1971, constructed in 1972, and has been
in operation since December , 1972 . It consists of a fish preparation area
where salmon are hand-butchered and cleaned , smokehouses , refrigeration /
freezing capacity, and a retail outlet ( Figure 2 ) . The processing plant
is capable of processing 590 lb /hr for yearling salmon and 2 , 000 lb /hr
for large salmon .
In order to comply with regulatory requirements , the wastewater treatment
facility was constructed in conjunction with the processing plant in April,
1975 , and a water quality monitoring program was initiated in September ,
1975 , to evaluate its performance . The treatment facility consists of an
extended aeration system and two identical aerobic polishing ponds . The
rational used for the design of the treatment facility was based on litera
ture review and characteristics of the waste as determined by daily grab
samples . The literature review was limited since very little has been
published on the characteristics of salmon processing wastes . The EPA
effluent guidelines for salmon processing was tes were also developed based
on this same small data base. The objectives of this study were to evaluate
the EPA recommended effluent limitation guidelines with respect to the
extended aeration treatment process and to develop more reliable design
criteria .
CHARACTERISTICS AND TREATABILITY OF SALMON PROCESSING WASTES
A complete literature review for fresh - frozen processing was tes is reported
in an earlier paper ( 1 ) . In general, little has been published about the
characteristics of waste generated by salmon processing and its treatability .
Possibly the most reliable data for salmon processing wastes was provided
by a seafood waste survey ( 2 ) of six plants in Alaska and one in the Northwest.
Table 1 summarizes the waste loads from all hand- butchered salmon processes
studied during the survey .
* Kramer , Chin & Mayo , Inc . , Consulting Engineers , Architects and Applied
Scientists , 1917 First Avenue , Seattle , Washington .
333
EME
IMERTONA
SKOKOMISIA
INDIAN W
RESER VATIONS
SHEL
TUMWATERY
to
PROJECT
SITE
VICINITY MAP
FIGURE 1 LOCATION AND VICINITY MAPS

SKOKOMISH PROCESSING PLANT
SHELTON , WASHINGTON
334
WASHWATER
FRESH
FISH DRESSED SORTED SHIPPING
BY
WEIGHT FREEZING PACKING
11
FRESH
SALMON
21
FROZEN
SALMON
31
SMOKED
SALMON
BRINE
335
SMOKING
FIGURE
2 LAYOUT
PROCESS
SKOKOMISH
OF
SALMON
PLANT
PROCESSING
SHELTON
W, ASHINGTON
TABLE 1. HAND -BUTCHERED SALMON PROCESS SUMMARY*
Parameter Mean Std . Dev . 5 % Min . 95% Max.
Production , ton /hr 2 . 13 1 . 09 0 . 733 4 . 38

Process Time , hr / day 6 . 34 1 . 80 3 . 67 8 . 98
Flow , 1 / sec 2 . 15 1 . 09 0 . 754 4 . 39

( gal/ min ) 32.15
34 . 1 17:29
17 . 2 11 . 9 77 . 5
Flow Ratio , 1 / kkg 5 , 040 3, 100 1 , 410 13, 000

(gal/ ton ) 1 , 210 743 338 3 , 120
Sett . Solids, ml / 1 1 . 02 1 . 19 0 . 109 4 . 18

Ratio , 1 /kkg 5 . 15 5 . 99 0 . 547 20 . 5
Sol. Solids, mg / l 193 155 37 . 5 600

Ratio , kg /kg8 0. 971
195.971 0 . 782
155.782 90 :18
. 189 3 . 12
609.12
Sus . Solids , mg / 1 236 185 47 . 6 722
Ratio , kg /kgf 1 . 19 0 . 933 0 . 240 3 . 54
5 - Day BOD , mg/ 1 493 179 233 923

Ratio , kg /kg8 2 . 48 0 . 900 1 . 17 4 . 35
COD , mg / 1 1 , 070 601 332 2 , 600

Ratio , kg/kg8 5 . 36 3.03 1 .67 13. 1
Grease / 011 , mg/ 1 341 628 15 . 0 1 , 770

Ratio , kg / kgg 1 . 72 3 . 16 0 .076 8 . 39
Organic - N , mg / l 80 . 9 40 . 0 29 . 0 181
Ratio , kg /kg8 0 . 407 0 . 202 0 . 146 0 . 314
Ammonia - N , mg / 1 2 . 12 0 . 794 0 . 979 4 . 14

Ratio , kg /kgg 0 . 011 0 . 004 0 . 005 0 . 120
pH 6 . 73 0 . 318 6 .25 7 . 13
Temp. , degrees C . 13 . 2 2 . 51 9 . 19 15 . 7
* From Environmental Associates , Inc . , " Draft - Canned and Preserved Fish
and Seafoods Processing Industry , " February 1974 .
336
Various investigators have reported the success of using biological treatment
for seafood processing wastes . In three studies ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) at least 80 - 90
percent removal efficiency of BOD was achieved . The success of the extended
aeration process was dependent on controlled waste loadings .
The EPA effluent limitations guidelines for salmon processing plants are
presented in Table 2 .
TABLE 2 . RECOMMENDED EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES

FOR SALMON PROCESSING PLANTS * ( 1 )
DAILY MAXIMUM MAXIMUM 30 - DAY AVG .

PARAMETER kg /kkg 1b /ton kg /kkg lb / ton
5 - Day BOD 4.7 9.4 3. 2 6 .4

Total Suspended Solids 3.2 6 .4 2 .0 4 .0
Grease and 011 7.0 14 . 0 4 .9 9 .8
*Only for West Coast hand -butchered salmon .
THE SKOKOMISH WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEM
The Skokomish processing plant ' s extended aeration treatment system , hereafter
called the full- scale plant , was designed based on expected loadings from
projected production at 2 , 000 lb /hr for large salmon and 590 lb /hr for
yearling salmon . It was also projected by the Skokomish tribe that the
processing plant would eventually double in capacity . Table 3 sumarizes
the actual production schedule since the project ' s initiation . The peak
production period is July through October rather than September through
January as projected . In fact , for the past two years no fish have been
available for processing in January . The bulk of the fish processed during
February through July are yearling salmon from a private fish supplier .
The large salmon processed are generally those caught by members of the
tribe .
Based on the projected production and literature values for hand -butchered
salmon wastewater characteristics (Table 1) , the extended aeration system
was designed . Table 4 summarizes the design criteria , and Figure 3 shows
a flow diagram of the facility .
The projected levels of incoming fish to process was not realized and the
decrease in operations resulted in lower flows and longer retention times
through the treatment facility than expected . A smaller scale extended
aeration system was constructed a year later (September , 1976 ) , hereafter
called the pilot plant , to test lower retention times and higher loadings .
Table 5 summarizes the design criteria for the pilot plant, and Figure 4
shows a diagram of the facility .
337
TABLE 3 . SALMON PRODUCTION SCHEDULES
FROM SEPTEMBER THROUGH FEBRUARY , 1977
Month Monthly Total ( lb ) Daily Average * (16 ) Size * *
1975 September 78 , 382* * * 7 ,838 Large

October 75 , 191 3,760 Large
November 29 , 865 1,493 Large
December 8 ,620 431 Large

1976 January
February 49,800 2 , 490 Small
March 64,570 3 , 228 Small
April -0 -O Small
May 38, 350 1 , 918 Small
June 34 ,070 1 , 704 Small
July 59 ,890 2 , 994 Small
August 150 , 350 7 , 518 Small /Large
September 44 , 539* * * 4 ,454 Large
October 94, 176 4 ,709 Large
November 22,548 1 , 127 Large
December 28 ,050 1 , 402 Large
1977 January -0
February
* Based on 20 working days per month and one shift per day .
* * Large fish approximately 10 lbs ; small fish approximately 11 oz .
* * * Value for last half of September .
338
TABLE 4 . SUMMARY OF DESIGN , WASTEWATER TREATMENT FACILITIES
Waste Characteristics
Source - Process water , no sanitary waste
Minimum Flow - 0 gpd
Maximum Flow • 20 ,000 gpd
Peak Flow - 18 gpm
Daily Flow Variation - Continuous over approximately 18 hours
Average BOD Concentrations - 500 mg / 1
Maximum BOD Loading = 80 16 / day
Extended Aeration System
Aeration Tank : Volume - 20,000 gallons

Detention Time at Maximum Flow - 24 hours
Maximum Oxygenation Available - 240 lb 0g /day
Maximum Loading - 0 . 03 16 BOD / cu ft/ day
Clarifier : Volume - 3 ,000 gallons

Detention Time at Maximum Flow - 2 . 7 hours
Surface Area - 98 sq. ft .
Overflow Rate at Maximum Flow • 202 gpd/sq. ft .
Polishing Ponds
Surface Area - 0 . 37 acre
Loading at Maximum Flow - 21. 5 lb BOD /acre/day
Volume - 364 ,000 gallons
Detention Time at Maximum Flow - 18 days
339
SALMON
PROCESSING
PLANT
P4" IPE PONO
1.NO
PUMP
STATION
DIVERSION 6*PIPE 4"PIPE

BOX
RAW EXTENDED IO"PLASTIC
ERFORATED
WASTEWATER AERATION
PACKAGE
PLANT DRAIN
PIPE
4*PIPE
340
4"PIPE POND
.
2NO
FFIGURE
3. LOW
OF
SCHEME
WASTE
THE
TREATMENT
SYSTEM
PROCES
PLANT SH
SKOKOMISING
SHELTON
W, ASHINGTON
TABLE 5 . DESIGN CRITERIA FOR SKOKOMISA PILOT TREATMENT PLANT
Aeration Chamber
1) Dimension :
Diameter 15 ft .
Depth 4 ft.
Total Volume - 4 , 500 gal. @ 3 . 5 ft .
Each chamber has 2 ,250 gallons
2) Air supply roots frame No . 22 Blower - 14 cfm @ 3 psi
Chamber divider , plastic sheeting siliconed in place with baffles
to equalize head .
Clarifier
Volume 135 gallons each
Surface area 6 .25 ft? each
Compressor for slug return
air lift pump 2 . 5 cfm @ 25 psi
Operation Conditions
Aeration Chamber -
Retention time 18 hr . ~ 120 hr . ( if flow > 2 , 250 gpd dual system
will be in operation )
Clarifier -
Retention time 1 . 1 hr . ~ 7 . 9 hr .
Overflow rate 6 . 5 ~ 480 gpd /ft"
341
CLARIFIER BLOWER
AEROBIC \12
LINE
AIR
POND SLUDGE
RETURN
2/1-
-
LINE
ERATION
COMPRESSOR
PANEL
SEPARATION
PLASTIC
SAER
L_-INE ATION
4INCOMING
SEWAGE
FROM
BOX
WIER SLUDGE
RETURN STATION
PUMP
1./2"
CLARIFIER
342
AERATION CHAMBER
COMPRESSOR 4INFLUENT
LINE
SLUDGE
TURN
RE
EFFLUENT LINE
AIR
LINE
AERATION LEVELING
15 BAFFLE
CHAMBER
AERATION
CLARIFIER
I FIGURE 4 : SKOKOMISH PILOT TREATMENT PLANT

1.
WATER QUALITY MONITORING PROGRAM
Eight sampling sites were originally chosen to characterize the different

stages of the treatment process . In addition , two different treatment
schemes were planned involving the aerobic ponds . Both the sampling locations
and treatment schemes are shown in Figure 5 .
rou
Sampling Stations Location

Incoming raw wastewater
20of
Aeration tank
Return sludge and excess sludge pipe
Effluent of extended aeration process
Aerobic Pond No . 1
Aerobic Pond No . 2
Effluent of Aerobic Pond No . 1
Effluent of Aerobic Pond No . 2
All chemical and biological sampling , preservation , and tests were analyzed
in accordance with Standard Methods (4 ) and EPA Manual of Methods (5) . Field
tests included flow , pH , DO and temperature . Laboratory analysis included
BOD and COD (both total and soluble) , settable solids , ss , VSS , TS , grease
and oil , TKN , alkalinity , turbidity , ortho - P , total - P , MLSS , and MLVSS
for the most part . Table 6 summarizes the daily sampling and analysis .
Throughout most of the study , sampling days averaged 3 days every two weeks .
Due to difficulties in obtaining fish to process during parts of the study
(see Table 3) the monitoring program was extended and is now scheduled for
completion during summer , 1977 . Currently , monitoring of the pilot plant
continues .

The aeration chamber of the full scale plant was seeded with 1 , 000 gallons
of 4 , 500 mg /l returned activated sludge from a large municipal treatment
plant at the project initiation . Water meters were installed for continuous
recording of water consumption during fish processing. Wastewater from fish
processing was pumped to the treatment facility after fine screening, and
sanitary was tes were conveyed to a septic tank for treatment . Based on
pumping duration and rate , the flow entering the extended aeration system
was computed . A weir box was installed at the aerobic pond to record the
flow rate of effluent from the extended aeration system .
Processing of small yearling salmon and large salmon account for most
operations throughout the year and generated most of the wastes entering the
treatment system . Small salmon herin refers to an average weight of 11 ounces
per fish and large salmon refers to an average weight of 10 pounds per fish .
Large salmon are generally processed from August through July . During
periods , such as January , when no processing wastewater is generated , the
extended aeration system was maintained by feeding approximately 9 . 5 pounds
of Purina Trout Chow dissolved in 560 gallons of water into the pump station .
343
AEROBIC
POND NO. 1
RAW
WASTE
EFFLUENT
EXTENDED AERATION
AEROBIC
POND NO. 2
SCHEME A
RAW AEROBIC AEROBIC

WASTE POND NO . 1 POND NO. 2
- O EXTENDED AERATION
SCHEME B
FIGURE 5 PROCESS LAYOUTS
344
TABLE 6 . DAILY SAMPLING SCHEDULE
Sampling
Stations Sampling Frequency Tests
Grab Samples / 2 hour Flow , Temp, pH , DO

Eight -hour Composite BOD , COD , SS , VSS , TS , Grease /
011* , TKN , Ortho- P , Total P ,
Alkalinity , Turbidity
One Grab Sample Daily MLSS , MLVSS , DO , Alk . , pH , Temp .

Same as ( a ) Same as ( a ) (Flow measurement
is not necessary )
One Grab Sample Daily DO , pH , Temp .
Same as (e ) Same as (e )
Same as ( d ) Same as (a)
Same as ( d ) Same as ( d )
*One grab sample for sampling day.
345
Monitoring during fish food addition indicated wastewater characteristics
comparable to those during salmon processing , and the performance of the
treatment system was maintained when receiving no fresh fish processing
wastewater .
Wastewater characteristics for large and small salmon are summarized and
compared in Table 7 . Approximately 20 percent of the total weight of fish
processed was wasted . The wastage was hauled away to a sanitary landfill for
disposal. Comparison of the wastewater characteristics showed that flow and
the weight of pollutants generated per ton of fish processed for small salmon
were greater than for large salmon . Conversely , pollutant concentrations
generated during small fish processing were generally less than during large
fish processing , which produced a stronger waste . As indicated by the
standard deviations , the incoming wastewater in both cases was highly
variable .
Also shown in Table 7 are the wastewater characteristics for large salmon
processing as influent to the pilot plant . To date , no small salmon proces
sing wastewater has been treated by the pilot plant . This is scheduled
for the next phase of the study . Wastewater to the pilot plant was
even more concentrated than for previous large salmon processing , which
averaged 579 and 723 gallons of wastewater per ton of fish processed for
the pilot and full- scale plants respectively . As a result , pollutant
concentrations were greater for the pilot plant . Loadings were intermediate
between those for large and small fish at the full -scale plant .
The processing plant receives returning adult chinook , chum and coho salmon .
Generally chinook are the largest and coho the smallest in size . The 1976
adult returns contained a larger proportion of the smaller fish than for
1975 . In addition , wastewater in the storage hins , which in 1975 was washed
into the septic tank , was released to the extended aeration system in 1976 .
These two phenomena may account for higher pollutant loadings during 1976
for large fish processing .
Comparison of Table 7 to Table 1 indicates pollutant concentrations from the

Skokomish processing plant were generally higher than for those surveyed ,
although on the average the gallons of wastewater generated per ton of fish
processed were about equal ( 1 , 210 gal/ ton for those surveyed versus 1 , 223
gal / ton average for the Skokomish plant) . Loadings were similiar for large
fish processing , but higher for small fish processing than those surveyed .
Operating conditions for both plants are summarized in Table 8 . Because the
projected numbers of fish were not realized , retention times and DO concentra
tions were high , but F / M (food - to - microorganism ) ratios were within the
range of 0 . 05 to 0 . 2 recommended for the extended aeration process . ( 6 )
Processing times were about one - third the expected . The higher flows
associated with processing small fish reduced the retention time to seven
days in the full -scale plant . The change - over to the pilot plant occurred
coincident with a switch to processing large salmon , and the consequent
reduction in flows resulted in a retention time of five days . During
the last phase of the project , wastewater from small salmon processing will
be treated in the pilot plant , and sufficient flows are expected to test
retention times of fractions of one day .
346
1.WASTEWATER
TABLE
PLANT
PROCESSING
SALMON
SKOKOMISH
THE
FOR
CHARACTERISTICS
1976
-Scale
Pull
1975
1976
Plant Plant
Pilot
Salmon
Large Salmon
Small Salmon
Large
Standard Standard Standard
Parameter Deviation
Deviation
Average Deviation
Average
od
,sPlow
pd 691 237 13, 43 1,001 601 308
r
/Tine
,hay
dProcess 6.5 1.0 5.4 1.3 .94 .39
11
,1bay
Processed
/dFish 13, 53 ,62 58 2,751 812 4,003 3,561
tage 0ay
Was
/d,1Processing747 614 570 170 807 700
per
Wastewater
of
Gallon
Processed
Fish
of
Ton 723 599 2,366 764 579 603
,JTU
Turbidity 100 49 .860 .244 145 .8
60
pH 7.2 0.1 1. 0.2 7.1 .20
,mg
/1DO 1.9 1.0 7.3 7.1 .16 3.2
,degrees
I.Temp .5
51 3.6 .5
52 2.3 .7
56 5.4
.,ngs
/1aAlk
CaCO3 128 88 49 7 94
(total
/l),mBOD
g 687 445 665 273 1,664 650
(0oa
/t),1BOD
otal .23 6 2.50 .36
10 5.29 5.68
347
(tgotal
/1),nCOD 2,057 1, 20 902 398 2,009 780
(bon
/t),1COD otal 10.5 8.6 .9
13 6.4 7.9 6.
/COD
)(tBOD
otal 0.33 0.10 0.70 0.82 0.11
,mg
/1ss 502 224 320 479 0.12 760 342
,1bon
/tSS 2.5 1.4 3. .63 4.2
,a/ g
1VSS 265 147 225 405 607 247
,1bon
/tvss 3.1 0.9 2.6 2.0 2.9 3.
/SS
Vss 0.541 0.175 0.703 0.192 0.810 0.065
/1TS,28 1,638 861 10, 29 650 1,679 508
/tTS,1bon 5.7 2.8 .8
15 8.2 7.6 8.2
10113
/,and
Grease 283 142 859 372 603 269
,10on
011
and
/tGrease 1.5 0.9 4.3 2. 3.7 5.4
,với
Ta 207 197 73 so 52 24
,1bon
/tTKN .80 6 .40 9 .01 8 .70 8 0.20 0.15
+N,1
NH4 6.04 7.25 4.67 3.20 .67 8 .81 9
+N,1bon
/tNII 0.04 0.04 0.30 0.32 0.04 0.05
-P,mg
/lTotal 0.26 0.16 0.56 0.35 0.67 0.44
t/1Total
-P,bon 0.0020 0.0027 0.0085 0.0065 0.0065 0.0092
-P,mg
/1Ortho 0.11 0.05 0.49 0.23 0.51 0.34
-P,16on
/tOrtho 0.0007 00. 007 0.0052 0.0036 0.0059 0.0042
8.OPERATING
TABLE
FACILITIES
AERATION
EXTENDED
THE
FOR
CONDITIONS
Plant
Scale
Full Plant
Pilot
Salmon
Large Salmon
Small Salmon
Large
Parameter Deviation
Deviation
Average Deviation
Average
(days
Time
)Retention 31 8 2 6
(hay
Time
)/dProcessing
rs 6.5 0.1 45. 1.3 4.9 1.4
PH
7.3 1.0 7.1 0.4 7.1 0.4
(mg
/1)DO 8.3 1.4 5.7 1.5 2.0 1.3
e
SVI 151 24 129 28 153 30
F/M 0. 6 0. 6 0.05 0.04 0.21 0.16
MLVSS 516 174 1,015 433 2,011 469

MLSS 978 218
2,40 666666 2,498 771
/MLSS
MLVSS 5
%3
45
% %45 %
83
(gal
Rate
Overflow
/p rocess 38 22 173 105 243
foot
/s
period
ing
quare 99
Even though the flow rate through the aeration chamber was low , the clarifier
for the new system experienced some bulking due to undersizing . This problem
has been corrected . No samples were taken when bulking was evident .
The percentage of MLVSS to MLSS responded to organic loading . At the full
scale plant , the volumetric loading was 2 1b BODE / 1 , 000 cu ft and 7 16 BODE!
1 , 000 cu ft on the average for large and small salmon respectively . This
increased to 30 lb BOD . / 1 , 000 cu ft for the pilot plant. Both the full - scale
and pilot plants exceeded the recommended range of 10 to 25 lb BOD . / 1 , 000 cu
ft for extended aeration . (6 )
Table 9 summarizes the extended aeration treatment efficiencies for the

processing wastewater . Comparing large and small fish at the full- scale
treatment facility , removal efficiencies for most parameters were not
appreciably different except for nutrients . Ammonia and TKN removal effi
ciencies were twice as high for the large fish which was probably due to the
higher incoming concentrations (see Table 7 ) and longer retention times
causing some denitrification . Conversely , the removal efficiencies of TP are
about 50 percent lower for large fish and may have been due to over aeration
(longer retention time ) causing the release of phosphate in the aeration
chamber . ( 7 )
Comparing large fish processed at the full - scale and pilot plants , removal
efficiencies for BOD , COD , TKN , and ammonia were similar . However , the
removal efficiencies for solids , grease /oil and phosphorus increased
dramatically . Reasons for increased removal of phosphorus are discussed
above . Improvements in removal efficiencies for solids and grease / oil are
probably due to higher incoming concentrations and shorter retention times .
During full -scale plant operations effluent turbidity was approximately
30 percent higher even though the clarifier overflow rate was lower , and a
yellowish -brown color was noticeable which disappeared with change - over to
the pilot plant . It is suspected that the longer retention times at high
DO concentrations favored filamentous growths in the full- scale plant .
Apparently , filamentous microorganisms which have poor settling character
istics are able to utilize slowly the inert polysaccharide material produced
by the bacteria , giving the filamentous forms a source of food that is
unavailable to bacteria . ( 8 ) However , this is inconsistent with the sludge
volume indexes (SVI) which showed the pilot plant to have essentially
identical sludge settling characteristics to the full - scale plant during
large fish processing and a higher SVI during small fish processing ( Table
8 ) . This problem will be further investigated during the next phase of
the study .
Because of the low flows through the extended aeration system and the high
permeability of the soils in the aerobic ponds, no effluent has been
discharged , or analyzed , from the ponds. Therefore, the two treatment schemes
of the ponds in parallel or succession could not be tested .
Oxygen uptake for mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS ) was tested in the
field using a YSI DO probe . Only data from the full- scale plant is currently
available and is summarized as follows .
Average 1 . 59 mg/ 1 /hr - Standard Deviation 0 .55 mg / 1 / hr - Range 0 .8 - 2 .5 mg / 1 /hr

349
9.
TABLE WASTEWATER
PROCESSING
SALMON
FOR
EFFICIENCIES
TREATMENT
AERATION
EXTENDED
Plant
Scale
Full Plant
Pilot
Large
Salmon Salmon
Small Large
Salmon
Parameter Deviation
Average Deviation
Average
,%
BOD 91 91 93
,%
COD 88 82 89
,%
ss 62 52
vss
,1 66 93
,%
TS 45 46 65
,%
011
and
Grease 69 55 82
,%
TKN 83 46 89
,+NÝ
NH
-P,%
Total 28 58 43
-P,%
Ortho 37 N/A* N/A* 53
ndicated
effluent
concentrations
that
either
were
greater
or
iinfluent
to
equal
*N/A.than
Additional data will be collected during the next phase of the study to be
used in developing design criteria .
To date , no sludge has been wasted . A sludge filterability test was conducted
to indicate sludge dewatering characteristics . One- hundred milliliters of
sludge was filtered under a pressure of 21 psi for 80 minutes , and solids
concentrations were measured at 0 , 20 , 40 , 60 , and 80 minutes . These results
are compared in Table 10 . Percentage of ss increase were similar for both
large and small fish processing at the full - scale plant and slightly higher
for the pilot plant .
Table 11 compares the extended aeration effluent quality with EPA effluent
limitations . In all cases the average and maximum extended aeration effluent
loadings were below the EPA limits . The lowest loadings resulted from the
pilot plant operation . Small salmon processing effluent had the highest
loadings as would be expected from the high influent loadings.
As stated previously , this study is still underway . The final phase is

expected to be completed by mid -summer , 1977 and the final report should be
published shortly thereafter .
CONCLUSIONS
Wastewater characteristics for salmon processing showed flow and pollutants
generated per ton of fish processed for small salmon to be greater than for
large salmon ; conversely , waste strength was higher for large salmon . Incoming
wastewater flows and concentrations were highly variable in both cases .
Pollutant loadings from the Skokomish plant were similar for large fish
processing , but generally higher for small fish processing than for others
surveyed in the Northwest and Alaska .
Unexpected low flows resulted in long retention times and over aeration in the
full - scale plant. The pilot plant achieved much lower retention times ,
( 5 days versus 31 days ) , lower DO ( 2 mg / l versus 8 mg / 1 ) , and higher F / M
ratios (0 . 2 versus 0 .06 ) .
Removal efficiencies for small fish processing were similar to those for large
salmon processing except for nutrients . Higher removal efficiencies for
nitrogen and lower removal efficiencies for phosphorus during large fish
processing were the result of longer retention times and over aeration which
may have caused some denitrification and phosphorus release in the aeration
chamber .
Pilot plant removal efficiencies were similar for BOD , COD , TKN and ammonia ,
but higher for solids , grease /oil , and phosphorus . Shorter retention time and
reduced aeration is the suspected cause, but more data is needed to confirm
this result .
During long periods of processing plant shutdown , addition of fish food was
found to maintain performance of the wastewater treatment system .
The treatment system is capable of producing an effluent which meets the EPA
effluent limitations in terms of BOD , SS and grease / oil .
351
.COMPARISON-
10
TABLE
EXTENDED
SKOKOMISH
THE
FOR
FILTERABILITY
SLUDGE
OF
FACILITY
AERATION
Initial
Pressure Concentration
Time ss
of
Percentage
)(psi /1
mg )(min Range
Increase
Study
Skokomish
352
Plant
Scale
Full
Large
Fish 1370 122 -126
116
Fish
Small 2730 124 -135
116
21
Plant
Pilot
fish
Large 21 2117 20 234 -150
123
- ---- -- - -- - - - --
.COMPARISON
11
TABLE
WITH
QUALITY
EFFLUENT
AERATION
EXTENDED
OF
LIMITATIONS
EFFLUENT
EPA
of
Weight
Average *
Effluent
EPA Aeration
Extended
Fish
Processed Limitations Effluent
Quality
)/d(ton
ay )/d(16ay )/d(lbay
Range
Average
Plant
Scale
Full
Salmon
Large 1.58
/,BOD
1d bay .1
10 4.0 -1.3003
,l/ bay
dss 6.3 1.5 0.3-
0b11
/d,1Grease
ay .5
15 0.7 0.1-2
Salmon
Small 1.38
353
,1bay
BOD
/d 8. 1.3 -3.5004
,1bay
/dSS 5. 7.1 -2.7048
0bay
/d,1Grease
11 .5
13 2.3 .0-1407
Plant
Pilot
Salmon
Large 2.00
,1bay
/dBOD .812 0.5 0.2-13
SS
d
/1, bay 8.0 0.3 .1-09
Grea
0
dl/, bay1l se .6
19 0.4 0.1-3
maximum
on
average
Table ased
* ay
B2)(s-d30ee
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This project was sponsored by the Environmental Protection Agency , under

Grant No . 803911, and the Skokomish Indian Tribal Council , Shelton ,
Washington .
The authors wish to express their apprectiation to the following individuals

whose contributions made this project possible .
Ken Dostal EPA Project Officer

Vic Martino Skokomish Tribal Council
Frank Klobertanz Kramer, Chin & Mayo , Inc .
Donna Snow Kramer , Chin & Mayo , Inc .
REFERENCES
LIN , DR . S . S . and DR . P . B . LIAO . Evaluation of an extended aeration
process for salmon processing wastewater treatment . Presented at the
PNPCA Industrial Waste Conference , Seattle , Washington , October 28 ,
1976 .
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATES , INC . FOR U . S . EPA . Draft development

document for effluent limitations guidelines and standards of
performance - canned and preserved fish and seafoods processing
industry . February , 1974 .
RIDDLE , M . J . et al. An effluent study of a fresh water fish process

ing plant . Water Pollution Control Directorate Reprint EPT G -WP - 721,
Canada , 1972 .
STANDARD METHODS FOR THE EXAMINATION OF WATER AND WASTEWATER .

American Public Health Association , 13th Ed . , 1971 .
MANUAL OF METHODS FOR CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF WATER AND WASTES . U .S . EPA,
Office of Technology Transfer , Washington , D . C . , 1974 .
METCALF & EDDY . Wastewater Engineering : Collection , Treatment,

Disposal. McGraw -Hill Series in Water and Environmental Engineering,
1972 .
SEKIKAWA , Y . , et al. Release of solubale ortho - phosphate in the

activated sludge process . Kurita Central Laboratories , Yokohama ,
Japan .
MCKINNEY , ROSS E . Microbiology for Sanitary Engineers . McGraw -Hill
Book Company , Inc . , New York , 1962 .
354
FUNGAL CONVERSION OF
CARBOHYDRATE WASTES TO ANIMAL PEED
PROTEIN -VITAMIN SUPPLEMENTS
by
Brooks D . Church * , Charles M . Widmer * * , and Rudolpho Espinosa * * *
The purpose of these studies was to establish an inexpensive, low technology ,

continuous industrial method for the fungal conversion of corn wet -milling
wastes to an animal feed protein -vitamin supplement and , concomitantly , to
affect a significant BOD 5 reduction of the industrial plant processing
wastes .
Sukhatme' s ( 1 ) data suggests that while protein is not limiting in some of

the world ' s population provided enough calories are avaflable to permit
efficient utilization of the protein , it is also clear that many regions are
acutely deficient in protein but have abundant supplies of carbohydrate ,
The developed countries also have abundant supplies of carbohydrate from
agricultural and industrial food processing amounting to approximately 400
million tons per year in the U . S . alone ( 2 ) .
Although the studies described here were designed specifically for the bio
conversion of corn wet -milling wastes to animal feed protein , the impli
cations of the work are broader than that however , since the process has
been extended to other waste substrates , has excellent industrial waste
pre - treatment utility , and the product might ultimately find use as a
human food .
BACKGROUND
The industrial cereal grain wastes used in all these studies were generated
from Penick and Ford , Ltd . , a subsidiary of Univar Co . , Penick and Ford
is a corn wet miller producing corn dextrose syrup and starches for a variety
of industries . The corn waste liquid streams arise as a result of steeping ,
washing , grinding , fractionation , and product purification. The different
waste constituents used as fermentation substrates in these studies included
corn syrup , starches , gluten , and steep liquor separately and mixed in
various proportions, the total mixed liquor waste stream from this plant
is approximately 3 x 10° gallons per day containing 0 . 3 to 0 , 7 percent dry
solids .
* Department Biological Sciences , University of Denyer , Denver , Colorado

* *Penick and Ford , Ltd . , Cedar Rapids , Iowa
* * * Applied Research Division , Central American Research Institute for
Industry (I CAITI) , Guatemala , CA ,
355
On the premise that there is and will continue to be a world protein shortage ,
many university and industrial research teams have put forth a large effort
exploring the potential of single cell protein (SCP ) as a novel protein
source . In the course of this work , a wide variety of other carbon - energy
sources also have been considered for use in protein production . The cost
for the carbon source represents a major fraction of the protein production
cost and may account for 40 to 50 percent ( 3 ) . Utilities may represent
typically 15 to 20 % mostly as cost of power for oxygen transfer and heat
removal . Although much attention has been given to hydrocarbon conversion
to protein , particularly n - alkanes and more recently methanol; we believe
waste carbohydrates of zero to a minus cost value emanating from the agro
industrial food areas represent the most ideal substrates . Ideal substrates
for bioconversion because industry must otherwise allocate funds for their
removal and because these carbohydrates are rapidly metabolized by a variety
of high protein producing microorganisms . As a consequence of all these
SCP studies , a number of large SCP plants are presently in operation and
several more under construction ( 4 ) . Therefore , we are no longer talking
about a protein source of the future , but rather a protein source in use
today ( 5 ) .
Fungi used in bioconversion of carbohydrate waste substrates are the vegeta
tive mycelium usually of species of Pencillium , Aspergillus , Trichoderma ,
and Gliocladium . The fungi used in these and other studies grow over a wide
range of pH ( 2 . 5 to 5 . 0 ) , and are rich in the B - group of vitamins and contain
40 to 55 percent protein . They contain low nucleic acid levels of approxi
mately 4 to 6 percent and have a protein conversion efficiency from a given
quantity of carbohydrate of about 50 percent which is far superior to the
4 , 5 , 15 , and 20 percent efficiencies for protein production by beef ,
poultry , milk and pork respectively . Other advantages the fungi have
compared to bacteria , algae , and yeast are : simplicity of process ferm
entation , utilization of zero to minus value waste substrates for growth and
nutrition , flexibility of the fungal bioma88 to maintain its dominant
cultural position in the face of other microbial contaminants and process
malfunctions, its generally favorable process economics for protein pro
duction , and lack of toxicity in numerous animal feeding trials ( 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ) .
Therefore , the use of fungal microorganisms to relieve the global protein
shortage can be accomplished rather safely and economically . The major
problems remaining are probably psychological and adequate funding for
conducting large scale feeding trials to meet quality standards .
Industrial waste treatment studies employing a variety of fungal strains

have been conducted over the past 5 to 8 years ( 5 , 6 , 7 , and 12) . In general ,
the results have demonstrated an 80 to 95 percent reduction of the plant
processing BOD5 waste . Short retention times of 6 to 8 hours have been
experienced where the waste substrates were chiefly sugars ( glucose, lactose,
and sucrose) and longer times of 10 to 15 hours with starches . A very
short retention time of 4 . 5 to 5 hours is realized by the Finnish workers
(7 ) using waste streams from the pulp and paper industries . They anticipate
a protein production of approximately 10 - 15 thousand tons a year from their
" Pekilo " process . These are all continuous fermentation processes and
several have been in operation for over four years .
356
METHODS
Laboratory Studies
Screening and selection of the most desirable fungal strains were based on
two criteria : a high fungal protein content and the fungal ability to
rapidly metabolize the raw waste substrates . In the case of corn wet
milling wastes , described here , two fungi best met these criteria :
Trichoderma viride, 1 - 23 and Gliocladium deliquescens , I - 31 . The two
fungal strains were maintained on potato - dextrose agar slants. At time of
experimental startup , a slant was used to inoculate 50 ml. sterile
potato dextrose broth . After 24 hours , 5 ml . of the potato dextrose fungal
culture was used to inoculate the 50 ml . sterile corn waste medium (2nd
transfer ) . After another 24 hours, 50 ml. from the 2nd transfer culture was
used to inoculate 1000 ml . of non - sterile corn waste medium . All culture
transfers were made in shake flasks and incubated at room temperature on
a mechanical shaker . The final or 3rd transfer culture ( 1000 ml. ) was
added to the 15 liter fermentor which contained 51 of waste substrate and
10 l of water . The design and operation of the fermentation process was
such as to maintain the fungal biomass in the vegetative mycelial state at
all times . Certain deviations from this fungal morphocytogenetic state,
e . q . sporulation , indicated plant process malfunction . The altered fungal
forms often constituted valuable indicators of fermentation malfunction
which called for specific equipment and nutrient adjustment . Morphogenetic
changes in the fungal biomass were determined by frequent rapid phase micro
scopic observations of the effluent material.
The waste carbohydrate substrates used in the laboratory studies were
composed of 66 percent corn starch , 33 percent corn dextrose , and 1 percent
heavy corn steep liquor (51% solids) . This same waste substrate ratio was
not always maintained in the pilot and full scale processes . When substrate
alterations occurred in the plant waste effluent stream ( influent to the
waste treatment process ) , adjustments to restore optimal nutrient conditions
were quickly made via nutrient additions or deletions usually in the form
of corn steep liquor , urea , and inorganic phosphate . Chemical analyses
were made on frequent grab and composite samples from both the influent
waste substrate and the effluent fermentation liquor . No sterilization of
the waste substrates was ever conducted in the laboratory , pilot , or full
scale fermentations after the second stage of inoculum build - up .
Fermentation design and equipment used in the laboratory studies , were

described previously ( 5 ) and are shown here in Figure 1 . This apparatus
evolved from the author ' s original prototype in 1968 ( 11) to what now
appears in Figure 1 . It has proved to be extremely flexible for use both
as a batch and as a continuous type fermentor . Later fermentor modifica
tions include a battery of 4 fermentor units which can be operated individ
ually , jointly , or in series . The design is such that only minimal amounts
of fungal solids adhere to the internal surfaces. Sparged air introduced
ai the fermentor bottom , serves the dual prupose of providing oxygen as
well as continuous mixing of the fermentation materials . The influent
substrates drip onto the top surface of the mixed fermentation liquor
357
METER
PH
TOR ROTOMETER
CONTINUOUS DH GAUGE
HEAD SWITCH
PRESSURE
VALVE
FEED
STIRRER ACID
SOLENOIO
.FEED
CONTROL COMPRESSOR
FERMENTOR
ACID
\FEED
358
RETURN
FEED
don
TPUMP FAIR
ACID EFFLUENT
FEED
RESE PUMP
VOIR SAMPLE
PORT
aboratory
Continuou
Fermentat
System
L.1.Figure sion
thus allowing removal of the influent line as an internal fungal adhering
surface which was present in our earlier fermentors . At the same time the
effluent port was relocated to the bottom of the fermentor for continuous
effluent discharge or for intermittent sample taking . This modification
avoided any chance of " short circuiting " undigested waste substrates as
was the case where effluent takeoff was located at the top surface level of
the fermentor ( 11) . In addition , the bottom effluent port allowed instal
lation of a flexible effluent conduit which served , by simply raising or
lowering the conduit , to vary the fermentor volume and thus adjust the dilu
tion rate and retention time without adjusting the feed flow rate . The most
recent modification to the system , not shown here, was to admit the air up
through the bottom port , This releocation of the air line removed the last
remaining permanent internal fungal adhering tube surface, Many of the
15 liter laboratory fermentor features were incorporated into the 50 , 000gal .
pilot and the 3 x 10gat. full scale plants . Fermentor process control
parameters e . q . pH , temperature , flow rate of waste substrate influent ,
oxygen , and added nutrient were recorded continuously onto standard recorder
charts .
Pilot Plant Process
Individual processing steps of the continuous pilot fungal treatment process

are shown in Figure 2 . The total mixed plant waste stream was split to
supply the fraction required for the pilot operation and flowed into a
polyethylene lined concrete rectangular (74 ft . x 14 ft . x 10 ft ) 190 m3
tank at a flow rate of approximately 35 gallon /min . A minimal volume of
hydrochloric acid was added to maintain the proper pH of 4 . 2 to 4 . 5 .
Nutrients such as heavy corn steep liquor (51% solids diluted 3 - fold to
facilitate pumping) , urea, and sodium dihydrogen phosphate were added as
required to maintain the desired nitrogen and phosphate concentrations.
Air was supplied by two 40 H . P . , . 800 ft . /min . Roots - Connerville blowers .
Air was blown into six - inch pipe headers which were connected through two
inch pipe leads to 80 one- inch rubber hoses. The hoses dropped into the
fermentation tank and were connected to 80 Dravo flutter valve aerators
located approximately one- foot above the tank bottom . These aerators were
spaced in such a manner that one aerator supplied air to approximately a
four ft ? bottom area and up through a depth of six to eight feet . The
dilution rate was controlled by adjusting either the influent waste féed
flow rate or (as was most frequently the case ) adjusting the tank volume
by raising or lowering the pilot effluent flexible conduit - see Figure 2 .
Various procedures were used to harvest the fungal solids . The most
successful was to continuously exit the fermentor effluent containing the
fungal flocs into a 2000 gallon cone clarifier . Proper positioning of the
fermentor effluent line in the clarifier allowed discharge and rapid settling
of the fungal flocs to the clarifier bottom while lighter fungal fragments
and undigested waste particulates floated out at the clarifier top . Proper
positioning of the fermentor discharge (x ) and the clarifier baffles (B )
for maximum floc collection efficiency are shown in Figure 2 . The total
residence time in the clarifier was approximately 1 hour and a solids
( fungal) concentration from the clarifier underflow was 3 to 4 % . The
359
ACID NUTRIENT
PORE CSL
METER
METER
001 CONDUIT
FLEXIBLE
PLANT PH
.4
NO
WASTEWATER
WASTEWATER
TREATED
AIR
TANK
AEROBIC
CONE
360
CLARIFIER
VIBRATING
SCREEN he
FILTER
VACUUM
SOLIDS
RECOVERY
FFigure
2 LOW
DIAGRAM
FUNGAL
PILOT
PROCESS
.OF
vibratory screen , shown in Figure 2 , was found to be an unnecessary harvesting
step in subsequent studies and the clarifier underflow was discharged
directly onto the Amatec continuous vacuum belt filter . A fungal cake of
3 /8 to 1 / 2 inch thickness and 20 to 22% solids was continuously discharged
from the vacuum screen as shown in Figure 3 .
Full -Scale Process
A full -scale , 3 x 10gal. fungal treatment plant was constructed following the
pilot studies at Penick and Ford . The fermentation facility consists of
two L . 5x1000l.circular , 40 ft . high by 80 ft . diameter , coal tar resin
lined steel plate tanks . Air is supplied by Worthington positive pressure ,
two stage , intermittent cooling blowers . The air is blown through header
pipes into the bottom of each tank . Prom there , the air is routed through
the tank bottom pipe distribution system before escaping up through 16 six
foot verticle Kenick spiral aerators per tank . Since the two fermentation
tanks are run in " series " , the first (north ) tank is always full and the
waste water flows from a pipe near the top of the first tank into the second
(south ) tank . By varying the volume of the second (south ) tank , one can
vary the total residence time of the system .
Two alterations were introduced into the fungal treatment process following
construction and operation of the full - scale plant . One change was to allow
the total treated plant effluent to discharge into a lime neutralizing tank
before entering the cone clarifiers . This alteration of the pH from 4 . 5
to 7 . 0 in the harvest system allowed the fungal solids to settle faster in
the cone clarifier than experienced in the pilot system and provided a pH
7 . 0 effluent discharge from the clarifier overflow to the city waste treat
ment plant . The other alteration introduced into the system was to replace
the vacuum belt filter following the clarifier step with a DeLaval Basket
Centrifuge . This fungal harvesting change resulted in a more economical,
energy efficient , and higher dewatered solids product. Thus , the 20 to
22 % dewatered solids from the vacuum filter was raised to 32% fungal solids
by this equipment change ,
Drying of the 32% fungal solids was studied under a variety of conditions
and will be briefly described under RESULTS .
Start -up of all continuous fermentations in the laboratory , pilot , and

full scale processes was carried out according to the inoculation -dilution
technique described to the author by the late Dr, H . Orin Halvorson . In
accordance with this procedure , 1 / 3 the total fermentor volume was filled
with raw waste . The remaining 2 / 3 volume was filled with water . Inoculation
of the fermentor consisted of a 15 to 20 % actively growing vegetative fungal
mycelium added with respect to the waste substrate volume not to the total
fermentor volume. Employing start-up procedure, continuous fermentations
were initiated at zero time. The inoculation -dilution relationship used in
these studies is shown in Figure 4 where the " theoretical" build - up of the
waste substrate, assuming perfect and instantaneous mixing and providing no
digestion of the waste substrate occurs , is determined by the integrated
formula shown in Figure 4 . The " actual" waste substrate (COD ) reduction
361
Figure 3. Continuous Belt Vacuum Filter
Showing Discharge of Fungal Cake .
362
10,000
9000 - in coming Food

- In coming cod - - - - -
Food COD
– Thoorotical
8000 COD
7000
/l)Concentration
at 1 : 0 , COD = 3330 mg / l = Co
C = Feed COD = 9200 mg / i
Waste
V : Formentor Volume : 10 ,500 ml

Corn
=COD
6000
g
Q : Food Roto : 10 ml/ min

,C(m
Co-Co - --12 )
5000 Fi
O 29 %
Actual
COD
00 63 %
2000 78 %
,88 %
1000
94 %
95 %
Days
Figure 4 . START -UP OF CONTINUOUS FERMENTATION OF CORN WET - MILLING WASTE
IN A LABORATORY FERMENTER BY GLIOCLADIUM DELIQUESCENS
363
shown in Figure 4 represents the effect of fungal growth and metabolism on
degradation of the corn wastes and 18 indicated in terms of percent reduction
of the " actual." COD) . Although only the first seven days data are plotted in
Figure 4 , the continuous system operated for 14 days before termination
and showed a percent waste reduction of 90 to 95 with both T . viride and
G . deliquescens .
Analytical procedures used for determination of the effectiveness of fungal
fermentation of the waste substrates were chiefly those described in Methods
for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes (13 ) . Influent and Effluent
" grab " samples were taken at 6 hr, intervals . 24 hr. composite samples
made -up from the 6 -hr . " grab " samples were also analyzed . All samples
were filtered through Whatman # 4 filter paper under slight negative pressure
and the filtrates and retentates dried on the tared filters and in tared
dishes overnight at 95°C . Weights from the tared filters were recorded as
fungal mass and from the tarred dishes as total solids for all effluent samples .
Influent samples were not filtered prior to drying except in instances where
suspended solids were measured . Retentate samples were also heated at
650°C for 2 hrs. for determination of volatile solida and ash . In the pilot
and full scale processes samples were never less than 1 gallon each .
During start -up and periods of operational breakdown samples were taken
more frequently than at the six hour intervals .
A routine procedure used in all these studies for evaluation of process well
being or malfunction was that of phase microscopy . Microscopic changes in
fungal morphology reflected gross changes in the fermentation process and
deviation from the steady - state . The method was simple , reliable , rapid ,
and required minimal operator training . The method was enthusiastically
endorsed by the chemical engineers! Optimal fermentation conditions resulted
in a phase microscopic picture of fungal morphology that revealed a homo
geneous cytoplasm , long tapering mycelial branches devoid of septa , and
somewhat swollen hyphae which occasionally contained an early developing
arthospore . Lysing and sporulating mycellum , on the other hand , indicated
nutrient starvation or a too low dilution rate. The microscopic technique
could also be used to verify a well-mixed fermentation system , or conversely,
pick out " dead " areas (poor nutrient mixing , oxygen starvation , etc. )
by employing a grid or patterned microscopic slide sampling examination of
the fermentation tank . Other information obtained from this technique included
estimates of the level of contaminating microorganisms and undigested waste
substrate particulates .
The techniques and methodologies used in these studies to evaluate the

fungal drying , and animal feeding quality of the fungal protein will be
included with the experimental procedures and results in the following
sections .
364
RESULTS
Development of Continuous Pungal Growth and Waste Substrate Utilization
a. Laboratory Studies
Laboratory and pilot experiments were conducted under batch culture conditions
in the fermentation apparatusdescribed under METHODS and the data were used
to determine fungal growth rates and substrate (waste) utilization optimums
with T . viride and G . deliquescens . Attempts were made to define the
C : N : P ( carbon to nitrogen to phosphate) ratio of the influent substrate
medium in the hope that such a ratio would indicate the optimal rate of waste
substrate utilization and the highest fungal mass yield . Such studies con
ducted in batch culture pointed up the need for additional nitrogen and
phosphate above what was supplied by the raw waste substrate, Thus, it was
determined that a carbon ( carbohydrate + organic acid ) to nitrogen (protein
and ammonia nitrogen from corn steep , urea , and ammonium sulfate) to
phosphate (derived from the waste ash + added sodium dihydrogen phosphate)
ratio was approximately 50 : 10 : 1 . This ratio is shown in the influent waste
column of Table 3 which also contains the data from a continuous culture
laboratory experiment where steady state balanced growth was maintained .
Initially , experiments were undertaken to generalize the given relations of

fungal growth mathematically in batch culture . Maximum growth rates
( u max ) and COD reductions were measured in several media to evaluate fungal
growth and protein formation , Pungal growth at 20°C in an excellent
synthetic salts -urea dextrose medium (Mandel 's med fum ) was compared to a
corn wet-milling waste medium both of which contained excess nitrogen and
phosphate . One external physical condition , pH , was studied in the two
media . The results are shown in Table 1 .
365
TABLE 1 . EFFECT OF PH AND MEDIA
ON THE GROWTH RATE OF FUNGI
Mandel ' s Salts * Corn -Wet -Milling

Fungus PH Urea + Dextrose 1% Corn Steep
td td
1 +RS hrs . hr - 1 1 +RS hrs . hr - 1
3 .5 4.2 0 , 164 11 . 1 0 . 062

Trichoderma 4.5 3.6 0 . 193 8 .6 0 .080
viride 6 .0 5. 1 0 . 137 10 . 3 0 . 067
Gliocladium 3.5 8.4 0 . 083 9 .6 0 .072

deliquescens 4 .5 8. 1 0 . 086 10 . 0 0 . 069
6 .0 9. 1 0 .076 10 . 4 0 . 066
*Mixed corn starch , 66 % ; corn syrup , 33% ; and heavy corn steep liquor
(51% solids) , 1% . Sodium dihydrogen phosphate added , 100mg / 1 .
td = time to double fungal mass
= specific growth rate, slope of exponential growth rate line .
Cultures grown at 26°C with excess oxygen .
The importance of the growth rate as a criterion of the state of the culture
as a whole , is well understood and is expressed here in the mathematical
relations derived by Monod (14 ) . The data used here were derived alge
braically by analysis of the fungal growth of the cultures in batch process
during the period of logarithmic growth . Growth results in the two media
at three pH levels are shown in Tabel 1 . The fungal mass average doubling
times ( td ) were determined by calculation from the straight line part of
the growth curve in these media . The data were obtained from periodic
samples of the culture in which dry weights of the fungal mass ( 8 / 1) , were
plotted vs . time (hrs .) . The specific growth rates (u ) were calculated and
also shown in Table 1 . v is the slope of the exponential growth and a
meaningful indication of the change in the culture. Since any restriction
in the internal (carbon , nitrogen , phosphorous) or external (pH , temperature,
oxygen ) environment is reflected in the specific growth rate of the fungus ,
operational deficiencies in a pilot plant situation can be detected quickly .
In spite of the chemical differences in the two media and the pH range,
G . deliquescens showed less variability in doubling times and specific
growth rates than did T . viride . In all cases the optimal pH appeared to
be approximately 4 . 5 and Mandel' s medium superior to the corn waste . Since
there were no restrictions imposed on the cultures in these growth media
the specific growth rates should be considered maximum (u max ) .
Use of a limiting nutrient , in our case the phosphate concentration , allows
366
use of Monod (14 ) equations where growth increase with respect to time is
proportional to the fungal mass present at that time, and we can calculate
the specific growth rate (w ) of the fungal mass . The purpose of the kinetic
study in the batch culture system was to find both the maximum fungal mass
growth rate and the maximum waste substrate utilization in order to evaluate
the residence time and dilution rate for further design of a continuous
waste treatment process . Using the data plotted in Figure 5 , the specific
rates within the linear or log phase of growth are defined as :
A ) Specific growth rate of fungus 18 u

1 dM dlnM
and u = M * dt = dt at T *
where t . time
T * = 26 hour point
M = fungal mass
M * = fungal mass at T * = 1 . 0g / l
S = substrate as COD , BOD5 , or TOC
B ) Specific rate of substrate utilization is u '

1 ds dins
and v ' = M * dt - dt at T*
1 lns 2 - Insi
then y ' - M * - 72 - ti
and assuming a first order reaction behavior
In 2 0 .693
td or td ' uu oru' - u or v ' = hours
where td = doubling time of fungal mass
td ' : 's life time of substrate
The G . deliquescens experiment shown in Figure 5 demonstrated termination of
growth and substrate utilization by the concentration of the growth limiting
nutrient, phosphate . In this experiment, following an initial lag period ,
the substrate begun to disappear and the rate of substrate utilization and
fungal synthesis were calculated between the 20 and 30 hour time periods .
During this time period , microscopic examination showed the fungal mycelium
to have numerous , homogeneous growing hyphal tips and no evidence of spore
ulation . Calculations of the specific growth rate ( u ) and substrate is
life are shown below :
Fungal Mass :
Where T* = 26 hr. and M * = 1. 0g / 1

dlnM 7 . 30 - 7 . 91 0 . 61
y = dt = 10 = 10 = 0 .061 hrs - 1
0 . 693
td = 0 . 061 = 11 . 4 hours
367
6000
COD
500050
CONCENTRATION
COD
TOC a - --
FUNGAL MASS •
4000 40 PO , * .. *
l./mg
3000 30
ŏ 2000 420
1000 10
500 + 5
400
300
200
100
10 20 30 40 50 60
TIME (HOURS)
FIGURE 5 . BATCH DIGESTION OF CORN WET-MILLING
WASTE BY GLIOCLADIUM DELIQUESCENS .
368
For Substrate Utilization :
COD Ldlns 4 .7 - 3 . 0
con -- (-406.). (4:3510.2.0)
u ' = M * l l - 0 . 17 hrs
= 0.17 hrs
td -= 9:692
td 17 - 4.07 hours
4 .07 hours
TOC - (- ). ( 5*)-0.055 hrow

0 .693
td ' = 0 . 055 - 12 . 6 hours
Calculation of the waste substrate half- life can be misleading depending
on the carbon parameter one chooses for evaluation . As shown in Figure 5
and Table 2 , the initial COD value is 3 times the TOC and the rate of
utilization of COD to TOC is 3 times faster . It would appear , therefore ,
that G . deliquescens incorporates carbon into cell mass with a conversion
efficiency of approximately 33% if the COD is used and 100 % if the TOC is
used . 100 % conversion is obviously incorrect since it would not allow
for carbon oxidation for energy purposes required to synthesize cell mass .
On the basis of doubling times (td and td ' ) , the COD and carbon measurements
would indicate that 37 % of the carbon in converted to cell mass and 63 %
to energy and heat . CO2 evolution measurements during the course of this
experiment would have resolved the dichotomy . It would appear , from other
data not shown here, that the COD test better reflects the carbon fate
than does Toc . On the basis of COD , the data in Figure 5 and data from
other experiments summarized in Table 2 indicate that carbon 18 incorporated
into cell mass more efficiently by T. viride (61% ) than by G . deliquescens
( 36 % ) .
TABLE 2 . KINETICS OF GROWTH AND

SUBSTRATE UTILIZATION
Growth Substrate Utilization

Fungal Specific Doubling Specific Life of
Strain Rate Time Carbon Rate Substrate
td COD td '
hr - 1 hours TOC hr - 1 hours
T . viride 0 . 067 10 . 4 COD 0 . 109 6 . 35

deliquescens 0 . 061 11 . 4 COD 0 . 170 4 .07
TOC 0 .055 12 .60
369
It will be necessary for the investigator to preestablish which parameter
to use for carbon balance studies and to include a CO2 measurement before
the true } life of substrate utilization can be determined . This would be
critical to establishing optimal continuous fermentation and overall process
economics in the waste systems .
Continuous fermentation studies were initiated in the same apparatus used for
the previously described batch studies . The dilution rates of the contin
uous systems were the same as the fungal growth rates found earlier in the
batch studies . Since (dM /dt = uM ) for rate of the fungal mass growth and
since the rate of loss of fungal mass through continuous overflow also
equals (dM /dt) and can be stated , dM /dt = f /v - DM , where the flow rate
( f ) is measured in culture volumes (V ) per hour , then the expression
( f / VM ) is called the dilution rate ( D ) , thus :
UM - DM and w = D
which states that the fungal growth rate equals the fermentor dilution
rate in a stabilized continuous system . The concentration of phosphate
was the limiting substrate nutrient to maintain the steady state ; the waste
medium , pH 4 . 5 , excess oxygen , and temperature were all set at the same
level as used in the batch studies .
The continuous fermentation was set - up as a batch system for the first 48
hours with T . viride and fungal mass adjustment was believed to have occurred ,
the system was switched to continuous . The residence time was set at 10 . 4
hours or a dilution rate of 0 .067 hrol in accordance with the batch studies
(Table 2) . As indicated in Figure 6 , operational difficulties plagued the
continuous system from day 4 through 7 . Resolution of these ph , feed line,
air pump, etc . problems , resulted in system adjusted to a steady state at
day 10 through 16 . Nitrogen determinations made during the day 10 to 16
interval showed the system was being controlled by a limiting concentration
of nitrogen - phosphate was decreased but not limiting . Thus , nitrogen in
the form of urea was added at days 16 , 19 , and 23 . Apparantly both nitrogen
additions at days 16 and 19 relieved the nitrogen restriction and allowed
the controlling influence of limiting phosphate concentration to maintain
the steady state which continued for another two weeks before termination .
During the two week period following fungal adjustment to the second urea
addition , a number of measurements showed 90 to 92% removal of the influent
COD and fungal mass yield of 56 % . These results would indicate that 36 %
of the carbon was evolved as CO2.
A similar continuous experiment to the one with T . viride was conducted

with G . deliquescens where all conditions established to be optimal in
batch studies were employed in the continuous fermentation . Thus , the
dilution rate was set at the specific growth rate ( u ) found previously
to be 0 . 061 hrul or a residence time of 11 . 4 hours. Again a deficiency for
nitrogen was corrected by adding urea and the fungal mass density was
increased . Both these experiments with T . viride and G . deliquescens
while not
while
affthat
demonstrated e substrate dnitrogen
cting wthe
not affecting el
ithdilution aenrichment
dju increased fungal mass density
es or sspecific
G. iqurate tment aft growth rate of the fungi.
Data from the study with G , deliquescens taken from samples analyzed over
a four day period following fungal adjustment after urea nitrogen addition ,
370
6.
Figure
MASS
FUNGAL
COD creotnrto inuous CONTINUOUS
FERMENTATION
OF
WET
MCORN
- ILLING
WASTE
94.5 BY
TRICH
VIRIDEODERMA
COD o
O_
MASS
FUNGALo
73 ºooo
%FUNGAL
56
YIELD
6 .3
OPERATIONAL
PROBLEMS
371
.51+3
n u
CONCENTRATION gii.
/1)
10mg
UREA
%COD
92
· /)
10mg
UREA REDUCTION
BATCH CONTINUOUS
/t
10mg
UREA
:2
(days
)TIME
are shown in Table 3 .
TABLE 3 . CONTINUOUS DIGESTION OF

CORN WASTE BY GLIOCLADIUM DELIQUESCENS
Influent Effluent Percent

Test Waste Reduction
Condition mg / 1 mg / 1
Total Solids 9640 3520

Total Volatiles 6010 520
Total Ash 3630 3000
COD 6200 545
BOD5 5600 128
Carbohydrate 4436 310
Organic Acid 580 50
Protein - N 1030 42
Ammonia - N 88 2.7
* Phosphate 17 1.0
Pungal Mass 68 3500
* This is only phosphate added to the raw waste medium , total phosphate
is not shown .
lier in showofn icarbon
The conversionearefficiency fungal mmass
n Tableto , fungal ass can be calculated from
a number of parameters shown in Table 3 . Again , with this experiment as
was observed earlier in the T . viride experiment, much depends on which
carbon parameter one chooses as to what the true va bu es are for substrate
utilization or carbon to fungal mass conversion efficiency . Subtracting
the residual (Cr ) carbon in the overflow effluent from the original influent
carbon ( C ) and dividing the fungal mass by the subtracted value shows that
conversion efficiencies for volatile solids, COD , and BOD5 are all 62 to
64% . While that from the combined carbohydrate + organic acids is 75 % !
Since three of the four parameters are in close agreement , one is persuaded
to accept any one of the three. Also , because all three include all the
organic constituents of the medium additional strength is given to these
parameters . On the same bases we believe the carbohydrate + organic acid
parameter might be excluded . A definitive decision cannot be made, however ,
until more experiments are carried out and particularly experiments where
total CO2 evolution is also measured .
b . Pilot Plant Studies
Corn wastes generated at the Penick and Ford corn wet -milling plant were
the same as those used in the laboratory studies . Whereas the concentration
of corn starch , gluten , and syrup wastes could be carefully controlled in the
372
laboratory , it was much more difficult to do this in the pilot work due to
unforseen operational changes in the company processes . The operation
of the 50 , 000 gallon pilot facility was initiated by the inoculation
dilution procedure described earlier and continued for 5 months . Results
of the first six and one- half weeks are shown in Figure 7 . COD (mg/ 1 ) is
plotted vs . time in weeks and also the fungal mass (mg / 1) is shown . Gaps
in the influent feed indicate the hours during which the system was switched
from continuous to batch operation during weekend plant shut- downs . The
dilution rate was 0 . 043 hrºl corresponding to a residence time of 16 . 0
hours . Although this rate was somewhat slower than that achieved in the
laboratory studies , it was probably a result of fluctuating nitrogen and
phosphate concentrations . Either nitrogen or phosphate could control the
continuous fermentation as shown in the laboratory studies in Figure 6
by their limiting concentration effect . Since the raw waste influent concen
tration was undergoing radical, almost daily change , it would appear that
there were very low nitrogen and phosphate levels at times when the influent
COD concentration became extremely high - for example , at the 3 .0 and 5
to 6 week periods. A closer control of the nitrogen and phosphate concen
trations would undoubtedly have improved the yield and allowed for an
increased dilution rate .
One particularly interesting feature of this treatment process shown in
Figure 7 was the manner in which raw waste influent concentration extremes
were reduced to a rather low , constant effluent level . The reason for this
is obviously the rapid response of an increased fungl mass when the substrate
level increased . The picture in Figure 7 18 one of fungal ma88 density
adjustment to variable substrate concentrations at a constant dilution rate .
Although the fungal ma88 yield based on conversion efficiency of the substrate
was never near that obtained in the laboratory , the yield was quite variable
and ranged between 25 and 50 % . On several occasions when the nitrogen
level was raised either by adding more corn steep or urea , an immediate
improvement in fungal yield was observed . This result was similar to the
seen in Figure 6 for the laboratory study .
Often the waste substrate concentration increase was not balanced with regard
to starch and the syrup dextrose, When the imbalance was due to high
dextrose concentration , excessive foaming occurred . Low fungal yields and
an increased fungal growth rate resulted in rapid depletion of the limiting
phosphate, Such an occurrence (recognized early by an increasing foam build
up ) could be controlled by increasing the dilution rate from 0 .043 to 0 . 067
hra' , When the foam subsided , the dilution rate was returned to the lower
yalue again ,
Later experimental work with the pilot system demonstrated that where a carbon
to nitrogen to phosphate ratio of 50 : 10 : 1 could be maintained in the face of
changing carbon (raw waste influent) concentrations , a reliable steady
state condition prevailed ,
Drying the 22% fungal solids from the vacuum filter or the 32% solids from the
373
0,1000
+9000 -Influent
E- ffluent 40hr
+8000 Mass
Fungal
oro
+7000
to
6000 56hr
4.+15000
40hr
i 0 .V
400 2000
COD mg/ 1
48h
Serien
3000 1500
[ / bw
+2000 1000
Fungal Mass
10007 500
WEEKS
by
Waste
M
Wet
Corn
-of
C illing
Reduction
7. OD
Figure
deliquesc um
Gliocladiens
centrifuge was carried out by several procedures , No washing of the fungal
solids was done prior to drying . The conditions used for drying the fungal
mycelium and the protein content after each drying procedure are shown in
The Flow Diagram , Figure 8 . The protein content of each dried sample was
determined from amino acid analysis . Although not carried out in these
studies , we believe premixing the vacuum filter or centrifuged solids cake
with other animal feed ingredients prior to drying would improve the protein
content of the biomass through protection . Under these conditions it would
appear that almost any drying procedure where the temperature was held at
70°C would not unduly compromise the protein . The higher drying temperatures
appeared to reduce the level of the essential amino acids ; lysine , trypto
phane, and methionine more than the others . Since methionine is already
deficient in this protein for nutritional quality of most animals , the
drying procedure used becomes a step of critical significance .
The amino acid levels of the T . viride and G . deliquescens protein has
been reported before (5 , 10 , 11) and both fungi demonstrated levels of the
essential amino acids, an leucine- i80 - leucine ratio , low proline, and over
all amino acid balance comparable to soy protein . In addition to an excel
lent amino acid balance, the fungi used in these studies had excellent
vitamin levels as shown in Table 4 . The fungal vitamin level was obtained
from lyophilized pilot plant material . Vitamin analyses of some other food
materials are also shown for comparative purposes ( 15 , 16 ) .
TABLE 4 . FUNGAL VITAMIN LEVELS

COMPARED TO OTHER FOOD MATERIALS
(VALUES EXPRESSED AS mg /kg . DRY WEIGHT)
Vitamin Pungal Beef Beef Yeast Milk Cereal

Liyer Dry
Whole
Thiamine 15 1- 3 5 - 10 2 - 20 3 .4 1- 7
Riboflavine 160 2 16 30 -60 15 1-2
iiii
Nicotinic Acid 575 40 - 100 75 - 275 200 - 500 7 .3 10 - 30

Pantothenate 167 7 - 21 30 -60 30 - 200 20 5 - 20
Pyridoxine 38 40- 50 1- 3 3 -6
oo
u
Cobalimine 10 8 4
Biotin 1- 5 0 .3
· Polic Acid 21 0 . 02
Choline 2000 862 2000
D - Ergosterol
It was observed by Champagnat et . al. ( 15) that drying a product ( in his

case , yeast ) at low pH could lead to vitamin losses , particularly the
375
8.
Figure
Treatment
Pungal
of
Diagram
Flow
Waste
Milling
Wet
Corn
of
Solids
Effluent
Plant
Pilot
%S0.16olids
flo
under
clarifier
Cone
or
Alter
Vibrating
# 20
mesh
1screen
3.0%Solids
Vacuum
Drum
Filter
-27olids
%S20
-P* F
0 -17
PF -2
PF -3
PF -4
P2
376
9. 2 -6
PF
Presh Lyophilized Air

Forced Air
Porced Vacuum Dr
Drivoed -Relley
Patterson
227
.Solids 947 115°C 80°C 80°C 75°C 82°C
S.olids %Solids
95 %Solids
93 94
%Solids %Solids
96 96%Solids
.51
l. bs .75lbs .5lbs l9.5 bs .58lbs .30lbs
u*ng P%*48rotein P42
% rotein P33
% rotein 38.6%Protein .5%Protein
38 %Protein
40 36.2%Protein
proteins
based
amino
on
Gacid ll
A*= LC
)(analysis
•plt bs
on
inhand ounds
storage
D.RIat
andPenick
fungal
Ford
harvested
dPCmaterial Fode
.3e-2,1designations
x= tc
esignate
P
,4/72
dried
water soluble vitamins . Our material was dried at pH 4 . 5 , therefore some
of the vitamin levels shown in Tabel 4 could be minimal values . Never
theless , the fungal vitamin levels shown here are equal or higher than
those contained in the other food materials .
Animal Feeding Evaluations of the Safety and Quality of the Fungal Product
According to PAG Guidelines the physical, chemical, and animal feeding

properittes of the industrial product should be essentially the same as
those of the experimentally tested material. To be truly significant ,
the studies should be conducted on the fungal product as made on a produc
tion scale rather than on laboratory batches . Also particular attention
must be directed to the composition of the fungal growth medium from the
viewpoint of the possible presence of chemical components regarded as
hazardous to health . In answer to these requirements and according to the
studies performed and reported in this paper , the source materials which
form the substrates for the growth of the nutritive fungal material are
the same basic substrates which are utilized for the various food products
manufactured by this company . In addition , the fungal product used in
these animal feeding studies was the material harvested and dried from
both the pilot and full- scale industrial treatment facilities reported
herin .
Gross chemical component analyses of the fungal product are shown in Table
5. Although these analyses are not definitive to show the possibility of
the presence of toxic contaminants derived from fungal metabolism or from the
source substrate materials ( e . g . pesticides , lubricants, binders , heat
processing reactante , etc ) it was assumed that the presence of any haz
ardous feed materials in the fungal product would be detected in the course
of sensitive animal feeding trials .
TABLE 5 . GROSS CHEMICAL COMPONENTS

OF PILOT PLANT HARVESTED FUNGAL PRODUCT
Chemical Percent of
Component Dry Weight
poann
Protein
Carbohydrate
Nucleic Acid
Lipids
Ash
Moisture
Vitamins
ooooooo
The data shown in Tables 4 and 5 together with that on amino acids (5 , 10 ,
377
11) were used to formulate the animal diets for the feeding trials described
hereafter .
Animal feeding trials were conducted with weanling rates , chicks, mice ,
nursing piglets , and g1118 . Only the details of feeding trials in rats
and chicks will be reported here .
&. Weanling Rat Feeding Trials
Three types of feeding trials were conducted in weanling rate employing

fungal biomass as the protein supplement in the animal diets . These
were : 1 ) Growth response over a 3 week period
2 ) Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER )
3 ) Nitrogen Balance tests to determine the biological value (BV ) ,
true protein digestibility ( TPD ) , and net protein utilization
(NPU ) .
Three diets were formulated for these trials : one, a 3 % egg protein
adjustment diet ; two , a standard control casein diet ; and three , a test
fungal diet in which the casein was replaced by fungal protein . After
a two week adjustment period the weanling rats were placed on the standard
and test diets . During the experimental three week feeding period in which
feed and water were fed ad libitum , animal weights , feed intakes , urine ,
and fecal samples were recorded and collected for each rat each day . The
protein levels were set at 23% of the diet and rats were fed fungal protein
from each drying condition utilized in Figure 8 . Growth rates of rats
fed the lyophilized fungal and casein control diets are shown in Figure 9 .
The curves represent cumulative percent weight gains for the rats fed these
diets . The slope of weight gain was determined for each rat and the average
of the slopes (see insert in Figure 9 ) for the casein and fungal protein
fed animals showed no significant difference. Growth of rats fed the other
dried fungal diets were somewhat less favorable ranging from 74 to 94
percent of the growth demonstrated in Pigure 9 .
Protein efficiency ratio (PER ) evaluations do not distinguish between
utilization of protein for maintenance and that needed for growth , however
it is probably the most commonly used procedure . PER involves the average
net gain in body weight per unit weight of protein consumed . The PER ' S
of each of the dried fungal materials were compared to the casein control.
The data shown in Table 6 demonstrates the loss in protein efficiency
due to the particular drying condition imposed on the fungal biomass prior
to diet formulation and feeding .
378
Figure
.9
CURVES
GROWTH
RAT
STANDARD
CASEIN
DIET
*-
).
(PF
TEST
-1DIET
FUNGAL
XX
379
AT
GAIN
WEIGHT
/R|SLOPE
OF
STANDARD TEST
7.0 59.
6.9 72.
8.0 74.
5.7 80.
.07 75.
7.6 71.
CUMULATIVE PERCENT WEIGHT GAINS (por doy)

:7.3
AVE 2:7.
AVE
-10 Ž3 &6 Ž ¢ 21
is
is122
1314o 2
16it20
DAYS
TABLE 6 . PROTEIN EFFICIENCY RATIOS
(WEANLING RATS )
Animal No .of Dried Fungal Ave .Wt . *Ave .Protein

Group Rats / Material Gain Intake PER
ovand
No . Test Diet Gms . Gms .

WNW
Casein Std . 142 . 0 60 . 0 2 . 37

PP - 1 (lyo ) 141. 3 62 . 2 2 . 28
PF - 2 (Air- 115C ) 130 . 0 77 . 1 1 .69
PF - 3 ( " - 80C ) 141 . 0 69 . 0 2 .04
PF - 4 (Vac . 80C) 125 . 4 72. 0 1 .74
PP - 5 (Drum Dry ) 140 . 0 65 . 0 2 . 15
PF - 6 (Pat .Kelley ) 120 . 5 70 . 6 1 .71
PF - 1 ( lyo ) 139 . 9 62 . 2 2 . 25
(no vitamin supplement in Group 8 )
* Total feed consumed times x 23% protein

Group 8 rate fed unheated (lyophilized fungus ) without the vitamin supple
ment used in all the other groups , showed a PER which demonstrated that the
fungal material could supply the vitamin requirement as well as the protein
needed for rat growth .
Nitrogen balance procedures , originally used for studies in man (17) ,
have recently been widely used for rat evaluations of novel protein sources
( 18 , 19) . By these procedures , one can differentiate between the degree
of digestibility of the nitrogen source and the proportion of nitrogen
retained for storage or anabolism . In other words , nitrogen balance
techniques permit differentiation between the proportion of dietary
nitrogen absorbed , whcih is a function of the susceptibility of the protein
source to the action of the gastrointestional proteolytic enzymes ; and
the proportion retained in the body , which is a function not only of the
essential amino acid composition and content , but of the total protein
content and the caloric density of the diet .
Digestibility and net protein utilization (NPU ) were based on nitrogen
analyses of the animal feeds , urine, and fecal samples collected separately
each day during the rat feeding experiments described above . These are
apparent digestibility and NPU values , since no endogenous or metabolic
nitrogen was measured . Thus, on the basis of diets containing 23% protein ,
the apparent digestibility for rats fed the standard casein and the fungal
test diets were 97 % and 94% respectively . These values were determined from
the standard nutritional formula of : / IN - FN 4100
X100 ) where (IN ) is the
IN
intake nitrogen from the feed and (FN ) is the fecal nitrogen . NPU values
were determined according to the nutritional formula : / IN - (FN + UN )
IN
380
showed a net protein utilization of 75 % for standard casein diet and 50 %
for the fungal (PF - 1) diet . The 50% NPU of the fungal diet was undoubtedly
a low value since no corrections were made for endogenous , metabolic or
that approximately 20 % of the nitrogen of the fungal mycelium was non
protein nitrogen .
Because of the importance of nitrogen balance data on protein feed quality

and because 50 % NPU was at variance with the growth response curves , PER ,
and digestibility data for the fungal protein ; a second nitrogen (NPU )
study was undertaken in which endogenous and metabolic nitrogen were also
measured . Digestibility ( TPD ) 18 measured in terms of the ratio of the
absorbed nitrogen to the total nitrogen ( i . e . , the difference between
the ingested and intestinally excreted nitrogen , the latter corrected for
" metabolic - N " ) . Nitrogen retention (BV ) 18 calculated from the ratio of
the retained nitrogen to the absorbed nitrogen ( i . e . , the difference between
absorbed N and that eliminated in the urine, corrected for so - called
" endogenous - N " ) . The procedures used in these measurements are according
to the techniques of Njaa (20 ) .
The results of these nitrogen reevaluation studies are shown in Table 7 .
TABLE 7 . NITROGEN BALANCE DATA
Animal No . of Ave . Ave . Ave . Ave . Endog . Metab . Bvl. TPD2 . NPU3.
Group Diet Rats Wt . N - in Urine Fecal N N
No . Ped gm . (IN) (UN) (FN) ( EN ) (MN) (% ) (% ) (% )
1 Casein 7 250 1. 08 0 . 382 0 .090 0 . 144 0 .087 77 97 75
2 PF - 1 8 220 1 . 20 0 . 451 0 . 240 0 . 139 0 . 092 74 90 67
3 PF - 3 7 247 1 . 35 0 . 449 0 . 349 0 . 134 0 . 079 76 80 61
4 PF - 5 7 240 1 . 28 0 . 507 0 . 363 0 . 148 0 .083 73 86 63
5 PF - 1 6 160 1 . 21 0 .460 0 . 235 0 . 136 0 .093 73 88 64
( no vitamin supplement
1. BV (biological value ) = IN - (UN - EN ) • IN

2. TPD (true protein digestibility) = IN - (FN - MN ) • IN
3. NPU (net protein utilization ) = Product of BV and
TPD or IN - (FN + UN ) corrected for EN and MN .
IN
The nitrogen balance data ; BV , TPD , and NPU shown in Table 7 compares the
four fungal feeds on these bases to the casein control and to each other ,
Although differences can be seen in the four dried products from the same
381
harvest. The lyophilized material was the best although the other two
were not all that much poorer . Unlike the NPU results obtained earlier
where endogenous and metabolic nitrogen were not considered , these NPU
values showed the fungal protein to be comparable to the casein control
diet when the corrections were included .
All of the animals on the fungal diets appeared healthy , with clean fur ,
and bright eyes . No animals had thin coats , bloody noses , or showed any
signs of baldness . Several animals fed the PF - 4 fungal material to 70 %
of their diet had tarry black stools . Autopsies showed no difference in
average organ weights between the casein and fungal fed rats . Only in the
case of those rats fed the PF - 2 (air dried - 115°C ) and PF - 4 (vacuum dried
80°C ) diets , was there some evidence of fatty livers and excess internal
fat . These diets , however , were not considered " preferred " diets .
b . Chick Growth Feeding
Fungal feeding experiments were conducted using one week old birds to
evaluate the nutritional quality and the toxicity of the fungal bioma88
do á total protein replacement for casein and soybean protein in chick
diets . Feed and water were proveded ad libitum . The Cornish Red -
New Hampshire White cross birds were randomized , wing banded , weighed , and
separated into groups of 5 chicks each . Each group had two replications
Forty chicks , age one - day , were placed on a pre - experimental soybean
casein diet for one week before being grouped and placed on the fungal
experimental diet for a six -week growth trial. Thus , the groups of birds
were separated and Group 1 fed soybean diet , Group 2 fed the casein diet ,
and Groups 3 through 8 fed the various fungal (PF - 1 , PF - 3 , PF - 5 , etc . )
diets . The protein content of all diets was 22% and DL -methionine was
added to the soybean and fungal diets .
As shown in Figure 10 , chicks fed the three experimental fungal diets

showed no significant difference in weight gain when compared with chicks
fed the two control diets during the six - week experimental period . Indeed ,
the total weight gain of chicks fed the fungal (PF- 1 ) diet was greater than
weight gains from the control diets . This PF - 1 growth was not significant how
ever , at the 0 .05 probability level. Since there was no significant
difference in feed consumption or conversion between the experimental and
control groups , it was concluded that all the experimental fungal diets
were satisfactory for chick growth . Mortality did not occur in either the
control or experimental chick groups .
Feed efficiencies , determined by dividing the weight gained by the feed

consumed , ranged from 45% for the control to 50 % for the test fungal mat
erial. Peed conyersion , or the inyerse of feed efficiency and often used
in place of feed efficiency , showed the fungal diets to have a slightly
higher value than the controls - but the difference was not significant
(P < 0 .05) .
382
600
PF . 1
500F
AVERAGE
WEIGHT
GRAMS
LPF - 5
- PF - 3
IN
CONTROLS -
FUNGAL XX
100
WEEK
OLD WEEKS ON EXPERIMENTAL DIETS
Figure 10 .
CHICK GROWTH CURVES OF AVERAGE WEIGHT GAIN PER GROUP
383
Co Other Peeding Studies
As stated earlier , multi - generation fungal feeding studies were conducted
in mice as well as piglet and gilt hog feeding studies . The mice feeding
trials were done according to the Protein Advisory Group (PAG ) Guidelines
6 on pre - clinical testing . Extended mouse feeding studies through 5
generations indicated that the fungal biomass (PF - 1 ) 18 a nutritious
source of high quality protein and that it is safe and wholesome when used
as the sole source protein in these diets . Less than adequate maternal
dietary protein has been associated with long- term detrimental effects
in progeny more than one generation removed from the deficit (20 ) . No
such effects were observed with the fungal diet in this study .
Baby gilts were fed , starting at two weeks of age , through weaning (6
weeks) on creep diets . Only four baby gilts were fed each diet . All
baby gilts were taken from the same dam litter . Following the pre -weaning
feeding trial the same animals were continued on a post-weaning diet for an
additional 25 days . The fungal protein was not the sole source of protein
in any of these diets and consisted of 55 to 58 % of the total dietary
protein . Baby gilts , in the basis of weight gain and weight gain to feed
intake ratio , showed similar responses compared to the control diets ,
The post -weaned pigs (gilts) however , showed a significant increase in
body weight from the fungal diet compared to those gilts fed only the control
diet . These studies showed the fungal biomass to be clearly superior to
soymeal for growing pigs beyond the weaning stage .
Economic Considerations
Justification for the commercialization of an " agro - indu& trial " waste
bioconversion and utilization process for the production of high grade
protein livestock feed supplements , has significant potential for improying
human mutrition in developing nations , adding to the economic development
of the rural sectors in those nations , and sparing the protein reserves of
the developed nations . The objective of this analysis was to determine
the aggregate economic feasibility of commercial fungal waste conversion
for animal feed supplements . More specifically , the objectives centered
upon : ( 1) an estimation of the animal feed supplement market necessary to
economically justify a commercial " agro-waste" installation , (2 ) an estima
tion of the potential size of an animal feed supplement market , and ( 3 )
an estimation of economic return on investment. Engineering cost data
were obtained from the studies reported heren . All investment and opera
tional cost estimates were verified through industrial sources . Plant
specifications established in this report were used as the basis of analysis .
Peasibility determination was comprised of standardized methods , including
an analysis of break - even (that market required to cover all annual invest
ment and operating costs) and pay - back (a measure of return on capital
inyestment ) .
Based upon cost estimates in terms of 1976 U . S . dollars provided previously

( 5 , 10) , investment in " agro -waste" installations would be economically
feasible for the corn wet -milling and grain processing industry , A
384
feasibility study centering upon " agro -waste processing of industrial
fruit and vegetabde camery wastes would likely precipitate potential mar
kets and installations .
Summarized data from these studies showed a profit margin of 1 . 25 cents
per pound of BOD5 waste based on the credit accrued from sale of the har
vested fungal solids and equated to the prevailing soymeal price of $ 116 /
ton , was determined for the process described in this paper . Since the
price of soymeal today 18 twice this quotation and the capital and invest
ment costs are not twice the costs used here - the profit margin is better
today than when these estimates were made in 1976 . Also , the fungal bioma88
can replace the vitamin requirement as well as protein in animal feeds , and
therefore should be more valuable a feed supplement than soymeal.
More updated estimates than those reported ( 5 , 10 ) will be available
in the near future based on the more efficient plant processing studies
carried out in this report .
CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION

Lest anyone has the impression that fungal fermentation is relatively
recent or something of a novel curiosity , we refer the reader to the list
of fungal food products reviewed by Hesseltine (21) where in at least one
case , that of shoyu , the fermentation is over 1000 years old . Hesseltine
believes that two major developments will be made in ( 1 ) the use of fungal
enzymes themselves to produce desirable fermented products and ( 2) use of
fungi on mixed substrates , i . e . combinations of cereal grains and legumes
80 that the final fermentation product will have a more desirable nutri
tional balance and the substrate mix will totally provide the carbon and
nitrogen required for fermentation .
Laboratory studies , both batch and continuous, were carried out in our
own developed apparatus which was designed to avoid the pitfalls inherent
in commercial type equipment when used for fungal studies . Details of the
fermentor will be published elsewhere .
A fungal inoculum level (10 - 20 % ) , a low pH 4 .0 to 4 . 5 , selection of a
rapid growing fungal strain , and the inoculation - dilution start - up
procedure were found to be required for maintenance of a near pure culture
condition . Although the waste substrates were heated during plant corn
processing , they were never sterile at the time of fungal treatment . Under
optimal fermentation conditions , the contaminant level rarely exceeded 200
microorganisms per ml . of the fermentation medium . In instances where
contaminants were present ,e . q . lactobacilli , acetobacter , yeasts , an
occasional protozoan , only fungal strains predominated . Fung al con
taminants which constituted the most challenge during periods of equipment
malfunction were found to be strains of Geotrichium , Penicillium ,
Aspergillus , and Mucor .
One of the more valuable observations made during these studies was in the
area of balanced growth and steady -state kinetics achieved where nitrogen
supplementation was in slight excess . Phosphate proved to be an excellent
385
limiting nutrient for a balanced system : Although this was established
in the laboratory studies , it was more difficult under the industrial
conditions . Significant to the work , however , was in the pilot observations
where substrate concentration and substrate compositional changes occurred
regularly and such changes were rapidly accommodated by a rapidly changing
fungal biomass density . A better balanced pilot and full - scale fermentation
can be achieved than shown here by exercising more control over the nitrogen
and phosphate levels .
Dilution rate changes were made at times of severe temperature shift
(these were out- door systems) and , on occasion , recycling (not described
in this paper ) of the fungal mass was found necessary to maintain
a near steady-state.
Animal feeding trials were exceedingly successful and will be described

in more detail in a forthcoming publication . Other investigators working
with fungal fermentation of other type waste substrates ( 7 , 8 , 12 , 15 ,
21, 22) have also reported excellent animal feeding trials . Based on
healthy animal growth together with the lack of any toxicologic develop
ments , it appears that extensive utilization of fungal protein - vitamin
feed supplements could aid in the alleviation of protein deficiency in
world population groups as well as provide valuable industrial waste
pretreatment .
REFERENCES
1. Sukhatme, P . V . Recent trends in world food availability and their

implications , in Chavez , A . , Bourges , H . , and Basta , S . ( ed . ) .
" Foods for the expanding world" , Proc . 9th Internat . Cong . Nutr . ,
Mexico , 1972 , Vol. 3 . , s . Karger , New York (1975) .
2. Humphrey , A . E . Product outlook and technical feasibility of SCP ,
in Tannebaum , S . R . and Wang , D . 1 . C . ( ed . ) . " Single Cell Protein
II" , M . I . T . Press , Chapter 1 . , 1 - 23 (1975 ) .
3 . Wang, D . 1. C . Chem . Eng. , 26 (17) , 99 (1968) .
4. Lipinsky , E . S . and Litchfield , s . H . Food Technol. 28 (5 ) : 16 ,
(1974 ) .
Church , B . D . Application of Fungi Imperfecti for treatment of cereal

processing wastes . Final Report to Agricultural Research Service,
Norhtern Utilization Research and Development Division , Contract
Number 12- 14 - 100 - 11022 (71) , United States Department of Agriculture ,
Peoria , Illinois , ( 1977 ) .
6 . Imrie , F . K . E . and vlitos, A . J . Production of Fungal protein from
carob . In Single Cell Protein - II , M . I . T . Press , 223 , ( 1975 ) .
386
7. Romantsehuk , H . . The Pekilo process : protein from spent sulfite liquor .
In Single - Cell ProteinrII , The M . I , T . Press , 344 , ( 1975 ) .
8. Duthie , I . P . Animal feeding trials with a microfungal protein . In

Single- Cell Protein - II, The M . I . T . Press , 505 , ( 1975) .
Khor , G . L . , Reade , A . E . , and Gregory , K . F . Nutritive value of
thermo tolerant fungi grown on ca & saya , J . Inst , Can . Sci. Technol .
Aliment . , 9 ( 3 ) : 139 , (1976 ) .
10 . Church , B . D . , Nash , H . A . , and Brosz , W . Use of Pungi Imperfecti in

waste control . Water Pollution Control Research Series , 12060 EHT,
07 / 70 , ( 1970 ) .
12 . Rolz , Carlos . Use of Cane and Coffee Processing by - products as micro

bial protein substrates . In Single- Cell Protein - II , The M , I . T .
Press , 273 , ( 1975 ) .
13 . Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes . Environ . Protect .

Ag . , Water Quality Laboratory , 16020 . . . 07 /71, Cincinnati , Ohio ,
U . S . Gov . Printing Office : 1971 0 -427 - 263 , (1971) .
14 . Monod, J. Annual Review of Microbiology, 3 , 371-394 , (1949) .

15. Champagnat, A . , Vertet, c . , Lainé, B . , and Filosa, J . Nature , 197 :
13, (1963 ) .
16 . Kamazawa, M . Production of yeast from n - paraffing . Single- Cell
Proteinli, Tannebaum and Wang ed . , The M . I. T . Press , Cambridge ,
MA . , 438 , ( 1975 ) .
17 . Thomas , K . Biological value of nitrogeneous substances in different
foods . Arch . Anat . Physiol . , 219 , ( 1909 ) .
18 . Allison , J . B . The efficiency of utilization of dietary proteins .
In Protein and Amino Acid Nutrition , ( A . A . Albanese, Ed ) Academic
Press , N . Y . , ( 1959 ) .
19 . Mitchell , H . H . , Hamilton , T . S . , Beadler , J . R . and Simpson , F .
The importance of commercial processing for the protein value of food
products . J . Nutr . , 29 , 13, (1945 ) .
20 . Chow , B . F . , Comments on prenatal malnutrition . In : Malnutrition ,
Learning , and Behavior . Schrimshaw and Gordon eds . , M . I . T . Press ,
Cambridge , MA . ( 1968 ) .
21 . Reade , A . E . and Gregory , K . F . High - temperature production of protein
enriched feed from carsava by fungi. Appl. Microbial . , 30 : (6 ) ,
897 , ( 1975) .
22 . Smith , R . H . Fungal enriched barley grain for pigs . Pig Farming ,
May , 68 - 73 , (1972) .
387
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Certain aspects of the waste treatment process were initiated with

the support of the Environmental Protection Agency under Grant Numbers
12060 EHT, 07 /70 and 12060 EDZ , 08 /71 . Development of the laboratory
continuous fermentor animal feeding trials , and economic analyses were
carried out with the support of the Agricultural Research Service ,
U . S . D . A . , Northern Utilization and Development at Peoria , IL under
Contract Number 12 - 14 - 100 - 11022 (71) . Pilot and full- scale facilities
were financed by Penick and Ford , Ltd ., Cedar Rapids, IA .
388
WATER REUSE OF WASTEWATER
FROM A POULTRY PROCESSING PLANT
by
J. B .Andelman * and J. D .Clise* *
INTRODUCTION
A wastewater treatment and reclamation system has been constructed at the

Sterling Processing Company in Oakland , Maryland . This plant slaughters and
processes approximately 50 , 000 birds per day in an eight hour operation ,
utilizing approximately 350 , 000 gallons per day of treated well-water . Be
cause of the lack of additional water of acceptable quality , the wastewater
reclamation system was constructed with the intention of mixing the renovated
water on a 50 / 50 basis with well water , ultimately increasing the quantity of
water needed for an increase in production capability .
The objectives of the study reported here are to determine 1 ) the ability and
reliability of the water reclamation system to deliver water , mixed with the
well water source, that is safe for use in processing poultry ; 2 ) if the pro
cessed poultry have any constituents harmful to human health as a result of
exposure to this mixture of renovated and well water ; and 3) to recommend
monitoring procedures and parameters needed to insure the safety of the system
and the protection of human health .
This project is important as a demonstration of the technical and economic
feasibility in the food industry of moving towards the national goal of limit
ing discharges into navigable waters . Water re -use is an important strategy
in achieving this goal . However , in such reuse of water involving human con
sumption or exposure , it is mandatory that the health of the consumer be pro
tected . If this project can successfully demonstrate that the renovation
process can deliver a safe and potable water , and that the poultry processed
with the water similarly pose no threat to human health , this will constitute
an important step in our overall effort towards reducing emissions to the nat
ion ' s waterways .
APPROACH
An initial study of the feasibility of reclaiming poultry processing wastewater

for reuse at the Sterling plant was reported by Clise ( 1) . The reclamation
*Graduate School of Public Health , University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh ,

Pennsylvania
* *Maryland State Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, Baltimore ,
Maryland
389
system consisted of aerated lagoons , followed by microstraining , floccula
tion and sedimentation , and filtration , with two stages of chlorination .
The schematic of the system is shown in Figure 1 . The initial study showed
that the reclaimed water met U . S . Public Health Service 1962 Drinking Water
Standards for chemical, microbiological and physical constituents without
actual recycle through the poultry processing plant. Nevertheless , there was
concern that with actual reuse there was the possibility that urmeasured con
śtituents , such as pathogenic microorganisms, heavy metals , pesticides and
toxic organic chemicals , might build up in recycle and be absorbed by the car
casses in the processing plant .
An additional project was proposed by the Maryland State Department of Health
and Mental Hygiene and funded by the E . P . A . , the purpose of which was to modi
fy and optimize the reclamation system , to determine the capability and reli
ability of the system for delivering water satisfactory for processing poultry ,
and to evaluate the exposure of the processed carcasses to constituents that
could be harmful to human health . The role of the Graduate School of Public
Health , University of Pittsburgh , was to design , organize , and supervise the
sampling and analytical part of the study , as well as evaluate the results
from the points of view of both the quality of the renovated water and the pro
cessed poultry possibly affected by it . Three phases were planned in this
study , the first two of which have been completed . Phase 1 involved the opera
tion of the reclamation plant with a new sand filter , and measurement of those
characteristics pertinent to optimizing the process . Phase 2 involved a study
of a wide range of physical , chemical and microbiological constituents , both
at various points in the reclamation system , as well as in processed carcasses
exposed to renovated water , but without actual recycle through the plant .
Phase 3 was to involve recycle of the renovated water into the processing
plant by mixing on an average 50 / 50 basis with well water , the mixture then
to undergo additional full- scale conventional treatment. The carcasses were
again to be measured , as was the renovated water , and comparisons made of the
levels of contaminants with those in normal plant operation utilizing well
water only in Phase 2 .
Prior to proceeding to Phase 3 , an evaluation was made of the Phase 2 results

by a committee consisting of representatives of the E . P . A . , the Maryland
Health Department, the processing plant , the U . S . Department of Agriculture,
and the Graduate School of Public Health . The level of contaminants in the
treated wastewater and processed carcasses were considered as to their possi
ble health significance. A similar evaluation was to be made following Phase
3 so as to determine the safety of proceeding to continuous operation with
reclaimed wastewater . Finally , recommendations were to be made as to the need
for continuous monitoring of the system .
This paper reports primarily the principal results of the Phase 2 study and
some additional measurements obtained subsequently . Phase 3 , the actual re
cycle of the renovated water into the processing plant for a trial three -month
period , has not been instituted, even though the above Committee , constituted
for the purpose, recommended that there was no significant risk in so doing .
Some of the background and reasons for this delay will be discussed subsequent
ly .
390
FIGURE 1 . WATER SAMPLING POINTS AND CONNECTIONS
FOR PHASE 2 AND PHASE 3 STUDIES
WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND

WATER RECLAIMING FACILITIES
SAMPLE IDENTIFICATION
SCREENED RAW WASTEWATER
TO RIVER
C SECOND LAGOON EFFLUENT
MICROSTRAINED EFFLUENT
COLLECTION SED. BASIN EFFLUENT
BAS IN X
RENOVATED WASTEWATER
M
CHLORINE Y UNTREATED WELL WATER

CONTACT
CHAMBER Z TREATED WELL WATER
MICRO TREATED MIXTURE (50 / 50 ) OF
STRAINER M WELL AND RENOVATED WATER
N
LAGOON 2
SOLIDS
RETURN
FLOCCULATION
SEDIMENTATION BASIN
SAND
LAGOON 1 FILTER
CHLORINATOR
ROTARY PRESSURE CONNECTED IN

CONNECTED
SCREENS
IN PHASE 2 STORAGE TANK PHASE 3 ONLY
ONLY
POULTRY NORMAL MIXING WELL

PROCESSING TREATMENT BASIN WATER
PLANT Z or zu
391
NATURE OF STUDY
Following the optimization of the operation of the water renovation system

(Phase 1) , the two -month study of Phase 2 was performed . This involved
seven separate days of sampling , approximately once a week in the Spring
of 1976 . Two preliminary sampling trips were conducted to optimize samp
ling at the site . On each of these days various water and wastewater sam
ples were collected . In addition , twenty - five carcasses were collected
for analysis from the plant chiller system . Finally , a small " experimental"
chiller was set up to simulate the plant chiller . Twenty - five carcasses
were taken from the plant, prior to exposure to the plant chiller , and placed
in the experimental chiller in such a way and for such a period as to simu
late the plant chiller . However , the experimental chiller was filled with
renovated water . The purpose was to analyze and compare the possible build
up of contaminants in carcasses exposed to the plant chiller using normal,
treated well-water , versus those exposed to the experimental chiller using
renovated water . It must be emphasized that at no time during Phase 2 was
renovated water ever used in the processing plant .
Figure 1 shows the schematic of the wastewater renovation system , the con
nections for Phases 2 and 3 , and the possible sample points to be utilized
in the study . The actual Phase 2 sampling points and the number of samples
taken on a typical sampling day are shown in Table 1 .
Not all of the sampling points were subject to all the analyses . The types
of analyses that were to be performed are shown in Tables 2 and 3 . Table 2
lists the Category I analyses . As shown there, Categories Ia , b , and c were
to be performed only on water samples , while Id was to be done on carcass
samples as well. In fact , some Ia and Ib analyses were performed on carcas
ses .
Table 3 shows the Category II and III analyses . As noted there , all of these
analyses were to be done on both water and carcass samples . All were per
formed , with the exception of the halogenated methanes of Category III .
These were done subsequent to Phase 2 , and will be reported here.
Although analyses of viruses were not contemplated originally in this study ,

the decision was made to attempt to measure an avian virus and use it as an
indicator or sentinel of the behavior of other viruses in the water renova
tion system . Since it was reported that the chicken flocks were routinely
inoculated with attenuated Newcastle Disease virus (NDV ) , it was decided to
develop the methodology and sample the water and carcasses for it . The re
sults of this investigation will be reported . In addition , some laboratory
die - off studies were performed using lagoon water spiked with NDV .
Final.ly , and subsequent to Phase 2 , total organic carbon measurements ( TOC )

were performed on the renovated water , the normally treated well water , and
that taken at other selected sampling points . In addition , a few samples
of the treated well and renovated water were analyzed by gas - chromatography
mass spectrometry (GC -MS ) for some specific organics , other than those shown
in Table 3 .
392
Table 1 . PHASE 2 SUMMARY OF TYPES OF SAMPLES
TYPICALLY TAKEN FOR ANALYSIS EACH WEEK
Water Samples
Maximum
Location Number per day
A - Raw Waste
E - Renovated Water
Z - Treated Well Water
- Plant Chiller
EC - Experimental Chiller
Birds (Carcass Samples)

cass
PB - Plant Chiller Birds 5*
EB - Exp . Chiller Birds 5*
*50 carcasses were taken for analysis each sampling day , 25 PB and 25 EB.
carcasses were
In each case washings from 5 carcasses were composited or otherwise com

bined to become a single carcass sample . Hence , 25 carcasses reduced to
5 samples .
Note - Occasionally water samples were taken at other sample points shown
in Figure 1 or within the lagoons .
393
Table 2 . WATER RE -USE PROJECT
Types of Analyses to be performed
Category I Analyses
Ia - These analyses relate primarily to waste treatment efficiency

and none will be performed on carcasses
BOD5 Suspended solids

Grease Total solids
Organic nitrogen Alkalinity

Ammonia nitrogen
Ib and c These analyses relate to waste treatment efficiency and

potable water quality ; none will be performed on carcasses
Ib Ic
Turbidity CCE (carbon chloroform

extract )
Color
Total Dissolved solids

Residual chlorine (total)
Residual chlorine ( free )

Id - These analyses relate to waste treatment efficiency and water
quality . They will be measured for water and carcass samples.
Total plate count Fecal coliform

Total coliform рн
394
Table 3 . WATER RE -USE PROJECT
Types of Analyses to be performed
Category II Analyses
These analyses will be performed on water and
carcass samples
Salmonella (enumeration )
Drug residual
Category III Analyses

These chemical analyses will be performed on water and
carcass samples
Arsenic Fluoride MBAS
Barium Halogenated methanes Nitrate

Cadmium Hardness Potassium
Calcium Iron Selenium
Chloride Lead Silver

Chromium Magnesium Sodium
Copper Manganese Sulfate
Cyanide Mercury Zinc
Pesticides
395
METHODOLOGY
w , aall anal
ll analytical me
ytical methodology
thods for is Exions forwith
the consistent trans
Except where noted below
that specified by the E . P . A . or Standard Methods for the Examination of
Water and Wastewater ( 14th Edition ) . All necessary precautions for trans
porting the samples , such as refrigeration or the addition of chemical
preservatives , were taken .
The experimental chiller using renovated ( E ) water was operated on a batch

basis . That is , it was filled with renovated water and plant -made ice
was added to bring the temperature initially to about 55°F . The 25 car
casses were then lowered into the bath within the drum and rotation begun .
Additional ice to maintain 55°F was added . Approximately 15 minutes later
more ice was added to reduce the bath temperature to about 34°F , and chil
ling continued for another 10 minutes .
The carcasses were removed by handling with clean plastic gloves , and both
plant and experimental chiller carcasses were treated in the same fashion .
They were placed , after draining , in either clean or pre - sterilized (by
autoclaving ) plastic bags and carried to the laboratory trailer . 1500 ml
of either distilled or distilled and sterile water was added to each such
bag , which was then shaken for one minute and the water contents poured for
analysis .
Salmonellae were isolated from the water and poultry samples using membrane
filtration techniques modified from the recent literature . Quantitation of
salmonellae was attempted employing 15 dilution tubes to determine the most
probable number (MPN ) index of organisms. Subsequent to the Phase 2 study
our research on media selective for salmonellae developed to the point of
being able to quantify by this technique. In the Phase 2 results , however ,
only their qualitative presence or absence are reported .
A disc assay method modified from the procedure of Huber et al . (2 ) was em

ployed to detect residual drugs in the water and carcass samples . The
first method used in this laboratory employed Bacillus subtilis (Difco spore
suspension containing approximately 10 " spores /ml ) as the test organism
and seed agar (antibiotic medium No . 1 ) as the test substrate . This proced
ure was further modified according to the method of Read et al. (3 ) in order
to detect bacitracin and to enhance the sensitivity of detecting sulfa drugs
and antibiotics in the water and carcass samples . Bacillus cereus and Muel
ler -Hinton agar were thus employed as the test organism and the test sub
strate , respectively .
Primary chick embryo cell cultures were used with a plaque assay to detect
the presence of avian viruses in the water and carcass samples , which were
first filtered through 0 . 45 micron pore -size membrane filters. Following
inoculation of the cell monolayers with the filtered samples and various in
cubation procedures , plaques were counted and the plaque - forming units per
ml (PFU /ml) determined . In order to detect the possible presence of such
viruses in the carcasses , tissue extracts were prepared from spleens , lungs
and livers , processed and analyzed for the presence of avian viruses , such as
NDV , capable of hemagglutinating chicken red blood cells .
396
RESULTS
Most of the individual analytical results will not be presented . Rather ,

urpose ofthe paper and shorter pooble resultaterdil beber
for the purpose of this paper and wherever possible , results will be sum
marized or presented in statistical fashion .
Microbiological and Drug Residual
Neither salmonellae nor any other Enterobacteriaceae were ever isolated in

the chlorinated renovated ( E ) or well water ( 2 ) . The carcasses exposed to
and the water from the experimental chiller , using the renovated water , were
similarly negative in this respect . Salmonellae was isolated in raw waste
water ( A ) . However , the aerated lagoon and renovation system was complete
ly efficient in disinfecting this bacterium .
All samples tested for drug residual using both Bacillus subtilis and
Bacillus cereus were negative . Thus , this test has not detected any anti
biotic drug in either the water or carcass samples .
Similarly , avian viruses , including NDV , have not been detected either in
the water or carcass samples , nor in tissue extracts from chickens processed
at the Sterling plant . Only preliminary results of the NDV laboratory die
off experiments using lagoon water can be reported at this time . These sam
ples , spiked with NDV , were studied for up to seven days at two temperatures ,
in the light and dark . There was no apparent effect of light . At 25°C die
off was complete (indicated by the absence of plaque- forming units in the
assay ) after 3 days . At 7° C , however , the die - off was very slow , less than
a factor of 10 in one week . These experiments are continuing , particularly
to elucidate the possible role of particulate matter in the lagoons in virus
survival.
The renovated water ( E ) was analyzed for bacteria on eight days during and
just prior to the Phase 2 period , 19 samples being taken . On six of the
eight days the total and fecal coliform results were less than 2 organisms
per 100 ml. On April 5 and 12 four E samples were analyzed . The reported
total coliform ranged from 15 to > 240 organisms per 100 ml, and the fecal
coliform from 9 to > 240 . However , there is a strong likelihood that
these E sample results were confused with those of EC, the experimental
chiller water . The results for the latter for those two weeks were report
ed as negative for coliform and fecal coliform , a highly unlikely result
compared to all other EC and PC coliform analyses , which were > 240 .
The total bacterial plate count analyses on the samples described above
indicated a maximum value of 25 organisms per ml for the 2 samples and 15
for E , except for the four samples which are believed to be incorrect . For
these latter four , the values ranged from 1 to 2 , 000 . A reasonable maximum
total plate count for municipal water is 500 per ml.
In view of the high probability that the inadequate bacterial quality of the
four E samples was due to sample reporting error , and that no E samples have
yielded any enteric pathogens, it is concluded that the renovated water is
397
of excellent bacterial quality . It should also be noted as well that in
actual recycle the E water will receive additional treatment , including
chlorination , after being mixed 50 / 50 with the untreated well water .
Inorganic Chemical Water Quality

A summary of the results for several macro constituents and water quality
characteristics for 2 and E is presented in Table 4 . Other than pH , alkali
nity , and nitrate , the mean concentrations of all these parameters were high
er in the renovated water , E , than in the treated well water , Z . However ,
these concentrations in E are not hazardous , and only one maximum value shown ,
252 mg/ 1 for sulfate , is at the criterion level , which has only been a second
ary standard . This sulfate buildup is not of concern , but could be reduced ,
since it is primarily due to the alum coagulant.
It should be noted that some of the differences in the mean concentrations
of chemicals in Z and E are not statistically different when the variability
of the results are considered . Thus, color cannot be considered to be statis
tically different in the 2 and E water . However , there is unquestionably a
build - up of dissolved macro constituents in the renovated water . This is not
unexpected and , at the levels encountered , does not pose a health hazard .
Attention should be called , however , to the low alkalinity in E , and the low
pH values . On some days the pH was as low as 3 . 3 due to the large doses of
chlorine . The E water will be mixed with untreated 2 in Phase 3, which will
mitigate this problem . However , to avoid corrosion in the system , soda ash
or caustic soda has been added to raise the pH and alkalinity when required .
Table 5 presents a comparison for 2 and E for certain measurements related
to waste treatment parameters . The total solids in E are obviously higher
than in Z , but this is due to the dissolved solids already discussed . The
organic nitrogen values for E reflect its higher organic content .
Of some interest and possible concern among the constituents reported in

Table 5 is the relatively high average concentration of ammonia nitrogen in
the renovated water . It probably results from biological denitrification re
actions in the lagoons , although some concentrations measured in the raw waste
are comparably high . The principal concern is that the ammonia reacts with
the chlorine disinfectant to form chloramines , which are less effective dis
infecting agents . However , because of this very reaction , unless the samples
are analyzed immediately , it is unlikely that with the practice of breakpoint
chlorination the ammonia should have been detected . Subsequent to Phase 2
the ammonia concentrations in E decreased considerably . It should be empha
sized that the excellent bacterial quality of E water indicates that disin
fection has not been affected . Also the presence of these concentrations of
ammonia is not known to be a health hazard . Finally , it is noteworthy that
ammonia is sometimes added in municipal water treatment plants in order to
react with chlorine and form longer - lived chloramines .
A summary of the results for the trace constituents in Z and E waters is

shown in Table 6 . It should be emphasized that the concentration units here
are micrograms per liter . All of the maximum concentrations were well below
398
Table
4. PHASE
2 CONCENTRATIONS
MACRO
CONSTITUENT
AND
CHARACTERISTICS
QUALITY
W
-* ATER
noted
e)mg
where
/1,(inxcept
Treated 1962
PHS
Water
2)(Well Criterion E)(
Water
Renovated
Value
* o Max Max
TU
)(JTurbidity 0.9 0.5 1.? 1.6 71. 2.7
(u)Color
nits 3.0 1.6 5 3.7 3. 10
.pH 1-2 7.0 0.2 7.2 . 30 5.8 41. 6.9
Alkalinity 12 107 15 130 - 15 35.3 37 140
Chlorine
.Res - - - - 52 1.7 1.3 0.6
BAS
)(MSurfactants
14 0.< 1 - - 5.0 0.04 0. 2 0.08
7.4 3.4 .5
12 14 30.2 5.12 .7
47
15 14.7
399
2.9 3.6 - 8.7 3.2 .4
17
.1
40 44
.14.8 9 .7
53 8.5 .9
64
2.4 0.3 2.9 2.95 3.0 3.4
.6
11 1.0 .4
13 250 .5
88 8.16 121
4.0 0.6 4.9 45 8 .53 5.1 6.2
9.6 3.6 .5
13 250250 $ 150150 6.85 252
(est
)HCO3 130
- - - 4343
Total
Ion 208208 393
Solids
Dissolved12 143 .8
33 194 500 16 389 66 492
values
Ob20 iscarded
extreme
ccasionally
)(*deyond
Table 5
PHASE 2 - CERTAIN WATER CHARACTERISTICS RELATED PRIMARILY TO WASTE
TREATMENT EFFICIENCY (in mg / 1 )
Treated Well Water (2 ) Renovated Water (E )

N * O Max NĚ i Max
Total solids 12 165 33 234 13 418 72 501
Suspended solids 12 10.4 8.1 26 14 16.8 19.7 70
BODS R 12 5 .3 4.3 18 14 3 .4 2 .2 9.0
Grease 12 5.2 6.1 23 13 5.1 4.8 18.2
Organic - N 8 0.013 0 .008 0.030 10 1.1 1.5 5.0
Ammonia - N 8 0.017 0 .013 0.040 10 19.0 4.4 23.0
Dissolved Oxygen 12 8.1 0. 6 9 .4 14 9.3 1.4 11. 7
Table 6 . PHASE 2 - TRACE CHEMICAL CONCENTRATIONS* (ug/ 1 )
PHS 1962
_ Treated Well Water (2) - Criterion Renovated Water (E )
Value
N Max . • Max
Cu 16 41.4 11.2 57 1000 14 38.8 2.9 56
F 14 58 33 13 1000 14 151 54 230
Fe 16 19.2 7.8 31 300 14 57.1 24.3 98
Mr 16 1.8 1.0 3 50 14 2 .6 1.0 4
Pb 16 21.2 16.7 50 50 15 23.8 13.
9 50
Zn 12 25. 2 3.8 33 5000 12 27.2 6. 9 38
* Occasionally extreme values (beyond 20 ) were discarded
400
the PHS criterion values, except for lead in both E and 2 samples . These
were not significantly different for the two waters, and the high concen
trations in each case were just about at the criterion value. Only in the
case of iron and fluoride were the concentrations significantly higher for
E compared to Z . However , it is judged that for none of these six trace
elements were there any hazards in the renovated water .
Although not shown in Table 6 , all the measurements for silver , arsenic ,
cadmium , chromium , and selenium were negative (below the sensitivity levels ) .
About half of the E samples were positive for cyanide at concentrations up
to 12 ug / 1 , but well below the health criterion value of 200 ug / 1 . It is
difficult to imagine any oxidizable cyanide being present in E because of
the large quantities of added chlorine . However , the analysis was for total
cyanide , so that the measurement may have detected such harmless combined
complexes as those involving iron , often used as an anti- caking agent , such
as in road salt. Several water samples were positive for mercury . These
occurred in three of the eight weeks , two of which were analyzed on the same
day . It is likely that in the latter cases there was contamination or analy
tical error , perhaps as a result of the mercury preservative added to the ni
trate sampling bottle. On two subsequent weeks when this possibility was re
moved , only one out of six E samples were positive (0 .6 ug / 1 ) , and no Z sam
ples . In contrast , during the previous two weeks E , 2 and all other samples
were positive and much higher . For the samples of the first four weeks none
of the E or 2 samples were at concentrations higher than 0 . 2 ug / 1 , the level
of sensitivity of the method . In view of the fact that the highest E sample
was 1 . 7 ug / 1 , even though it was probably an erroneous reading due to con
tamination , and the fact that the criterion value is 2 ug / 1 , it may be con
cluded that there is no observed health hazard from mercury in the renovated
water .
Carcass Chemical Analyses

The results of the chemical analyses of the washings from the carcass samples
PB , from the plant chiller , and EB , from the experimental chiller , will be
summarized here, but not tabulated . Most of the chemical species analyzed in
water , as shown in Tables 4 , 5 , and 6 , were also analyzed in the carcass wash
ings . Among the macro constituents only the mean nitrate concentrations were
statistically significantly higher at 0 . 38 mg / l in the EB samples compared to
0 . 06 in PB . The reason for this difference is not known , since the Z and E
waters are not significantly different in nitrate concentrations , as shown in
Table 4 . It is very unlikely that this poses any kind of a health hazard .
Taking the mean value of 0 . 38 mg / l of nitrate in the EB samples , and assuming
that this all came from the carcasses , since 1 . 5 liters of distilled water was
used to elute the carcasses , this would be equal to 1. 5x0 . 38 , or 0 . 57 mg nitrate
per carcass. This is not a quantity of concern in the perspective, for example ,
of the current primary drinking water regulation , which permits an average daily
adult ingestion of about 90 mg nitrate .
The mean values of all the waste characteristic and trace element measurements
were the same , within statistical confidence , for the PB and EB samples in
Phase 2 , with the exception of ammonia nitrogen . The mean EB value was 1 . 1
mg / 1 , while that of PB was 0 .09 . This result is most probably attributed to
401
the high ammonia content of the renovated water , but cannot be considered
to be a health hazard .
Organic Water Quality

A variety of measurements of gross organic parameters and specific organic
chemicals have been performed during and subsequent to Phase 2 . These in
clude BOD5 , organic nitrogen , and CCE (carbon chloroform extract) , as Cate
gory I analyses , shown in Table 2 ; halogenated methanes , MBAS ( surfactants ) ,
and pesticides, as Category III analyses , Table 3; total organic carbon ( TOC ) ;
and specific organics extracted with methylene chloride and identified by gas
chromatography -mass spectrometry (GC-MS ) .
A comparison of the mean results for the surfactants , shown in Table 4 , in
dicates significantly higher concentrations in the renovated water , E , com
pared to the treated well water , Z . However , both the mean concentration
of 0 . 04 mg / 1 and the maximum of 0 . 08 are well below the 0 . 5 mg / 1 1962 PHS
criterion value.
The BOD5 summary values are shown in Table 5 , indicating a somewhat lower
mean value for the E compared with the Z water , although the difference is
not statistically significant . In contrast , the average for the organic nitro
gen , defined as the organically bound nitrogen in the negative- three oxida
tion state, is higher in the E water at 1 . 7 mg / 1 than that of 2 , 0 .013 . It
also shows considerable variation . It most probably consists of protein mat
erial and its breakdown products , such as amino acids , from the chickens .
Analyses were performed for nine pesticides , samples being collected on three
separate days in a three -week period . These analyses were discontinued when
all samples from the second and third days were negative . The results are
summarized in Table 7 . No positive values were obtained for the E or 2 sam
ples , only for A , the raw waste , and PB and PC , the carcasses and chiller
water in the plant. The total number of E samples analyzed was nine .
A summary of the total organic carbon ( TOC ) analyses of samples taken on five
successive weeks in November and December , 1976 is shown in Table 8 . Each in
dividual TOC value is a result of at least two measurements on the same sample,
the TOC being the difference between the total carbon and the inorganic carbon
analyses . The total number of samples for 2 , E , X , and C shown in Table 8
were 10 , 8 , 6 and 4 , respectively . Two samples each were measured at each of
the other sampling points . These results show that there was a considerable
reduction in TOC through the lagoon and then the renovation system . Although
the mean value for the renovated water , E , was about 5 mg / 1 higher than that
for 2 , the treated well water , they each showed considerable variability , as
indicated by their respective ranges and standard deviations .
Several carbon chloroform extract (CCE ) measurements were made , both during
Phase 2 and at other times , the results being shown in Table 9 . These measure
ments were done by the newer miniaturized two -day sampling technique (4 ) , for
which a standard had been proposed of 0 . 7 mg / 1 compared to the 0 . 2 value for
the older technique in the 1962 PHS standards . In fact, it was shown in a com
parison of the two techniques that the newer method measures about 6 . 7 times
402
Table 7 . Pesticides Analyzed and Found ( ug / 1 )
Sensitivity Criterion * Positive

Pesticide .
Limit Value Values
Chlordane 0. 2- 1 3**
Endrin 0. 1 0.2 0. 1 (A , PB)

Heptachlor 0 .06 0 . 1* * 0. 09 -0. 4 (A , PB, PC )
Hept . Epoxide 0 . 1- 0 . 2 0 . 1* *
Lindane 0 . 06 0.04-0 . 14 (A, PB, PC)
Methoxychlor 0 .5- 1 100
Toxaphene 3-6
0 . 05 - 1 100
2 ,4 -D
2 , 4, 5 - T 0 . 5- 1 10
*E . P .A . National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regs . , except for :

**Proposed as above, but not adopted
Table 8 . Total Organic Carbon ( TOC) Analyses of a Pew

Samples in Fall 1976 at the Sterling Plant
Concentrations - mg / 1
Sample Point Mean Stand . Dev . Range
2 - treated well water 14 . 5 7 .0 6 - 26

Effluents from :
Li - lagoon 1 50 . 5 2 .2 49 - 52
ah . 36
c ' - lagoon 2 35 . 0 1 .0
C - lagoon 2 ( chlorinated) 38 . 8 4 .9 35 - 45
D • microstrainer 39. 8 7 .4 - 35 -45
X - sedimentation basia 22 .4 3.2 19 - 29
E - renovated water 20.0 5. 1 15 - 31
403
Table 9 . Carbon Chloroform Extract Concentrations ( CCE )
at the Sterling Renovation System
1976 Week
Sampled CCE - mg / 1
Untreated Well
3/ 8 0.58
Renovated Water
3 / 158 0 .96
3 /29 1.2
4 /19 1.5
5 / 17 0 . 18
6 / 14 0 . 36
7 / 12 0.22
7 /26 0 . 58
0 . 61
11/ 15 0 . 52
Renovated Water - Mean 0 . 68

Standard Dev . 0 . 45
a - stored water
404
as much CCE as the older one ( 4 ) . The results in Table 9 indicate consid
erable variability in the CCE values in the renovated water , E , but these
values overlap with and on the average are not very different from the
single measurement of the untreated well water .
On four successive weeks in November and December , 1976 volatile halogenated

methanes were measured , essentially using the technique of Bellar and
Lichtenberg ( 5) . The only organic found by this technique in the renovated
water , E , was chloroform , the maximum concentration being 3 micrograms per
liter . In some of the treated well water samples , z , chloroform was measured
at concentrations of less than one microgram per liter , and one showed traces
of carbon tetrachloride and dibromochloromethane. For reference , the mean
chloroform concentration in finished U . S . public water supplies was reported
to be 21 micrograms per liter in the National Organics Reconnaissance Sur
vey ( 6 ) .
Finally , samples of E and 2 water collected on two separate days subsequent
to Phase 2 were extracted by methylene chloride, concentrated by evaporation
and analyzed by GC -MS for specific organics . Three general types of compounds
were identified by this technique. At the moment , the analyses have not yet
been confirmed with standards . In the renovated water , E , the following nor
mal fatty acids were identified : C - 10 , - 11 , - 12 , - 14 , - 15 , - 16 , and - 18 ; in
the treated well water , C - 12 , - 14 , - 16 , and - 18 . None of these contain chlor
ine atoms . In the renovated water dioctyl and dibutyl phtalate were identi
fied , but only the former in the treated well water . Both of these compounds
are used as plasticizers and have been widely found in a variety of waters ,
including potable municipal supplies (7) .
The most unusual set of compounds that was found in all of the E and 2 sam
ples , analyzed by GC-MS , consists of five organics that appear to be halo
genated or hydrohalogenated derivatives of cyclohexene. They are : 3 - chloro
cyclohexene, 2 - chlorocyclohexanol, 1 , 2 - dichlorocyclohexane, l -bromo - 2 - chloro
cyclohexane , and 2 - bromocyclohexanol. Only one U . S . company manufactures
cyclohexene, the presumptive parent compound , in any significant quantity , and
it has very specialized uses . In view of this and the fact that such uses are
unlikely in the vicinity of the Sterling plant , it is also highly unlikely that
it is a contaminant either of the ground water source or from the poultry
plant operation . Recent evidence developed elsewhere seems to indicate that
it , or the halogenated derivatives , are probably contaminants of the chlorine
used for disinfection . Some of these compounds have recently been found in
two municipal water supplies , probably from the chlorine used in the treat
ment process. This situation is being investigated .
DISCUSSION
The focus of this discussion will be whether the quality of the renovated
water , E , is sufficient to justify its reuse in processing poultry at the Ster
ling plant , without risking the health of the consumers . It should be empha
sized in this discussion that , prior to actual use in the plant, the reno
vated water will be mixed 50 / 50 with the untreated well water , then receive
the normal water treatment that is currently utilized for it . This consists
405
mixing basin
the mixing
of prechlorination inin the basin ,: alum
in ,- lime t
and fflocculation
iltration h,rowith
ugvicfinal
e line
pH adjustment to precipitate iron , settling , and filtration through two
sand filters . Additional chlorine is introduced into the main service line
leading to the processing plant for residual control.
The principal operation in the processing plant that exposes the carcas
ses to water is the chiller , which precedes the icing and packaging of the
processed meat . Each carcass can take up as much as 10 per cent of its
weight in water in this operation . The chiller is a continuous , counter
current system which itself rapidly accumulates contaminants in the course
of a day ' s operation (8 ) . The evaluation of the renovated water , E , studied
in Phase 2 , should be done in the perspective of the further treatment it
will receive in actual reuse , as well as the intended use of that water .
In that use the most important water exposure of the poultry being processed
in the chiller operation .
The microbiological quality of the renovated water , E , studied in Phase 2
is excellent. No pathogenic bacteria were detected in that water . Aside
from some confusion , probably from mislabeling of samples , all the coliform
and fecal coliform concentrations were below the level of detection . The
total plate counts were also low . Avian viruses were also not detected in
the renovated water . In view of the approximately two -week ' s detention time
in the aerated lagoons and the nature of the disinfection processes subsequent
to them , which involve two stages of chlorination , this excellent microbiolo
gical quality is to be expected . With actual recycle into the plant, this
high quality and the additional treatment , including disinfection , would in
sure , with a high degree of certainty , that there would be no danger from
pathogenic organisms in the reuse of this renovated water .
The inorganic water quality of the renovated water studied in Phase 2 is also
quite good . As would be expected , several of the major cations and anions
are significantly higher in the renovated water than the normally treated
well water . Such build - ups are common , since typical waste and water treat
ment processes are not designed for , nor capable of removing significant
quantities of these materials . The concentrations of these constituents in
the renovated water , shown in Table 4 , do not constitute a health hazard in
water reuse .
The trace elements and waste parameters shown in Tables 5 and 6 are also not
at levels that are of concern , were the renovated water actually reused as
contemplated . The trace elements are not significantly different for the
renovated and normally treated well water , with the exception of cyanide ,
fluoride , and iron . All of these are , nevertheless well below criterion lev
els in the renovated water . One can justifiably conclude , therefore , that,
as with the microorganisms , the inorganic constituents of the renovated water
do not pose a risk to human health in the actual planned recycle system . This
conclusion is reinforced by the comparison of the analyses of the carcasses
processed normally in the plant chiller and those exposed to renovated water
in the " experimental" chiller . Among all the macro and trace inorganic con
stituents , only ammonia and nitrate were higher in the carcasses processed
with renovated water , but not at concentrations that would constitute a
health hazard .
406
The organic chemical quality of the renovated water at the Sterling plant
remains perhaps the greatest area of possible concern , as it does for the
municipal water supply systems of the U . S . , principally because of the re
cent advances in our ability to identify and quantify trace organic chemi
cals at very low concentrations . Several specific organic chemicals have
been identified and some quantified in this study . As noted previously ,
pesticides were not found in either the renovated or treated well water .
Surfactants in the former were well below criterion levels. Several fatty
acids were found in the renovated water , but also in the treated well water .
In any event , these constitute no human hazard . The maximum concentration
of the only halogenated methane found in the renovated water , chloroform ,
was three micrograms per liter , well below the approximate median value of
20 found in the E .P .A . National Organic Reconnaissance Survey of U . S . pub
lic water supplies (6 ) . Two phthalates were found in the renovated water ,
and one of these in the treated well water . As noted perviously , both of
these, widely used as plasticizers, have been found in potable U . S . munici
pal water supplies , as well as many natural waters .
The unusual halogenated and hydrohalogenated derivatives of cyclohexene ,
found in both the renovated and treated well water , in all probability are
contaminants of the chlorine used in disinfection . They have been found in
finished municipal water supplies and are unrelated to the renovation sys
tem . That is , it is quite likely that changing to a different source of
chlorine will eliminate their presence .
It is a reasonable judgment therefore, that the specifically identified
organic chemicals arising from this waste renovation process do not con
stitute a human hazard were this water to be used as contemplated in full
recycle . One might nevertheless raise the question of the possible health
hazard from organics not yet identified . It is unlikely that , in terms
of the reuse of this water for processing poultry , such organics would be
hazardous , since they arise primarily and originally from the poultry wastes
and are likely to be only natural materials and their degradation products .
A possible question concerns the reaction of chlorine with these materials
to form hazardous by - products . This concern is difficult to address . It
should be pointed out , however , that chlorination is practiced in certain
food processing , and has probably not been associated with any ill effects
in humans .
The measured gross organic parameters , namely BOD , CCE , TOC , and organic
nitrogen , are also of interest as indicators of specific organic constituents .
The higher organic nitrogen in the renovated water most probably reflects
the proteinaceous material and its breakdown products from the poultry , but
only those constituents that are not readily biodegradable, since the BOD
values for the renovated and treated well waters were quite comparable .
The mean BOD value of 3 . 4 mg / l for the renovated water is not untypical of
many raw surface waters that are used for municipal water supplies , such
as Minneapolis and St . Cloud ( 9 ) .
The mean TOC values for the renovated and treated well water , 20 and 14
mg / 1 , respectively , are perhaps somewhat high , but not unusually so . The
statewide average for the major Minnesota rivers is 20 mg / 1 , with several
407
large municipal supplies utilizing them as raw water supplies ( 9 ) . Similar
ly , most of the larger rivers there have concentrations of 15 to 30 mg / 1 .
In a study of 80 municipal water supply systems of the U . S . , non -volatile
TOC concentrations as high as 19 mg / l were measured in the raw water and 12
mg / 1 in the finished water (6 ) . About 98 per cent of the latter were less
than 5 mg / 1 . This indicates that , in terms of a finished water supply , the
renovated water TOC values are undoubtedly high . However , after mixing 50 /50
with the raw well water and then full scale treatment , the final mixture
should not be significantly different in TOC than the currently used treated
well water .
The CCE measurements of the finished water show considerable variability .

However , time variations , seasonal or otherwise, are also common in finished
municipal water supplies ( 4 ) . Similarly , concentrations of 1 . 0 mg / l of CCE
are not uncommon in finished water supplies , and concentrations considerably
higher than this have been found in rivers . The average concentration of
0 . 7 mg / 1 for the renovated water system had been recently proposed as a criter
ion value for public water supplies .
One can reasonably conclude that the organic water content of both the treat
ed well water and the renovated water is somewhat high . Nevertheless , no
specific organics in the renovated water have been found at high enough con
centrations for the renovated water to be considered a significant risk to
human health . At the same time, the most likely non -hazardous nature of any
incremental organic material not yet identified in the renovated water is
such as to reinforce that judgment .
An evaluation of many of these results was performed immediately following

the completion of Phase 2 by a committee constituted to do so and make a
recommendation about proceeding to Phase 3 , a three -month trial period of
full recycling through the plant and water reuse . That committee did not at
the time have access to some measurements of organic water quality which were
done subsequent to Phase 2 , including most of the CCE analyses , and all of
the TOC and specific organics , other than pesticides . The committee recom
mended that there was no significant risk in proceeding to Phase 3 . We con
clude that the additional data on organic chemical quality should not modify
that judgment .
Nevertheless , the final decision to proceed to Phase 3 was not and has not
been made as of this writing . The delay arose because of the requirement
of the Department of Agriculture that the water to be reused in the plant
be designated as potable . There are differing opinions as to whether it
could be so regarded . The concerns center around two areas . First , is the
chemical and microbiological quality of the renovated water sufficient to
meet criteria of potability ? In terms of meeting constituent limits speci
fied in drinking water standards or regulations , the answer is yes . The
gross organic load is high , but not much more so than the normally treated
well water . Nevertheless , a certification of potability has been made by
the legally authorized agency , the State of Maryland .
408
The second area of concern related to potability is the nature of the raw
water source . A long -standing concept , as stated in the 1962 Public Health
Service Drinking Water Standards ( 10) , is the following :
" The water supply should be obtained from the most

desirable source which is feasible , and effort should
be made to prevent or control pollution of the source .
If the source is not adequately protected by natural
means, the supply shall be adequately protected by
treatment . "
In terms of the intended goal of this water renovation system , namely the
augmentation of the limited non - community well water source for the Ster
ling plant , other possible available sources should be considered , using
the above concept . The local community , Oakland , will not and cannot
provide additional water to the Sterling plant . The only other possible
source is the Little Youghiogheny River , often not more than a small creek ,
polluted immediately upstream by raw , municipal sewage from Oakland . It
is thus apparent that in terms of the concept of most desirable feasible
source , the renovation system meets that criterion . It must also be empha
sized that the renovated water , studied in Phase 2 , will receive the addi
tional full - scale , normal water treatment during the Phase 3 trial period
of reuse. In this sense it may also be regarded as a raw water source, and
certainly a most desirable one.
Nevertheless , one can and perhaps should put aside this legal question of
potability and consider the following question . If this renovated water
were to be recycled into the plant as described and used as intended , would
there be any significant, discernible risk to the consumers of the chickens
processed there ? It is our considered judgment after weighing all the re
sults of this study and that which preceded it , that the Phase 3 trial period
of full recycle and reuse should proceed , and that the public health will not
be jeopardized in so doing . In view of the urgent need to conserve our water
resources , limit waste discharges , and improve water quality , the nation will
have to proceed to selective reuse of wastewater . Such a project as this is
a useful step in that direction .
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study is a joint effort by the Maryland State Department of Health and
Mental Hygiene (MHD ) , the Sterling Processing Company , and the Graduate School
of Public Health , University of Pittsburgh (GSPH ) . The study is being funded
by the E . P . A . under two grants , one to GSPH and the other to MHD . The authors
gratefully acknowledge thisinterffi
nii support and the technical guidance and
nare Hornet Dance and look encourage
witherou
ment of the two E . P . A . project officers, Herbert Pahren and Jack Witherow .
We are also pleased to acknowledge the enthusiastic cooperation and partici
pation of Mr . Gilman Sylvester , the manager of the Sterling Processing Corpora
tion , and his staff ; also , Dan McGrail who has been operating the water reno
vation system , and Edward S . Hopkins , who supervises its operation .
Many analyses were performed by the Cumberland laboratory of MHD , and several
by the Analytical Services Laboratory of the NUS Corporation in Pittsburgh .
409
Drs . John Armstrong and Robert Yee , faculty members of the Microbiology
Department of GSPH , have been particularly helpful in advising on the
microbiological analyses , as has Dr . Iain Campbell of the Life Sciences
Division of the University of Pittsburgh on the trace organic analyses .
Several staff members at GSPH were fully involved in this project , most
notably Teresa Lester , who had the principal responsibility for all as
pects of the microbiological analyses .
REFERENCES
Clise , J . D . , Poultry Processing Wastewater Treatment and Reuse,

Environmental Protection Technology Series , EPA -660 / 2 - 74 - 060 ,
U . S . Environmental Protection Agency , Washington , D . C . , March , 1974 .
Huber , W .G . , Carlson , M . B . , and M . H . Lepper , " Penicillin and Anti
microbial Residues in Domestic Animals at Slaughter , " J . Amer . Vet .
Med . Assoc. , 154 , 1590 - 1595 (1969) .
3. Re ad
Read , R . B . , Bradshaw , J .G . , Swartzentruber , A . A . , and A . R . Brazis ,
" Detection of Sulfa Drugs and Antibiotics in Milk , " Applied Micro . ,
21 , 806 - 808 ( 1971) .
Buelow , R . W . , Carswell , J . K . , and J .M . Symons , "An Improved Method
for Determining Organics by Activated Carbon Absorption and Solvent
Extraction - Part 1 , " J . Amer . Water Works Assoc . , 65 , 57 - 72 (1973 ) .
Bellar , T . and J . J . Lichtenberg , " Determining Volatile Organics at

Microgram -per - litre Levels by Gas Chromatography , " J . Amer . Water
Works Assoc . , 66 , 739 -744 ( 1974) .
Symons , J .M ., Bellar , T . A . , Carswell , J. K . , DeMarco , J . , Kropp , K . L . ,

Robeck , G .G . , Seeger , D . R . , Slocum , C . J . , Smith , B . L . , and A . A . Stevens,
" National Organics Reconnaissance Survey for Halogenated Organics , "
J . Amer . Water Works Assoc . , 67, 634 - 647 ( 1975) .
Shackelford , W . M . and L . H . Keith , Frequency of Organic Compounds

Identified in Water , Environmental Monitoring Series , EPA -600 / 4 - 76 -062,
U . S . Environmental Protection Agency , Washington , D . C . , December 1976 .
Hamza , A . , Saad , S . , and J . Witherow , "Water Reuse in Poultry Pro
cessing : Case Study in Egypt , " THESE PROCEEDINGS .
Maier , W . J . and H . L . McConnell , " Carbon Measurements in Water Quality

Monitoring ," J. Water Pollution Control Feder . , 46 , 623 -633 ( 1974 ) .
10 . U . S . Public Health Service , Drinking Water Standards , 1962 , U . S .
Department of Health , Education and Welfare , Washington , D . C .
410
WATER REUSE IN POULTRY PROCESSING :
CASE STUDY IN EGYPT
by
Ahmed Hamza* , Samia Saad* , and Jack Witherow * *
The past decade has been marked by unprecedented global activity directed
toward man ' s concern for environmental quality . In many nations , this
concern has been translated into initiation of intensive research programs
and adoption of strict measures to protect and enhance the quality of the
environment.
In Egypt, population and industrial growth have made increasing demands on

the scarce water resources , and at the same time people are demanding up
grading of water quality for public health , aesthetic and recreational pur
poses . The emergence of these paradoxical demands has presented a problem
in providing water to meet the rising demands and obtaining the desired
water quality . In addition to this problem , the poultry industry faces a
unique situation , since new production farms and processing plants will be
located in remote areas as a part of an integral plan to revive the Egyptian
deserts . The stringency of water supply for the new plants coupled with the
compelling need for prodigious quantities of water have led to the recogni
tion of used water as a vital part of the water cycle in poultry processing .
Despite the considerable research efforts which have been devoted to the problem
of water renovation and reuse in poultry processing ( 1 , 3 ) , little has been
done to implement the accumulated information in long term field studies .
Water recycling in poultry processing is restricted as it confronts public
health regulations and established traditions .
Recognizing that applied research is needed in this vital area , Alexandria

University was awarded a U . S . Environmental Protection Agency grant to study
application of water recycling in poultry processing. Field studies were
initiated at Alexandria Poultry Processing Plant (APPP ) , during April 1976 .
Research efforts in the first phase of the study were directed toward evalua
tion of water and poultry characteristics during processing, and documenta
tion of necessary information for selection of potential sources of water for
reuse . The second phase will focus on application of a multiple water reuse
system , assessment of its technical and economic aspects and most important
its impact on sanitation of the process and product.
* Assistant Professor of Sanitary Engineering , Higher Institute of Public

Health , Alexandria University , Egypt.
* * U . S . Environmental Protection Agency, Food and Wood Products Branch,

Corvallis , OR .
411
UNIT OPERATIONS AT APPP
A detailed discussion of the operations at APPP will not be attempted since
it is almost identical to those in the U .S . and has been discussed in consi
derable detail by previous authors ( 1 , 4 ) . However , a brief description
of several unit operations at APPP is necessary for understanding the avail
able water sources for reuse.
A flow diagram of APPP and water usage by various operations is shown in

Figure 1 and Table 1 , respectively . Table 1 is based on 69 sets of observa
tions from May to September 1976 .
Killing and Bleeding

The live birds are stunned by low voltage current, and slaughtered by cutting
the jugular vein and allowing the blood to drain in a restricted area .
A sizable waste load is associated with this area due to the loss of blood
to the sewer system .
Scalding and Defeathering
Birds are subscaled at 54 -60°C , while adjusting the daily overflow to 5 liters
per bird , ( 1 /bird ) . The scalder effluent is highly contaminated with bacteria ,
blood and other residues . The scalded birds are defeathered in three conse
cutive picking machines , and the feathers are flumed to the rendering area
using the effluents from the scalder and pickers in addition to fresh water .
Water used in this area accounts for 28 . 3% of the total water usage .
Evisceration
The carcass cavity is opened for removal of entrails. Giblets are cleaned
and wrapped for bulk selling. After opening and washing the gizzard ,
they are transferred manually to the wrapping area without fluming to save
water and to eliminate the problem of treating the fluming effluent. The
inedible viscera are dropped into a trough which is flushed by water from the
hand washing faucets located along the evisceration line .
Washing and Chilling
The eviscerated carcasses are washed with fresh water in a horizontal immer
sion tank . The daily water usage averages 2 1 / bird . Chilling is accomplished
in two consecutive tanks at a combined daily overflow rate of 2 l /bird which
is equal to USDA requirements . Effluents from both operations are discharged
to the offal flume .
Other Water Uses
The screened feathers and offal are cooked at high pressure and temperature
to produce poultry feed . The steam condenser has once - through water usage
which averages 95 cu . meter of fresh water per day . In addition , about
50 cu . meter of fresh water are used daily to cool the ammonia compressors
which operate continuously to refrigerate the storage coolers and produce
ice used in the chilling operation .
412
ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES
Chemical analyses were performed in accordance with the " EPA Methods " ( 5 ) .
Samples for trace metal analyses were concentrated according to a method
described by Price ( 6 ) , and measurements by atomic absorption techniques
were in accordance with " Standard Methods " ( 7) .
Water samples for bacteriological analyses were collected in 100 ml sterile
glass containers , while carcass samples were kept in specially prepared
sterile polyethylene bags . To each bag 0 . 2 liter distilled water was poured
followed by shaking for 5 minutes . The washing was poured on a sterile funnel
and filtered through sterile No . 1 filter paper . Bacterial counts were
made according to the procedures of " Standard Methods" ( 7 ) .
CHARACTERISTICS OF POULTRY AND PROCESS EFFLUENTS

The waste loads of all operations presented in Table 2 and Figure 2 were cal
culated from average flow , concentration and production data . From each
wastewater sample point (Figure 1 ) , six sets of composite samples were
collected during July and twelve sets of grab samples were collected between
April and August . The average values for the twelve grab samples were
generally higher than the average value for the six composite samples . A
summary of the data from the grab samples is presented in Table 3 to charac
terize the wastewater effluents . The results indicate that the compressor
cooling water is virtually clean , except for trace contamination by ammonia
leaked from the compression cylinders . This water is suitable for reuse in
the scalding or defeathering operations . The COD for most effluents was
highly correlated to BOD5 , Total Residue (TR ) , and Total Volatile Residue
( TVR ) , which implies the possible use of COD as an indicator of pollution in
poultry processing.
Discharge of the washing and chilling effluents to the offal flume results
in noticeable dilution of the concentrated effluent from the evisceration
process . The mean concentrations of COD and Total Residue are less in
chiller II than in chiller I or in the washer . This offers an opportunity
for reuse of water from chiller II in chiller I and the washer .
Trace metal concentrations in various effluents are shown in Table 4 . The
relatively high iron concentration in the killing , scalding and eviscerating
effluents is attributed to the blood contamination and the possible corrosion of
fittings and pipelines at elevated scalding temperatures . Trace metal concen
trations in the compressor cooling water are nearly identical to those in
the fresh water . In general , concentrations of trace metals in various effluents
are similar to those of fresh water , which indicates the near absence of pollu
tion by trace metals during poultry processing . Magnesium and iron concentra
tions exceed the desired levels for drinking water in the U . S .
Antimicrobial residues in the effluents from the scalder , evisceration
trough , washing and chilling tanks were tested according to the method
suggested by Huber ( 8 ) . The tested samples were either free or contained
antimicrobial residues less than the sensitivity limit of 25 ug/ l of chloram
phenicol. In addition , four sets of wastewater samples were found free of
parasites , except for the bleeding and killing effluent in which Ascaridia
was detected twice. 413
Residue
]|Total
OPERATIONS
Condenser effi.
PROCESSING
Chiller II effi .
POULTRY
LOADS
WASTE
Chiller I effi .
Washing effl.
OF
Eviscer . effl .
Feather flume
Bleeding effl .
Condenser effi .
Chiller II effi .
)(BOD
Chiller I effi .
Washing effl .
Eviscer . effl .
Feather flume
Bleeding effi .
Condenser effi .
][COD
Chiller II effl .
Chiller I effi .
Figure
Washing effl .
Eviscer . effl.
Feather flume
2.
Bleeding effi .
Kep / sy
414
TABLE 4. TRACE METALS IN GRAB SAMPLES OF WASTEWATER FROM APPP
(ug/ 1)
Cn6
Sample co crto Zn Ni Pb mn u fe ca
2 - 16 2- 17 34 -117 1-6 19 - 180 23- 60 130 - 800 2 -3
Final X 5 .8 5 .6 61. 8 3. 0 72 . 3 * 36 . 1 485 * 2.1
Effluent S .D . 4.7 5.1 39 . 0 1. 9 51 . 7 11. 3 220 0 .4
1 - 18 1-13 25 - 200 1-4 21 - 210 20 - 40 180 -630

Bleeding X 7 .0 4.9 68 . 9 2.6 61 . 4 * 27 . 1 470 *
Effluent S .D . 5 .7 4 .0 60 . 5 1 . 1. 66 . 2 - 7.2 165
1 - 18 1 - 12 21- 170 1- 5 1 - 14 26 - 210 21- 40 201 -810

Scalding X 7.1 6 .0 57. 4 2.6 3. 5 62 . 5 29 . 4 524
Effluent S . D . 5. 3 4 .2 48 . 1 1.4 4 .6 62. 9 7.8 222
2 - 15 0 - 12 22- 190 2 -5 1 - 12 13- 180 15 -40 215 -640

Feather X 7.4 5.4 64 . 3 3.4 3 .0 53. 3 * 28 . 3 427 *
Flume S .D . 4.2 4 .9 54 . 3 1.2 3.7 55 . 0 7.6 132
1 - 17 1-8 31 - 150 1-4 1 - 14 14 -130 20 -40 210 - 730 1-5

Evisceration X 7 .8 4.4 64 . 5 3. 1 2.9 53. 5 * 30 .6 466 . * 2 .7
Effluent S .D . 5 .9 3. 1 37 . 2 . 1.3 4. 5 36 . 1 6 .8 165 1.4
10
1 - 17 1- 14 28- 130 1-5 1- 22 13 - 140 20- 40 310 -530 1-4

Offal X 7.8 5. 3 67 . 5 3.0 4.1 49. 5 28 . 0 419 2.3
Flume S .D. 5 .8 4 .9 34 . 4 1 .5 7. 3 40 . 8 8.1 68 1 .0
1 - 17 1 - 12 28 - 90 1-8 1 -12 12 - 72 20 -40 190 -400 1- 2

Washing X 6.3 5 .8 62 . 0 4.0 26 . 7 29 . 7 311. * 1.8
Effluent S .D. 6.3 4 .0 25 . 8 2 .6 4.6 22. 5 6.4 95 0.5
R 2- 19 1- 8 21- 110 1- 9 1 - 10 10 - 160 21- 180 90 - 500 1- 3

Chiller 1 X 8.3 3.8 66 . 4 3.6 3. 3 44 . 0 51 . 9 279
Effluent S .D . 5 .2 2.8 27 . 4 2.7 3. 9 52 . 2 53. 7 142
3 - 18 1 -6 30 -120 1-5 1-9 10- 220 18 - 32 210 -650

Chiller II i 9.1
4.7
3.4 68 . 4 3. 1 61. 4* 27 .1 374 *
Effluent S. D. 1.9 34 . 1 1. 6 3, 3 86 . 3 6 .0 147 0 .8
2 - 14 1-9 26 - 140 1- 9 1 -8 9 - 140 13- 100 240 - 890 1- 5

Condenser X 8.3 3.5 61. 5 3. 7 2.3 50 . 3 38 . 7 454 * 2 .6
Effluent S .D . 3. 8 3. 1 44 . 7 2.9 2. 8 58. 7 35 . 2 255 1 .8
2 - 18 1- 15 32- 190 1 - 12 1 - 14 10 - 190 9 - 40 120 -600 1-3
Compressor X 7. 9 4.9 70 . 1 3. 1 2. 8 63. 5 + 25 . 4 362 * 2.0
Cooling S.D. 4 . 7. 4.4 53. 1 3. 7 4 .6 66 . 3 12 .8 155
U .S.
Drinking
Water 50 50 50 1000 300 10
Standards
*Values exceed drinking water standards

R = Range X = Mean S . D . - Standard deviation n = 8
415
Bacterial identification and counts of the various effluents are shown in
Table 5 and the counts are illustrated on Figure 3 . The highest counts
were found in the killing and eviscerating effluents . Less contamination
was observed in the scalding and feather flume effluents . This may be
due to a reduction of viable cells from scalding or by dilution with fresh
water .
The decrease in bacterial counts in the offal flume in comparison with the
eviscerating effluent is due to the dilution effect of the washing and
chilling effluents . The most prevalent bacteria in the effluents were
E . coli , Pseudomonas , and Proteus . Salmonella , para colon , Shigella , and
Staphlococci were identified in several samples. Cooling water from the com
pressors was generally free from bacterial contamination .
The results presented in Table 6 and Figure 4 show the identified bacteria
and / or counts associated with the carcass samples. Heavy contamination
was encountered after both scalding and evisceration . Washing decreased
the bacterial counts on the carcasses by 3 to 4 orders of magnitude and
chilling decreased the bacterial counts by 2 additional orders of magnitude .
The bacterial counts increased again during the final weighing and packaging
operations . This striking recontamination indicates the need to modify
the process by eliminating or minimizing the human contact during the
weighing and packaging operations .
The bacteria associated with the carcasses were similar in their order of
prevalence to those found in the wastewater effluents .
ACCUMULATION OF CONTAMINANTS IN THE PROCESS WATER

A study of buildup of contaminants in the scalding, washing , and chilling
tanks was undertaken to provide information concerning the quality of water
which comes in direct contact with the carcasses during processing.
The usual operation involves initial fillings of the tanks every morning
and discharging the used water and refilling with fresh water once or twice
during the processing period . Refilling frequencies depend on the operator ' s
judgement for the need to renew the process water .
During this study no refilling was done . However , overflow from the tanks
was kept constant according to the rates previously mentioned . Water samples
were taken from the tanks after one hour of operation , and every hour after
that for a total period of six hours . Samples were not collected during the
lunch hour . This sampling scheme was repeated four times in May .
Accumulation of total aerobic and coliform counts in the process water is illus
trated in Figures 5 and 6 , respectively . Bacteria contamination of the scalding
water was greater than in the washing and chilling waters . During the first
processing period ( 8 - 11 a . m . ) bacterial counts in all tanks increased , and
continued to increase during the second processing period (12 - 3 p .m . ) .
The results of this study support the value of continual removal of water
contaminants in these " immersion processes " .
416
BTABLE
5. ACTERIA
IDENTIFICATI
COUNTS
AND
WASTEWATER
OF
SAMPLES ON
)of
Results
Positive
(Percent
Sampling
Shigella
Total Aerobic (1)
Station
coli
Salmonella
Para
Staphlococci
Escherichia
Salmonella
Salmonella
colon
para typhi A
Streptococci
Monila
typhi
No . of Observations
Proteus
Pseudomonas
para typhi B
Coliform ( 7 )
Micrococci
Final
Effluent 10 57 5 5 5 23 19 5 5 1 9.x108 4.3x106
Effluent
Scalding 16 11 5 32 22 32 66 77 11 5 3.%x10 .92x105
Feather
Flume 23 5 5 5 5 9.5 9.5 19 14 ?3.5x10 4.0x105
Trough 21
Eviscerating 95 33 33 5 9.5 14 "6.4x10 7.4x1010
417
Flume
Offal 95 39 19 9.5 5 9.5 19 5 14 5 19 5 1.9x108 2.7x100
Tank
Wash 85 33 28 5 19 28 14 9.5 14 28 9.5 1.0x105 2.0x103
1 ler
Chil 21 85 33 9.5 5 9.5 9.5 5 14 14 5 4.9x104 2.1x103
II
Chiller 76 14 62 23 9.5 19 5 14 5 14 5 6.9x104 1.3x103
Water
Condenser 14 64 28 14 14 7 7 7 7 .21x104 1.5x103
Water 14
Compressor 28 14 7 1.x102 - -- -- --
counts
ml
per
(1)Average
Total Aerobic Count
Coliform Count
[Mean Values]
Comperssor
water
Condenser
effluent
Chiller
II
BACTERIOLOGICAL COUNTS OF WASTEWATER

ChillerI
O
Wash
tank
Offal
flumē
418
Eviscer.
effluent
Feather
flume
Scalding
effluent
DO
Bleeding
effluent
Fipal
effluent
Figure 3 .
l
m/Counts
6.BACTERIA
TABLE
CARCASSES
PROCESSED
OF
COUNTS
AND
IDENTIFICATION
)(Percent
Results
Positive
of
Sampling
Station
No. of Observations
Salmonella
Escherichia
coli
Proteus
Salmonella
para typhi A
typhi
Shigella
Salmonella
Streptococci
Total Aerobic ( 1)
para typhi B
Pseudomonas
Colifornim
Micrococci
Monilia
Scalding 18
After 72 .6
16 6.5 .333 .81x109 1.7?x10
.
Eviscer
During .9
88 .9
38 .0
50 .0
16 5.7 5.7 .1
11 11.1 33 3.0x1012 4.x1010
.
Eviscer
After 12 .3
83 25 .3
58 25 3.9x1072 4.6x100
washing 12
After 100 8.3 .7
16 .7
16 7,16 25 2.x108 69.x106
i
Chiller
After 12 100 33. .7
41 .0
25 i8.3 8.3 .7
16 .0
25 25 6.1x106 89.x104
II 18
Chiller
After .9
88 .4
44 .8
27 .1
11 .3
33 .3
33 91.x106 6.5x104
Weighing
During 100 .3
33 .0
75 8.3 0.25 8.3 25 x1024
26.1x105
Packaging
After 18 .8
77 .8
27 .7
66 .2
22 .1
11 .8
27 16.6 .6
55 17 6?4.x10 13.x106
.(1)Average
carcass
per
counts
Total Aerobic Count
( Mean Values ]
Coliform Count
After
BACTERIOLOGICAL COUNTS OF CARCASSES

packaging
During
Weighing
After
chilleIIr
After
chillerI
420
After
washing
After
evisceration
During
evisceration
After
scalding
Figure 4 .
m
/Carcass
Counts
7 .7 x 101,
4x106 I 1 . 7 x 10 '
[ Median Values ]
n = 4
SCALDER WASHING CHILLER I CHILLER I

TANK
Counts
/ml
3x10LILU
' ILU LULU
123567 12 3567 12 3567123567
Hours after startup
Figure 5 . Accumulation of Total Aerobic Count in Process Water .
421
2. 3 x 105
2.3
F
[ Median Values ]
TITIT
n = 4
104
1
SCALDER WASHING CHILLER CHILLER 10

TANK
Counts
/ml
103 $
12359712356 1123567 123567

Hours after start up
Figure 6 . ACCUMULATION OF COLIFORM COUNT IN PROCESS WATER
422
To evaluate the effect of process water on the bacterial quality of the
carcasses , the accumulation study was repeated 7 times during Nov . / Dec .
Figure 7 shows parallel deterioration of the bacterial quality of the
carcasses as a direct result of the increased contamination of the process
water .
DISCUSSION
Egyptian health regulations agree in principal with those of the USDA ( 9 ) ,

which requires the use of potable water in all operations involving direct
contact between water and the carcass or giblets . However , in the common
water immersion and water transport operations used in poultry processing
the potable quality is lost when the first carcass or giblet enters the
tank or flume . The addition of fresh water does not regain potable quality
but does cause considerable energy losses in maintaining water temperatures
in the scalder and chillers .
The available option to save process water and conserve energy is water
renovation and reuse. Although used water may not be potable , it can be
treated to a better quality than the process water which is presently used
in contact with the carcasses . Contrary to the popular belief , use of
renovated water can result in improving the quality of the process water ( 10 )
and most likely the poultry products .
Present governmental regulations specify quality and quantities of freshwater

in poultry processing to maintain processing methods which experience has
shown satisfactory to obtain a product safe for consumption . The purpose
of this research project is to demonstrate environmentally desirable modifi
cations of water use in several unit operations which will maintain or improve
the water quality in these operations and produce a product equally safe
for consumption . Most of the data gathered in phase one has been to establish
a baseline of water and product quality in each unit operation . This data
is to be compared with similar data collected in phase two to document expected
improvements in water and product quality .
MULTIPLE USE SYSTEM

The results of the first phase of the U . S . EPA demonstration project add
support to the premise of water reuse in poultry processing . The multiple
use system shown in Figure 1 , has been initiated with the second phase of
this project which began in March 1977 .
The system involves use of fresh water in the final chiller and recycling
its overflow after grease separation and bacterial reduction to the chiller
I at a rate of 20 - 25 1 /min . To supplement the need of the chiller I fresh
water will be added at a rate of 12 - 15 1 /min . Counter current flow of all
the water from the final chiller to the chiller I cannot be applied because
of insufficient chilling capacity at the plant. The overflow of chiller 1
will be reused with an equivalent flow of fresh water as a continuous feed
to the washing tank . Effluent of the washing tank will be reused in the
feather flume to replace the fresh water used in this operation . Water
used for cooling the compressors will be reused as a continuous feed to
the scalding tank , which will reduce both the fresh water and energy requirements
423
SCALDER
. T . C . of process water
ot . c . of carcasses
C . C . of process water
C . C . of carcasses
( Median Values ]
n = 7
(Counts / Carcass = counts /ml x 200 )
/Counts
WASHING
TANK
m 2
CHILLER I CHILLER II
10 - UUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUU
1234567 123 456 712 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Hours since startup
Figure 7.
Figure 7 . AC CUMULATIIONON OF
ACCUMULAT ER Hence sta
EPLBACTERIA IN rtu p com WATER AND CARCASSES
PROCESS
424
of the scalding operation . This multiple system is flexible , since the
ratio of fresh water / used water can be adjusted to insure the quality of
the water used in each unit operation .
High pressure spray washers will replace the existing faucets of the evis
ceration trough to reduce water usage in this area . The trough will be modi
fied to facilitate movement of the inedible viscera to the evisceration flume
without flushing with water .
Multiple water use together with modifying the evisceration operation will
save 40 % of the current process water usage .
In the final phase of the study, the once through condensing water will be
renovated and recycled continuously to the rendering cookers which will save
an additional 25 % of the water usage . Renovation is needed to remove
grease , residues and volatile matter . Reduction of bacteria counts in the
renovated water is not essential for this particular operation .
SUMMARY
The results obtained from this study have provided the following:
1. Manual handling during weighing and packaging results in noticeable
recontamination of the processed carcasses . Elimination of human
contact in this operation is required to upgrade the quality of the
product .
2. Water used for cooling the compressors can be reused in the scalder
without treatment as it is virtually free from contamination .
3. A study of accumulation of contaminants in the immersion processes
(scalding, washing , and chilling ) revealed a direct relationship between
the bacterial counts in the water and on the carcasses . Continual
renovation of water to retard the rate of buildup of contaminants is
needed . Use of renovated water can enhance the quality of the process
water in these operations , besides saving part of the energy required
for cooling and heating processes .
Counter current water use through the chillers and washer is planned
after applying renovation measures for grease and bacterial reduction .
5. A comprehensive evaluation of the water use system will be performed

during the second phase of the study .
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research is supported by Grant No . PL 3 . 542 - 2 from the EPA . Grateful
acknowledgment is extended to Dr . Ali Mourad , Faculty of Medicine , Alex
andria University for his help in the bacterial analyses .
425
REFERENCES
1 . Berry L . S . , et al. Sand Filtration and Activated Carbon Treatment of

Poultry Process Water . Jour. Water Poll. Control Fed . , 48 :2394 (1976 ).
Hamza A . , et al. Conservation of Water in Food Processing by Use of
Low Volume High Pressure Sprays . The Third National Conference on
Complete Water Reuse , AICHE and EPA , Cincinnati , OH . June 1976 .
3. Clise , J . D . Poultry Processing Wastewater Treatment and Reuse .

Envir . Prot. Tech. Series, EPA-660/ 2 - 74 -060, Washington , DC. 1974 .
4. Carawan , R . E . , et al . Water and Waste Management in Poultry Pro
cessing . Env . Prot . Tech . Series , EPA -660/ 2- 74 - 031 , Washington , DC .
1974 .
5. Manual of Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastewater .

Tech . Transfer , EPA -625 / 6 - 74 -003. 1974 .
6 . Price, W . J . Effluent and Water Treatment Jour . , April 1967.

7. Standard Methods of Examination of Water and Wastewater . 13th Ed .
Amer . Pub . Health Assn . , New York , NY . 1971 .
Huber , W . G . , et al . Penicillin and Antimicrobial Residues in Domestic

Animals. Jour . Amer . Vet. Med . Assoc . , 154 : 1590 . 1969.
Regulations Governing the Inspection of Poultry and Poultry Products .
USDA , Consumer Marketing Service, Poultry Division . 1968 .
10 . Rogers, C . J . Recycling of Water in Poultry Processing Plants.
Technical Report on Project S - 800930 , EPA , IERL , Cincinnati , OH .
1976 .
426
THE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL OF WASTEWATER
FROM DAIRY PROCESSING PLANTS
by
James A . Moore* and Boyd M . Buxton **
The concern over environmental quality has brought about the National Pollu
tion Discharge Elimination System ( NPDES ) , which has set limitations on the
type and quantities of pollutants that may be discharged from the dairy pro
cessing and other industries . These increased standards have forced policy
makers within the industry to review their present waste-handling systems and
consider alternatives in order to comply with the above standards .
The three alternatives which are open to the processing plants are upgrade or
install a private treatment -disposal system ; connect to , or continue to dis
charge to , a municipal sewage treatment plant, most of which are reassessing
the cost of treatment ; or go out of business. Any of the above choices will
result in an increase in the cost of the product to the ultimate consumer.
The objective of this project was to evaluate the cost of dairy products to
the consumer as influenced by the new water pollution standards . To meet this
objective and obtain this data , the effluent of some typical processing plants
and several commonly -used treatment - disposal systems were monitored . This
paper will report on the activities and results of this monitoring .
An inventory was conducted of the wastewater handling methods used by pro
cessing plants in Minnesota . It was found that only 271 dairy processing
plants were in operation in November of 1975 compared with 563 in 1965 . Most
of the reduction had taken place with the smaller plants and milk - receiving
stations . These transfer or receiving stations numbered 98 and their sole job
was to collect and cool milk for shipment to the processing plant. Bottling
plants number 39 and the remaining 134 plants represent some form of milk pro
cessing plant .
A break down of the type of waste-handling system was obtained from a mail
survey in which 121 of the 271 plants responded . Over 68 percent of the
plants discharge to a municipal sewage - treatment plant . Just over 16 percent
of the plants utilize private waste - treatment systems , with septic tanks being
the most common . Nearly 9 percent of the plants discharge to a water course
directly without treatment and the remaining 6 - plus percent remain unknown .
* Assistant Professor, Department of Agricultural Engineering, University of

Minnesota , St . Paul, Minnesota .
* * Agricultural Economist , Economic Research Service, USDA , and Professor ,
University of Minnesota , St . Paul, Minnesota .
Approved for publication as Paper No . 10002 in the Scientific Journal Series,
Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station .
427
Most of the 16 percent , or 44 plants , using private waste treatment systems
were visited and evaluated as to their suitability for serving as typical of
the industry . Six different types of plants were selected as typical plants
with good treatment -disposal systems . These included ridge and furrow , single
stabilization pond , two- cell stabilization pond , trickling filter , package
aeration plant and two -stage aerated lagoon with chemical treatment . While
on these field visits we also saw some of the plants that discharge without
treatment . All of the operations discharging directly without treatment were
small plants and transfer stations outletting into a natural swampy or low
area . While not promoting this practice, it was noted that there appeared to
be no negative effect of the surrounding natural environment .
Ridge and Furrow
The ridge and furrow system was not sampled as there is no system effluent .
The several operations which were visited were functioning well and the man
agement was well pleased in all cases . When properly designed , the management
requirements are quite minimal. While the necessary size is a function of
water use and soil , type , a recommendation of 5 ,000 gallons of wastewater per
acre- day (4 .67 1 / m -day) can be used to design a system ( 1) . This is the
winter rate (half the summer rate ) which is recommended for areas which re
ceive severe winter weather .
Single Stage Lagoon

Some sampling was done of the single -stage lagoon system . However, the dis
charge to surrounding pasture was never required , so no output data was avail
able for this system .
Small Transfer Station With Package Aeration Plant
The data gathered in September from the small transfer station (or receiving
station ) with the package aeration plant are shown in Table 1. Sampling was
also done in May and March but not included because of space limitations. *
The total volatile solids ( TVS) values in the influent ( flow from the plant
into the treatment system ) are rather constant and reflect only the milk and
wastewater from the can washer and the bulk tank . The values from the package
plant ( effluent) represent the discharge point and have been diluted by the
addition (after the treatment plant) of the cooling water . This accounts for
the low values shown for both TVS and chemical oxygen demand (COD ) .
The COD values are quite variable flowing from the plant and values jump by
factors of 3 during the day . The data from Table 1 together with the flow
data shown in Figure 1 are needed to get the complete picture of the mass load
flowing into and out of the plant and treatment unit . The high COD values
seen in the late evening represent a carry - over of the wash - down period be
cause of the very low wastewater flow (almost zero ) coming from other than the
cooling water . The total system efficiency for TVS and COD were 27 % and 67% ,
respectively .
*All the data can be obtained upon request from the author .
428
TABLE 1 . SMALL TRANSFER STATION WITH A PACKAGE AERATION PLANT -
WASTEWATER ANALYSIS
INFLUENT 23-24 Sept . 75
Ortho
TS TVS COD PH Phos . BOD
Time mg / 1 mg / 1 mg/ 1 Units mg / 1 mg/ 1
6 : 00 a . m . 2540 1240 1617 216
7 : 00 2240 900 3823 7. 5 270
8 : 00 3460 1840 1260 225
9 : 00 3600 2280 3206 258 2420
10 :00 4060 2340 3289 348
11 : 00 3400 1820 2704 258
12 : 00 3940 2240 2633 371
1 : 00 p . m . 3840 2180 2041 239
2 : 00 5790 3720 5178 218 1183
3 : 00 4760 2900 3548 290
4 : 00 4040 2680 5836 284
5 : 00 6240 4060 7594 258
6 : 00 6520 4300 7229 318
7 : 00 4680 2920 7347 273
8 : 00 4060 2440 8689 251
9 : 00 6680 2900 6668 246 2121
10 : 00 4240 2620 7947 219
11 : 00 3700 2140 7586 315
12 : 00 2860 1500 3979 294
1 : 00 a . m . 3820 2320 4286 229
2 : 00 2960 1560 3438 194
3 : 00 440 2640 3634 186
4 : 00 4060 2340 1825 208
5 : 00 a . m . 3200 1740 989 202
AVE . 4130 2400 4431 257
EFFLUENT 23 Sept . 75
Ortho
Time mg/ 1 mg / 1 mg / 1 Units mg / 1 mg / 1
2 :00 p . m . 1540 700 2080 70 . 5 792
3 : 00 1770 790 2590 94 . 0 891
4 : 00 1720 850 2881 125 . 5 1286
5 : 00 1610 83. 1 898
6 : 00 1230 370 2100 83. 6 891
7 : 00 1190 380 828 6 .5 92 . 9 808
8 : 00 1150 450 848 6 .5 125 . 0 919
9 : 00 820 80 322 128 . 9 352
10 : 00 p . m . 850 70 262 7 137 . 0 231
AVE . 1280 460 1502 6 .9 104 785
429
This unit appeared to be underdesigned for the peak loads it was asked to
handle during the working hours of the plant. The small aeration chamber and
settling tank did not allow the system to benefit from the cyclic loading from
the plant , and solids were carried through when the wash -down process would
occur . This accounts for the low TVS treatment efficiency .
150 40F
WATER FLOW
SMALL RECEIVING STATION
3 / 22 - 3 /23 1976
100 -
LITERS
GAL
/MIN
/MIN
O VIRITUATIAININ
MID 2 4 6 8 10 NOON 2 4 6 8 10 MID
Figure 1. Water -flow rate to a small receiving station

in March .
Transfer Station With Trickling Filter Treatment System
A larger transfer station was also sampled . This one was using a settling
basin and trickling filter for treatment before discharging to a stream . The
processing plant effluent and treatment system effluent was sampled in Sep
tember , February and April . The February data are shown in Table 2 .
The total solids ( TS ) data was less steady in this plant than the small trans
fer station with the TVS and COD values showing wide ranges of concentrations.
The highest values were recorded when the first milk arrived in the morning
and another peak occurred again around 4 p .m . , which reflected the plant and
equipment cleanup period . This is shown in Figure 2 .
430
TABLE 2 . RECEIVING STATION WITH TRICKLING FILTER TREATMENT
SYSTEM – WASTEWATER ANALYSIS
INFLUENT 4 - 5 Feb . 76
Ortho
Time mg/ 1 mg / 1 mg/ 1 Units mg/ l mg/ 1
6 : 30 a . m . 1840 790 783 8 .4 105
7 : 30 2220 1370 1361 6.8 69
8 : 30 3320 1120 1380 7. 1 78
9 : 30 2800 1540 3949 6.8 65 802
10 : 30 1800 840 1110 6 .6 933
11: 30 1630 830 757 6 .6 1064
12 : 30 p . m . 2010 830 818 6 .5 1026
1 : 30 1860 560 463 6 .4 546
2 : 30 1600 850 988 6.5 277 927
3 : 30 2900 1650 2374 6 .3 233
4 : 30 2370 1120 1517 6.7 156
5 : 30 3130 870 1002 10 . 4 59
6 : 30 2860 900 1034 10 . 0 82
7 : 30 2750 840 875 9.0 135
8 : 30 2470 660 823 8 .8 111
9 : 30 2010 720 636 7 .8 114
10 : 30 2010 690 783 7 .3 120 439
11 : 30 2130 660 784 7.8 119
12 : 30 a . m . 2120 580 776 8 .2 92
1 : 30 2000 630 675 7.5 73
2 : 30 1710 580 506 7. 1 129
3: 30 2030 790 623 7. 5 124
4 : 30 2540 1330 1040 8.6 103
5 : 30 a . m . 3260 1180 1280 8. 3 137
AVE . 2307 914 1097 7 .6 248
EFFLUENT 4 Feb . 76
Ortho
Time mg/ 1 mg / 1 mg/ 1 Units mg / 1 mg / 1
8 : 30 a . m . 880 260 89 6 .8 66 . 3
9 : 30 850 380 84 6 .7 70 , 2
10 : 30 950 330 121 6.7 193 . 4 101
11 : 30 960 430 146 6 .7 170 . 3
170.3
2 : 30 p . m . 800 13370
:30 146 6.7
6 .7 104 . 5
AVE . 888 354 104 6.7 121
431
RECEIVING STATION EFFLUENT
4000 2 /4 - 275 1976
3000
mg
/l
2000
1000 COD
mo
MID į2 46
4 6 8 10 NOON 2 4 6 8 10 MID
TIME IN HRS
Figure 2 . Twenty - four hourly values of TVS and COD for

Receiving Station .
The high ortho -phospate values recorded about noon were not found on the other
two sampling periods . The other data were much more consistant and lower ,
with the average values being 35 and 18 mg / l . It was suspected that the pri
mary source of ortho phosphate resulted from hand washing the bulk tanks of
the trucks used to bring the milk to the plant. This is one activity that
can be managed to help reduce the loading to any treatment- disposal system .
Another parameter worthy of note on Table 2 are the pH values . High pH values
were observed about the time of the late-afternoon washup . This load could
be detrimental to a biological treatment system and may require dampening ,
diluting or changing the cleanup chemical.
Coupling this information with the data on water use shown in Figure 3 may
give some clue as to the activities in the plant . This plant has a high per
cent of its flow going to cool the milk . The wash - down water , while quite
variable , was dampened with a rather large base flow of cooling water . The
spikes were due to tank truck and equipment wash down .
432
‫ܠܠܠܠܠܠܠܠܠܠܠܠܠ‬
‫ܠܠ‬
‫ܠܠܠܠܠܠܠ‬
WATER FLOW
RECEIVING STATION
4 /19 & 4 / 20 1976
LITERS
/MIN
GAL
M/ IN
10 NOON 2 4 6 8 10 MID
TIME IN HRS
Figure 3. Water -flow rates to a receiving station in

April.
Small Butter Plant With Two -Stage Lagoon Treatment System
A small, one-man butter processing plant utilizing a two - stage lagoon system
proved to be the best waste- treatment system . Typical of processing plants ,
the water use was less variable than the preceding transfer stations due to
the rather uniform water use of the various processing component . For a com
plete breakdown of the water use in the dairy industry , the reader is directed
to Water and Wastewater Management in Dairy Processing, by Carawan , Jones and
Hansen ( 2) .
The flow for the small butter plant is shown in Figure 4 and shows a signifi
cant percentage of water used for cooling . The greatest water use was during
the working day and was rather uneven . This uneven flow cycle could cause
problems to some treatment systems . However , the lagoon system was quite cap
able of receiving these daily slug loadings .
433
WATER FLOW
SMALL BUTTER PLANT
3 / 18 & 3 / 19 1976
GAL
/MIN
lof
O TINTADIUMINTA
MID 2 8 10 NOON 2 4 6 8 10 MID
TIME IN HRS
Figure 4 . Water -use rate for a small butter plant .
The pumping station from the plant up to the first lagoon was sampled on a
24 - hour basis , four times during the year and the September data are shown in
Table 3 . While the flow data was rather uniform during the day , the measured
parameters , with the exception of pH , change quite drastically . The ortho
phosphate values are quite variable. There is some correlation between the
high values recorded of ortho phosphate and the TS and COD values , but the
pattern was not identical. These September ortho- phosphate values were
higher , with an average of 15 . 3 , and more varied than the other three sam
plings , which averaged 3 . 4 , 11. 1 and 5 . 5 mg / 1 for each of the other days.
Biochemical oxygen demand ( BOD ) drops about 98 % , from 516 to less than 9 mg /1 ,
after the plant stops operation . The TS and TVS dip to 25 % of their peak
values while COD values drop to almost 10 % during the 8 : 30 - to - 9 : 30 a .m . sam
pling periods in the morning. These changes point out the hazards of grab
sampling was tewater stream flows . The peaks could be even higher as the
hourly sampling represents only a partial picture of the real was tewater con
centration versus time .
434
TABLE 3 . SMALL BUTTER PLANT WITH TWO - CELL STABILIZATION POND
TREATMENT SYSTEM - WASTEWATER ANALYSIS
INFLUENT
(SAMPLED AT PUMPING STATION ) 16 - 17 Sept. 75
Ortho
Time mg / 1 mg / 1 mg/ 1 Units mg/ 1 mg / 1
6 : 30 a . m . 920 720 1243 7.5 .7
7 : 30 7510 6900 932 7. 5 127 . 2
8 : 30 2180 1940 3236 7.5 37 . 1
9 : 30 500 380 349 7.5 2. 5
10 : 30 920 200 340 7.5 103 . 0
11 : 30 570 140 311 7. 5 9.0
12 : 30 p . m . 1260 480 89 7. 5 41 . 5
1 : 30 320 80 86 7.5 3.6
2 : 30 1110 520 1280 7. 5 10 . 4
3 : 30 400 130 101 7.5 .8 516
4 : 30 500 60 133 7.5 - 2 .4
5 : 30 420 50 8 7.5 17 . 3
6 : 30 410 140 7.5 1.4
7: 30 360 10 7. 5 1.2
8 : 30 340 120 7. 5 1. 3
9 : 30 340 120 7. 5 8. 8
10 : 30 400 110 7.5
11 : 30 300 150 7.5
12 : 30 a .m . 400 140 7 .5
1 : 30 380 100 7 .5
2 : 30 360 110 7.5
. . . . .
3 : 30 410 180 7 .5
4 : 30 340 120 7. 5
5 : 30 a . m . 340 170 7 .5
AVE . 870 540 339 7. 5 15 .3

EFFLUENT 16 Sept . 75
Inflow at
First Lagoon on
52 20 82 8.1 19
Flow Between
Lagoons 45 5 100 7.9 18 64
Outflow
38 3 63 7.8 . s
435
The COD values vary more in the September data than in the other three sam
pling dates . To indicate not only the variability of the sample strength but
also the variability of operation within the day , Figures 5 and 6 are in
cluded . These show the low values recorded during the shut - down period and
also some spikes of high concentrations occurring throughout the day . In
comparing the two graphs, notice that the peak values came at quite different
times of the day . A complete understanding of all the plant operations is
necessary to identify the cause of the high - strength discharges .
6000F 16900
TVS
SMALL BUTTER PLANT EFFLUENT
9 / 16 - 9 / 17 1975
5000F
4000
COD
è 3000
2000
1000
MID 2 4 6 8 10 NOON 2 4 6 8 10 MID

TIME IN HRS
Figure 5 . Concentrations of chemical oxygen demand and total

volatile solids in the September effluent of a
small butter plant .
436
3000 SMALL BUTTER PLANT EFFLUENT
1/ 21 - 1/22 1976
1
2000
mg
/l
1000 TVS
MID 2 4 6 8 10 NOON 2 4 6 8 10 MID

TIME IN HRS
Figure 6 . Concentration of chemical oxygen demand and

total volatile solids in the January effluent
of a small butter plant .
a S
Large Cheese and Butter Plant With a Two - Stage Aerated Lagoon and Chemical
Treatment
The selection of a typical large processing plant with a private treatment

system was rather simple . As most large plants are in cities with central
sewers and a treatment plant, very few have private treatment systems . This
limitation made the selection of a typical plant easy but not necessarily
representative . The large plant selected had just installed a new treatment
system and can be used as a model to others .
The uniform water -use data , shown in Figure 7 , is expected for a large,
round - the - clock processing plant . The block steps are from the recordings
and do not reflect sudden changes in the use rate . While a slight increase
was seen through the middle of each day , the pattern was quite uniform .
One would suspect that a large , rather uniform flow would dampen or dilute
high concentrations of various parameters in wastewater analysis . This trend
was true for most of the day as seen from the data in Table 4 . The striking
exception is pH . The values range from 1 to above 10 with this full- scale
change taking place between 5 : 30 and 6 : 30 in the morning . This would appear
437
to be suspect data , however , the wide range and sudden change was also ob
served from the samples taken in February . This drastic range must result
from a sudden dumping or washing of one section of the plant processing equip
ment. This range must be severely detrimental to any biological activity at
tempting to provide organic removal in the early stages of the system .
WATER FLOW
PERIODS
LARGE CHEESE &

)FLOW
BUTTER PLANT
(4H%ORF
8 NOON 4 O MID
TIME OF DAY
Figure 7 . Twenty - four hour water - use data for a large

cheese and butter plant .
A large batch of whey or solids was apparently dumped early on this morning as
the TS and TVS are quite high in the 4 : 30 a . m . sample . The values are back
to the average concentration in the next hour' s sample . The ortho - phosphate
values are quite uniform through the sampling period .
438
TABLE 4 . WASTEWATER ANALYSIS FROM A LARGE CHEESE AND BUTTER PLANT
DISCHARGING TO AN AERATED TWO- STAGE LAGOON WITH CHEMICAL
TREATMENT
INFLUENT 3- 4 May 76
Ortho
TS TVS COD pH Phos . BOD
Time mg / 1 mg / 1 mg / 1 Units mg / 1 mg / 1
5 : 30 a . m . 4860 2460 10165 10 . 5 96
6 : 30 3940 2320 2876 1.4 97
7 : 30 5480 3520 6213 5 .6 184 2205
8 : 30 3040 1640 3156 5 .6 141
9 : 30 2560 1520 2689 5.4 89
10 : 30 3480 1280 2592 4. 3 767
11 : 30 3600 2200 4036 4 .6 116
12 : 30 p . m . 3560 1740 3831 6.2 124
1 : 30 4040 1640 3060 9.0 149
2 : 30 3680 1900 3377 5.4 153
3 : 30 2940 1280 2163 9. 0 148 3690
4 : 30 4348 5.3
5 : 30 2540 1260 2870 5.4 117
6 : 30 3080 1440 3105 92
7 : 30 4420 2040 2926 5. 1 95
8 : 30 4400 2580 5178 5.1 130
9 : 30 1900 880 2007 7 .5 72 5640
10 : 30 3853 5.0
11 : 30 2640 1440 2572 5.1 105
12 : 30 a . m . 6620 5080 8893 4.2 177
1 : 30 4240 2580 4992 5. 3 374
2 : 30 8320 3560 6913 12 .0 66
3 : 30 10180 6860 7773 2.0 255
4 : 30 a .m . 22040 18360 7026 4.2 378
AVE . 5071 3072 4442 5 .8 179
EFFLUENT 3- 4 May 76
Ortho
mg / 1 mg / 1 mg / 1 Units mg / 1 mg /1
3 May 3000 740 1035 9.0 1. 5 1752
4 May 3130 780 954 7.0 1.4 1275
439
The effluent samples shown in Table 4 may indicate the need for additional
settling. The TS values are high while the TVS and COD values reflect some
treatment . The BOD values are quite high for effluent and certainly must be
improved to meet current state standards. As this was the first year of oper
ation , the management of treatment systems will likely improve the quality of
the effluent with time and experience .
SUMMARY
The processing plants ' effluent show a wide variation of both water use and
concentration of those parameters measured . A summary of the average data is
shown in Table 5 . Reviewing this table for treatment efficiencies , the butter
plant using a two - cell stabilization pond exhibited the highest treatment of
both COD and Ts . The package aeration plant treating the wastewater from the
small receiving station had the poorest treatment efficiencies .
This may also support the value of a treatment system which can be operated
effectively with little or no management requirements .
As expected , the summer and fall months do a better job of treatment while the
winter and spring periods reflect the effect of the cold temperatures .
CONCLUSIONS
1. Transfer stations and small package plants have two distinct water uses ,
cooling and wash water .
2. Values of most parameters change sharply , reflecting special activities

within the plant . This points out the danger of grab -sampling dairy
processing plants .
3 . Sudden changes in the concentration of some parameters , such as pH , may be
detrimental to biological treatment components .
Water -use rates vary widely and nonuniform flow within some operations are
undesirable for package treatment plants , but have little effect on the
efficiency of lagoon systems .
The two - cell stabilization pond was the most efficient treatment of TS and
COD .
The dairy processing industry can make very good use of treatment systems
which require low management skills . The stabilization pond and ridge and
furrow systems meet this requirement and perform very well in Minnesota .
440
5.SUMMARY
TABLE
DAIRY
MINNESOTA
FOUR
FROM
SAMPLES
EFFLUENI
AND
INFLUENT
ANALYSIS
LABORATORY
OF
PLANTS
Plant
of
Type .Date
Approx
of Flow
demand
Oxygen
and
/_Cmhemical solids
Total
sample
annual , nfluent Eff
.Iday
Eff
Effluent .
milk d%k,0gay
/1kg
mg
00
ay %
received .
gal
.
lbs
x106
Large 499
and
cheese . 75
Feb .2
190 3,228 .1
164 228 95 4,354 1,730 2,403 60
using
plant
butter 76
May .0
187 3,131 .7
668 945 79 3,444 2,061 2,912 40
-catwo
aerated
ell
lagoon
.
plant 50
butter
Small 75
Sep .022 .1
61 0.3 4 99 .3137 2.1 25 98
atwo
-cusing
ell 76
Jan 37
.1 .337 .62 25 93 .7
49 .98 82
441
76
Feb .9
22 .9
32 1.9 22 .955 6.5 75 97
8
pond
stabilization 94
76
May .8
25 .9
45 0.5 5 .2
57 1.6 16 97
receiving16
Small . 75
Sep 0.7 .0
25 0.9 30 .8
23 6.9 260 71
7.4 .3
16 326 /
a
using
station Mar
76 9.1 .6
15 .924 890 0a
aeration
package 76
May 8.4 .1
17 6.4 62
202 .4
16 .0
29 935
system
.
station 91
Receiving 75
Sep 2,18 .7
35 .9
14 217 58 .7
92 .053 770 43
trickling
filter Feb
76 .6
16 .8
69 .3
65 1,040 65 .5136 .8
55 888 59
76
May .8
19 .5
68 8.9 119 87 .6
92 .5
52 700 43
a'At
exceeded
effluent
the
in
solids
total
of
concentration
taken
were
samples
time
the
.This
influent
in
concentration
waste
of
measures
in
occur
can
that
variability
the
emphasizes
.
concentration
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the technical assistance provided to this

project by Mary Paul Even and Jeffrey D . Nielsen , Assistant Scientists , Agri
cultural Engineering Department , and Steve Ziegler , former Research Specialist,
Department of Agricultural and Applied Economics , University of Minnesota ,
St . Paul, Minnesota .
REFERENCES
1. Schraufnagel, F . H . Dairy Waste Disposal by Ridge and Furrow Irrigation .

Proceedings of the 12th Indiana Waste Conference , Purdue University ,
Indiana Agricultural Extension Series . May , 1957 .
Carawan , R . E . , V . A . Jones and A . P . Hansen . Water and Wastewater Man
agement in Dairy Processing . December , 1972 . Department of Food Sci
ence , North Carolina State University , Raleigh , North Carolina 27607.
442
EIGHTH FOOD WASTE SYMPOSIUM
REGISTRATION LIST
WALTER ADAMS ARTHUR BENNY

Sterling Colorado Beef Co . Suite 405 , The 400 Building
P . 0 . Box 1728 Bellevue , WA 98004
Sterling, CO 80751
D . R . BENTLEY
JAMES AGEE H . D . Fowler Co .
EPA , Region X Box 160
1200 6th Avenue Bellevue , WA 98155
Seattle , WA 98101
E . E . BERKAU
MELVIN D . ALSAGER EPA , IERL - Ci
J . R . Simplot Co . 5555 Ridge Avenue
P . O . Box 27 Cincinnati , OH 45268
Boise, ID 83707
DON E . BERRYHILL
JULIAN B . ANDELMAN Del Monte Corporation
University of Pittsburgh P . O . Box 150
Graduate School of Public Health Vancouver , WA 98660
Pittsburgh , PA 15261
TRAVIS BILBREY
JAMES S . ATWELL O 'Neill Meat Co .
Edward C . Jordan Co . , Inc . P . 0 . Box 12226
P . O . Box 7050 Fresno , CA 93777
Portland , ME 04112
JOHN J . BIRDSALL
MICHAEL AYRES American Meat Institute
Agripac Inc . P . O . Box 3556
P . O . Box 5346 Washington , DC 20007
Salem , OR 97304
HAROLD BARNETT PAM A . BISSONNETTE
National Marine Fisheries Service Kramer , Chin & Mayo , Inc .
2725 Montlake Blvd . E . 1917 First Avenue
Seattle , WA 98112 Seattle , WA 98101
MARTHA I . BEACH LEE BODNAR

N - CON Systems Co . , Inc . Protein Products
308 Main Street P .0 . Box 328 , Springbrook Road
New Rochelle , NY 10801 Newberg, OR 97132
443
JOHN L . BOMBEN DAVID CARTER
USDA , Agricultural Research Service Tyson Foods Inc .
Western Regional Research Laboratory P . 0 . Drawer E
Berkeley , CA 94710 Springdale , AR 72764
JOHN BONN ROBERT E . CEROSKY

Nalley ' s Fine Foods General Foods Corporation
3303 South 35th Street 250 North Street
Tacoma , WA 98411 White Plaines , NY 10625
WILLIAM BOON SOT CHIMONAS

INPRO Systems Division J . R . Simplot Co .
Drawer 940 P . O . Box 1059
Rock Island , IL 61204 Caldwell, ID 83605
H . BOROW JIMMIE A . CHITTENDEN
Standard Brands Ltd . TASCO
550 Sherbrooke W . P . O . Box 11175
Montreal , CANADA Amarillo , TX 79109
G . R . BOWES RICHARD D . CHUMNEY

Alaska Packers Association , Inc . New Jersey Department of Agriculture
P . 0 . Box 3326 P . 0 . Box 1888
Bellevue, WA 98009 Trenton , NJ 08625
JAMES R . BOYDSTON BROOKS D . CHURCH

EPA , Food and Wood Products Branch University of Denver
200 SW 35th Street Department of Biological Sciences
Corvallis , OR 97330 Denver , CO 80210
DON E . BRITTON J . M . CONDIT
National Fruit Canning Co . Arthur L . Benny & Co .
P . O . Box 9366 Suite 405 , The 400 Building
Seattle , WA 98109 Bellevue , WA 98004
GERALD BROWN JOE COGAR

Star - Kist Foods Stayton Canning Co . Coop
582 Tuna Street 930 Washington Street
Terminal Island , CA Stayton , OR 97383
JOHN W . BUCKLEY RON COOK

R . W . Beck & Associates Stephan Thurlow Co .
200 Tower Building Box 9520
Seattle, WA 98155 Seattle , WA 98109
MAX S . CAMPBELL J . A . CURRY
H . D . Fowler Co . Inc . ARA Corporation
13440 SE 30th 2844 Cascadia Avenue
Bellevue, WA 98006 Seattle , WA 98148
444
GARY W . DAVIS MAURENE W . EHLERS
Brown & Caldwell Western Starch Div . , Western Polymer Corp .
1501 N . Broadway P . O . Box 488
Walnut Creek , CA 94596 Tulelake , CA 96134
ROGER A . DECAMP LARRY ENNINGA

National Canners Association Pacific Egg and Poultry Association
1600 S . Jackson Street 5420 West Jefferson Boulevard
Seattle , WA 98144 Los Angeles , CA 90016
JEFF D . DENIT EUGENE E . ERICKSON
EPA , Effluent Guidelines Division Midwest Research Institute
Waterside Mall , 401 M Street , SW North Star Division
Washington , DC 20460 10701 Red Circle Drive
Minnetonka , MN 55343
MARSHALL DICK
EPA , Office of Research & Development DAVID B . ERTZ
Waterside Mall , 401 M Street , SW Edward C . Jordan Co . Inc .
Washington , DC 20460 P . O . Box 7050 , Downtown Station
Portland , ME 04112
ROBERT E . DIEHL
Van Camp Sea Food Company LARRY A . ESVELT
11555 Sorrento Valley Road Esvelt Environmental Engineering
San Diego , CA 92121 E . 7905 Heroy Avenue
Spokane, WA 99206
TED DINOVO
Battelle Columbus Laboratories THOMAS M . ETHEN
505 King Avenue N .W . Food Processors Association
Columbus , OH 43201 2828 SW Corbett
Portland, OR 97212
S . J . A . DOBBERSTEIN
Foremost McKesson , Inc . JOHN FARQUHAR
One Post Street American Frozen Food Institute
San Francisco , CA 94104 919 18th Street , N . W .
Washington , DC 20006
KENNETH A . DOSTAL
EPA , Food and Wood Products Branch R . P . FARROW
200 SW 35th Street National Canners Association
Corvallis , OR 97330 1950 Sixth Street
Berkeley , CA 94710
CHARLES M . DOUCETTE
Doucette Consulting Engineers MONTY FERGUS
1900 Donovan Avenue Protein Products
Bellingham , WA 98225 P . O . Box 328 , Springbrook Road
Newberg , OR 97132
STEPHEN W . DVORAK
Packerland Packing Company JOHN O . FINNIE
P . 0 . Box 1184 Ministry of the Environment
Green Bay , WI 54305 Pollution Control Branch
Legislative Buildings
Victoria , BC V8V 455
445
E . H . FORSHT DEB K . GUHA
EPA , Effluent Guidelines Division H . D . Fowler Co . Inc .
Waterside Mall , 401 M Street , SW 13440 S . E . 30th
Washington , DC 20460 Bellevue , WA 98009
W . E . GALLAND C . FRED GURNHAM
WEMCO Division , Envirotech Corp . Gurnham and Associates , Inc .
P . O . Box 15619 223 West Jackson Boulevard
Sacramento , CA 95813 Chicago , IL 60606
R . A . GALLOP SUZAN A . GUTTORMSEN
Food Science Department Brown and Caldwell
University of Manitoba 100 W . Harrison
Winnipeg , Manitoba , Canada R3T 2N2 Seattle , WA 98119
WAYNE D . GILHAM AHMED HAMZA
polson Industrial Higher Institute of Public Health
625 South Industrial Way Alexandria University
Seattle , WA 98108 165 El Horria Avenue
Alexandria , Egypt
LANCE CILKEY
Whitney Fidalgo Seafoods ARTHUR W . HANSEN
2360 W . Commodore Way Del Monte Corporation
Seattle , WA 98199 P .O . Box 3575
San Francisco , CA 94119
JO - ANN GODDARD
Western Washington State College JANE HARDING
Environmental Health Department S . W . Arkansas Education Center
Bellingham , WA 302 W . DeQueen
DeQueen , AR 71832
GEORGE W . GOODWIN
Fort Lewis TOM HARDING
Post Engineers DFAE Mountaire Poultry , Inc .
Ft . Lewis , WA 98433 123 W . Park
DeQueen , AR 71832
KEN GRAY
B . F . Goodrich JAMES HARRIS
500 S . Main Department of Plant Science
Akron , OH 44133 and Technology
North Carolina A & T State University
T . R . GREGG Greensboro , NC 27411
Environmental Marketing Association
3331 N . W . Elmwood HERBERT H . HART
Corvallis , OR 97330 Snokist Growers
2506 Terrace Heights Road
RICHARD W . GREILING Yakima , WA 98901
Department of Ecology
Southwest Regional Office RICHARD C . HEIMSCH
Olympia , WA 98504 Dept. of Bacteriology & Biochemistry
University of Idaho
Moscow , ID 83843
446
BRIAN W . HEMPHILL DENNIS L . JOHNSON
Neptune Microfloc , Inc . Swift & Co .
P . 0 . Box 612 115 W . Jackson Boulevard
Corvallis , OR 97330 Chicago , IL 60604
JAMES L . HETRICK EUGENE S . JOHNSON
Combustion Engineering Bauer Nalco Chemical Co .
P . 0 . Box 722 2901 Butterfield Road
Dana Point, CA 92629 Oak Brook , IL 60521
JOHN H . HETRICK BRIAN KELLY

Dean Foods Company North Pacific Processors
1126 Kilburn Avenue 2155 N . Northlake Way
Rockford, IL 61101 Seattle , WA 98103
DANIEL HOBE RALPH KENWORTHY
Castle & Cooke John Inglis Frozen Foods Co .
50 California Street P . 0 . Box 3111
San Francisco , CA 94111 Modesto , CA 95353
DOUG HOLBECK RIC KERIN
Harbor Seafoods Company , Inc . Philip M . Botch & Assoc . , Inc .
Box 908 1021 - 12th N . E .
Wrangell , AK 99929 Bellevue , WA 98004
JEFFREY A . HOWARD LLOYD H . KETCHUM , JR .
Moore , Wallace & Kennedy , Inc . University of Notre Dame
1915 1st Avenue Department of Civil Engineering
Seattle , WA 98101 Notre Dame, IN 46556
JERRY HUANG ALLAN D . KISSAM
Eutek , Inc . Washington Sea Grant
1828 Tribute Road , Suite H 3716 Brooklyn N . E .
Sacramento , CA 95815 Seattle , WA 98155
MEL JACKSON JAMES K . KOELLIKER
University of Idaho Oregon State University
Department of Chemical Engineering Agricultural Engineering Department
Moscow , ID 83843 Corvallis , OR 97331
DOUGLAS JACOBSON ARTHUR KOLBERG

Hammond , Collier & Wade -Livingstone Alaska - Shell , Inc .
4010 Stone Way N . 4215 21st Avenue West
Seattle , WA 98103 Seattle , WA 98199
ART JOHNSON E . G . KOMINEK

Gray & Osborn , Inc . EIMCO PMD Division , Envirotech Corp .
P . O . Box 2795 P . O . Box 300
Yakima , WA 98902 Salt Lake City, UT 84110
447
R . KUILBOER R . F . McFEETERS
Ver Krachtwerktuigen Michigan State University
P . O . Box 165 Department of Food Science and Nutrition
Amersfoort , Holland E . Lansing , MI 48823
HAROLD KUMMER JACK MCVAUGH

Kummer Meat Company Envirex Inc .
P . O . Box 159 P . 0 . Box 1067
Hillsboro , OR 97123 Waukesha , WI 53186
CHARLES P . LAND ROBERT B . MAGUIRE
E . Kahn ' s Son ' s Co . Agripac Inc .
3241 Spring Grove Avenue P . 0 . Box 5346
Cincinnati, OH 45225 Salem , OR 97304
RICHARD LANSDOWN REGINALD E . MEADE
International Co - op Anderson - IBEC
P . 0 . Box 1378 19699 Progress Drive
Grand Forks , ND 58201 Strongsville , OH 44136
JOHN W . LEE , JR . J . G . MEENAHAN

CH2M Hill John & Anderson , Inc .
1500 - 114th Avenue S .E . P . O . Box 1166
Bellevue , WA 98004 Pontiac , MI 48056
EILEEN LEITE WALTER MERCER
Michigan State University National Canners Association
Department of Food Science 1950 Sixth Street
E . Lansing , MI 48824 Berkeley , CA 94710
CARLTON LEWIS SAMUEL P . MEYERS

SLAC Louisiana State University
800th Street N . W . Department of Food Science
Washington , DC 20006 Baton Rouge , LA 70803
CHIEN LIU J . RONALD MINER
RCL Industries , Inc . Oregon State University
State Pier , P . O . Box 1153 Department of Agricultural Engineering
Gloucester , MA 01930 Corvallis , OR 97331
DUGAL R . MacGREGOR MICHAEL MINNER
Canada Agriculture City of Tacoma
Research Station 818 South Yakima , Suite 202
Summerland , BC VOH IZO Tacoma, WA 98405
W . K . MCALEER JERRY MINOR
Peter F . Leftus Coop KCM / Environmental Associates Inc .
Chamber of Commerce Building 535 S .W . 4th Street
Pittsburgh , PA 15243 Corvallis , OR 97330
448
JAMES C . MITCHELL HARRY NEUMANN
O 'Neill Meat Co . USDA , Western Regional Research Ctr .
P . O . Box 12226 800 Buchanan Street
Fresno , CA 93777 Albany , CA 94710
FREDERICK L . MONROE L . B . NISLE

Ore - Ida Foods , Inc . J . R . Simplot Co . , Food Div .
P . O . Box 10 P . 0 . Box 130
Ontario , OR 97914 Burley , ID 83336
JAMES A . MOORE JAMES H . OATES

Agric . Engineering Department J . R . Simplot Co .
University of Minnesota Box 1059
3576 Siems Court Caldwell, ID 83605
St . Paul , MN 55112
CHANDLER ODELL
PETER MULYK City of Tacoma
Stanley Associates Engineering Ltd . 818 South Yakima , Suite 202
505 - 5th Avenue . S . E . Tacoma , WA 98405
Calgary , Alberta Canada
FRANK C . OLMSTED
ARNOLD M . MUNTER Vulcan Dehydrators
Jeno ' s , Inc . 1038 E . Ft . Lowell Road
525 Lake Avenue S . Tucson , AZ 85718
Duluth , MN 55802
CARL OLSON
CARL E . NALL Stokely-Van Camp, Inc.
Pacific Egg & Poultry Association P . 0 . Box 456
5420 W . Jefferson Boulevard Mount Vernon , WA 98273
Los Angeles , CA 90016
JERRY ONGERTH
ROBERT C . NEAL Brown & Caldwell
C . E . Bauer 100 W . Harrison
P . O . Box 968 Seattle , WA 98119
Springfield, OH 45501 J . G . ORTENGREN
GUY R . NELSON ALWATECH
EPA , Envir . Res . Info . Ctr . Oslo , Norway
26 W . St . Clair
Cincinnati, OH 45268 RICH OTOSKI
Kenics Corporation
RICHARD W . NELSON 4105 S .W . Hocken # 201
National Marine Fisheries Service Beaverton , OR 97005
2725 Montlake Boulevard E .
Seattle , WA 98112 BRYAN PERKINS
Louisiana State University
MORTON NEMIROFF Department of Food Science
Castle & Cooke Foods Baton Rouge , LA 70803
P . 0 . Box 3380
Honolulu , HI 96801
449
ROBERT L . PERRY MARTYN J . RIDDLE
Perry Bros . , Inc . Fisheries and Environment Canada
500 Terry Avenue N . Water Pollution Control Directorate
Seattle , WA 98105 Ottawa , Ontario KIA OH3
JOHN B . PETERS GEORGE H . ROBERTSON
University of Washington USDA - Western Regional Research Lab.
213 Fisheries Center 800 Buchanan
Seattle , WA 98195 Berkeley , CA 94710
LARRY L . PETERSEN THOMAS C . ROONEY
METRO Rexnord Inc .
410 W . Harrison 5101 W . Beloit Road
Seattle , WA 98119 Milwaukee , WI 53214
JOHN P . PILNEY WALTER W . ROSE

Midwest Research Institute National Canners Association
North Star Division 1950 Sixth Street
10701 Red Circle Drive Berkeley , CA 94710
Minnetonka , MN 55343
JOHN ROSENAU
JAMES J . PLAZA University of Massachusetts
Carborundum Department of Food Engineering
P . O . Box 1269 Amherst, MA 01009
Knoxville , TN 37901
JOHN s . RUPPERSBERGER
STEPHEN POLONCSIK EPA , Food and Wood Products Branch
EPA , Region V 200 S . W . 35th Street
230 South Dearborn Street Corvallis , OR 97330
Chicago , IL 60604
MICKEY ROWE
MICHAEL P . PRICE East Central University
City of Tacoma School of Environmental and
818 South Yakima , Suite 202 Health Sciences
Tacoma , WA 98405 Ada , OK 74820
ERNEST R . RAMIREZ D . S . SANDFORD
Swift & Co . Eco -Research Ltd .
1919 Swift Drive 6940 Fisher Road , S . E .
Oak Brook , IL 60521 Calgary , Alta T2H OW3
DUANE RASMUSSEN LARRY W . SASSER
Jacobs Engineering Co . R . W . Beck & Associates
2401 Stanwell Drive 200 Tower Building
Concord , CA 94520 Seattle , WA 98101
ELDON RICKMAN JOHN E . SCHADE
P . U . D . Noil of Chelan Co . USDA , Western Regional Research Ctr .
327 N . Wenatchee Avenue 800 Buchanan Street
Wenatchee , WA 98801 Albany , CA 94710
450
EDWARD J . SCHAEFER JOHN E . SOMERVILLE ry
Bepex Corporation BJames .cgome
ois ViM s.taMontgomery Consulting Eggrs .
1021 112th Avenue , N . E . 1301 Vista Avenue
Bellevue , WA 98004 Boise , ID 83705
W . J . SCHELL STEVEN SPANGLER
Envirogenics Systems Co . Van Camp Sea Food Company
9255 Telstar Avenue 11555 Sorrento Valley Road
El Monte , CA 91731 San Diego, CA 92121°
W . G . SCHULTZ PETER SPECK
USDA , Western Regional Research Ctr . Agriculture Canada
800 Buchanan Street Research Station
Albany , CA 94710 Summerland, BC VOH IZO
RONALD D . SCINOCCA PATRICK M . STANLEY
Jeno ' s Inc . Safeway Stores , Inc .
525 Lake Avenue Co . 425 Madison Street
Duluth , MN 55802 Oakland , CA 94660
K . L . SIRRINE RICHARD W . STERNBERG
R . T . French Company EPA , Office of Enforcement
434 60 . Emerson 401 M Street , S . W .
Shelley , ID 83274 Washington , DC 20460
NORMAN W . SMITH FRED STONE

Hallanger Engineers , Inc. USDOC - Nat ' l . Marine Fisheries Service
1621 - 114th Avenue , S . W . 2725 Montlake Boulevard
Bellevue , WA 98004 Seattle , WA 98112
JAMES E . SMITH JOHN SULLIVAN
Envirex Inc . BioMed Research Labs
8300 Rex Road 1115 E . Pike
Pico Rivera, CA 90660 Seattle , WA 98122
RICHARD M . SMITH MICHAEL D . SWAYNE
Food Engineering Service SCS Engineers
9544 E . Rush Street 4014 Long Beach Boulevard
So . El Monte, CA 91733 Long Beach , CA 90807
IRV F . SNIDER T . T . TAKEOKA

Carborundum Alaska Packers Association , Inc .
2 . 0 . Box 1269 P .0 . Box 3326
Knoxville, TN 37901 Bellevue , WA 98009
W . W . SOLOMON ROBERT TEDROW

Alaska Packers Association , Inc . BioMed Research Labs
P . O . Box 3326 1115 E . Pike Street
Bellevue, WA 98008 Seattle , WA 98122
451
DONALD J . THIMSEN ROBERT H . VICKERMAN
General Mills Inc . R . R . Engineering Ltd .
P . 0 . Box 1113 P . O . Box 261
Minneapolis , MN 55440 Hardisty , Alberta TOB TVO
HAROLD W . THOMPSON TOM VILLMAN

EPA , Food and Wood Products Branch Stayton Canning Co . Coop
200 S .W . 35th Street 930 Washington Street
Corvallis , OR 97330 Stayton , OŘ 97383
R . GORDON THOMPSON GARY WAINWRIGHT
Environmental Protection Service Illini Beéf Packers , Inc .
Kapilano 100 Park Royal South P .O . Box 245
West Vancouver , BC Geneseo , IL 61254
STEVE THURLOW JOHN F . H . WALKER

Stephan Thurlow Co . Arthur G . Mckee
Box 9520 100 S . Riverside Plaza
Seattle , WA 98109 Chicago , IL 60606
PEPPE F . TIANO RICHARD A . WALKER
Environmental Health Fluid Systems Division , UOP Inc .
Huxley College /WWSC 2980 N . Harbor Drive
Bellingham , WA 98025 San Diego , CA 92101
CALVIN R . TININENKO DAVID WELKER
Farmland Foods , Inc . Michael A . Kennedy Consulting Engineers
10700 West Waveland Avenue W . 1625 Fourth Avenue
Franklin Park , IL 60131 Spokane , WA 992n4
TED TREPANIER W . JAMES WELLS , JR .

Hammond , Collier & Wade - Livingstone Assoc . Bell , Galyardt , Wells Inc .
4010 Stone Way N . 5634 S . 85th Street
Seattle , WA 98103 Omaha , NE 68127
ROBERT E . TROWBRIDGE JENNIFER L . WILKINS
Ore - Ida Foods , Inc . Environmental Health
P . 0 . Box 10 Huxley College /WWSC
Ontario , OR 97914 Bellingham , WA 98225
ROBERT J . UFFEN H . KIRK WILLARD
Fort Lewis EPA , Food and Wood Products Branch
Post Engineering DFAE 200 S .W . 35th Street
Ft . Lewis , WA 98433 Corvallis , OR 97330
LANCE VAN BROCKLIN LOUIS WILLIAMS

Vita Food Products , Inc . Tyson Foods , Inc .
P . O . Box 427 P . O . Drawer E
Bellingham , WA 98225 Springdale , AR 72764
RICHARD V . VANCE M . K . WINTER

Anheuser - Busch , Inc . WEMCO Division
721 Pestalozzi Street Envirotech Corporation
St . Louis , MO 63118 2 .0 . Box 15619
452 Sacramento , CA 95813
JACK L . WITHEROW
EPA , Food and Wood Products Branch
200 S . W . 35th Street
Corvallis , OR 97330
KENNETH W . WONG
Castle & Cooke Foods
P . O . Box 647
Monroe , WA 98272
PING - YI YANG
University of Hawaii at Manoa
Agricultural Engineering Department
3131 Maile Way
Honolulu , HI 96822
453
(Please read Instructionson the reverse before completing)
1 . REPORT NO . 2.
13. RECIPIENT' S ACCESSION NO .
EPA -600 / 2 - 77 - 184
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 15 . REPORT DATE
Proceedings Eighth National Symposium on Food August 1977 issuing date
Processing Wastes 6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR (S) 18 . PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO .
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS 10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO .

Food and Wood Products Branch 1BB610
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory 11. CONTRACT/GRANTNO .
Corvallis , Oregon 97330
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS 13. TYPE OF REPORT.AND PERIOD COVERED
Industrial Environmental Research Lab -Cinti. , OH Symposium Proceedings
Office of Research and Development 14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
U . S . Environmental Protection Agency EPA/600 / 12
Cincinnati , Ohio 45268
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES Additional sponsors include : National Canners Association ,
American Meat Institute, Southeastern Poultry and Egg Assoc . , Pacific Egg & Poultry
Assoc . , Western States Meat Packers Assoc . , NW Food Processors Assoc . , Nat 'l. Indep.
6 . ABSTRACT
RACT Meat Packers Assoc . , American Frozen Food Institute
The Proceedings contains copies of 29 of the 31 papers presented at the Eighth
National Symposium on Food Processing Wastes . Subjects included : processing modi
fications , product and by - product recovery , wastewater treatment , water recycle and
water reuse for several segments of the food processing industry . These segments
included : red meat and poultry , seafood , dairy , fruit , and vegetable .
Attendance at the two and one -half day Symposium was approximately 200 with good
representation by industry , universities , consulting firms , as well as state and
Federal agencies .

DESCRIPTORS 16 .IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS c . COSATI Field /Group
industrial Wastes , Waste Water , Food Process Modifications ,
Processing, Byproducts Water Reuse , Water 13/B
Recycle
19 . DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT 19 . SECURITY CLASS ( This Report) 21. NO . OF PAGES

Unclassified 462
Release Unlimited 20. SECURITY CLASS (This page) 22 . PRICE
Unclassified
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पाव
EPA-600 / 2 -77-185
September 1977 Environmental Protection Technology Serie
THE UNIVERSITY
OF MICHIGAN
170 OCT24. 1977

ENGINEERING
LIBRARY
no . 185
FIELD PROTOTYPE DEMONSTRATIO
OF THE SWIRL DEGRITTE
T A STA
NI TES
VIRO
AGENCY
13 . U .
NME
ME ON
NT
AL C TI
TE
Municipal Environmental Research Laborat

Office of Research and Developm
U .S. Environmental Protection Age
Cincinnati, Ohio 45
Research reports of the Office ofResearch and Development, U . S . Environmental
o facilitate furtheraditional growerface in rela
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series . These nine broad cate
vironmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
The nine series are :
3 . Ecological Research
4 . Environmental Monitoring
5 . Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
7 . Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8 . " Special" Reports
vironmental degradation from point and non -point sources of pollution . This work
This document is available to the public through the National TechnicalInforma

EPA -600 / 2 - 77 - 185
September 1977
FIELD PROTOTYPE DEMONSTRATION OF THE SWIRL DEGRITTER
by
Richard H . Sullivan
James E . Ure
Paul Zielinski
American Public Works Association
Chicago , Illinois 60637
Grant No . S - 803157
Project Officers
Richard Field
Hugh Masters
Storm and Combined Sewer Section
Wastewater Research Division
Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory (Cincinnati)
Edison , New Jersey 08817
MUNICIPAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY

CINCINNATI , OHIO 45268
DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Municipal Environmental Research

Laboratory , U . S . Environmental Protection Agency , and approved for publica
tion . Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the
views and policies of the U . S . Environmental Protection Agency , nor does
mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or
recommendation for use .
FOREWORD
The Environmental Protection Agency was created because of increasing

public and government concern about the dangers of pollution to the health
and welfare of the American people . Noxious air , foul water , and spoiled
land are tragic testimony to the deterioration of our natural environment .
The complexity of that environment and the interplay between its compo
nents require a concentrated and integrated attack on the problem .
Research and development is that necessary first step in problem

solution and it involves defining the problem , measuring its impact , and
searching for solutions. The Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory
develops new and improved technology and systems for the prevention , treat
ment , and management of wastewater and solid and hazardous waste pollutant
discharges from municipal and community sources , for the preservation and
treatment of public drinking water supplies and to minimize the adverse
economic , social , health , and aesthetic effects of pollution . This pub
lication is one of the products of that research ; a most vital communica
tions link between the researcher and the user community .
The study describes the evaluation of a prototype swirl degritter to

perform the function of grit separation more effectively than conventional
units for concentrated grit as may be found in the treatment of stormwater
discharges .
Francis T . Mayo
Director
Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory
iii
ABSTRACT
A prototype swirl degritter was tested by the Metropolitan Denver

Sewage Disposal District No . 1 . The unit was designed to duplicate the
grit removal device needed to degrit the underflow from the proposed swirl
concentrator as a combined sewer overflow regulator at Lancaster ,
Pennsylvania under EPA Grant No . 5802219 (formerly 11023 GSC ) . Degritting
is considered in Lancaster to protect pumps and prevent siltation in the
interceptor .
The 1 . 8 m (6 ft ) diameter device was designed for a flow of 65 6 1 / s
( 1 .5 mgd ) . It was found that under the physical arrangements in Denver ,
and testing with domestic sanitary wastewater , that the swirl unit per
formed at slight ly less efficiency than the conventional aerated grit unit
which was operating at less than twice the normal flow - through rate . The
characteristics of the grit removal from the swirl degritter were excellent
and particles of 0 . 2 mm ( . 008 in ) were removed .
Analyses of grit removal was accomplished with three Chasick sampling
units . Blasting sand was added to provide extremely high concentrations of
0 . 2 mm ( . 008 in ) particles (lower definition of grit ) to duplicate the con
centrate from the swirl regulator . It was found that the unit could effi
ciently remove the small particles at the high concentrations.
It was concluded that the degritter could be used for domestic waste
water , combined sewer overflows , or urban stormwater runoff treatment .
The absence of moving parts in the basic unit and small relative volume 1 : 10
( compared to conventional grit chambers ) may make the unit particularly de
sirable for many applications . A comparison of the present worth of the
cost of construction , operation and maintenance for a 20 - year life indi
cates that the swirl degritter is from 26 to 38 percent less costly than a
conventional aerated grit chamber .
This report is submitted in partial fulfillment of EPA Grant 5803157
by the American Public Works Association under the sponsorship of the U . S .
Environmental Protection Agency . This report covers a period from January ,
1975 to August , 1976 , and work was completed as of December , 1976 .
iv
CONTENTS
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vi
Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
Acknowledg.ments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . X
1. Conclusions and Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2. The Demonstration Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Description of the Test Layout . . . . .
4. Evaluation of Test Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Appendix
A. Test Data, Denver , Colorado . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

FIGURES
Number
1 Isometric View , Swirl Degritter . . .

Q ...4
Layout for Denver Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O
Plan of Swirl Degritter . . . . . . .
Section A -A of Swirl Degritter . . . .

5. Section B - B of Swirl Degritter . .
Chasick Grit Sampler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Denver Tests Grit Gradation Curves, 5 /23-6 /21, First Series . .

. . 22
8 Gradation Curve of Spiking Sand . . . . . . .
Removal of Dry Grit, 8 / 75 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Weight of Dry Grit , 8 /75 . . . ,
Removal of Grit Ash , 8 /75 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10V
Weight of Grit Ash , 8 / 75 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JE
13 Grit Gradation Curves , Run No. 1 , 8 /75 . .

rve
Grit Gradation Curves,

rve Run No . 2 , 8 /27/75 . . . . . . . .
Grit Gradation Curves, Run No. 3 , 8 /27/75
rve
Grit Gradation Curves, Run No. 4 , 8 / 27 /75 : . . . . .

Grit Gradation Curves, Run No . 5 , 8 /27/75 · . . .
18 Grit Gradation Curves, Run No . 1 , 8 / 28 /75 ·
rves
19 Grit Gradation Curves, Run No . 2 , 8 /28 /75 . . . . .

20 Grit Gradation Curves , Run No . 3 , 8 /28 /75 · . : . : .
21 Grit Gradation Curves, Run No . 4 , 8 /28 /75 . . . . . . . . .
- vi
FIGURES (continued)
Number Page
22 Grit Gradation Curves , Run No . 5 , 8 / 28 /75 . . . . . . . . .
Grit Gradation Curves, Run No. 1 , 8 /29/75 . . . . . . . .

24 Grit Gradation Curves, Run No. 2 , 8 /29/75 . . . .
Grit Gradation Curves, Run No . 3 , 8 / 29 /75 . . . .
Grit Gradation Curves , Run No . 4 , 8 / 29 /75 . . . .
Grit Gradation Curves, Run No. 5 , 8 / 29/ 75 . . . . . . .
Grit Gradation Curves , Run No. 1 , 8 /30 /75 . . . . . . .
Grit Gradation Curves, Run No . 2 , 8 /30/75 . . . . .
Grit Gradation Curves, Run No. 3 , 8 /30/75 . . . . . . . . . . 45
31 Grit Gradation Curves , Run No. 4 , 8 / 30 /75

rve
Grit Gradation Curves, Run No . 5 , 8 / 30 /75 . . . . . . . . .
vii
TABLES
Number Page
1 Detention Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 Proposed Tests-First Series--5/23-6 /21/75 . . . . . . . . .

3 Removal of Grit Ash - - 5 /23 - 6 /21 /75 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4 Removal of Dry Grit - - 5 / 23- 6 /21 /75 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5 Removal of Suspended and Volatile Solids - - 5 / 23 - 6 / 21 / 75 . . . . 18
6 Proposed Tests Seconds Series- -8 /27 -8 /31/75 . .

7 Removal of Dry Grit-- 8 / 27 - 8 /30/75 .
no
8 Removal of Grit Ash --8 /27/ 75 . . . .

10v
9 Removal of Grit Ash - - 8 / 28 /75 . . . . . .

10 Removal of Grit Ash- - 8 /29/75 . . . . . . .
Removal of Grit Ash - -8 / 30 /75 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
12 Removal of Volatile Solids--5 /23 to 6/21 /75

13 Removal of Volatile Solids--8 /27 /75 . . .
14 Removal of Volatile Solids- -8 /28 /75
mov
15 Removal of Volatile Solids- -8 /29 /75 . .

16 Removal of Volatile Solids - - 8 / 30 /75 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
17 Aerated Grit Chamber , Single Chamber High Flow Efficiency . . . . 46
18 Construction Cost of Swirl Degritter . .

19 Construction Cost of Conventional Aerated Grit Chamber . . .
20 Operation and Maintenance Costs for Grit Removal . . . . . . . . .
21 Present Worth , Grit Removal Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
viii
TABLES (continued )
Number Page
A- 1 Test Data Swirl Flow 43.8 1 /s (1 .0 mgd) , 5/ 23- 5/ 29 /75 . . . . . 56

A- 2 Test Data Swirl Flow 87 .6 1 / s ( 2 . 0 mgd) , 5 / 31- 6 /6 / 75 . . . . . .
A -3 Test Data Swirl Flow 131.4 1/s (3. 0 mgd ), 6 /12 -16 & 20- 21 /75 . . 58
A -4 Test Data Swirl Flow 21 .9 1 / s (0 . 5 mgd) , 8 / 27 /75 . . . . . . .
A-5 Test Data Swirl Flow 43 . 8 l / s ( 1 . 0 mgd) , 8 /28 /75 . . .
A-6 Test Data Swirl Flow 87 .6 1/ s (2 . 0 mgd) , 8 /29 / 75 . . . . . . .

A -7 Test Data Swirl Flow 131.4 1/ s (3 .0 mgd) , 8 / 30 /75 . . . . . . .
A - 8 Aerated Grit Chamber Data, Single Chamber High Flow . . . . . .
ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Me
rican Public Worations for the sent the tropoliadegritter
The American Public Works Association is deeply indebted to the follow
ing persons and their organizations for the services they have rendered to
the APWA Research Foundation . The initiative of the Metropolitan Denver
Sewage Disposal District No . 1 in providing the prototype swirl degritter
for the comparison studies is acknowedged .
PROJECT DIRECTOR
Richard H . Sullivan
CONSULTANTS
Paul B . Zielinski , P .E .
James E . Ure , P .E . , Alexander Potter Associates , Consulting Engineers
Morris H . Klegerman , P . E . , Alexander Potter Associates , Consulting Engineers
F . E . Parkinson , LaSalle Hydraulic Laboratory , Ltd .

PROJECT OFFICERS
Richard Field , P . E . Chief
Hugh Masters , Staff Engineer
Storm and Combined Sewer Section
METROPOLITAN DENVER SEWAGE DISPOSAL DISTRICT NO . 1

William Korbitz , P .E .
Al Jacobs
SECTION I
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
CONCLUSIONS
1 . The swirl degritter can efficiently and effectively remove grit from all
wastewater flows . Even though the percent dry grit removal in the aerated
grit chamber for raw sanitary sewage was consistently higher ( 77 . 3 per
cent) than that accomplished in the swirl degritter (66 . 4 percent ) , the
aerated grit chamber retained an undesirably higher percentage of organic
particles (volatile solids) than the swirl unit ( 19 - 30 percent for the
aerated grit chamber as compared to 3 - 10 percent for the swirl degritter ) .
To test the effectiveness of the swirl degritter in removing grit from
combined sewer overflow and overflow concentrate, the plant influent was
spiked by adding blasting sand (0 . 20 mm size) . Removal efficiencies under
these conditions were improved for the swirl unit . They ranged from 50
to 87 percent for the swirl degritter ; and for the aerated grit chamber
the range was considerably lower .
2 . The swirl degritter remains effective at flows of twice the design flow .
Efficiency falls off markedly at three times design flow , which is similar
to other types of degritters.
3 . Because the swirl degritter is compact in size and has no moving parts it
is attractive for application on stormwater , combined sewer overflows , or
treatment at remote locations where maintenance capability is limited .
Such degritting may be desirable prior to pumping of the flows .
4 . Since the swirl unit requires no aeration or moving parts in its internal
operation , energy consumption /unit flowrate for this unit is less than
any other method of grit removal .
5 . Because of the mechanics of flow in the swirl degritter , the detention
time in the unit is one minute or less as compared to a standard design
of about three minutes for a conventional aerated grit chamber .
6 . The present worth , including construction , operation , and maintenance of
the swirl degritter compared to an aerated grit chamber indicates a sav
ings of 26 percent for a 43 . 8 l / s ( 1 mgd ) unit to 38 percent for a 438
1 / s ( 10 mgd ) unit .
RECOMMENDATIONS
1 . The City of Lancaster , in conjunction with the construction
concentrator as a combined sewer overflow regulator , should consider
constructing a swirl concentrator as a grit chamber to reduce maintenance
on its lift pumps .
2 . Agencies that construct swirl degritters should be encouraged to install
Chasick sampling units on the influent and effluent lines to enable further
testing of the efficiency of the units .
SECTION II
THE DEMONSTRATION PROJECT
A related family of research studies has been carried out during the
past four years to determine the ability of solids - liquids separation flow
through devices to remove unwanted solids in wastewater flows by means of
induced swirl pattern hydraulic flows in time periods shorter than those
required by conventional gravity separation treatment systems. The success
of laboratory -based investigations in small - scale chambers on synthesized
wastewater flows has led , progressively , to consideration and study of the
application of such swirl concentration chambers for such purposes as com
bined sewer overflow regulation , grit removal from wastewater flows , pri
mary clarification of wasteaters and erosion control devices .
A " first -generation " study was carried out on behalf of the U . S . En
vironmental Protection Agency (USEPA ) , by the American Public Works Associ
ation ( APWA ) Research Foundation to develop and investigate the feasibility
of utilizing a swirl device to perform the dual function of hydraulically
regulating overflows from a combined sewer system while simultaneously re
ducing the solids content and pollutional characteristics of the overflows
discharged to receiving water by solids- liquid separation . The first report
( 1 ) recognized the applicability of the swirl separation principle for other
than the combined sewer overflow regulator - separator .
It is obvious that a natural application of this relatively " flash

type" solids - liquid phase separation would be the removal of heavier grit
from wastewater flows because such solids are more readily treatable because
of their higher settling velocities . It was a new innovation in the separ
ation of heavy inorganic solids from lighter organic materials by selective
use of longitudinal flow velocities . It also offered opportunities to
effectively remove grit from either the underflow concentrate ( foul sewer
discharge ) , of a swirl concentrator combined sewer overflow regulator or
from normal dry -weather and wet -weather influents into treatment plants.
A " second - generation " study followed to develop and evaluate the swirl
concentrator for grit removal for a planned installation of such a device
for the City of Lancaster , Pennsylvania , ( 2 ) as part of a system for the
treatment - disinfection of combined sewer overflow and pumping of the concen
trated underflow back into the interceptor to the treatment plant . Removal
of grit was intended to protect the wet well and pumping units of this
proposed installation from the eroding and siltation effects of solids con
centrations as high as 13 ,000 mg / l as well as reduce the effects of depos
tion in the downstream interceptor .
The report on that study ( 2 ) described the study procedure , reported on
the successful findings , outlined methods of design for prototype field swirl
grit concentrator facilities , and recommended that confirmation of the appli
cation of the swirl concentrator principle to grit removal be undertaken in
a prototype unit which would handle actual wastewater flows rather than syn
thetic materials in the laboratory for test purposes .
The studies ( 2 ) of grit handling undertaken at the LaSalle Hydraulic
Laboratory , LaSalle , Canada , were performed for the City of Lancaster , with
the specific application defined to meet the needs of the proposed combined
sewer overflow , regulator facility , i . e . , to separate grit from its under
flow concentrate , but the research project produced findings and prototype
design parameters which would be translated into installations for other
purposes, e . g . , conventional grit removal in other locations.
Based on the findings and design parameters for the swirl degritter
from the hydraulic laboratory study , ( 2 ) the Metropolitan Denver Sewage
Disposal District No . 1 fabricated a prototype unit .
Based on the findings and recommendations contained in the swirl de

gritter development report , ( 2 ) and the availability of the prototype unit
at Denver which could be operated in parallel with existing grit removal
facilities at the treatment plant , a demonstration grant was negotiated to
investigate the Denver unit , (EPA Grant No . S -803157) . The Denver grit study
was coupled under the same grant , EPA No . S - 308157 , with field evaluation of
the swirl primary clarifier , carried out at the Municipality of Metropolitan
Toronto , Canada , in participation with the Canadian Ministry of the Environ
ment . A report on the primary clarification studies is contained elsewhere
as part of the overall report on this " third - generation " of swirl concentra
tor as a primary separator .
The Denver evaluation represents a rational procedure of investigative
techniques on a prototype swirl degritter with real sewage . The hydraulic
laboratory developmental studies at the LaSalle Hydraulic Laboratory , (2 )
resulted in design procedures . However , such studies must be confirmed
under actual conditions with real wastewater . Prototype investigations in
the field are needed to assure designers of the practical applicability of
laboratory -based determinations to realistic on - site operational conditions,
thus the Denver studies were designed to provide this sequential research
procedure .
The opportunity to compare prototype swirl degritter performance with

conventional aerated grit chamber facilities converts the theory into reality.
Before the evaluation grant was instituted , preliminary installation

and shakedown work had been carried out at the Denver installation . Figure 1
is an isometric drawing of the test unit .
A Inlet
Deflector
Woir and Weir Plate
Spoiler
Floor
Conical Hopper
FIGURE 1 ISOMETRIC VIEW , SWIRL DEGRITTER

SECTION III
DESCRIPTION OF THE TEST LAYOUT
The prototype swirl degritter installation at the Metropolitan Denver

Sewage Disposal District No . 1 treatment plant has two purposes : to ascer
tain the grit removal efficiency of the test system , and to compare these
results with the grit removal performance of the plant' s conventional aerated
grit chamber (AGC ) . The layout of the swirl system , in relation to the
plant ' s aerated grit removal facilities has been planned to make these two
functions attainable . This installation is shown on Figure 2 .
The 43 . 8 1 / sec ( 1 . 0 mgd ) swirl unit was constructed in 1974 at a cost
of $ 4 , 500 exclusive of pumps , valves and grit washer elements which were
readily available to the District . The cost of a comparison conventional
grit removal unit of the same design flow is approximately $57 ,500 .
Sewage for the swirl degritter was pumped from the influent channel to
the AGC . The problem was to ascertain that the sewage delivered to the swirl
degritter contained the same grit as the sewage entering the AGC . Sampling
of the flow in the influent channel indicated that the solids were not evenly
distributed in the channel . A baffle plate was installed initially to pro
duce turbulence but sampling indicated this did not provide an even distri
bution of the grit and other suspended solids. An air header with six pre
cision - type tubes was then installed and subsequent sampling indicated that
the sol ids distribution was satisfactory . This procedure of assuring uniform
concentrations of grit in the pumped sample reduced the settling efficiency
in the swirl degritter since the solids would normally enter the swirl de
gritter as a stratified sewer load . The procedure did not affect the AGC
efficiency . As a result both the evaluations of the swirl degritter and its
comparison with the AGC are believed to be conservative .
The sewage was raised to a Parshall flume by two 15 cm ( 6 in ) self

prining solids-handling pumps, each with a capacity of 78 . 8 1 / s ( 1 . 8 mgd ) .
The suction hoses for the two pumps were located to pick up sewage at the
same point so that the use of either pump would obtain similar sewage
samples . The pumps delivered the sewage into a channel set about 1 . 83 m
( 6 ft ) above the ground , which discharged through a 22 . 8 cm ( 9 in ) Parshall
flume to measure the flow prior to entry into the swirl degritter . Grit
was discharged from the bottom of the swirl degritter into a standard grit
elevator and washer and after sampling , was returned to the AGC . Effluent
from the swirl degritter was also returned to the AGC after sampling .
Details of the swirl degritter are shown in Figures 3 , 4 and 5 . The

diameter selected was 1 .8m (6 ft ) and the other dimensions were chosen to
Plant
Influent
Point for adding
sand (spiking)
Parshall
Flume
Two Pumps
Aerated
Influent
Channel
Chasick Swirl
Sampler Degritter
No. 1
Grit Elevator
and Washer Chasick
Sampler
No. 2
Aerated Grit
Chambers
Pump
Chasick
Sampler Effluent to
No. 3 Primary Tanks
FIGURE 2 LAYOUT FOR DENVER TESTS

48 .3 cm
lift 7 in )
30.5 cm
(1 ft) 15 .2 cm (6 in )
Inlet e
Transition
)(1f30
.5ctm
Circle
(2f)cm61
t
)(1f.5c30tm q
S
i)3(2f.6c68
nmt
Spoilers
De 1.83 m
( 6 ft )
Weir
D = 1.22 m
(4 ft )
| Spoilers
· Leg Position
Outlet for Effluent to Chasick Sampler

A
PLAN
FIGURE 3 PLAN OF SWIRL DEGRITTER

/2i)(-1n
i)(6.2c|15nm
r0.32 cm (1 /8 in ) o
c36.m
Spoiler
0 .64 cm ( 1 /4 in ) 0 . 30 .5 cm 0.48 cm (3 /16 in ) 03

( 1 ft)
30 .5 cm 1.22 m (4 in )
( 1 ft) Opening
15 .2 cm (6 in )
5c.30m
)(1ft
c48
7i)1f(nt
c30
.3 m
.5m
)(1ft
Stiffener
Typ . Ea. Leg
SECTION A -A
FIGURE 4 SECTION A - A OF SWIRL DEGRITTER

)(2-1/i6.3cnm
Weir
)m(4f1.2t2
30.5 cm
)61
cm
)-1/2i(2n1
(2ft
(1 ft)
54
.6cm
30.5 cm ( 1 ft) Flange

1 Inlet
60
cm
23. 0
8i(n
%
11
in)(2f88
.9ctm
Effluent
Outlet
25 .4 cm ( 10 in ) Flange
25 .4 cm Outlet to Grit
Conveyor
I (10 in ) and Washer
40.6 cm
( 16 in )
SECTION B-B
FIGURE 5 SECTION B - B OF SWIRL DEGRITTER

agree with Figure 3 of the laboratory model study ( 2 ) . Excluding the volume
in the cone - shaped hopper the detention time in the swirl degritter for var
ious flows is shown in Table 1, based on the net volume in the main chamber
being 1 , 486 1 (52 . 5 cf) .
TABLE 1 . DETENTION TIMES

Flow Actual Detention Time Detention Time
Swirl Degritter Swirl Degritter, Prototype Swirl,
AGC 1 : 8 m ( 6 ft ) LAGc (1) Tm 1 . 8 m (6 ft )
1/s mgd s 1/ m gd 1 min min min
438 10 21 . 9 0 .5 1. 1 2 . 00
876 43 . 8 1 .0 0 .6 1 .09
1 , 952 87 . 6 2 .0 0. 3 0 . 55
2, 190 50131. 4 3. 0 0.2 0 . 35

Note 1 : Conventional design basis 3 to 4 minutes ,
2: From Froude number equation Tp = Qp ? / ? /Qm + / " ( Tm ) for swirl degritter
prototype flow of 438 to 2 , 190 1 / sec ( 10 to 50 mgd )
The transition length of pipe used at the inlet was only two inlet
diameters because the unit was constructed prior to completion of the labor
atory studies . The recommended length as shown in reference ( 2 ) is three
diameters ,
The aerated grit chamber was designed to remove both grit and grease .
The initial design average flow was 876 1 / s (20mgd) , based on a 20 - minute
detention time. The unit was originally designed with a long detention time
to facilitate removal of grease . During the study tests , flows in the
aerated grit chamber approached 2 , 190 1 / s (50 mgd) , the detention time was
about eight minutes . The usual basis for design of aerated grit chambers
is to provide about three minutes detention time at peak flow . In a large
plant like Denver , where the peak flow may be two times average flow , the
detention time for average flow would be about six minutes .
In most cases , the rational design of grit chambers is based on re

moving particles over 0 . 20 mm or 0 . 25 mm in size with s . g . of 2 .65 . U . S .
Standard Sieve number 70 has an opening of 0 . 21 mm . Little data are avail
able on the percentage of grit removed in existing grit chambers over any
given size . It is common knowledge that grit over 0 . 20 mm in size is found
in plant units following grit removal (2 ) .
It was considered necessary for purposes of this study to determine
the presence of grit over 0 , 20 mm in size in the influent and effluent
sewage of the aerated grit chamber and the swirl degritter . For this pur
pose it was decided to use the model grit cyclone developed by A . H . Chasick
10
61 cm if
12 ft) Dit
15 .2 cm (6 in ) D
76 . 8 cm (30 -1 /4 in ) Pipe
8 Notches
60° ~ 3.8 cm (1-1 /2 in ) Deep
45° q to
PLAN
Inlet
)(5ic.712
nm
)(3ic.67 nm
61 cm ( 2 in D) u
0 .32 cm ( 1 /8 in ) 0
Vit Circular trough
)in1(7c45.8m 1i
O- utlet
5 cm ( 2 in ) D .Pipe
5c.30m
)1f(t
15 cm (6 in ) > Outlet
D . Pipe
- 0 .32 cm (1 /8 in ) 6
)in(1c.7458m
c6-7. m
.i)(3n
1 . 9 cm ( 3 /4 in ) Pipe
Outlets
3.8 cm (1 -1/ 2 in )
.m
c215
Grit Outlet
i)(6n
)in(1c45.78m
A 3 - Steel Angle Legs

|
SECTION A -A
FIGURE 6 CHASICK GRIT SAMPLER

L
11
and T . B . Burger ( 3 ) , as a sampling device . This grit cyclone is shown in
Figure 6 and is referred to in this report as the Chasick sampler . Experi
ments by Chasick and Burger indicated the percent recovery of various size
sands for various overflow rates .
Intially , in Denver , it was proposed to use and overflow rate of

814 . 6 m3 / d /m2 ( 20 , 000 gpd / sf) on the Chasick samplers , but this flow result
ed in the deposition of so much grit that these units had to be emptied
every hour . Therefore the overflow rate was reduced to 407 . 3 m /d /m2
(10 , 000 gpd / sf) . This overflow rate is equivalent to an inlet flow of 1 . 38
1 / 3 ( 21 . 8 gpm ) . According to Chasick and Burger , ( 3 ) this overflow rate
should result in capturing 100 percent of the grit larger than 0 . 20 mm in
the Chasick sampler . Three Chasick samplers were installed as shown in
Figure 2 : No . 1 to determine the grit in the influent to the plant , and
therefore to the AGC and the swirl degritter ; No . 2 for the effluent from
the swirl degritter ; and No . 3 for the effluent from the AGC . Gravity flow
was possible to Chasick samplers No . 1 and No . 2 , but it was necessary to
pump up into Chasick sampler No . 3 .
In the second series of tests, dry blasting sand , size 0 . 25 mm , was
added to the sewage after it was pumped from the influent channel . The
point where sand was added is shown if Figure 2. Because of the location of
the sand injector , only Chasick samplers Nos . 1 and 2 were effected by this
addition . Therefore , results from these two samplers could not be compared
to the test results from Chasick sampler No . 3 when the flow was enriched
with sand . The process of sand addition is called spiking in this report .
12
SECTION IV
EVALUATION OF TEST RESULTS
The first series of tests were established to evaluate flows of 43 . 8 ,

87 . 6 and 131 .4 1 / s ( 1 . 0 , 2 . 0 , and 3 .0 mgd) in the swirl degritter . The
sampling points and proposed tests are shown in Table 2 . The test run for
each flow was to be seven consecutive days . However , during the test run
for a flow of 131 . 4 1 / s ( 3 . 0 mgd ) the tests were interrupted for three days .
The results are shown in Tables A - 1 , A - 2 , and A - 3 in the Appendix .
The data on grit removal for the first series of tests are shown in
Table 3 . The weight of dry grit is converted to the weight of grit ash in
the table on the basis of the percent of volatile solids . The percentage
removal of grit ash in the swirl degritter ranged from 68 . 0 to 84 . 2 percent ,
with an average of 76 . 0 percent . The highest percent removal occurred with
the highest flow rather than with the lowest flows , as might be expected .
The removals in the AGC ranged from 86 . 8 to 92 . 7 percent with an average of
89 . 8 percent . Therefore , on the average the AGC performed about 18 percent
better than the swirl concentrator . Because similar data are not available
on the performance of standard grit removal units , no comparison with such
units can be made .
Table 3 also shows the pounds of grit ash per million gallons. This .
is obtained by dividing the pounds per day of grit ash by the daily flow
through the Chasick sampler , based on a flow of 1 . 38 1 / s (21 . 8 gpm ) . In all
cases there was more grit in the effluent from the swirl degritter than in
the effluent from the aerated grit chamber . It should be noted that the
flow to the Chasick sampler No . 3 was pumped from the effluent channel of the
aerated chamber . The original centrifugal pump used for this purpose tended
to plug and it was replaced by a diaphragm pump . After this change it
appeared that the surge from the pump might be blowing solids out of the
Chasick sampler . Therefore , a surge tank was added ahead of the Chasick
sampler . Flow to both Chasick No. 1 and Chasick No . 2 was by gravity so
this problem did not occur in these units. It should be noted that although
the quantity of grit ash increased from 15 . 7 to 29 . 6 kg/ 1 ,000 i (131 to 247
lbs / m gal) , an increase of 88 percent , the change in the percent removal was
considerably less .
Grit ash is used as a measure of efficiency of grit chambers since it
represents the inorganic , heavier material that a grit chamber is designed to
remove . During certain periods of low flow , organic particles also settle
and were present in the samples, however , if the chamber is operated at the
design flow rate , organic particles would not be entrapped , and therefore
cannot be included in the efficiency calculation .
13
2.P975
FTABLE
-MTESTS
,1SERIES
21
JUNE
TO
23ROPOSED
AY
IRST
Point
Sample Grit
Dry Total Volatile Putres
- Sieve
Weight
Volume Solids Solids cibles Analysis
%
#1Influent
Chasick 2W
#2Swirl
Chasick
Effluent 2W
#3AGC
Chasick
Effluent 2W
-Wash
Post
Swirl
Grit D
Concentrator CW4CW4 CW4CW4 SS SS WC
-01iver
Dorr
Grit
Discharge
Classifier
CW4 CW4 ss WC
CW4 CW4
14
:
Notes
7dnd
Run
8,8
43
of
flows
Swirl
at
6aeach
.4
/131
ays
71 )(1.0,2&3mgd
D-daily
total
-average
/w2W
samples
two
ofeek
-wWC
(n
dry
on
)composite
grit
ashed
eekly
ot
-single
SS
sample
-wour
CW4
4h
at
taken
samples
of
composite
intervals
eekly
)(continued
2.(continued
)TABLE
Point
Sample Suspended Volatile BOD COD
Solids Suspended
Solids
/1
mg /1
mg /1
mg /1
mg
-Wash
Pre
Concentrator
Swirl
Grit CW4 CW4
-Oliver
Dorr
Grit
Influent
Classifier CW4 CW4
#1influent
Channel
Aerated CW2 CW2 CW2 CW2
Effluent
Swirl CW2 CW2
(Anfluent
Chamber
Grit
)#2iAerated
GC CW2F CW2F CW2F CW2F
(AGC
influent
)Primary
effluent CW2F CW2F
15
:
Notes
CW4 - 4hour
at
samples
of
composite
weekly
intervals
CW2 2hour
at
taken
samples
ml
250
of
composite
weekly
intervals
CW2F- 2hour
at
samples
adjusted
flow
of
composite
weekly
intervals
3.RUNE
TABLE
M
ASH
GRIT
-JOF
,123
21
975
EMOVAL
AY
Grit
Dry
Chasick Shasick
Dirty
YdkGritayes
olatile
)/(Geet
bagh Ash
Grit
Volatile of
Kgs
Lbs
Ash
Grit
of
Removal
Lbs
SSampler
Lbs
)/D(Kay
olids
gs Grit
/Grit
Ash
Swirl
Million
A.GCMillion
Gallons
Liters
:S6028
).3m1/s(4-2;A85_0Flow
gd
GC
wirl
3gd
)(1.834590I4nflow
734 131 )(16
.8)7(041592.1S50733wirl .8
31 (4)
)(0.12357A404GC
9 .7
92 9.6 (1.2)
S7GC
).7m1/s(4-2;A68:0Flow
177
wirl
gd
9
ő 1I8.)(296437450nflow
3 205 )(25
.0)6(941 5
2(1.6)352S683wirl .6
65 (8)
.4)0(81372A056GC .8
86 .0
27 (3.2)
:S31
).0m1/s(4-2;A83Flow
147
wirl
gd
GC
9gd
1 Inflow 9.40 (4.3) .5
17 7. 6 (3.5) 247 )(30
2Swirl 3.17 )(1.44 .4
61 1.22 )(0.55 .2
84 .8
38 (4.6)
3AGC 2.33 )(1.06 .9
66 0.77 )(0.35 .0
90 .5
24 (3.0)
%removal
:Average
ash
grit
of
Swirl .0
76
AGC .8
89
The removal of dry grit is shown in Table 4 . The removals in the swirl
concentrator ranged from 56 . 4 to 76 . 4 percent , with an average of 66 . 4 per
cent . In the aerated grit chamber the removals ranged from 65 . 9 to 91 . 8
percent , with an average of 77 . 3 percent . In all three test runs the percent
removal in the aerated grit chamber was better than that accomplished in the
swirl degritter .
TABLE 4 . REMOVAL OF DRY GRIT

MAY 23 - JUNE 21 , 1975
% Predicted
Swirl Efficiency
1 . 8m ( 6 ft ) % Removal Dry Grit From Figure 47 ( 2)
Diameter Swirl Aerated Grit Heigh t = 2
Swirl Flow Degritter Chamber for Diameter
43 . 8 1 / s 76 . 4 91 . 8
( 1 . 0 mgd)
87 .6 1 / s 56 . 4 64 . 9
(2 . 0 mgd)
131 . 4 1 / s 66 . 3 75 .2
(3 .0 mgd )
Average 66 . 4 77 . 3
Table 5 shows the removal of suspended and volatile solids for the
test period May 23 - June 21 , 1975 . Removals of suspended solids ranged
from 4 . 3 to 10 . 9 percent in the swirl degritter compared to 18 . 8 to 29 .6
percent in the aerated grit chamber . Removals of volatile solids ranged
from 3 . 0 to 9 . 8 percent in the swirl degritter , compared to 19 . 0 to 30 . 0
percent in the aerated grit chamber .
Samples of washed grit were collected at four -hour intervals during

each seven -day test run . A sample of this seven - day composite was tested
for total suspended solids and volatile suspended solids. These results ,
while not pertinent to this study , reflect a field test efficiency of the
grit washers . Sieve analyses were performed on samples of dried grit col
lected from the Dorr -Oliver Classifier and the swirl unit elevator -washer
from the weekly composites . These indicated the relative size of the grit
removed by the two units .
The results are plotted in Figure 7 , where the curves indicate the
coarsest grit was collected in the swirl degritter when the flow was lowest
17
TABLE 5
REMOVAL OF SUSPENDED AND VOLATILE SOLIDS
MAY 23 - JUNE 21 , 1975
Flow Suspended Solids

in
Swirl Swirl Degritter Aerated Grit Chamber
Influent Effluent % Influent Effluent

mg / 1 _ mg / 1 Removal _ mg / 1 _ _ __ mg / 1 __ Removal
43. 8 1 / s 266 248 6.7 249 184 26 . 1

( 1 . 0 mgd )
87.6 l /s 233
233 223
223 4 .3 239 .94 18 .8
(2 . 0 mgd )
219 195 10 . 9 209
131.4 1/8
(3 . 0 mgd)
219 195 10.9 209 147 29.6
AV 239
239 222
222 2 7. 1 232
232 175 24 . 6
AV
Volatile Solids
Swirl Degritter Aerated Grit Chamber
Influent Effluent % Influent Effluent

mg / 1 mg / 1 Removal mg / 1 mg / 1 Removal
43. 8 1 / s 199 193 3 .0 184 143 22 . 2

(1 . 0 mgd)
87 . 6 1 / s 184
184 173
173 6 .0
6.0 194 157 19 . 0
(2 . 0 mgd )
131.4 1/8 173

173 156
156 9 .8
9.8 160 112 30 .0
( 3 .0 mgd)
AV 185 174
174 5.9 137 23 . 5
18
SIZE OPENING U . S . STANDARD SIEVE NUMBERS
INCHES
3 /4 n 1/4 4 • 10 12 16 20 30 40 80 70 100 140 200
100 TT
WEIGHT
% INER
BY
F
10.0 do 20 2 0 ro o!. o! 0.2 0.1 0.06

GRAIN SIZE IN MM .
FINE COARSE MWIU
GR A VEL S AND o INSI
1 Swirl @ Imgd
2 Dorr @ 46 . 3 mgd
3 Swirl @ 2 mgd
4 Dorr @ 49.7 mgd
5 Swirl @ 3 mgd
6 Dorr @ 49. 0 mgd
FIGURE 7 DENVER TESTS GRIT GRADATION CURVES

MAY 23 – JUNE 21 FIRST SERIES
19
at 43 . 8 l / s ( 1 . 0 mgd ) . The grit samples from the swirl at the two higher
flows showed almost identical gradation curves and indicated coarser grit
than that obtained from the aerated grit chamber . It should be noted that
the sieve analyses were carried out on dry grit which may have contained
considerable large-sized organic matter such as coffee grounds, seeds , corn,
and other material . The indication that the aerated grit chamber produces
finer grit may be due to the better washing and removal of organic matter
performed in the Dorr -Oliver Classifier than was performed by the screw
elevator and washer used in conjunction with the swirl concentrator . There
fore , on the next series of tests the sieve analyses were carried out on grit
ash from the Chasick sampler . It should also be noted that the recovery of
grit of less than 0 . 2 mm size was 10 percent or less . For this reason it was
decided to spike the second series of tests with fine sand .
The second series of test was limited to analyses of the contents of

the Chasick samplers . Each test run
cun was limited to two h rs
runs were made with five each at flows in the swirl degritter of 21 . 9 , 43 .8 ,
87 .6 , and 131 . 4 1 / s (0 . 5 , 1 . 0 , 2 . 0 , and 3 .0 mgd) . The entire contents of
the samplers were collected for each run and tested as described in the
Appendix .
The second series investigation is described in Table 6 .
To test the effectiveness of the swirl degritter in removing grit of

0 . 20 mm size , the flow to the swirl unit was spiked by added blast ing sand
during certain test runs . The spiking material was added just upstream of
the discharge point to Chasick sampler No . 1 , as shown in Figure 2 . About
22 . 7 kg (50 lb ) of sand were added during a one- hour period , beginning about
15 to 30 minutes after the two -hour test run . This quantity of sand , aver- ,
aged over the two -hour test run , is equivalent to adding 144 gm / m ? , 72 gm /mº,
36 gm /mº, and 24 gm / mº ( 1 , 200 , 600 , 300 , and 200 lbs per mg ) for the flows
of 21 . 9 1 / s ( 0 . 5 mgd) , 43 .8 l / s ( 1 . 0 mgd ) , 87 . 6 l / s (2 .0 mgd ) , and 131 .4 1 /s
(3 . 0 mgd) , respectively .
The sieve analysis and gradation curve for the spiking sand is shown
in Figure 8 .
The second series of tests were run from August 27 - 30 , 1975 . The test
results are shown in Tables A - 4 , A - 5 , A - 6 , and A - 7 of the Appendix .
The efficiency of the swirl chamber in removing dry grit is shown in

Table 7 .
No removals are shown for the AGC when the flow was spiked , since the
spiking only affected the grit collected in Chasick samplers Nos . 1 and 2
and not No . 3 . Thus , only 8 of the 20 tests applied to AGC . The results
for the AGC ranged from a 51 percent reduction to a 132 percent increase in
grit .
This great variation in grit removal in the AGC is difficult to ex

plain since , during the first series of tests, the removals for the seven
day period were 91 . 8 , 64 . 9 , and 75 . 2 percent, with an average of 77. 3 per
20
TABLE 6
PROPOSED TESTS SECOND SERIES

AUGUST 27 - 31, 1975
Sample Point Grit Dry Grit Volatile Sieve

Solids Analysis
Volume
Volume Weight
Weight %
Chasick # 1 Inflow 2H 2 H SS
Chasick # 2 Swirl 24 24 SS
Chasick # 3 AGC 2H 2H ss
Note :
Spiking - Spike influent sewage with 0 . 25 mm sand at rate of 22 . 7 kg / hr *

(50 lb /hr) if Chasick # 1 does not indicate 20 % of 0 . 2 mm grit .
Total for two hour tests . Five tests each at flows of 21 . 9 ,
43 . 8 , 87 . 6 and 131. 4 1 / s (0 . 5 , 1 . 0 , 2 . 0 and 3 . 0 mgd) in swirl .
Single sample from each two hour test .

On incinerated contents of two hour test or aliquot sample if
volume too great .
* GRIT CONCENTRATIONS
flow mgd lbs /mg gom
0 .5 2400 288
1200 144
600 72
400
21
SIZE OPENIMS U . S . STANDARD SIEVE NUMBERS
INCHES
100374
3/4 in 3 1/4 10 12 16 20 30 40 50 70 100 140 200
TORIITT
WEIGHT
%FINER
BY
20 . 0 10.0 6.0 6.0 2.0 o 0 .6 0 . 4 0. 1 0.06
GRAIN SIZE IN MM.
FINECOARSEL
GRAVEL
MEDIUMI
S AND
- FINE
Spike is dry blasting sand, 0 .25 mm size.
SIEVE ANALYSIS
U .S . Sieve No. % Finer by Weight
100 11.4
60 32 .0
35 96 .0
99 .9
10 100 . 0
FIGURE 8 GRADATION CURVE OF SPIKING SAND
22
TABLE 7 . REMOVAL OF DRY GRIT
AUGUST 27 - 30 , 1975
TufwNr
SufWNn
Flow Swirl Run Percent Removal
Degritter Number Swirl Degritter
auf
auf
WNW
Www Normal Spiked AGC
64
21 . 9 1 / s 57 14
( 0 . 5 mgd )
66
+ 127
+ 56
43. 8 1 / s
( 1 . 0 mgd)
64
87 . 6 1 / s
( 2 . 0 mgd)
+ 50 + 132
+ 12 + 44
131 . 4 1 / s 17
( 3 . 0 mgd)
+ 12
Note : Percent removed based on dry weight . Flow rate in the AGC was at
approximately 2 ,190 1 / s (50 mgd ) .
cent , as shown in Table 4 . Subsequent tests with the AGC at higher flow
rates showed a significant reduction in efficiency , as shown in Table 8 .
The percent removals of dry grit from the swirl degritter were fairly
uniform for flows of 21 . 9 and 43 . 8 l / s (0 .5 and 1 . 0 mgd) with removals rang
ing from 50 to 87 percent. There was no marked difference in the removals
at the top flow rates . However , the removals at the two higher flow rates
of 87 . 6 and 131 . 4 l / s ( 2 . 0 and 3 . 0 mgd ) were erratic , with 3 of 10 test runs
showing an increase in grit . Here again , the results failed to agree with
TABLE 8
REMOVAL OF GRIT ASH

AUGUST 27 , 1975
Swirl Flow 21. 9 1/ 8 (0 . 5 mgd)

Run Chasick Grit Ash % Removal of Grit Ash lbs per
No . Sampler Million
gr / hr lbs /hr Swirl AGC gr/m2 Gallons
104 0 . 229
‫بس‬
0 .053 76 . 8
M
19 0.042
‫بیا‬
2 29 0.063
‫بم‬
0 .024 61 . 9
‫یا‬
0 .028
‫بیا‬
0 . 358
163 0.358
‫ما‬
0 .037 89 . 7
‫را‬
0 .049 s
‫با‬
0 .093
‫ما‬
0 .019 79 . 6
M
14 0.031
‫بیا‬
15 0.034
‫بم‬
4 0.009 73 . 5
M
0 . 033
‫دیا‬
Average Spiked 82 . 0
Average Normal 67. 7 29.2
Note :
lbs /mg = lbs /hr x 764
S - Flow Spiked - not applicable
24
the first series of tests which showed removals of 76 . 4 , 56 . 4 , and 66 . 3 per
cent, as reported in Table 4 . This may be due to removal by the higher flow
of grit deposited in the inlet conduit in previous runs .
The percent removals of dry grit are shown graphically in Figure 9 .
This figure shows that only at the two lower flows did the swirl degritter
perform as well as in the first series of tests. The figure also shows the
erratic results obtained in the AGC .
The weight of dry grit collected in the Chasick samplers in the two
hour test runs were converted to grams/m3 (lbs /mg ) , based on a constant flow
of 1 . 38 1 / s (21. 8 gpm ) through the samplers. The results are shown graphi
cally in Figure 10 . These curves show the effect of spiking on Chasick sam
plers Nos . 1 and 2 . Denver personnel reported that the point of spiking was
too close to the outlet point of Chasick sampler No . 1 and hence , the full
effect of spiking was not always felt by that sampler . This was most obvious
on August 20 , 1975 when sampler No . 2 showed more grit in Runs 2 and 3 than
sampler No . 1 . The figure also shows that the spiking had little effect on
sampler No . 3 .
During the second series of tests the volatile solids in the various
grit samples ranged from 17 . 2 to 83 . 0 percent . Therefore , it was thought it
might be significant to work up data for the grit ash which would exclude the
effect of organic matter on the quantity of grit . These results are shown in
Tables 8 through 11. The percent removals are shown graphically in Figure
11 . The results are similar to those for removal of dry grit except that the
large increase in grit for Run 5 on August 27 and August 29 , 1975 for Chasick
sampler No . 3 have been changed to slight reductions , indicating that the
large increase was due to the collection of organic matter . The weight of
grit ash is shown graphically in Figure 12 . This indicates a weight of grit
ash ranging from 2 .39 to 55 . 1 kg / 1 ,000 m (20 to 460 lbs /mg) in the various
samplers . The results are similar to those shown for the dry grit except
that the weights are less .
In the second series of tests all material collected in the Chasick

samplers in each two -hour period was analyzed for volatile solids . Thus , it
is possible to compare the weight of volatile solids in the influent to the
plant to the volatile solids in the effluent from the swirl concentrator and
from the AGC . The ratio of these quantities is shown in Tables 12 through
16 .
Table 13 indicates the results with flow of 21 . 9 l / s ( 0 . 5 mgd) in the

swirl concentrator and normal daily flow in the AGC . This indicates the
volatile solids in the effluent from the swirl has 51 percent of the volatile
solids in the influent . Thus 49 percent of the volatile solids were removed
with the grit . The data indicates that the effluent from the AGC had produced
a volatile solids greater than 100 percent on each of the five two- hour tests .
due to sampling methods . The influent sample was taken from
as 10
the influent channel which was aerated to keep the solids in suspension . The
effluent sample was pumped from the effluent channel from the AGC with no
aeration . Possibly the pump suction was located near the bottom of the
channel where there was greater density of volatile solids.
25
.100 :!.-Legend
o Degritter
Swirl
o Chamber
Grit
Aerated
S Sand
with
Spiked
Flow
Swirl
- - -- - - - - - - -
--- Q
% REMOVAL ;
-- - -
0| : + + + –
DO +
50i
INCREASE
%
150
S S S S S ! :S.
.1
NO
RUN 234 5 1 234 5 1 234 5 1234.5
:
DATE .2Aa
AUG
'277 . 2 8
.AUG .29
AUG : .:3A0UG
SWIRL
FLOW
. m21
.9l/s)(05 gd 43
.8l/s(10m) gd m87
.61/s()20 gd .41/s(30mgd
)131
1975
AUGUST
nenovcOIT
pennuni
CICupca
:
Legend
:!S un
RSpiked
Sand
with
. 1Influent
.N o
kg/ 1000 m3
Ibs/mg
SNo
.2 wirl
Degritter
Effluent
1007 Effluent
.3AChamber
NiGriterated
o
.
80
- . | 600 .
# 1 . . . . .
604
Ibs/mg
.
.Ñ 400
# 63#
200
-
20
cou
iS:į S1i:.
.
S
.
NO
RUN 1 243 5 14523:.
DATE . AU i.2:A8UG :.31AAUG
209UG
.
2
. 7G
.
FLOW
SWIRL .9l/s(05m21
) gd )43
.81/s(0mgd m87
.6l/)0s(2 gd )131
.4l/s(30mgd
1975
-AUGUST
GRIT
DRY
OF
WEIGHT
10
FIGURE
TABLE 9
REMOVAL OF GRIT ASH

AUGUST 28 , 1975
NW Swirl Flow 43 .8 1/ s ( 1 . 0 mgd)

N-WwNW
gr /hr lbs /hr Swirl AGC gr /m Gallons
72 0 . 159 121
0 . 065 58 . 9
0 .048 69 . 6
263 0 . 580 443
0 .062 89 . 3
0 . 056 43
114 0 .250
16 0 .036 85 . 6
0 . 179 28 . 4 187
166 0 . 366 280
0 . 088 76 . 0 67
20 0 .045 34
467
5 1 277
277 0.611
0 .611
2 57 0 . 126 79 .4 96
27 0 . 059 45
Average Spiked
Note :
Average Normal one 19.0
28
TABLE 10
REMOVAL OF GRIT ASH

AUGUST 29 , 1975
Swirl Flow 87 . 6 1 / 8 (2 . 0 mgd)
Run Chasick Grit Ash %Removed of Grit Ash lbs per

gr/hr lbs/hr Swirl AGC gr/m ” Gallons
78 0 . 171 131
47 0 . 104 39 . 2
3 28 0.062
1 247 0.543 415
102 0 . 225 58 . 6 172
30 0 . 067 51
248 0 . 546 417
101 0 .222 59 . 3 170
0 .070 53
208
208 0.458 350
2 67 0. 147 67 . 9 112
3 28 0 .062 47
1 30 0.065
0 .051 21. 5
28 0 . 062 47
Average Spiked 61 . 9
Average Normal
- 30.4 34.2
Note :
S · Flow Spiked - not applicable
29
TABLE 11
REMOVAL OF GRIT ASH

AUGUST 30 , 1975
Swirl Flow 131.4 1/ s ( 3 .0 mgd)
NO . Sampler Million
gr /hr lbs /hr Swirl AGC 81/mº Gallons
Gallons
28 0 . 062 47
0 .043 30 . 6
0 . 037 40 . 3 28
121 0 . 267 204

185 0.408 +52 . 8 312
27 0.060 46
141 0 . 311 238
238 0 .524 +68 . 5 401
44 0 . 096 73
251 0 . 553 423
97 0 .213 61. 5 163
0 .074 s 57
0 . 138 105
33 0 .073 47 . 1 56
0 . 063 54 . 3
54.
36
Average Spiked + 19 . 9
Average Normal 38.
8 47.3
Note :
30
:
Legend
oSwirl
Degritter
100. .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . · Aerated
Chamber
Grit
. . . .
S wirl. . . . ;
Sand
with
Spiked
Flow
50 O
% REMOVAL
......
..- - . .... .. . 31
- - -- -
--
. . . . . . :
% INCREASE - - - - - -- -
. ..
1.
|.- 00
SŚs 3:S1$;s 1
.5
T .
.1234:
NO
RUN 5 1 1:51.2,3404 5423
DATE 27
.AUG .2:A8UG .2
:A9UG 1 A0
:.3 UG
.91/3(05mgd
21
FLOW
)SWIRL .8l/s(10mgd
)43 .61/8(20mgd
)87 .4l/s(30mgd
)131
FIGURE
11
REMOVAL
GRIT
OF
ASH
-A UGUST
1975
1000
kg
/m
ibs
m3g
5 00
,60 :
Legend
SRun
Sand
with
Spiked
.1Influent
No
.2Swirl
No
Effluent
Degritter
.
#1. .3AGrit
No
Chamber
erated
507
40 0
TUU
T . . . . . . .
#2/
.
404
300
/30
. ..
Ibs/mg
200
#2
201
3
1
FULL
1/00
107
# 3
# 3
#2
0
S S . S Si S :SSE :SSS
.
NO
RUN 1 234 5 1 234 5 :1.2345 :1.2345
DATE 2
.7
AUG ,28
AUG .29
:AUG .30
AUG
FLOW
SWIRL .91/3(05mgd
)21 .8l/s(10mgd
)43 .61/s(20mgd
)87 .4l/s(30mgd
)131
-AUGUST
ASH
GRIT
OF
WEIGHT
12
FIGURE
1975
TABLE 12
REMOVAL OF VOLATILE SOLIDS
MAY 23 - JUNE 21 , 1975
Ratio of
Test
No .
Chasick Dry Grit
lbs / day
Volatile
Solids
Volatile
Solids
Effluent SSolids
Volatile olids
Effluent To Influent
% lbs /day Swirl AGC
Influent 1 9 .04 54 . 3 4 . 91
1 Swirl 2 2. 13 53 .1 1.13 0 . 23
Effluent 0 . 74 59 . 2 0 .44 0 . 09
Influent 1 8 . 14 20 . 8 1 .69
Swirl 2 3. 55 41. 9 1 . 49 0 . 88
Effluent 2 . 86 70 . 4 2.01 1 . 19
Influent 1 9 .40 17 . 5 1 . 65
Swirl 3 . 17 61. 4 1 . 95 1 . 18
Effluent 2 . 33 66 . 9 1 . 56 0 . 95
Test Flow Flow

Swirl AGC
43. 8 1/s (1. 0 mgd) 2028 1 / s (46 . 3 mgd)

87.6 1/ 8 (2 .0 mgd) 2177 1/ 5 (49. 7 mgd)
131 . 4 1 / s ( 3 . 0 mgd) 2147 1 / 3 (49 . 0 mgd )
33
TABLE 13
AUGUST 27 , 1975
Ratio of
Run Chasick Dry Volatile Volatile Volatile Solids
lb /hr Solids Solids Effluent To Influent
lb / hr Swirl AGC
Influent 0 . 324 29 . 2 0 .095
1 Swirl 2 0 . 117 54 . 5 0 . 064 0 . 67
Effluent 0 . 163 74 . 5 0. 121 1 . 27
Influent 1 0 . 133 52 . 6 0 .070

Swirl 2 0. 057 57 . 3 0 .033 0 .47
Effluent 3 0 . 114 75 .5 0 .086 1 . 23
Influent 1 0 .432 17 .2 0 .074

Swirl 2 0 .074 49 .4 0 .037 0 . 50
Effluent 3 0 .225 78 . 2 0 . 176 2 . 38
Influent 1 0 . 138 32 .6 0 . 045
Swirl 2 0 .042 54 . 7 0 .023 0 . 51
Effluent 3 0 . 116 73 . 0 0 .085 1 .89

N o
Influent 0 . 086 60.9 0 .052

w
5 Swirl 0 .029 67 . 9 0 . 020 0 . 38
Effluent 3 0 . 195 83 .0 0 . 162 3 . 11
Total 2 .53 9 .88

Average 0 . 51 1 . 98
Notes :
Swirl Flow 21 . 9 1/ s (0 .5 mgd)

AGC = Aerated Grit Chamber
34
TABLE 14

AUGUST 28 , 1975
Ratio of
lb / hr Solids Solids Effluent To Influent
% lb / hr Swirl AGC
Influent 0 .242 34 . 8 0 . 084

i Swirl 2 0 . 122 46.5 0 . 057 0 . 68
Effluent 0 . 119 59 . 4 0 . 071 0 .85
Influent 0.783 25 . 9 0 .203

Swirl 0 . 100 38 . 3 0 .038 0 . 19
Effluent 3 0 . 140 59.7 0 . 084 0 . 41
Influent 1 0 .453 44 . 9 0 . 203

Swirl 0 .095 62 . 4 0 . 059 0 . 29
Effluent 0 .414 56 . 8 0 .235 1 . 16
Influent 0 .531 31. 1 0 . 165

Swirl 2 0. 170 48 . 2 0 .082 0 . 50
Effluent 0 . 128 65. 0 0 .083 0 . 50
Influent 0 .844 27. 6 0 .233

5 Swirl 2 0. 238 47.2 0 . 112 0 . 48
Effluentnt
3 0 .174 66 . 1 0 . 115 0 .50
Total 2 . 14 3 .42
Average 0 . 43 0 . 68
Notes :
Swirl Flow 43 . 8 l / s ( 1 . 0 mgd)

35
TABLE 15

AUGUST 29 , 1975
Ratio of
1b / hr Solids Solids Effluent To Influent
% lb /hr Swirl AGC
Influent 0 . 305 43 . 8 0 . 134

Swirl 0 . 226 54 . 0 0 . 122 0 . 91
Effluent 0 . 175 64 . 6 0 . 113 0 . 84
Influent 0 .693 21 . 6 0 . 150

Swirl 2 0 . 361 37 . 6 0 . 136 0 . 91
Effluent 0.230 70.9 0 . 163 1 . 09

‫ا‬
Influent 0 .686 20 . 4 0 . 140

‫م‬
Swirl 2 0.392 43.4 0 . 170 1 . 21

M
Effluent 0 . 241 70 . 8 0 . 171 1 . 22

‫بیا‬
Influent 0 .579 20 . 9 0 . 121

‫بر‬
Swirl 0.236 37 .9 0 .089 0 . 74

M
Effluent 0 .221 71.9 0 . 159 1 . 31

‫بیا‬
Influent 0 . 109 40 . 5 0 . 044

‫بم‬
Swirl 2 0 . 164 68.8 0 . 113 2 .57
Effluent 0 . 253 75 . 5 0 . 191 4 . 34

‫دیا‬
Total 6 . 34 8 .80
Notes : Average 1 . 27 1 .76
Swirl Flow 87 . 6 1/ s (2 . 0 mgd)
36
TABLE 16

AUGUST 30 , 1975
Ratio of
1b /hr Solids Solids Effluent To Influent
# / hr Swirl AGC
Influent 0 . 141 55 . 9 0 .079

‫بر‬
Swirl 2 0 . 129 66 . 8 0 .086 1 .09
Effluent 3 0 . 117 68. 2 0 .080 1 .01

‫بیا‬
Influent 1 0 . 393 32. 0 0 . 126

‫بر‬
Swirl 2 0 .519 21. 4 0 . 111 0 . 88

M
Effluent 3 0 .202 70 . 1 0 . 142 1 . 13

‫در‬
‫ا‬
Influent 1 0 .443 29.8 0 . 132

Swirl 2 0 .645 18 . 7 0.121 0 . 92
Effluent 0 .271 64 .5 0 .175 1 . 33

‫ا‬
Influent 0 . 739 25 . 2 0 . 186

‫یم‬
Swirl 2 0.436 51. 2 0 .223 1 . 20
Effluent 0 .279 73. 4 0 . 205 1 . 10

‫بیا‬
Influent 0 . 248 44 . 3 0 . 110

‫بر‬
Swirl 2 0 . 187 60 .9 0 . 114 1 .04
Effluent 0 . 221 71 . 4 0 .157 1. 44

‫یا‬
Total 5 . 13 6 .01
Notes : Average 1 .03 1 .20
Swirl Flow 131. 4 1 / s ( 3 . 0 mgd)
37
Table 14 shows the results with flow of 43 . 8 l/ s (1 .0 mgd ) in the swirl .
These results show the average remaining percentage of volatile solids is 43
percent for the swirl and 68 percent for the AGC . Both results appear reas
onable .
Table 15 shows the results for flow of 87 . 6 l / s ( 2 . 0 mgd ) in the swirl.

The remaining percentage of volatile solids is 127 percent for the swirl and
176 percent for the AGC . If the results for Run No . 5 are deleted , the per
centates are 94 for the swirl and 111 for the AGC , which would be reasonable .
Obviously as the flow in the swirl increases the percentage of volatile
solids retained in the swirl decreases .
Table 16 shows the results with a flow of 131 . 4 1 / s ( 3 . 0 mgd ) in the

swirl . The remaining percentage of volatile solids are 103 percent in the
swirl and 120 percent in the AGC . These results appear reasonable if allow
ance is made for sampling errors .
The foregoing would indicate that at flows up to 43 .8 1 / s ( 3 . 0 mgd) up
to 50 percent of the volatile solids will be removed by the swirl concentra
tor. Therefore the grit removal mechanism must be selected so that the grit
will be thoroughly washed and the wash water returned to the swirl concen
trator effluent channel . At flows of 87. 6 l / s ( 2 . 0 mgd ) and greater all the
volatile solids appear to pass through the swirl concentrator . The above
results are considered reliable because flow from the influent and effluent
channels to the Chasick sampler was by the gravity in both cases .
The results for the AGC are not considered reliable because the sample
from the effluent channel to Chasick sampler No . 3 was pumped . Possibly the
pump intake line was located near the bottom of the channel where the den
sity of volatile solids were greater . Aeration was not provided at this
sampling point as was at the point in influent channel from which the in
fluent sample was pumped .
After ignition of the dry grit for determination of volatile solids,
the ashed grit in its entirety was sieve - analyzed . The data from the sieve
analyses are shown in Tables A - 4 through A - 7 in the Appendix . The sieve
analyses for the three grit samples from each test run are shown graphically
on Figures 13 through 32 . These gradation curves are discussed below for
each of the 4 flows through the swirl degritter .
A. Gradation curves for a swirl flow of 21 . 9 1 / s (0 .5 mgd ) :
With spiking - -Figures 13 , 15 and 16 . These figures are

similar . Due to spiking with fine sand , the grit in the
influent is finer than the grit from the AGC which did not
receive spiking sand . The grit from the swirl concentrator
is as in the case without spiking , finer than that in the
spiked plant influent .
Without spiking - -Figures 14 and 17 . These 2 figures are
similar . They indicate that influent grit is coarsest ,
AGC is medium - sized , and the swirl grit is finest .
38
Hence , the swirl was removing more of the larger size grit
than the AGCs .
Gradation curves for swirl flow of 43 . 8 l / s (1 .0 mgd ) :

wira grit is
Without spiking - - Figures 18 and 20 . The sswirl
coarser than in Figures 14 and 17 aandnd is still finer than
E a n d
the AGC grit . The influent and AGC grit vary considerably
between Figures 18 and 20 . In Figure 20 the 2 have similar
gradation whereas in Figure 18 the influent grit is much
coarser and the grit chamber is much finer .
With spiking- - Figures 19 , 21 and 22 . These curves show

the effect of spiking on the influent grit which is finer
than without spiking . However , the swirl grit remains
about the same as without spiking . The AGC is about the
same in Figure 22 as in Figure 18 and is finer than the
influent grit . In figures 19 and 21 the AGC is coarser
than in Figure 22 and is coarser than influent grit .
c. Gradation curves for swirl flow of 87 . 6 1 / s ( 2 . 0 mgd ) :
Without spiking - -Figures 23 and 27 . These curves show

a definite change from Figure 18 . The gradation for the
influent grit and the AGC is similar to Figure 18 . How
ever , in both Figures 23 and 17 the gradation of the
swirl grit is not greatly different from the influent
grit and the grit from the grit chamber is the finest
grit . This would indicate that at some point between a
flow of 43 . 8 1 / s (1 . 0 mgd) and 87 .6 l/ s ( 2 . 0 mgd ) the
swirl degritter ceases to produce a grit as fine as that
from the AGC .
With spiking - -Figures 24 , 25 and 26 . Figures 25 and 26

exhibit influent grit similar to Figurese 23 and 27
which are without spiking . The laboratory personnel at
Denver felt that sometimes during the tests the point of
spiking was too close to the inlet to Chasick sampler No . 1
to impose the full effect of the spiking on that sampler .
This condition seemed to prevail in Figures 25 and 26 . The
grit from the swirl is finer than the grit from the AGC ,
indicating that the spiking may have less effect on the
influent as the swirl .
D. Gradation curves for swirl flow of 131 .4 1 / s ( 3 . 0 mgd ) :

Without spiking - - Figures 28 and 32 . These curves indicate
that the swirl grit is about the same as , or a little
finer than , the influent grit and in both cases much
coarser than the AGC grit shown in Figures 23 and 27 .
With spiking - -Figures 29 , 30 and 31 . Figures 29 and 30
39
are the same for influent and swirl grit , both showing
the effect of spiking and both indicating the same
gradation . For some reason , the AGC grit is much
coarser than the other grit in Figure 30 and much finer
than the other grit in Figure 29 . In Figure 31 the AGC
grit lies between the 2 gradation curves shown in
Figures 29 and 30 .
In summary , the grit from the swirl is finer than the AGC grit for
flows through the swirl of 21 . 9 l / s (0 .5 mgd ) and 43 . 8 1 / s ( 1 .0 mgd) . At
swirl flow of 87 .6 1 / s ( 2 . 0 mgd) , without spiking , the swirl grit gradation
is about the same as influent grit and coarser than AGC grit . With spiked
flow , the same holds true for 2 out of 3 runs .
At a swirl flow of 131 . 4 1/ s (3 . 0 mgd ) for unspiked influent the
gradation of the influent grit and the swirl grit is similar but coarser
than the AGC grit . Por spiked flow , the swirl and influent grit have the
same gradation in all three cases . Compared to the AGC grit the swirl and
influent grit is finer in one case and coarser in another .
While the swirl degritter results overall were lower than predicted
by the LaSalle model hydraulic tests for the higher flow rates of 87 . 6 1 / s
( 2 . 0 mgd) and 131 .4 1 / s ( 3 . 0 mgd) , at an average flow of 43 . 8 1 / s ( 1 . 0 mgd )
the results were good . It was suspected that the AGC , like the swirl unit ,
also would not operate at rated efficiencies for the high rates of flow of
2 and 3 times average flow . These tests were conducted on April 29 and 30 ,
1976 , and were restricted to measuring the efficiency of the AGC only , using
Chasick samplers Nos . 1 and 3 as shown in Figure 2 . The actual data is pre
sented in Table A - 8 .
The efficiencies were calculated only for those runs where applicable ,
and are presented in Table 17 . Where the volume of grit in the effluent
exceeds the volume of the influent , no efficiency figure is reported . Only
in the last two runs does the data show a removal of the grit by the AGC .
It is obvious from these data that there is a significant reduction in grit
removal when flows exceed design limits regardless of the grit removal
method used .
ESTIMATED COSTS
General
For comparative purposes estimates were made of construction and

annual operation costs of the swirl concentrator as a grit separator and
the standard aerated grit chamber . Estimates were made for three sizes of
each type for average flows of 43. 8 , 131 . 4 and 438 1/ s (1 , 3 and 10 mgd ) .
Present worth was determined for each size and type based on a 20 - year
period and 6 - 1 / 8 percent interest rate .
Swirl Degritter
The size of the swirl concentrator was based on data given in The
40
Serial Flowwith 21.9
Sid Flow 21.5 ih 10 .5md) Spiked Grint lh 10.5md)
fied with Gom
$ 121TOCKS
O U . S. STANDARD SIEVE MUNIENS . . STANDARD GIVE UNDERS
MW
ANONJA
LIONT
AU
XFINERY
NIX
GRAIN SIZE IN UN ORAIR 312C IN
CHICADOS LIIT IN DITT
GRAVEL S AND INAVEL SAND
Legend
Quod Legend
Cheick
No. Intivent
No . 3 - . - . -- A Dit Event
Gun Chambo Emont SwirlDritter
- Areted EmuontENluent
Grit Chamber
FIGURE 13 GRITGRADATION
RUN NO. 1 AUGUSTCURVES
27,1975 – FIGURE 15 GRITGRADATION CURVES
RUN NO. 3 AUGUST 27 , 1975
Swin Flow 21.9 in 10 .5moed)
Swirl Flow 21 9 th 10 .5 med) Spiked with Grit
SIZEINOPCI V . S STANDARD SIVE NUMIENI $12INCHI
OPENING U . S. ITANDARD SIEVNUNIERI
ONTRI
ANI114
ANIJAA
NIX AG
NI
ORAIN SIZE IN UN
ORAIN SIZE IN LAWIODIT
GRAVEL S AND GRAVEL S AND
Legend Legend
Chosica
No. 1 Influent Chosick
No. 1 Influent
No. 73 - Durint
AeratedDegritter EmwentElvent
Grint Chamber No Swirl Dayrittor EMivent
No. 2) .- - - - Aerated Grit Chamber Efluent
FIGURE 14 GRIT GRADATION CURVES FIGURE 16 GRIT GRADATION CURVES

FIGURELA GENTGRADATIONCURVES
RUN NO.2 AUGUST 27, 1975 FIGURE16 Geir G DATIONCUEVES
RUN NO . 4 AUGUST 27, 1975
41
Swirl Flow 21. 9 1/ (0.5mgo) Swir Flow 43.3 Vs (1.0 myd)
OPEN
SIZEINCHES U.S. STANDARD SIEVE NUWINS Spiked with Grit
312LINCHES
OP U .S. ITANDARD SIEVE NUNDERS
INSIJA
VINI
I
0
GRAIN SIZE IN UN do do
GRAVEL
IN C LIITI
S AND 1 CIIIC
GRAVEL
. OLITI
GRAIN SIZE 18 00
$ AND
CMS
Legend : Legend
Chemical
No. 1 - Influent Cherche
No. 1
Swirl
AeratedDogriner EMuontEmuent No.
No . 32 - -
No. 2 -
No. 3 Grit Chamber - - SwinMarnedDaltor Emuont
Ort Chember Ettenere
FIGURE 17 GRIT GRADATION
RUN NO.5 AUGUSTCURVES
27, 1975 FIGURE 19 GRIT
RUN NOGRADATION
. 2 AUGUSTCURVES
28, 1975
Swin Flow 43.11h (1.0 myd) Swirl Flow 43.00 (1.0mp
$ 120TNCNES
OPTIM U .S. STANDARD SIEVE NUWICNS SIZEINCMI
M
OMIN U . S STANDARD SIEVE NUNIERS
AM1A
LIENT
%SIDERIY
II.
GRAIN SIZE IN
ORAVEL a T16UITSoAND
ULIT
r ONAVEL
11 . 1.1 :
ORAIN SIZE IN nu
S AND no SI
Legend: Legend:
Choice
Cherick Intent No. 1 -
No.
No. 123 --- - - Aerated
Seri Dayitter Emuent - SerialDeprinterE ventEmant
No. Grit Chamber Effort No. Merited Grit Chamber
FIGURE 18 RUN
GRITNO.
GRADATION
1 AUGUSTCURVES
28 , 1975 FIGURE 20 RUN
GRIT NO.GRADATION
3 AUGUSTCURVES
28, 1975
Swint Flow 43.3 1 11.0mydl Bruid Flow SV (20ml
Spiked with Grit
sizINCHI
! OPEN US STANDARD BIEVE NUMIENS SIZEINCHI
OMMIK . . STANDARD SIEVE MUNDO
---
TOMMT M :17M
ANINA
INIJA
AI
AO
UNIX
2011
.
GRAIN SIZE IN MM ORAIN 9120 18 00
N AL1 TOTT co 101111
GRAVEL SAND GRAVEL SAND
Legend : Legend :
Chouch
No. 1
No Influent
Swirl Deprinter EMiventEfluent Chonic Inicione
No. 2) -- - - - -- Aerated Grit Chamber No. 2 - - - Swirl
AerutedDegitter Etthon Effluent
Grke Chamber
FIGURE 21 GRIT GRADATI GRITNOGRADATI
ON CURVES FIGURE 23 RUN . 1 ONSTCURVES
AUGU 29, 1975
RUN NO. 4 AUGUST 28, 1975
Swirl Flow 43.1 in 11.0 mode
Spiked with Grie Swint Flow 176 1h (2.0
Spiked with Grit
$IZIIUCNI
OMANN U.S. STANDARD SIEVE MUNICMS OPEN
$176INCKTI U . S. ITANDARD SIVE NUWIERS
FINERY VEIENT
INIJAA
01
ORAIN SIZE IN ORAIN SIZE IN

GRAVEL • 14s
S AND GRAVEL THW OTUDI S AND
Legend
Chaud : Legend
Cherid
:
No.
No 312 .- . . .. .. Influent
SwulDegretterEluont No.
No. 1 - Intent
ww D Grit EmuoneEm
ittoCharter
No. Aerated Grit Chamber Effluent No . 2)- - Aarted
FIGURE 22 RUN
GRITNO.5 AUGUST 28, 1975 FIGURE 24 RUN
GRADATION CURVES GRIT NOGRADATION
. 2 AUGUSTCURVES
29, 1975
43
Swint Flow 87.5 V. (2 .0 mydo
Spiked with Grit Swin Flow 87.6 11 (2.0 mod)
SIZEINCNGI
OPTIN U . ITANDARD SIVE NUMERO SIZEINCMCI
OPENIN U.S. STANDARD NEVE NUNTERS
ALINI,
AMI.
INOJAX
ISAI
.
ORAIN SIZE IN M GRAIN SIZE IN
GRAVEL
II WTS
S AND C
GRAVEL
ICA1.LOLITT
S AND AWS
Legend : Legend :
Chasick Cheid
No ) InfluentDagritter EMiuent No.
No. 21) -- Infione
Swin Deprinter EinuentEment
No.
No 32 -- :- - - -- Aarated
Swirl Grnt Chamber Efluent Mo. Aerated Core Chombor
FIGURE 25 RUN
GRIT NOGRADATION
. 3 AUGUSTCURVES
29, 1975 FIGURE 27 GRITGRADATION
29, 1975
Swirl Flowwith 07.5GritV. (2.0 Swirl Flow 131.4 h (2.0med!
Spiked
31omnes V .S . STANDANO Bitvt NUMIERS SIZEINCNI
OPTIN U .S. STANDARD BIEVE WUNDERS
INOITA
A INI.
%
ORAIN SIZE IN UN ORAIN SIZE IN

CITI40AOITOTTI D TINCITOTIVTT
ORAVEL S AND GRAVEL S AND
Legend
Chenck
: Legend:
No. InfluentDogriner Etuent Chenick
No. 213 -- - Sd No. 1 - -- Influent
Swird
No. Aerated Gen Chamber Emicent No. 23 -.
No. AuratedDeguinte EftuentEmuent
Grit Chamber
FIGURE 26 RUN
GRITNOGRADATION CURVES FIGURE 28 GRIT
. 4 AUGUST 29, 1975
GRADATION CURVES
44
Swir flow 131. (20mg Swirl Flow 131.4 1h (3.0 mod)
Spiked to Gorte Spiked with Grit
MM
120TECNO ... ITANDANO BIEVE WUNDER SI26INCHES
OMENIMO U . S . STANDARD SCVC NUMIERS
19
re
INIIJ.
UINI
LIGNT
AI
%FINE IY
IRAI 312C IN ORAIR 312C IN
IN THIS S AND CCIOLINIST
@ RAVEL GRAVEL S AND
Legend :
Legend:
Check Chetiche
No. 1 - Influent
NoNo. 21 - - Influent
SwirlDritter Effluent
No. 2
No. 3- - Swirl
AeratedDagritter EMuentEmlwent
Grit Chamber
No. 3- Aeruted Gene Chamber Elnuont
FIGURE 29 GRIT GRADATION CURVES
FIGURE 31 RUN
GRIT NO.
GRADATION
4 AUGUSTCURVES
30, 1975
to flow 131 A N (3.0 Swint Flow 131.4 1h (3.0 modi
Apliedwo Arte
v... STANDARD BIEVE NUWDERS SIZEINCHOPENIN U .S STANDARD Situt NUMIERS
%FINERY VEIONT
-
1.
GRAIN BAZE IN ORAIN SIZE IN UN
C
GRAVEL ICE1.7.1.1 OCIIII
$ AND Sava@ RAVEL
OLIO TITUTT
$ AND
Legend:
Chasick Lagond :
No. 12 - - Invent Chenich
No.
M .3 . - Swin
AeratedDawinter EfluentEttien
Get Chando No.
NoNo . 231 - - - - Aerated
InfluentDagritter ENluent
Swirl Grit Chamber EMluent
FIGURE 30 GRITGRADATION
RUN NO . 3 AUGUSTCURVES
30, 1975 FIGURE 32 GRITGRADATION
30, 1975
TABLE 17
AERATED GRIT CHAMBER
SINGLE CHAMBER HIGH FLOW EFFICIENCY
Influent Effluent
Date Time Total Sampler # i Grit Sampler # 3 Grit
Dame Effi
AGC Volume Volume ciency
Flow -mgd Flow - gpm Quarts Flow -gpm Quarts %
4 /28 /76 7 : 30 am 35 21. 8 2 . 25 21.8 2.5
9 : 30 am 21. 8 21 .8
10 :30 am 70 21.8 21.8

12 : 30 pm 21 . 8 2 .0 21.8 2 . 25
4 / 29 /76 8 :00 am 22 . 3 21 . 8 21. 8
9: 00 am 36 . 5 21. 8 21. 8
10 : 00 am 62 21 . 8 2 .0 21 . 8 2.0
11 : 00 am 21 . 8 21 . 8
12 :00 am 68 21. 8 3 . 75 3.5 6 .7
4 / 30 / 76 8 :00 am 23 . 5 21 . 8 21 . 8
20
9 :00 am 36 21 . 8 2.0 21.8 1 . 75 12 5
46
Swirl Concentrator as a Grit Separator Device ( 2 ) . The principal diameter
of the chamber , D , was obtained from Figure 13 , Chamber Diameters for 90
Percent Recovery and Hi / D1 = 2 ( 2 ) , using a ratio of Hy to D , of 0 . 333 . The
remaining dimensions were obtained from Figure 3 , General Design Dimensions
( 2 ) . The derived dimensions are as follows :
Average Flow 43. 8 1 / s 131 . 4 1 / s 438 1 / s
( 1 mgd ) ( 3 mgd) ( 10 mgd)
1 .83 m 2 . 44 m 4 . 27 m
(6 . 0 ft) (8 .0 ft ) (14 .0 ft )
0 . 30 m 0 . 40 m 0 . 71 m
( 1 . 0 ft ) (1 .33 ft) ( 2 . 33 ft )
1 . 22 m 1 .62 m 1 .42 m
( 4 . 0 ft ) (5 . 33 ft) ( 4 .67 ft )
0 .61 m 0 .81 m 1 . 42 m
(2 .0 ft ) ( 2 . 67 ft ) ( 4 . 67 ft )
0 .08 m 0 . 10 m 0 . 17 m
( 0 . 025 ft ) (0 .33 ft) ( 0 . 58 ft )
H , min 0 . 30 m 0 . 40 m 0 .61 m
( 1 . 0 ft) ( 1 . 33 ft ) ( 2 . 0 ft )
The type unit used for estimate purposes was similar to that shown in
Figure 9 , Grit Chamber Below Ground with Inclined Screw Conveyor ( 2 ) with
following revisions: ( 1 ) the exterior wall of the grit separator was assum
ed to be of concrete with a vertical exterior face , ( 2 ) a horizontal passage
through the concrete assumed to provide access for lubricating the bottom
fitting of the inclined screw conveyor and ( 3 ) a manhole , 0 .91 m ( 3 . 0 ft )
square , was provided to give access to the bottom fitting of the screw
conveyor .
Aerated Grit Chamber

The aerated grit chamber was sized to provide a detention period of 3
minutes at the maximum rate of flow . Peak flow factors were based on Fig
ure 4 in American Society Civil Engineers Manual No . 37 ( 4 ) . The resultant
dimensions are as follows :
Average Flow 43. 8 l / s 131 . 4 1 / s 438 1 / s
( 1 mgd ) (3 mgd ) (10 mgd)
Peak flow factor 3 .0 2.5 2 .0
Maximum flow 131 . 4 1 / s 328 . 5 1 / s 876 1 / s
(3 mgd ) ( 7 . 5 mgd ) (20 . 0 mgd )
Required volume 23. 6 cu m 59 . 2 cum 157 . 9 cu m
(835 cf) ( 2090 cf) (5 ,560 cf)
Selected depth 2 .44 m 3 . 05 m 3 .66 m
(8 . 0 ft ) ( 10 . 0 ft) ( 12 . 0 ft )
Selected width 2 . 29 m 3 .05 m 4 . 27 m
( 7 . 5 ft) ( 10 . 0 ft ) (14 . 0 ft )
Selected length 4 .27 m 6 . 41 m 10 . 06 m

(14 . 0 ft ) (21 . 0 ft) ( 33 . 0 ft )
Selected volume 23 .65 cum 59 .08 cum 157 .09 cu m

(835 cf) ( 2085 ct) 1 ,544 cf)
Construction Costs
Cost estimates of the swirl concentrator as a grit separator device

were made for two purposes : ( 1 ) to indicate the probable construction cost
of the facility ; and ( 2 ) to compare its cost with that of a conventional
aerated grit chamber .
The cost estimates are considered to be reasonable engineer ' s estimates

However , during periods of economic inflation , it is not unusual for contrac
tor ' s bids to materially exceed engineers ' estimates .
Cost Basis
The costs are based on the following :
a . Engineering News Record Construction Cost Index average

for U . S . is 2 ,500
b. Unit prices as follows:

Steel Sheet Piling $ 108 / sq m $ 10 / sq ft
( for temporary use during construction )
Excavation $ 18 / cum $14 /cy
Reinforced Concrete $ 392 / cum $ 300 / cy
c. Contingent and engineering costs are assumed to be 35
percent of the foregoing items .
The swirl separator dimensions are derived in the previous section .
It is assumed that the ground surface is 0 .61 m ( 2 ft) above the crown of
the inlet pipe and the top of tank is 0 . 30 m (1 ft) above the crown of the
inlet pipe , this will provide 0 .61 m (2 ft ) of freeboard above the weir .
The conventional aerated grit chamber is set to provide a freeboard
0 . 46 m ( 1 . 5 ft ) with a top of wall 0 . 30 m ( 1 ft ) above ground surface .
The following assumptions are made for both structures :
a . Excavation is all earth . The unit price includes cost

for backfilling and crushed stone under the structures .
48
b. Temporary steel sheet piling is required 0 .61 m ( 2 ft)
outside the exterior walls of the structures . Sheet
ing assumed to extend 0 .61 m ( 2 ft) below lowest point
of excavation and 0 . 30 m ( 1 ft ) above the existing
ground elevation .
c. Equipment costs for the aerated grit chamber include the

cost of bucket elevator , screw conveyor , transverse
baffle , diffuser piping , motors , and electrical work .
d . Miscellaneous costs for the aerated grit chamber include

the cost of the longitudinal and effluent baffles , com
pressors , slide gates , baffle supports , and grating for
by -pass channel .
e . Equipment costs for the swirl concentrator include the

cost of a grit wash screw .
f . Miscellaneous costs for the swirl separator includes the

cost of piping skirt , weirs and plates .
Cost of Swirl Separator as a Grit Separator
The estimated construction cost of a swirl separator with a capacity

of 43 . 8 l / s ( 1 .0 mgd) is $ 47 , 000 , for 131 . 4 1 / s ( 3 . 0 mgd ) , $ 57 , 000 , and for
438 l / s ( 10 . 0 mgd ) , $69 , 000 . The breakdown of these costs is shown in
Table 18 .
Cost of Conventional Aerated Grit Chamber

The estimated construction costs of a conventional aerated grit chamber
with a capacity of 43 . 8 1 / s ( 1 . 0 mgd ) is $69,885 , for 131 . 4 1 / s ( 3 .0 mgd)
$ 89 , 775 , and for a 438 l / s ( 10 . 0 mgd ) , 124 , 965 , as seen in Table 19 .
Operation and Maintenance Costs
The estimated operation and maintenance costs for the swirl separator
and the aerated grit chamber for capacities of 43 . 8 l / s ( 1 .0 mgd ) , 131 . 4 1 / s
( 3 . 0 mgd) and 438 l / s (10 . 0 mgd) are shown in Table 20 . Por units with
capacity of 43 .8 l / s ( 1 . 0 mgd) the annual expenses are estimated at $4 , 910
for the aerated chamber and $ 4 ,450 for the swirl separator . For capacity of
131 . 4 1 / s ( 3 . 0 mgd) the annual expenses are $8 , 300 for the aerated chamber
and $ 7 ,430 for the swirl separator . For capacity of 438 l / s (10 .0 mgd) the
annual expenses are $ 15 , 740 for the aerated chamber and $ 13 ,250 for the
swirl separator .
The operator labor is assumed to be 1 .5 hours per day for the 131 . 4 1 / s
( 1 . 0 mgd) unit . This assumes 1 . 0 hours for operation of the equipment and
cupusai of
0 . 5 hours for disposal of th e it . This is haand -
the gr
grit . This is based on the actual experience
at a unit with the capacity where the daily operation ranges from 0 . 5 to 1 . 0
hours with occasional periods of 1 . 5 hours following stoom periods .
49
TABLE 18 CONSTRUCTION COST OF SWIRL CONCENTRATOR AS A GRIT SEPARATOR
Capacity 43 .8 1 / s (1 . 0 mgd)
ITEM QUANTITY AMOUNT
Sheet piling 60 sqm $ 6 ,500

(650 sq ft )
Excavation 95 cum 1 , 750
( 125 cy )
Reinforced Concrete 10 cu m 3 , 900
( 13 cy )
Equipment Job 16 , 800
Miscellaneous and Bypass Job
7,400
SUBTOTAL $ 36 , 350
Costs
Contingent and Engineering Costs 35% 12 ,650
TOTAL $49,000
Capacity 131. 4 1 / s ( 3 .0 mgd )
Sheet Piling 70 sqm $ 7 , 500
(750 sq ft)
Excavation 110 cu m 2 ,030
(145 cy)
Reinforced Concrete 12 cu m 4 ,500
( 15 cy)
Equipment Job 19,200
Miscellaneous and Bypass Job 8,600
SUB TOTAL $41 ,830
Contingent and Engineering Costs 35 % 15 , 170
TOTAL $57, 000
Capacity 438 1 / s (10. 0 mgd)
Sheet Piling 100 sqm $ 10 ,000
( 1000 sq ft)
Excavation 150 cum 2 , 730
( 195 cy )
Reinforced Concrete 16 cu m 6 , 300
( 21 cy )
Equipment Job 22,000
Miscellaneous and Bypass Job _ 10 , 000
SUBTOTAL $ 51 ,030
Contingent and Engineering Costs 35 % 17 ,860
TOTAL $68 , 890
50
TABLE 19 CONSTRUCTION COST OF CONVENTIONAL AERATED GRIT CHAMBER
Capacity 43 .8 l / s (1 .0 mgd )
ITEM QUANTITY AMOUNT
Sheet Piling 67 . 5 sqm $ 7 , 250
(725 sq ft )
Excavation 78 cum 1 ,415
( 101 cy )
Reinforced Concrete 11 cu m 4 ,200
(14 cy )
Equipment Job 30 ,800
Miscellaneous Job 8 , 100
SUB TOTAL $ 51 , 765
Contingent and Engineering Costs 35 % | 18 ,120
TOTAL $69 ,885
Capacity 131 .4 1 / s ( 3 . 0 mgd)
Sheet Piling 98 sq m $ 10 ,660
( 1066 sq ft)
Excavation cum 2 ,325
(127 cy)
Reinforced Concrete cum 7 , 200
(27 cy)
Equipment Job 36 ,400
Miscellaneous Job
9 , 900
SUBTOTAL $66 ,485
Contingent and Engineering Costs 35 % 23, 270
TOTAL $89 ,775
Capacity 438 1 / s (10 , 0 mgd)
Sheet Piling 157 sqm $ 17 , 100
( 1710 sq ft )
Excavation 276 cu m 5 ,054
( 361 cy )
Reinforced Concrete 34 . 2 cu m 13,410
(44 .7 cy)
Equipment Job 45 , 000
Miscellaneous Job 12 ,000
SUBTOTAL $92 ,565
Contingent and Engineering Costs 35 % 32 ,400
TOTAL $124 , 965
51
The labor rate used of $ 7 . 00 per hour is intended to include the
actual labor cost plus all benefits but excludes administration and general
expenses of the overall plant .
Based on the results shown in Table 20 , the annual operation costs of

the aerated grit chamber will exceed the annual costs of the swirl separator
by about 10 percent for each size unit .
Present Worth
The present worth of the grit removal units is shown in Table 21 . The
present worth is based on a life of 20 years and an interest rate of 6 - 1 / 8
percent . Hence the present worth of the operation and maintenance costs for
a 20 - year period is 11 . 35 times the annual cost .
For the unit with capacity of 43 . 8 l / s ( 1 . 0 mgd) the present worth of

the aerated chamber is $ 125 ,885 and the swirl separator is $ 100 , 000 . Thus
the present worth of the aerated chamber is 26 percent greater than that of
the swirl separator .
For the unit with capacity of 131 . 4 1 / s ( 3 . 0 mgd ) the present worth of
the aerated chamber is 183 ,755 compared to $ 141,000 for the swirl separator .
Thus the present worth of the aerated chamber is 30 percent greater than that
of the swirl separator .
For the 438 1 / s (10 . 0 mgd ) unit , the present worth of the aerated
chamber is $303,615 compared to $ 219 ,280 for the swirl separator , or 38 per
cent greater .
52
TABLE 20
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE COSTS FOR GRIT REMOVAL
Capacity 43. 8 l / s ( 1 . 0 mgd )

Aerated Swirl
Chamber Separator
1. Labor
Operation 1 . 5 hr /day @ $ 7 .00 /hr $ 3 ,830 $ 3 ,830
Maintenance 0 . 2 hr / day @ $ 7 .00 /hr 510 510
2. Materials . and Supplies 200 100
3 . Power
1 Compressor @ 1 hp, 24 hr/ day x $0 . 04 /kwh 350 - --
1 Screw Conveyor @ 1 / 2 hp, 1 hr /day x $ 0 .04 /kwh 10 10
1 Bucket Conveyor @ 1 / 2 hp , 1 hr /day x $0 .04 /kwh 10
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS $ 4 ,910 $ 4 ,450
Capacity 131. 4 1 /s ( 3 .0 mgd)
1. Labor
Operation 2 . 5 hr /day @ $ 7 .00 /hr $ 6 ,490 $6 ,490
Maintenance 0 . 3 hr /day @ $ 7 .00 /hr 770 770
2 . Materials and Supplies 300 150
Power
1 Compressor @ 2 hp , 24 hr/ day x $ 0 . 04 /kwh 700
1 Screw Conveyor @ 1 / 2 hp , 2 hr /day x $0 . 04 / kwh 20 20
1 Bucket Conveyor @ 1 /2 hp , 2 hr / day x $ 0 . 04 /kwh 20 20
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS $8 , 300 $ 7 ,430
Capacity 438 1 / s ( 10 . 0 mgd)
1. Labor
Operation 4 . 5 hr /day @ $ 7 .00 /hr $ 11 ,680 $ 11 ,680
Maintenance 0 . 5 hr / day @ $ 7 . 00 /hr 1 , 280 1 ,280
2 . Materials and Supplies 600 250
3. Power
1 Compressor @ 6 hp , 24 hr/ day x $ 0 . 04 / kwh 2 , 100 ---
1 Screw Conveyor @ 1 / 2 hp , 4 hr /day x $0 . 04 /kwh 40 40
1 Bucket Conveyor @ 1 / 2 hp , 4 hr /day x $0 . 04 /kwh 40
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS $15, 740 $ 13 , 250
53
TABLE 21
PRESENT WORTH
GRIT REMOVAL UNITS
Capacity 43 . 8 1 / 8 ( 1 . 0 mgd )
Aerated Swirl
Chamber Separator
Construction Cost $69 , 885 $ 49, 000

Operation and Maintenance Cost 56 , 000 51 , 000
COST TOTAL PRESENT WORTH $ 125 ,885 $ 100 , 000
Capacity 131. 4 1 / 8 ( 3 . 0 mgd )
Construction Cost $89 ,755 $ 57 , 000

Operation and Maintenance Cost 94 ,000 84 ,000
TOTAL PRESENT WORTH $ 183, 755 $ 141, 000
Capacity 438 1/ s ( 10 . 0 mgd)
Construction Cost $ 124 , 965 $ 68 ,890

Operation and Maintenance Cost 178 ,650 150 , 390
TOTAL PRESENT WORTH $303 ,615 $219 ,280
54
REFERENCES
1. Sullivan , Richard H . The Swirl Concentrator as a combined Sewer

Overflow Regulator Facility . EPA - R2 - 72 - 008 (NTIS No . PB - 214 -687 ) ,
U . S . Environmental Protection Agency , September , 1972 . 179 pp .
2. Sullivan , Richard H ., et al . The Swirl Concentrator as a Grit

Separator Device . EPA - 670 / 2 - 74 - 026 (NTIS No . PB - 234 - 175 / 8 ) U . S .
Environmental Protection Agency , June , 1974 . 93 pp .
3
Chasick , A . H . and Bugher , Theodore B . Using Graded Sand to Test
Grit Removal Apparatus. Journal of the Water Pollution Control Fed
eration . Vol. 36 , No . 7 p . 884 , July , 1964 .
American Society of Civil Engineers and The Water Pollution Control

Federation . Design and Construction of Sanitary and Storm Sewers .
ASCE -Manual and Reports on Engineering Practice - No . 37 (WPCF Man
ual of Practice No . 9 ) . 1969. p . 33.
APPENDIX
A-1
TABLE
TEST
DATA
FLOW
mSWIRL gd
)1.0/8(43
-2975
23
,1MAY
9
Putres
-.S
V
Susp
T ol
ol
otal
|1 usp BOD
COD
|S
,DSolids
Grit ry
olids
cibles
Gçit )(TSS
SS
Sample ltay
)(%If|/d bs /1)(mg )2T
( ime /1)(mg
Chasicki 05. 5 9.04 3.54 *
2
Chasick 02. 0 1.2 1.
53
#3
Chasick 0. 76 . 2. *
59
u ost
-S.CPash
WGrit 1.
25 .3
35 .7
45 1.4 +
Eff
.Guit
Dec 1.
52 .7
62 .6
16 0.8 +
ash
s re
-Hc.PGrit 2490 1950 9.1 +
Inf
.Grit
Dec 728 395 0.9 +
1389
158
.AGCt1Inf 266 199 +(2) 23
Bff
Swirl 248 193
17012
I.2tSGAnf *
249 *
184 +(2)1 60
60
.
PL |143
*184
A.GC Chamber
Grit
Aerated
0. Classifie
-oliver
Dorr r .3mgd
46
FLOW
AGC
S.C Swirl
Concentra tor * eek
w/Average
2samples
of
.Inf Influent
.
eff Effluent ** adjusted
,flow
weekly
Average
P.I Influent
Primary + analysis
sample
Single
A-2
TABLE
.61/8(20mgd
87
FLOW
SWIRL
DATA
)TEST
-JUNE
31
6,1MAY
975
| usp
Total
T
V
Susp
-.S
Putres
otal
ol COD
BOD
Grft Grit
|SD
, olid
ry Sol
S id
& 011 Solids
cibles
Solids
Solids )T( SS
Sample tº
) day ay
)/d(l%17 bs /1)(0m3g 28
/1)limg
#1
Chasick 0.35 1.84 .8*
20
#2_
Chasick 0.37 3.55 .9*
41
-Chasick
#3 I0.41 8.2 6 I- *4.70
s.cPash
-WGrit
ost .416 _4.66 .1
35 42. -
docEff
.Grit 5.1 2 .6
64 16.0 1.3+
LY
s.cPash
-WGrit
re 1130 Runt
Not
DOCInf
.Grit 998 Runt
Not
1414
176
.AGC#1Inf 233 |184 88
)+|(288
.
Eff
Swirl 223173
172 1435
.AGC+2Inf *239 *194 )+|(245
| *
194 *
157 -
.IP
A.GC Aerated
Chamber
Grit
D.OC -Oliver
Dorr
Classifier AGC
FLOW
m49
.7 gd
S.C Concentrator
Swirl 2sAvera
/wof
ample
eek ges
.Inf Influent
Ef
. f Effluent Avera
,fweekl
adjus
low ted
yge
P.I Influent
Primary sampl
analy
Singlesis
A-3
TABLE
.41/8(30mgd
131
FLOW
SWIRL
DATA
)TEST
16975
12
JUNE
-2
20
,1AND
1
| OD
Total
T
V
Susp
S
-B.Potall
usp
ol
utres COD
Gyit cibles
Solids
SS
,D)Solids
Grit
Solids
(Try )(TSS
Sample )/d(ftay /d(lay
bs /1)|(m/1)(mgg /1)(mg
#1
Chasick 0.33 9.40 5.17 *
#2
Chasick 0.47 3.17 - *.461
#3
Chasick 0.45 2.33 - .9*
66
scPost
.1-WGrit
16
ash 8.571 .6
23
.56cEdo7ff
Grit .2
67 .3
17 0.2+
s.cPre
Grit
-W ash 364 290 0.8+
DOCInf
.Grit 347 271 +.52
T
155 394
.AGC#1Inf 219 73 )+(189 )+(189
.
Eff
Swirl 195 156
1383
163
.AGc+2Inf *
209 *
160 2()+ 42
P.I |112
*147
A.GC Chamber
Grit
Aerated .0mgd
49
FLOW
AGC
D.OC -01iver
Dorr
Classifier
s.c Concentrator
Swirl 3samples
of
/wAverage
eek
.
Inf Influent ,flow
weekly
Average
adjusted
.Eff Effluent
P.I Influent
Primary + analysis
sample
Single
A-4
TABLE
.91/0(5mgd
21
FLOW
SWIRL
DATA
)TEST
,1975
27
AUGUST
GRIT
SAMPLE
CHASICK
RUN GRIT %
DRY ,%PINER
ANALYSIS
U.SSSIEVE
THAN
(W
)NUMBER
IEVE
GT
/htcur
.ft /hr
.lbs .sol
vol 106
18
35
60
100
0 13
.0 .30 24 . .2
29 .4
16 .4
40 .3
87 .9
93 .498 .8
99
0.017 0.117 .5
54 .4
71 .5
89 .3
98 .899 .0
100 .0 S
100
0.058 0.163 .5
74 .2
40 .655 .6
70 .2
83 .1
92 .3 :
96
‫ܚ ܢܕܝ‬
0 09
.0 0.133 .652 .5
26 .847 .7
71 .4
85 .6
94 .4
98
0.012 0.057 .3
57 .1
81 .2
94 .3
98 .6
99 .0100 .0100
0.048 0.114 .5
75 .8
58 .6
75 .8
87 95
.4 98
.4 .2
99
0.014 0.432 .2
17 8.9 .8
34 .1
86 .7
96 .1
99 .8
99
.00 16 0.074 .449 .9
72 .493 .1
99 .0100 .0100 .0100
0.074 0.225 .2
78 .7
38 .8
54 .3
70 .2
83 .9
92 97
.4
‫ܶܚ ܝܕܝ ܚܢܝ‬

0.011 .10 38 .632 .6
19 .8
52 .1
93 .4
98 .8
99 .0100
0.011 0.042 .7
54 .8
72 .1
90 .6
97 .898 .0100 .0 S
100
0.042 0.116 .0
73 .7
49 .4
66 .2
80 .6
88 .2
95 .2
98
‫ܺܝ ܝܢܝ‬
5 .00 12 0.086 .9
60 .125 .2
48 72
3. .3
83 .094 .3
99
0.010 0 29
.0 .9
67 .9
72 .2
88 .4
96 .4
96 .496 .6
97
0.084· 0.195 .0
83 .6
56 .8
75 .9
89 .0
95 .0
97 .0
98
‫ܺܝ ܝܕܝ‬
:
NOTES a*Iather
,r
sample
for
used
was
contents
Chasick
entire
than
ndicates
epresentative
Inf
£oanalysis
than
less
sizes
were
instances
.no
sample
total
the
.S=Flow
Sand
with
Spiked
A-5
TABLE
.81/(0mgd
43
FLOW
SWIRL
DATA
)TEST
,1975
28
AUGUST
SAMPLE GRIT
CHASICK
RUN GRIT
DRY % ,%FINER
ANALYSIS
U.SSSIEVE
THAN
(W
)NUMBER
IEVE
GT
/hr
ft
.cu /hr
.lbs sol
.vol 100 60 35 18 10
0.013 .20 42 .8
34 .5
11 .4
25 .0
48 .9
70 .189 .8
96
A
0 20
.0 0.122 .546 .051 .
577 .491 .696 .1
99 .699
*3 0.048 0.119 .4
59 .9
41 .6
64 .8
82 .9
90 .0
97 .5
99
INC
0.042 0.783 .9
25 .6
11 .7
29 .480 .7
91 .6
97 .599
0.016 .10 00 .3
38 .6
53 .182 .7
92 .2
96 .498 .3
99
0.028 0.140 .7
59 .1
28 .4
45 .7
62 .7
76 .2
89 .2
96
NNN
.00 60 4.0 53 .944 .4
23 .7
37 7.60 .6
79 .092 .3
98
0.042 0.095 .4
62 .1
57 0.76 .889 .994 .5
98 .0100
0.042 0.414 .8
56 .2
28 .446 7.63 78
.5 .7
90 .3
96
mmm
.00 75 5.0 31 .131 .6
14 .032 .3
82 4.92 .5
97 .2
99
0.050 0.170 .2
48 .561 .3
87 .895 97
9. .099 .399 S
0.042 0.128 .0
65 .9
37 .5
57 .7
75 .8
86 .0
95 .6
98
0.058 .80 44 .6
27 .411 .8
30 .673 .7
87 .695 .9
98
5 2* 0.050 0.238 .2
47 .2
43 .969 .4
86 .494 .9
98 .7
99 S
0.067 0.174 .1
66 .2
49 .1
66 .3
82 .8
90 96.2 .5
98
:
NOTES
*See
Table
S-Plow
Sand
with
Spiked
A-6
TABLE
.61/8(20mgd
87
FLOW
SWIRL
DATA
)TEST
,1975
29
AUGUST
DRY
GRIT
SAMPLE
CHASICK
RUN ,%FINER
ANALYSIS
SIEVE
U.SS
THAN
(W
)NUMBER
IEVE
GT
{crbs
,/h.lft
u sol
.vol 035
100
10
18
0.033 0.305 .843 .4

17 .332 .3
154 .8
73 .0
91 .7 7
9
0 37
.0 0 26
.2 .0
54 .2
23 .5
40 .4
59 .4
175 .0
89 .5
96
0.040 0.175 64.6 .239 .2
61 .78
1 .3
88 96
.596 99
.6
0
.0 37 0 93
.6 6.
21 .79 .1
32 .8
79 .8
91 .197 .1
99
0.048 0.361 .6
37 .4
18 .547 .777 .2
188 .8
95 .6198 s
0.053 0.230 .9
70 4.2 .8
65 .8
81 .7
91 .2
97 .9
98
0.038 0.686 .4|20 .9

16 .6
18 .9
51 .3
75 .0
92 .498
.00 55 0 92
.3 .4143 .223 .6
56 92
.9 .97
4 .499 .7
99 S
0.065 0.241 .8
70 .3
42 .7
61 .1
77 .5
88 .5
96 .4
99
0.033 0.579 .9
20 .1
18 .6
23 .3
61 .7.
82 .4
94 .6
198
.00 37 .20 36 .9
37 .9
22 .454 .387 .3
94 .7199 S
「如如如幻灯如如如如
0.065 0.221 .9
71 .3
32 .4
49 .5
66 .2
81 .1
94 .4
99
0.008 .10 09 .5
40 .4
16 .4
16 .7
49 .0
75 .4
92 .3
98
1
5 ) .00 50 0.164 .8168 .024 .1
39 .357 .9
71 .485 .8
94
0.075 0.253 .5
75 .9
48 .3
72 .0
90 .4
96 .3
99 .0100
111222333444555
:
NOTES
*See
Table
S=Flow
Sand
with
Spiked
7-A E
TABL
.41/8(30mgd
131
FLOW
SWIRL
DATA
)TEST
,1975
30
AUGUST
CHASICK
RUN GRIT
LE
SAMP GRIT %
DRY ,%FIEVE
ANALYSIS
U.SSSIEVE
(WTHAN
)NUMBER
INER
GT
/hr
ft
.cu /hr
.lbs sol
.vol 100 60 35 18 10
0 20
.0 0.141 .9
55 7. .316 .2
41 .2
65 .8
82 .4
91
0.023 10. 29 .866 .8
11 .7
25 .241 .059 .575 .4
88
0.030 0.117 .2
68 .2
39 .1
54 .0
69 .4
80 .7
90 .4
97
0.030 0.393 0.32 .216 .5
40 3.92 .5
99
0.023 0.519 .4
21 .2
11 .3
31 .680 .7
90 .8
97 .7
99
‫ہبرمش‬
0.042 0.202 .1
70 .0
49 .0
75 .
593 .0
98 .0
99 .5
99
0.037 0.443 8.29 .1
16 .4
38 .0
83 .8
92 .1
98 .6
99
0.025 0.645 .718 0.9 .1
26 .8
80 .1
92 .6
97 .5
99
‫میرمش‬
0.058 0.271 5.64 .1
26 .9
41 .7
57 .9
73 .7
89 .2
98
.00 25 0.739 .2
25 8.1 .4
24 2.77 5.90 9.96 .3
99
0.042 0.436 .251 .426 .3
50 .587 .4
94 .698 .599
‫میربش‬
0.067 0.279 .4
73 .8
43 .0
63 .8
78 .4
90 .2
97 .3
99
0.025 0.248 .3
44 .5
13 .9
23 .6
45 .370 .9
88 1.97
5 0 33
.0 .9
60 .3
29 .6
41 .2
73
‫ہثرم‬
0.187 .1
57 .7
88 .797
0.067 0.221 .4
71 .4
42 .7
65 .2
80 .7
90 .9
95 .1
97
:
NOTES
‫ہثرمث‬
*See
Table
S-Flow
Sand
with
Spiked
TABLE
A-8
DATA
CHAMBER
GRIT
AERATED
FLOW
HIGH
CHAMBER
SINGLE
Influent Effluent
Date Time Total .1Sampler
No
Grit .3GSam
Noriplet r
AGC Volume Volume
-mgd
Flow Flow
gpm Quarts gpm
Flow Quarts
/74268 7:30
am 35 .8
21 2.25 .8
21 2.5
9:30
am 50 .8
21 .8
21
:30
10
am .8
21 .8
21
:30
12
pm .8
21 2.0 .8
21
/74269 8:00
am .3
22 .
821 .8
21
9:00
am .5
36 .8
21 .8
21
:00
10
am 62 .8
21 .02 .8
21
:00
11
am .8
21 .8
21
:00
12
am 68 .8
21 3.75
/74360 8:00
am .5
23 .8
21 .8
21
9:00
am 36 .8
21 .02 .8
21
1. REPORTNO . 3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
EPA -600 / 2 - 77 - 185
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 5. REPORT DATE
FIELD PROTOTYPE DEMONSTRATION OF THE SWIRL DEGRITTER | September 1977 ( Issuing Date)|
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR (S ) 8 . PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORTNO.

Richard H . Sullivan , James E . Ure and Paul Zielinski
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS 10 . PROGRAM ELEMENT NO .
AMERICAN PUBLIC WORKS ASSOCIATION 1BC611
1313 East 60th Street 11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
Chicago , Illinois 60637
Grant No. 5803157
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS 13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory - -Cin . , OH Final
Office of Research & Development 14 . SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
U .S. Environmental Protection Agency EPA /600 / 14
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES Project Officer : Richard Field (201) 321 -6674 , FTS 340 - 6674 .
This report supplements EPA -670 /2-74 -039, “ Relationship Between Diameter and Height for the Design of a
Swirl Concentrator as a Combined Sewer Overflow Regulator.”
16. ABSTRACT
A prototype swirl degritter was tested by the Metropolitan Denver Sewage Disposal District No. 1. The unit was designed
to duplicate the grit removal device needed to degrit the underflow from the proposed swirl concentrator as a combined
sewer overflow regulator at Lancaster, Pennsylvania under EPA Grant No. 5802219 (formerly 11023 GSC ). Degritting is
considered in Lancaster to protect pumps and prevent siltation in the interceptor.
The 1 .8 m (6 ft) diameter device was designed for a flow of 65 .6 1/s (1. 3 mgd ) . It was found that under the physical
arrangements in Denver, testing with domestic sanitary wastewater, the swirl unit performed at slightly less efficiency than
the conventional aerated grit unit which was operating at less than twice thenormal flow -through rate . The characteristics of
the grit removal from the swirl degritterwere excellent and particles of 0 .3 mm (.012 in .) were removed .
Analyses of grit removal was accomplished with three Chasick sampling units. Blasting sand was added to provide
extremely high concentrations of 0 . 2 mm ( .008 in .) particles ( lower definition of grit) to duplicate the concentrate from the
swirl regulator. It was found that the unit could efficiently remove the small particles at the high concentrations.
It was concluded that the degritter could be used for domestic wastewater, combined sewer overflows, or urban
stormwater runoff treatment. The absence of moving parts in the basic unit and small relative volume 1: 10 (compared to
conventional grit chambers) may make the unit particularly desirable for many applications. A comparison of the present
worth of the cost of construction, operation , and maintenance for a 20 year life indicates that the swirl degritter is from 26
to 38 percent less costly than a conventional aerated grit chamber.
This report is submitted in partial fulfillment of EPA Grant S803157 by the American Public Works Association under
the sponsorship of the U .S . Environmental Protection Agency. This report covers a period from January 1975 to August
1976, and work was completed as of December 1976 .
117
a. DESCRIPTORS b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS c. COSATI Field/Group
Grit chambers Combined sewer overflow
Prototypes Stormwater treatment 13B
Water treatment Stormwater discharge
Overflows Swirl Degritter
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT 19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report) 21. NO . OF PAGES
Unclassified 74
20. SECURITY CLASS ( This page) 22. PRICE
Unclassified
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OFFICIAL Rate-
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EPA -600 / 2-77-189
September 1977 THE UNIVERSITY Environmental Protection Technology Series
OF MICHIGAN
Engin ,
TA OCT 24.1977
170 ENGINEERING
LIBRARY Diversity
456 ishigan
no. 189 Engineering
Library
CONTROL OF SEWER OVERFLOWS

BY POLYMER INJECTION
ST
TE AT
ENVIRON
NI ES
9 .U AGENCY
NM
EN
ON
TA
TI
TEC
L
RO
Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory

Office of Research and Development
U .S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati,Ohio 45268
Research reports of the Office ofResearch and Development, U .S. Environmental
vironmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
The nine series are :
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3. Ecological Research
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NOLOGYseries. This series describes research performed to develop and dem
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This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa
- - - - -- - - - - - - -
EPA -600 / 2 - 77 - 189

September 1977
CONTROL OF SEWER OVERFLOWS

BY POLYMER INJECTION
by
R . W . Chandler and W . R . Lewis

Water Utilities Department
City of Dallas
Dallas , Texas 75201
Grant No . 11020 DZU
Project Officers
Richard Field
Storm and combined Sewer Section
and
Robert L . Hiller
U . S . Environmental Protection Agency
Region VI
Dallas , Texas 75201
MUNICIPAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY

CINCINNATI, OHIO 45268
DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Municipal Environmental
Research Laboratory , U . S . Environmental Protection Agency , and
approved for publication . Approval does not signify that the
contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of the U . S .
Environmental Protection Agency , nor does mention of trade names
or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation
for use .
ii
FOREWORD
The Environmental Protection Agency was created because of

increasing public and government concern about the dangers of
pollution to the health and welfare of the American people .
Noxious air , foul water , and spoiled land are tragic testimony to
the deterioration of our natural environment . The complexity of
that environment and the interplay between its components require
a concentrated and integrated attack on the problem .
Research and development is that necessary first step in

problem solution and it involves defining the problem , measuring
its impact , and searching for solutions . The Municipal
Environmental Research Laboratory develops new and improved
technology and systems for the prevention , treatment , and manage
ment of wastewater and solid and hazardous waste pollutant dis
charges from municipal and community sources , for the preserva
tion and treatment for public drinking water supplies and to
minimize the adverse economic , social , health , and aesthetic
effects of pollution . This publication is one of the products
of that research , a most vital communications link between the
researcher and the user community .
One source of water pollutants is un - controlled overflows
from sanitary and combined sewers . This report deals with one
possible method for the reduction or elimination of such over
flows .
Francis T . Mayo
Director
Municipal Environmental Research
Laboratory
iii
ABSTRACT
In the past, the operator of a sewage collection system has
had three alternatives for dealing with overloaded sanitary sewers ;
ignoring them , diverting them to storm sewers and streams , or
pumping to other locations . An EPA - sponsored research program
entitled , " Polymers for Sewer Flow Control , " Contract No . 14 - 12
34 , suggested a possible alternative system wherein the capacity
of a sewer might be increased by the injection of certain water
soluble chemicals to reduce turbulent friction . This concept was
further developed and demonstrated during this project , EPA Grant
entitled , " Elimination or Reduction of Sanitary Sewer Overflows
in the Bachman Creek Sewershed , " which was executed in Dallas ,
Texas . This report was prepared to help operators of sanitary
sewage collection systems determine the feasibility of using
turbulent friction reduction , designing an injection facility ,
choosing a friction reducing material , and evaluating the results .
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Grant No . 11020 DZU
by the Water Utilities Department of the City of Dallas under the
sponsorship of the U . S . Environmental Protection Agency . This report
covers a period from May 1969 to December 1973 .
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Disclaimer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... .
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 .
Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
Table of Contents .
List of Figures . . . . vi
List of Tables . . . . . . . viii
Fantin
Acknowledgments . . ix
ornim
Sections
‫ا‬
on
ooo
1. Conclusions
i
o ‫ب بی حد‬
Recommendations
Introduction
Polymers as Turbulent Friction Reducers
Selection of Materials for Friction Reduction
Applications
Equipment for Polymer Injection 37
Process Control and Instrumentation for Polymer 56
Injection
Precautions in Storing and Handling Polymer
Evaluation of a System for potential Use of 62
Friction Reducing Agents
Relationship Between Rainfall and Sewer Overflows
Hydraulic Line Analysis and Computer Modeling 80
12 . Preliminary Instrumentation and Flow Measurement 89
13 . Results of Polymer Injection in Surcharged Gravity 98
Lines
Results of Polymer Injection in 6 " Force Main 107
The constructed Injection Station 113
16 . On Line Operation of the Injection Facility 122
Appendix A - Friction Reducing Materials Tested 133
for conformance to Performance Specification
Appendix B - City of Dallas Specification for High 134
Molecular -Weight Water Soluble Friction - Reducing
Additives NO PA - 106 -4061 - 70
Appendix C - Sewer Modeling Program 139
Appendix D - Bachman Creek Input Data 142
Appendix E - Computer Output from Modeling Program 148
Selected Bilbliography 163
Metric conversion Table 169
FIGURES
No .
Ра
cninaw
Velocity profile for Fluid Flowing in an " Ideal" Pipe

Symbol Definitions for Gravity Flow in a Pipe
Velocity Profile for Fluid in the Laminar Regime
Velocity Profile for Fluid Flowing in the fully
Developed Turbulent Regime
Typical Graph of the Output of a Rapid -Response
Flowmeter Measuring Turbulent Flow
Graph Showing Typical Relationship between Flow And
Head Loss in a Gravity Sewer With and Without Poly
ó
mer Addition
7. Element of Fluid Moving in a Pipe Showing Derivation 15
of Shear Stress
Graph of the Relationship between the logarithmic
Profile Intercept Function and Dimensionless
o
Relaxation Time
Diagram of Apparatus For Screening Friction -Reducing 24
Materials
ó
Graph of Relaxation Time versus wall Shear Stress for

Concentrations of Percol 155 and Polyox WSR - 301
ó
11 . Trailer -Mounted Equipment

12 . Water - Dispersed Injection System
13 . Modified Injection System
14 . Light - Weight Variable - Flow Polymer Injection
Apparatus
15 . Typical Eductor construction
16 . Operating Characteristics of a Typical 1 1 / 2 Inch
Disperser
17 . Polymer ciod Separator
18 . Suggested Process Control Scheme for Polymer
Injection
19. (a ) Polymer Injection to Change Head and Flow
19 . (b ) Polymer Injection to Change Flow Only
19 . (c ) Polymer Injection to Change Head Only
201 . Location Map
20B . Collection System Map
200 . Profile of Bachman Creek 18 " Line
21 . Rainfall Record - Bachman Watershed ( January
December 1969 ) Data From Four Stations
22 . Rainfall Record - Bachman Watershed ( January -December
1970 ) Data From Four Stations
vi
No . Figures ( continued ) Page
23 . Ratio of Peak to Average Sewer Flows Versus 83
Population (Based on National Average )
24 . Example Flow Network Showing Indexing Convention 85
25 . Purge - Tube Level Meter Installed in conventional Manhole 95
26 . A Multiple - Input Recording Station
Example Recording Showing a Building and preceding 97
Storm Flow
8 . Storm Stage at Station 164 + 33 ( Bachman Trunk ) 101
on March 20 , 1970
Storm Stage at Station 35 +40 (Bachman Branch ) 102
on April 25 , 1970
30 . Storm Stage at Station 164 + 33 (Bachman Trunk ) 103
on April 1970
31. Results of Injection Test 5 on Heads at Stations 104
164 + 33 and 166 + 21 . 58
32 . Results of Injection Test 3 , 4a , and 46 on 105
surcharges 35 + 40
Effect of Polymer Injection Test 7 on 23 September 106
1970 on Overflow 1 Station 29 + 35 ( Bachman Branch )
Flow Through 6 Inch Pressure line Without Polymer 111
Addition
35 . Flow Through 6 Inch Pressure Line With 111
0 . 74 lbs/min Polymer Addition
36 . Comparison
C ov of Results for Laboratory and Field Tests 112
on 6 Inch Pressure Line w / 0 . 74 lbs /min Polymer Addition
37 . Elevation of polymer Injection Station Locating 114
Major Components
38 . Sketch of Main Control Panel Showing the 115
Location of controls , Meters and Indicators
9 . Schematic of Process Control System 117
Plan of Injection and Metering Vault showing 127
Location of Major Components
Graph of Manual Injection Test at Various Feed Rates 124
Graph of Manual Injection Test at constant Feed Rate 125
43 . Graph of Automatic Injection Test at constant Feed 126
Rate - Level controlled at 45 Inches
44 . Graph of Automatic Injection Test at constant Feed 128
Rate - Level Controlled at 30 Inches
45 . Graph of Automatic Injection Test with Feed Rate 129
Proportioned to Flow
16
Graph of Automatic Injection of May 1 , 1974 131
Polymer Feed Rate Proportional to Flow
Graph of Downstream and Local Levels During Automatic 132
Injection of June 9 , 1974 . Polymer Feed Proportional
to Level
vii
TABLES
No . Page
1. Laboratory and Reduced Data for Polyox WSR - 301 at a 25
Concentration of 10 wppm
Laboratory and Reduced Data for Polyox WSR - 301 at a 26

Laboratory and Reduced Data for Polyox WSR - 301 at a 27

concentration of 100 wppm
Laboratory and Reduced Data for Percol 155 at a 28

5 . Laboratory and Reduced Data for Percol 155 at a 29

concentration of 50 wppm
6 . Physical Constants Utilized for Calculations
7. Constants for use in the Equation o =Kq "
Results of Comparative Solution Time Tests
of Dry and slurried Polyox WSR - 301
Results of Comparative Injection Tests of 46
Dry and slurry Feeders
10. 1970 Rainfall Record 73

11. 1970 Rainfall Record 75
2 . Observed Overflows in the Bachman Creek Watershed 79
During Calendar Year 1970
13. Land Use Parameters Used in Model 82
14 . Results of Polymer Injection Tests 100
15 . Lift Station Pump Data 107
16 . Results of Lift Station Tests 108
viii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The accomplishment of the experimental project prerequisite

to the preparation of this type of manual would not have
been possible without a great deal of support and aid from
a large number of people in the Dallas Water Utilities
Department . Special thanks are due to Henry J . Graeser ,
Director , for his firm support over a long period .
The work of N . C . Glaze , E . 0 . Buch , and the Special Projects
field crews was essential to the successful operation of
the injection facility .
The design of working components of the station , and the

production of graphs , figures , and the text were ably support
ed by the engineering , drafting and clerical personnel in the
Special Projects Section who withstood the pressure of too
many deadlines and many revisions .
ix
SECTION 1
CONCLUSIONS
The work performed under this demonstration grant has

shown that it is possible to utilize friction - reducing
chemicals to prevent or limit overflows in a working sewer
line by establishing an automatic injection system for the
materials . It has also been shown possible to increase the
capacity of a " package" sewage lift station by injection of a
slurry of friction - reducing polymer into the pump intake .
Three methods of polymer feed control were utilized
in the demonstration work ; constant rate , flow proportional ,
and level proportional . The first of the three is the
simplest and least expensive in terms of equipment and has
proven to be adequate under most conditions.
Polymer dosages directly from the dry material have

been in the range of 15 to 50 parts per million , considerably
below that used previously in large sewers . This fact
engenders the possibility that polymer injection may be more
economical than previously believed .
Two polymer types from two different manufacturers
have been utilized ; Union Carbide Polyox WSR - 301 (polyethylene
oxide ) and ICI America 4430 ( polyacrylamide copolymer ) . There
are no noticeable differences in friction - reducing properties ,
but a considerable difference in mixing properties exists .
Two problems which have limited the usefulness of the
polymer injection facility are instrumentation failures
and polymer lumping . The first problem can only be resolved
by the equipment manufacturers . The second problem ,
polymer lumping , has been solved by a re - design of the polymer
feed - funnel to incorporate a trap for the lumps .
Insufficient data has been obtained to permit the
production of a user ' s manual to permit general application
of friction - reducing chemicals .
One type of polymer tested , ICI America 4430 poly

acrylamide , has a wetted specific gravity greater than
1 . 0 , thereby producing some polymer accumulations near the
bottom of the mixing tank . Mechanical agitation with
a slow speed paddle would make the injection rate more
constant .
SECTION 2
RECOMMENDATIONS
It is recommended that the station continue to be oper
ated for the purpose of controlling overflows in the study
area and also provide the additional flow - head loss data
desired .
A slow - speed mechanical stirrer should be added to

the mixing tank to produce a more uniform slurry of the
" difficult " materials .
SECTION 3
INTRODUCTION
SCOPE AND PURPOSE

The City of Dallas has been studying a means whereby
the overflows from a sanitary sewer during periods of wet
weather may be eliminated without resorting to expensive
new construction or alteration . The means being studied
is the addition of friction -reducing chemicals to a sewage
stream in order to reduce the head loss caused by turbulent
friction in the sewer pipe .
In order to demonstrate this phenomenon , a complete

drainage area , the Bachman Creek watershed , was chosen
as the study area under EPA Demonstration Grant 11020
DZU , with the goal being the elimination of overflows by
the " as - required" automatic injection of the friction - reducing
chemicals .
This report presents data gathered during the conduct
of the program , between November 1 , 1969 and April 15 , 1974 .
BACKGROUND
The Bachman Creek trunk sewer is a branched flow system

consisting of approximately 45 , 000 feet of trunk line ,
700 , 000 feet of collector lines ( not including house laterals )
which serves a drainage area of about 8 , 000 acres . The
main trunk lines follow natural drainage channels and in
most locations consist of unreinforced concrete pipe embedded
in concrete poured in channels cut in the limestone bedrock .
Access to the trunk lines is limited to personnel on foot
except at those locations where a street crosses the line
route .
During periods of heavy rainfall , water from either

illegal connections, inflows , or infiltration enters the
collection system to such an extent that the ultimate
capacity of the line is exceeded . These excess flows are
relieved through manholes and overflows constructed to
protect the property owner along the trunk .
Because of the relative inaccessibility of the lines ,
and the fact that the existing line is adequate to carry
normal dry weather flows , an alternative to reconstruction
or construction of relief lines was preferable . Elimination
of the entry of the wet weather flows into the system
is the ultimate solution ; an on - going infiltration / inflow
abatement program is approaching this permanent solution
by inspecting , re - engineering , repairing , and replacing
the sewers in the area . However , the elimination of excess
flows is a time - consuming process , and elimination of
overflows in the interim period is necessary .
The background experimental work for the present program
was reported in EPA Report , " polymers for Sewer Flow Control, "
11020 DIG . August , 1969 . A comprehensive bibliography
of other publications concerning the theory and practice of
friction reduction is included in this report .
PROGRAM DESIGN
The program was divided into four phases , each of which

generated data used as input in succeeding phases . The
four phases were :
A. Study Phase - Instrumentation , analysis of the
drainage system , computer modeling , and preliminary
injection tests .
Design - Design of the injection station and its
ancillary equipment .
Construction - Construction and check - out of the
equipment .
D . Demonstration and Operation - Demonstration of
polymer effectiveness , analysis of results for
application elsewhere , and preparation of maintenance
and operation documentation .
SECTION 4
POLYMERS AS TURBULENT
FRICTION REDUCERS
HISTORY OF TURBULENI FRICTION. REDUCTION

In 1948 a Dutch researcher named Toms noted that certain
chemicals dissolved in water altered the flow characteristics of
the fluid in a manner which could not be explained using classic
al mathematical techniques . Upon further investigation he found
that the results obtained during the measurement of viscosity
varied with the rate at which the fluid was sheared . That is ,
the viscosity was not a constant ratio of shear stress and shear
rate .
This phenomenon , which later became known as the Toms '

Phenomenon , remained a laboratory curiosity until it was " re
discovered " by companies working with fluids used for the stimu
lation of oil wells . Researchers using certain natural gums
with the generic name " guar gums " for viscosity control found
that a dilute solution of these gums in water exhibited lower
friction losses in pumped systems thereby increasing the effi
ciency of such systems .
Because a guar gum was a natural polymeric material , a

dramatic research effort in polymer chemistry was begun to dis
cover even more efficient man -made materials .
Having successfully applied polymers to oil - field friction

reduction , personnel at the Western Company of North America began
looking for other areas in which friction losses were significant .
Three additional applications of the phenomenon were found ; the
reduction of friction and noise for submerged projectiles
( torpedoes ) , the reduction of friction on the hull of fast war
ships and the augmentation of flow capacities in pipes used for
product transport , including sanitary sewage and stormwater.
It is this last and most difficult application which is the
subject of this manual .
THE NATURE OF TURBULENT FRICTION
Since most problems in sanitary collection systems arise
when sewer pipes cease behaving as open channels , that is , when
the cross section of the pipe is completely filled with the
flowing fluid , the discussion of turbulent friction will be lim
ited to full - pipe flow . In addition , since laminar flow so
rarely occurs in practical sewer systems , flow in a laminar
regime will be largely ignored except as a basis for discussion .
If one imagines a " perfect " fluid system , that is a pipe
and fluid which is completely devoid of friction or other dis
turbing influence , each particle of fluid will move through the
pipe exactly parallel to the walls of the pipe . This type of
flow is illustrated by Figure 1 . In this ideal system , the
fluid molecules do not collide or interact with each other or
with the walls of the pipe and there will be no energy transfer
within the confines of the pipe . The velocity of every parti
cle will be exactly equal to that of every other particle and
the velocity profile will be shown in Figure 1 . If we introduce
energy into the fluid in this situation by Sloping the pipe , as
in Figure 2, it is easy to see that all the potential energy
available will be converted to kinetic energy and we can write
the specific energy equation .
Potential Energy - AZEV ? = Kinetic Energy ( 1)
Where AZ difference in height of the enas of the line referred
to datum
V = velocity in fluid .
g = gravitational constant .
If the fluid particles are allowed to interact with each
other and the pipe wall , but the particles are still required to
travel parallel to the centerline of the pipe , we arrive at a
flow which is illustrated by Figure 3 . At the pipe wall , which
is motionless , the fluid in contact with the wall is also motion
less and the velocity of particles increases with increasing
distance from the pipe wall until a maximum is reached at the
pipe centerline . This condition approximates laminar flow .
Under these conditions , there is friction loss , heat is generated
throughout the fluid and at the pipe wall . This heat raises
the temperature of the pipe and the fluid , and is not available
for moving the fluid . Referring again to Figure 2 , we must now
write the specific energy equation as :
III
Figure 1 . Velocity Profile for Fluid Flowing in an ''Ideal" Pipe

( friction factor = 0)
Flow In
Flow Out
ΔZ
Figure 2 . Symbol Definitions for Gravity Flow in a Pipe

- - - -- -- -- - --
Potential Energy= 42= het Leon (2)

Where h , is head loss in the same units
as AZ .
The symbol h , represents the energy lost as heat . The
energy loss due to friction under laminar conditions is the
minimum possible in a practical fluid system , and is generally
used as a reference value for determining the effectiveness of
friction reduction . Energy losses in laminar flow are largely
due to internal friction and increase in direct proportion to
the viscosity of the fluid . For the purposes of discussion ,
these losses will be referred to as viscous friction .
The two cases of flow discussed above required that all of
the fluid particles travel in straight parallel lines . In prac
tical pipe flows it is found that this is rarely the case . In
stead , when the fluid is viewed on a microscopic level , the
particles appear to be in random motion , colliding with each
other and the pipe wall . This is the condition which is called
turbulence . When inspected on a microscopic scale the velocity
profile can be illustrated as in Figure 4 . As in the previous
case , the velocity of the individual fluid particles at the pipe
wall is zero . However , unlike the previous case , higher velo
cities are found much nearer the pipe wall , and the central core
of the flow exhibits a relatively uniform velocity .
The collisions that occur in this flow state generate heat at
a higher rate than our laminar model because now we have more fre
quent contact between particles and the pipe wall and there are
particles with velocities which are in directions which oppose
the flow . In fact , a flow meter which responds rapidly to flow
velocity will indicate as shown in Figure 5 . Therefore , it may
be concluded that turbulent losses are largely due to inertial
effects .
If we write our specific energy equation for the turbulent
case , and assume that one may differentiate between heat losses
caused by viscous friction and turbulent , or inertial friction ,
we have :
Potential Energy = AZ = (n + h ) + V? (3 )
Where : The symbol hy represents the energy lost because of

turbulence . To simplify calculations the term in parenthesis
generally written as he where :
he = h, + hy = Total friction loss (4 )
Figure 3 . Velocity Profile for Fluid in the Laminar Regime
( friction factor > 0 )
Figure 4 . Velocity Profile for Fluid Flowing in the Fully -Developed

Turbulent Regime
(friction factor > 0 )
10
Flow
Indicated
Ind icated ſ t
Average v racta
Flow
Time
Figure 5 . Typical Graph of the Output

of a Rapid -Response Flowmeter
Measuring Turbulent Flow *
* Rouse , Hunter (ed. ) . Engineering Hydraulics . New York , John

Wiley and Sons . Inc . , 1950 . p . 86 .
11
The purpose of writing two terms is to emphasize the fact that
ition reduction " applies only to turbulent friction ;
that is , those losses attributable to inertial effects .
EFFECT OF POLYMERS ON ENERGY LOSSES

A great number of researchers have attacked the problem of
determining the reasons that polymers dissolved in a fluid reduce
turbulent friction losses . This research has resulted in many
theories which range from the attenuation of turbulent eddies to
the thickening of the laminar sublayer along the fluid - pipe inter
face . There have also been a number of attempts to predict
the behavior of any material as a friction reducer , but the prob
lem has proven so complex that practical applications of the phe
nomenon have relied almost entirely on the results of experiment
ation . It is for this reason that the writer will make no great
effort to explain the mechanism of friction reduction ; only the
gross effect will be discussed .
The polymers used for friction reduction in water are obviously

water - soluble , but they also have a number of other characteris
tics , which govern their behavior . First , the polymers have very
high molecular weights ; the more efficient materials have mole
cular weights in the range of 4 , 000 , 000 to 8 , 000 , 000 . For com
parison , the molecular weight of water is only 18 . Some exper
imenters have had some success with materials with molecular
weights as low as 500 , 000 , but in general , these materials are
less effective as friction reducers . A second necessary charae
teristic of the polymer materials is that their length to diamet
er ratio be large . There are many materials with high molecular
weights which have low L / D ratios . More simply , not all poly
mers act as friction reducing agents . In fact , many high mole
cular -weight polymers have the opposite effect because they
drastically increase the viscosity of the water and thereby in
crease viscous friction .
The logarithmic graph of Figure 6 is a typical example used

for explanation .
The abicissa of this graph represents the total head loss for a
given length of pipe , and the ordinate represents the flow rate
through the pipe . The lower curve on the graph is typical of a
head - discharge relationship for a gravity sewer pipe of moderate
age , and can be represented by a power - law equation , that is :
Q =kann (5 )
Where : Q = flow in convenient units
K = constant including length , diameter , and friction
factor
12
Polymer Solution
gallons
/minute
1000
)in Flow
(Q
10 20 50 60
30 40
Head Loss (Ah in feet)
Figure 6 . Graph Showing Typical Relationship
between Flow and Head Loss
in a Gravity Sewer
with and without Polymer Addition
13
Ah = head loss in convenient units
n = empirical exponent
If n = 0.5 the equation is similar to the Darcy -Weisbach equation .
Ah = f
an = f L TO
(6 )
and the friction factor , f , is a function of Reynolds ' Number .
If n = 0 . 54 the equation resembles the Hazen -Williams equation
for flow in fullpipes . In the graph shown , n = 0 . 44 . Since
this coefficient cannot be found in any classical pipe flow for
mula , it indicates that the example pipe exhibits loss character
istics which cannot be reconciled with flow design equations .
Measurements of flows and heads showed that this apparently
anomalous behavior was the rule rather than the exception for
sewer pipes in Dallas . The importance of determining the head
discharge relationship for a pipe before attempting friction
reduction cannot be over - emphasized ; if this relationship is
not known the effect of friction reduction cannot be predicted
or evaluated .
The upper curve in Figure 6 represents the effect of poly
mer addition to the flow in the pipe . This curve is typical of
a moderately good friction - reduction polymer . Note that for a
given head loss the flow is increased , or , conversely , for a
given flow the head loss is decreased . In practical pipe
systems , both effects usually occur simultaneously . It should
also be noted that at the lower head losses , in this case be
low approximately 22 feet of water head , the apparent friction
reduction is decreased , and the effect of polymer addition
disappears at a head of about 17 . 5 ' of water . This fact is
typical of all friction reducing agents .
Figure 6 is also typical of the behavior of friction re
ducing polymers in that the graph of the sewage flow with
polymer addition is almost parallel to the graph of the sewage
without polymers . This is true in the range of velocities
practically obtainable in a gravity system . In pumped systems ,
however , it is easily possible to produce turbulence of such
great magnitude that the physical structure of the polymer
molecule is destroyed . When this occurs the two lines will con
verge at the upper end . The normal term applied to this phe
nomenon is " shear degredation . "
By - passed in the discussion above was the reason for low
friction reduction at low head losses. This is explainable in
two parts ; " onset shear stress" and " shear dependence of fric
tion reduction . " Studies by various researchers have shown
that the polymers used as friction reducers do not become
14
effective until some minimum shear stress at the fluid -pipe wall
is reached . This minimum shear stress is called the " onset
shear stress " and is a property of the particular polymer mole
cule . The shear stress at the wall of a pipe can be calculated
using the geometric properties of the pipe and the head loss at
any flow rate .
Figure 7 illustrates the derivation of wall shear stress .

Consider a volume of any fluid of length L , bounded by a pipe
of diameter D . On the upstream face there is a head of h
toh acting , and on the downstream face a head of h . The
following equation may be written :
(n +an ) (T D2 )- (n ) (TDP )= (Tw ) (TTDL ) (7)

Where tw = shear stress at the pipe wall ,
Reducing the equation ,
(Ah) (Tp ) = T'w (MDL) (8)
and
Tw = DAH (9)
4L
It should be remembered that sh has a specific relationship to
the flow in the pipe as defined .
VP+AP PD
Figure 7 . Element of Fluid Moving in a

Pipe Showing Derivation
of Shear Stress ( T )
15
A superficial inspection of the expression would indicate that
the wall shear stress increases in proportion to pipe diameter.
However , for a given flow the head loss ( an ) decreases with
increasing pipe diameter . In fact , the head loss decreases
at a rate proportional to the fourth power of the inverse ratio
of the diameters of the two pipes , if the pipes have equal
roughness and a relationship such as the Darcy -Weisbach equat
ion is assumed . That is :
Assuming two pipes of diameters D and D . of equal length L

Where De > Di
and к.
= 0
then an , - KV
and an Kv? (Darcy-Weisbach Equation ) (10)
for a given´flow Q.
( 11 )
then V D 2
(12)
(13)
The wall shears in the two pipes of different diameter can

then be related .
3
Tw? De ah, DDD (14 )

woooo
The above expression is important to a user , since it becomes
obvious that a material which acts as a friction reducer in
one pipe may not work in another pipe because the onset shear
stress never occurs .
The shear dependence of friction reduction can be under
stood by considering the region between point " A " and point " B "
on Figure 7 . It is obvious that as the onset shear stress
16
( Point " A " ) is exceeded and friction reduction occurs , the
magnitude of the friction reduction increases until some maxi
mum is reached ( Point " B " ) . Once this maximum occurs further
increases in shear stress have little or no effect on friction
reduction efficiency .
Therefore , for specific polymer solution in a specific

pipe , there is a range of flows in which there will be no fric
tion reduction , a range of flows of which the efficiency of
friction reduction will be related to the flow rate , and there is
a third range over which the friction reduction efficiency is in
dependent of the flow rate . Obviously , it would be desirable
to always operate in the most efficient range . However , in
gravity Sewer systems this will not always be possible , and as
has been discussed above , there can be flow and head loss con
ditions under which friction reducing techniques cannot be
applied .
MAGNITUDE OF FRICTION REDUCTION EFFECT

In the previous section it was pointed out that under cer
tain conditions the addition of polymers to a gravity sewer
line can cause either increased flows , decreased head losses ,
or both effects can occur together . No mention of the mag
nitudes of these effects has been made thus far . This section
discusses the definition of friction reduction , the theoretical
limits of friction reduction , and the probable maximums which
can be expected under field conditions .
The definition of friction reduction utilizes the concept

of friction factor reduction , and bases a percentage change on
a comparison of friction factors in turbulent flow with the im
aginary extension of the laminar friction factor graph . In the
form of an equation , percentage friction reduction is :
)x 100 (15 )
( ' 1t ' O
Where y _ percentage friction reduction
ft - friction factor of fluid in a pipe

f friction factor of fluid with friction - reducing agent
added
projected laminar friction factor
= Reynolds number (constant)
17
The laminar friction factor is defined by
- fy - oh ( 16 )
Where R = Reynolds number
At the Reynolds Numbers of fully developed turbulent flows in

large pipes , the quantity represented by f , is sufficiently small
as to be negligible . The friction reduction equation can be re
duced to :
W - 11- ) x 100 (17 )

For any specific pipe at a given flow velocity , head loss measure
ments can be used to arrive at friction reduction efficiencies
directly :
♡ _ ( 1 - 4h ) x 100 (18 )
Ah .
Where Wepercentage friction reduction
An - head loss with polymer added
Aht _ head loss without polymer
This form of the expression has previously been used by Savins .

It is obvious then that the prediction of a friction factor
is the only step necessary in order to predict a friction reduct
ion efficiency and the head loss - flow relationship . One would
then be able to engineer a solution to a friction - reduction prob
lem . However , the prediction of the appropriate friction factor
is the stumbling point of the technology , since the friction
factor of a dilute polymer solution is a function of the follow
ing parameters :
1. polymer characteristics
2 . wall shear stress
3. velocity of flow
4 . diameter of pipe
Seyer and Metzner * * have suggested a form for the friction
factor equation as follows :
Sayins , J , G , A Stress - Controlled Drag Reduction Phenomenon .

Rheologica Acta . ( Darmstadt ) , 6 : 4 , 1967
* * Seyer , F . A . and A . B . Metzner , Drag Reduction in Large Tubes
and the Behavior of Annular Films of Drag - Reducing Fluids , Can
adian Journal of Chemical Engineering . (Ottawa ) . 47 : , Dec . 1969
18
- (1-5) [ain canti _ B (0)-A1n 2/7 1-8zve
ve 2 (19)
Where f = Darcy friction factor
A = slope of the logarithmic velocity profile at the lamin

ar sublayer boundary
R = Reynolds Number
B ( 0 ) = intercept function for logarithmic velocity profile
0 = dimensionless relaxation time of polymer molecule
G = Empirical function , approximated by G = 3 . 0 for

design purposes
& = dimensionless distance from pipe wall = y/ r ( r = radius of
pipe , y = distance from pipe wall )
The above equation reduces to the Nikuradse equation for smooth

pipes for a Newtonian fluid for which B ( 0 ) = 5 . 6 , Ě = 0 , A =
2 . 46 , and G = 3 . 0 . However , it is not possible to use the above
equation without a great deal of information including the def
inition of Ę , y , and B (0 ) . These terms are interrelated by
additional equations . The parameter Ę , is defined as the
ratio of the thickness of the laminar sublayer (near the pipe
wall ) to the radius of the pipe . The value of Ęi ranges from
almost zero to about 0 . 2 and can be determined from the relation -
ship :
B ( 0 ) = ( y x tw 7px 1) - Aln (y x vtw / o x . ) (20 )

and
(21 )
Where y = distance from pipe wall of the intersection of the
linear and logarithmic profile approximations
w = fluid shear stress at the pipe wall
p = fluid density
v = apparent kinematic viscosity
r = radius of pipe
The function B ( B ) is a characteristic of the polymer solution

being considered and the wall shear stress , but Seyer and Metzner
have postulated that the function is identical for all non
19
Newtonian polymer solutions . Their plot of B ( 0 ) as a function
of 0 is shown in Figure 8 . Assuming that their supposition is
correct , all that remains in the solution of a friction reduction
problem is to determine the relaxation time , 0 , for the polymer
solution under the flow conditions of interest .
Previously mentioned was the fact that dilute polymer solutions

generally behave according to a " power law " , that is , the shear
ing stress in the fluid is proportional to the shear rate raised
to some power which will range from 0 . 0 to 1 . 0 for " real world "
fluids . Therefore , it can be shown that the relaxation time , 0 ,
is proportional to the shear stress , or :
0=K (22)
Where o = relaxation time
K = constant of proportionality
TW = fluid shear stress at the pipe wall
n = a value to be evaluated by experiment
The suggested method for the evaluation of a potential

friction reducing material is to run small scale experiments
in which head loss and flow may be accurately measured for the
polymer concentration of interest . A friction factor may then
be calculated and inserted into Equation (19 ) along with the
appropriate Reynolds Number . As a first approximation the
dimensionless number & may be assumed equal to zero . A value
of B ( 0 ) can then be determined . Using the graph of Figure 8 , a
corresponding value of 0 can then be estimated . A logarithmic
plot of oversus I may then be constructed , and the value of
the constants K and n in Equation ( 22 ) Computed . In order to
refine the procedure , a few iterations through Equations ( 19 ) ,
(20 ) , and ( 21 ) will suffice to determine the value of Ę .
If the procedure outline above is repeated at a number of
different polymer concentrations , it will then be possible to
graph or tabulate the various parameters necessary to predict
the friction factor and hence the friction reduction efficien
cy for the flow condition of interest . . .
As an estimate of the maximum friction reduction possible

with water - soluble polymers , the maximum and minimum values
which the function B ( 0 ) can take may be applied directly in
Equation ( 19 ) for a typical flow condition . Using a Reynolds
Number of 1 x 10 which approximates the flow of water at 700
Farenheit through a 24 inch diameter pipe at 5 . 3 feet per second ,
the maximum and minimum values of the friction factor are :
Maximum f = 0 . 0112 Minimum f = 0 . 0030

20
21
Intercept Function , B (0 )
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
,o
Time
Relaxation
8.
Figure Between
Relationship
the
of
Graph
Function
Intercept
Profile
Logarithmic
The
Time
Relaxation
Dimensionless
and
From Equation ( 17 ) the maximum friction reduction efficiency
for the case cited is then equal to 73 percent. Studies have
indicated that the maximum possible friction reduction is in the
vicinity of 80 percent, so that a material which would behave
as in the example above would be very satisfactory . Unfortunate
ly , most successful polymer applications in gravity systems
have shown maximum efficiencies in the range of 40 to 50 percent .
CALCULATIONS _ OF _ REAL PROBLEMS
Equations 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 and 22 as presented in the pre

ceding discussion work well when applied to " ideal " pipes in the
laboratory . However , some problems arise when these equations
are translated to practical applications ; therefore a modific
ation is indicated . Since the equations have been fitted to
empirical models of velocity profiles during their development ,
these needed modifications are logically related to empir
ical information gathered in full - scale field tests , and al
though they have been checked against field - gathered data ,
additional testing will be necessary before they will become
a standard of the industry .
The major problem encountered is one mentioned previously

concerning the failure of actual gravity sewers to perform
according to the textbook formulas . In checking Equation ( 18 ) ,
it was found that although it becomes the Nikuradse equation
when the proper constants are used , the Nikuradse equation did
not predict the friction factors actually measured . For this
reason it was necessary to first " fit" the equation to the en
countered Newtonian flow conditions before it could be used
to predict Newtonian parameters .
Re -writing Equation (19) in a reduced form we arrive at the

following :
(. 3536 ) (1-5) [2. 46 in (RPE

5 . 6568
) +B (0) ] -GT
272
(23)
The symbols are as previously defined . If it is assumed
th at B ( 0 ) is a un iq ue fu nc ti on e
of th po ly me r material and
conc en tr at io n d
, an he nc e of re la xa ti on ti , then its value
me
in the equation is fixed , as is the Reynolds Number of the
flow (neglecting small changes in solution viscosity ) . How
ever , if we inspect the constant symbolized by " G " , it is
found that the friction factor may be adjusted to fit data
by varying the value of G . Hence , if the characteristics of
a pipe transporting sewage can be measured so that the fric
tion factor and Reynolds ' Number for a few conditions are
determinate , a value of G may be picked which will satisfy the
data . The new value may then be utilized to predict the
effect of friction reduction on that particular pipe . One
caution in this respect is that it is conceivable that " G "
could become a function of Reynolds Number in some cases .
22
SECTION 5
SELECTION OF MATERIALS FOR
FRICTION REDUCTION APPLICATIONS
Section 4 of this report dealt with the problem of

predicting the effect of polymers on a sewer line , and , as
an adjunct, discussed a method for extrapolating laboratory
data to field problem scale . This section presents typical
data that might be generated in a laboratory ,accompanied by the
extrapolated data described in the preceding discussion .
During the course of the friction - reduction investigation

in Dallas , thirty polymer products from eight different
manufacturers were thoroughly tested in the laboratory to
determine their friction - reducing properties of the
materials tested , eighteen were considered efficient enough
for serious consideration . The screening tests were performed
in an apparatus illustrated by Figure 9 . The test sections
which consisted of tubing of various diameters were very
carefully fabricated to give conditions as near ideal as
possible . The tests were performed as outlined below .
A sample of the test material was dissolved in de - ionized

water in the manner prescribed by the manufacturer in the
proportions required to give the required concentration of
active friction reducer . This solution was gently agitated
for a sufficient length of time to insure a clear solution
with no lumps or " fish - eyes " . Materials were tested immediate
ly after solution agitation . Made - up solutions were not tested
more than once or retained longer than 30 hours .
Two gallons of the solution prepared as above were placed

in the pressure vessel with valve ( F ) in closed position .
With the pressure vessel open to atmospheric pressure , valve
( F ) was then opened slightly until the tube ( C ) and fittings
were purged of air bubbles . Valve ( F ) was then closed .
Static pressure was built- up in the pressure vessel
by means of an auxiliary pressure regulator and air or
nitrogen source . The applied pressure was adjusted between
10 - 160 psi .
23
Regulator
Pressure Differential
Precision
Supply
Air Gauge
Pressure
Pressure
Vessel
Thermometer
24
)
1.Dx10 =1.Dx333
Length I.Dx67
10 F
Valve
Figure
9 Diagram
Apparatus
of
Screening
RFriction
educing
Materials
-for
TABLE 1
*LABORATORY AND REDUCED DATA

FOR POLYOX WSR - 301 AT A
MOON
CONCENTRATION OF 10 wppm * *
Velocity Reynolds Friction qu e o TW
( fps ) Number Factor (psf) retorno B( )

( tps
13 . 88 21021 . 0118 .551 6.5 . 533 14 . 6 55

21 . 49 32549 . 0096 1 . 08 7.6 . 746 16 . 3 59
O
27 . 19 41184 . 0090 1 .63 7 .8 . 917 16 . 7
O
LO
30 . 86 46749 . 0093 2 . 16 1 . 06
34 . 45 52190 . 0092 2 . 65 1 . 17
37 . 71 57113 . 0092 3 . 19 1 . 28
40 . 58 61462 . 0093 3 . 73 1 . 39
43 . 59 66020 .0094 4 . 32 1 .49
OM
45 . 68 69189 . 0095 4 .81 1 . 57

48 . 35 73234 . 0095 5 . 40 1 . 66
49 . 96 75676 . 0097 5 . 89 1 . 74
L
50 . 81 76958 .0098 6 . 10 1 .77
* Data taken in a 0 . 18 inch diameter test facility .

* *Weight parts per million .
25
TABLE 2
FOR POLYOX WSR - 301 AT A
CONCENTRATION OF 50 wppm* *
Velocity Reynolds Friction TW 0 Tw / p B(0) U
( fps ) Number Factor ( psf) ( fps )
(psf )
18 . 25 27644 . 00684 0 . 551 11 . 533 - 22 .4 72
22 . 33 33821 . 00624 0 . 756 11 . 5 .624 23 . 7 73
30 . 98 46931 . 00556 1 . 30 . 819
35 . 37 53576 . 00536 1 . 62 . 914
39 . 97 60541 . 00528 2 . 05 1 . 03
45 . 16 68407 . 00524 2 .59 1 . 16
51 . 46 77949 . 00496 3 . 19 13 1 . 28 26 . 3
7
54 .50 82555 . 00516 3 . 73 1 . 39
58 . 20 88166 . 00524 4 . 32 1 . 49

26
TABLE 3
* LABORATORY AND REDUCED DATA

FOR POLYOX WSR -301 AT A
Velocity Reynolds Friction IW

( fps) Number Factor (psf) ( fps)
5 . 31 8036 . 01584 0 . 108 5 .6 . 236 53

9 . 08 13759 . 01080 0 . 216 . 334 63
12 . 02 18208 . 00924 0 . 324 . 409
15 . 45 23397 . 00784 0 . 454 . 484 69
OO
17 . 72 26841 . 00704 . 0534 . 525 72

22 . 08 33448 . 00640 . 0756 .624 73
UOw
25 . 98 39335 . 00596 . 0972 . 708 74

29 . 88 45264 . 00548 1 . 19 12 . 75 . 783 75
33 . 31 50450 . 00524 1 . 40 .850
36 . 01 54541 . 00512 1 .74 . 947
41 . 87 63423 . 00508 2 . 16 1 . 06 75
.
47 . 58 72072 .00492 2 . 70 1 . 18
ww
52 . 59 79659 . 00468 3 . 13 1 . 27 75
O
59. 95 90811 . 00428 3 . 73 16 . 5 1 . 39

27
TABLE 4

FOR PERCOL 155 AT A
Velocity Reynolds Friction IW @ Vtw B(0)
( fps ) Number Factor (psf ) (fps )
18 . 41 27880 . 00664 0 . 546 11 . 3 .530 23 . 3
N1
26 . 50 1 . 09
vMNO
40137 . 0064 11 . 750 24 . 0 71

47052
‫لليي‬
31 . 06 . 00684 1 . 60 . 908
34 . 84 52779 . 00732 2 . 16 1 . 06
LONO
37 . 67 57059 . 00784 2 .70 1 . 18

40 . 68 61612 . 00796 3 . 19 1 . 28
42 . 94 65043 . 00844 3 . 78 1 .40
44 . 57 67517 . 00884 4 . 27 1 .48
47 . 02 71224 . 00896 4 . 81 1 . 57
49. 38 74799 . 00932 5 .51 1 .69
50 . 17 75992 . 01044 6 . 37 1 . 81
28
TABLE 5
FOR PERCOL 155 AT A
u | ANASNN
Velocity Reynolds Friction τω θ τω / p B (0)
(fps) Number Factor (psf ) _ ( fps ) .
14
18 . 50 28028 . 00636 0 . 529 11 . 8 . 522 24 . 2
29 . 79 45123 . 00500 1 . 08 14 . 3 .746 27 . 9
38 .43 58212 . 00452 1 . 62 16 . 3 . 914 29 . 4 78
43 . 49 65877 . 00448 2 . 05 16 1 . 03 29 . 3 77
50 . 41 76363 . 00423 2 . 65 1 . 17 77
56 . 50 85590 . 00412 3 . 19 19 . 8 1 . 28 30 . 5 78
59 . 83 90630 . 00412 3 . 56 1 . 36 78
65 . 98 99949 . 00404 4 . 27 21 1 . 48 30. 7
* * Weight parts per million .
29
When the above preparations were completed , a " run "
was made by opening valve ( F ) a preselected amount , measuring
the steady - state flow and frictional pressure loss ( as
indicated by the differential pressure gauges ) .
Three tests were performed at a minimum of three

different flow rates, with fresh solution used for each
run , and the results at each flow rate were averaged for
reporting purposes .
Three generic groups of polymer materials tested in

the above manner are polyethylene oxides , polya
and polyacrylamide co - polymers . The most efficient of each
generic type were tested in full - scale field tests . These
were :
Designation Type Manufacturer
Polyox WSR -301 Polyethylene Oxide Union Carbide

Percol 155 Polyacrylamide Allied Colloids
4430 CO - Polymer ICI America
The first two materials are presently available from
their manufacturers , but unfortunately production of the
third material has ceased . The laboratory and calculated
data for the materials which are still available appears
in Tables 1 through 5 . All spaces in the tables are not
filled because inspection of the data shows that the
materials do not behave as " power law fluids " over the
full test range . Inspection of the tabulated wall shear
stresses produced under these test conditions indicate
that the polymer solutions suffered from shear degradation
at the high velocities .
Table 6 lists the physical properties which were used

in calculating the friction reduction parameters . Any
dimensionally homogeneous set of units may be utilized ,
so long as they are used in all calculations .
TABLE 6
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS UTILIZED
FOR CALCULATIONS
IN TABLES 1 THROUGH 5
p = density of water = 1 . 9388 slugs / cubic foot
30
v = Kinematic viscosity = 1 . 059 square feet / second
g =gravitational constant=32. 2 feet/second ?

G
w = specific weight of water - 62 . 43 pounds / cubic foot
To make comparison of the materials simpler , Figure

10 is a graph of 0 (relaxation time ) versus tw (wall shear
stress ) for the various solutions . Using this graph , it
is possible to calculate the constants , K and n , to be
used in Equation ( 22 ) . The constants determined in this
manner are displayed in Table 7 .
TABLE 7
CONSTANTS FOR USE IN

THE EQUATION 9 =KTM
FOR VARIOUS SOLUTIONS
Polymer Concentration K
(wppm )
-
WSR - 301 10 1 . 97 . 1680
WSR - 301 50 11 . 96 . 1405

WSR - 301 100 11 . 90 . 248
Percol 155 10 11. 03 - . 0325
Percol 155 50 13 . 72 . 293

The values of K and n for the percol 155 at 10 wppm
are doubted , since the sign of n would indicate that that
solution gets more efficient as shear decreases .
An inspection of Figure 10 illustrates one weakness

of scaling from laboratory results . In order to produce
pressure drops which can be accurately determined , it is
necessary to operate the short tube used at much higher
shear stresses than those normally encountered in a
gravity sewer system . For comparison , an 18 inch diameter
sewer line with a hydraulic gradient of 0 . 77 percent
only develops a wall shear stress of 0 . 18 pounds per
square foot compared to the lowest average snear utilized
in the laboratory of 0 . 56 pounds . Laboratory tests
should be designed to cover the range of shear stresses
which are expected in large - scale applications .
31
Figure 10 indicates that the Percol 155 material at
a concentration of 50 weight parts per million (wppm ) is more
efficient than polyox WSR - 301 at a concentration of
100 wppm . This conclusion is correct under laboratory
conditions . However , the percol was found to be more
difficult to disperse in the large scale equipment eventually
constructed . It was found that additional mixing energy
and water was required to form a good dispersion that was
pumpable . One other significant difference is the respective
onset shear stresses of the two materials . The onset
point for polyox has been found to be concentration
dependent and is on the order of .012 pounds per square
foot at 10 wppm and . 038 pounds per square foot at 50
wppm . The onset point for polyacrylamides is relatively
independent of concentration and occurs at a shear stress
of about . 06 pounds per square foot . Therefore at very
low shears the polyox will be a more efficient friction - re
ducing agent . However , both materials are suitable
under the proper conditions .
If the materials for which data is given are chosen
as a friction - reduction material , the data may be used
directly . The fact that only two types are described
should not present a limitation to a potential user . In
many cases , the manufacturer of a potential material can
provide the data required for evaluation in the manner
described , or a moderate investment can equip a wastewater
treatment laboratory to perform the required tests .
Based on a potential user ' s specific requirements ,

the choice of a friction reducing agent should be made
after evaluation of the following properties :
1. The onset shear stress should be lower than that

anticipated in the " real world . " .
The material should not produce gross solution

viscosity changes at low concentrations .
The material should work efficiently as a friction

reducing agent in the laboratory tests .
The material should be as " dispersible " in water as
possible .
32
:
Legend
-301
WSR
Polyox
O0
1wppm
5
A0
wppm
10 00
wppm
33
Perco
155 l
TIT
Relaxation Time (0 )
10
wppm
wppm
50
N
1 .2 .3 .781456 2 3 456 78 10
Wall
Shear
Stress
psf
)(Two
GFigure
Relaxation
Versus
Shear
. raph
10
of
Various
Stress
Time
Wall
for
Concentrations
155
Percol
of
Polyox
and
WSR
-301
PREPARATION OF POLYMER MATERIALS FOR INJECTION TESTS
During the course of the present and past projects ,

many products suitable for use as friction reducing materials
have been tested and characterized. Appendix A is a list
of presently known acceptable polymer ( 1 ) materials , along
with the manufacturer ' s name .
To obtain the polymer material used during the course
of the present project , all those manufacturers were invited
to submit a bid for any polymer material which complied
with a supplied performance specification . The specification
is included in this report as Appendix B .
The only material used during the preliminary tests

was Polyox WSR - 301 , supplied by Union Carbide . The material
was low - priced and exhibited friction reduction properties
which approached the theoretical maximum of 80 % when tested
in the laboratory apparatus .
The polymer was delivered as a dry , granular material

which required protection from moisture, bacteria , and heat.
The portable equipment which was available for injection
required that the polymer be mixed in a non solvent as a
slurry for dispensing . During earlier work the slurry
was made by making a gel of isopropyl alchol and then
suspending the friction reducing polymer in the resulting
viscous media . This approach was initially used for this
project ; however , the slurry separates after two to three
days leaving the liquid phase supernatent . In addition ,
the anhydrous alcohol used constituted a fire and explosion
hazard .
These undesirable properties were not significant during
earlier field work , since the polymer slurry was generally
expended within 24 hours of preparation . However , the
execution of work described in this report was dependent
on rainfall events , requiring that the polymer materials
be prepared and stored until needed . It was therefore
necessary to devise a stable material for the application .
The first attempt to produce a more stable slurry material
consisted of the polymer mechanically mixed with a 40 - per
cent sodium hydroxide solution . This slurry was stable for
periods up to one week , but soon separated leaving the
liquid phase sub - natant . Another disadvantage of this material
is the obvious hazard of the caustic material to personnel
and equipment .
Products forming micellar structures are not included .
* * The Weston Co . " Polyzers for Sewer Flow Control, " USEPA
Report No . 710202 IGO8 /69 , August , 1969 .
34
The final slurry material prepared for injection made
use of the fact that the polymer being used , polyethylene
oxide , is insoluble in saturated brine . The brine was
prepared from rock salt and was relatively inexpensive .
It is possible to form chemical complexes in the brine to
suspend the polymer particles for extended time periods .
Slurry of this type was made up in steel drums for handling
convenience and stored for up to four months with only
slight degradation of friction reduction ability caused by
storage in the wet form . However , the slurry concentration
changed during storage as evidenced by a clear sub -natant
fluid . When the slurry was used for subsequent injections ,
grab samples of the slurry were used to determine slurry
concentration .
The slurry used for the preliminary tests may be

prepared in the following manner :
A. Measure thirty gallons of super - saturated sodium

chloride brine into a standard 55 - gallon drum .
B . Heat the brine to approximately 150° F .

Stirring gently , sprinkle in one pound of Hercules
polymer FR - 4 and one pound of Tamol (wetting
agent ) .
D . Stir until the FR - 4 polymer is completely dissolved .

Allow the brine -polymer solution to cool to
approximately 85° F .
Increase the agitation of the polymer solution

until a large vortex is formed .
Slowly add the dry polymer to be suspended , continuing
agitation and rotating the drum to insure a uniform
slurry . The maximum amount of polymer which can be
suspended is dependent on the bulk density of the
material and ranges from about 80 pounds for the
low bulk density material to 100 pounds for material
with a high bulk density .
H . Without stopping the agitation add 860 milliliters
of saturated chromium chloride solution made by
adding an excess of the chemical to saturated brine .
Stir until the color is uniform , or for about 3

minutes , and withdraw the stirrers . Excessive
stirring will destroy the suspending properties
of the slurry .
35
J. Transfer of the finished slurry to other containers
should be by decanting , since pumping can break the
slurry .
The proper preparation of this slurry material is largely
an art and those not skilled in its preparation may find it
difficult to produce a stable product on the first attempt .
The above described slurry is only suitable for the poly
ethylene oxide materials or other materials insoluble in
saturated brine .
Three possible disadvantages to the slurry prepared as

above are inherent in its properties :
A. The slurry is extremely stable and requires
mechanical dispersion to insure adequate solution
in the treated line .
B . The brine used in the preparation may be objection
able in the event that chlorides are a local water
quality problem .
The chromium ion used for complexing could become
a significant pollutant if large quantities of the
slurry were used .
36
SECTION 6
EQUIPMENT FOR POLYMER INJECTION
GENERAL STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The water - soluble polymers used for friction reduction
are furnished as dry granular solids which must be dissolved
in the sewage in the correct proporations to produce the
polymer - sewage concentration which has been previously
determined . Because of certain characteristics of the
polymer materials , it is not possible to simply " stir in " .
the solid polymer as one might add sugar to coffee . It is
necessary to provide a means for effecting the dispersion
and subsequent solution of the material . Although this
particular requirement is the most critical stage of poly
mer injection , there are other requirements which must be
met in the design of a polymer injection facility . These
requirements include :
1. Handling of packaged polymer materials.

2. Environmentally - controlled storage of polymer
material .
3 . Metering of dry polymer solids.

4 . Dispersion of polymers into water .
5 . Injection of dispersed polymer into sewer line .
6. Control of polymer injection process .

This section of the report will present design factors
which must be considered in assembling a polymer injection
facility , and specific recomendations concerning equipment
which has been shown effective in field tests will be made
The polymers used for friction reduction are varied

in chemical composition , but share certain significant physical
characteristics . It is these physical characteristics which
determine the manner in which they are applied . The common
physical characteristics are as follows :
37
1. Solubility - The polymers used for friction
reduction are very soluble in water , but the
viscosity of the resulting solutions restricts
the polymer - water ratio to low values if a
pumpable fluid is required .
2
Molecular Weight - The molecular weight of those
polymers found most effective range upward from
three million . The molecular weight of water is
only 18 .
3 . Physical Size - The extremely high molecular
weights of the polymer materials are paralleled
by the physical size of the molecules . For instance ,
a molecule of a polymer with a molecular weight of
4 , 000 , 000 is approximately . 0012 inches long , and
should apparently be visible to the naked eye .
However , it is only 12 X 10 9 inches in diameter .
Physical Form - Polymers for friction reduction are

granular , flake , or powder form material . The
individual particles may be spheres , platelets , or
discs which are made up of entwined individual
molecules . These dry molecules can be likened
to tightly - coiled springs with projections spaced
along the coils at regular intervals .
Specific Gravity - The specific gravity of most
water - soluble high molecular weight polymers
fall into the range 0 . 98 to 1 . 08 , which makes
them neutrally buoyant .
6 . Bulk Density - Air becomes trapped between the
particles producing bulk densities on the order of
11 to 60 pounds per cubic foot with a mean value
of about 25 pounds per cubic foot .
TWO conditions necessary for complete solution of
water - soluble polymers are :
A. Each polymer particle must initially be surrounded

by enough water to satisfy the water uptake
requirements of all the polymer molecules which
constitute the particle , and
B. Once wet , the polymer particles must be kept

physically separated until solution is complete .
If these two conditions are not met the individual
polymer particles will agglomerate into sticky lumps which
are externally wet with essentially dry centers , normally
38
called " fisheyes . " These fisheyes are very difficult to
dissolve and will not go into solution quickly enough to
act as friction reducers when injected into the sewer line .
PORTABLE FIELD TEST INJECTION EQUIPMENT
Earlier sewer line injection tests were conducted

using a pump to lift a portion of the sewage stream and force
it through an eductor which provided a decreased pressure
to feed the polymer slurry . The system worked well in those
tests because the equipment could be placed immediately
adjacent to an entry into the line (Figure 11 ) and suction and
discharge hoses could be short . However , those points selected
for injection for the present project were either totally
inaccessible for the trailer -mounted equipment or the hose
lengths involved ( 75 - 100 feet ) were impractical .
The first modification to the equipment consisted of

replacing the gravity feed on the slurry trailer with a
positive displacement pump with a variable speed drive .
The slurry could then be pumped into an eductor in which
a stream of water from a fireplug provided the mixing energy
required (Figure 12 ) . Through additional experimentation ,
it was found that a good slurry could be adequately dispersed
by the turbulence of the sewer into which the injection
was made . The equipment was then simplified as shown in
Figure 13 , eliminating the need for a water source and
the resulting long water hoses . This system was used for
the first and second injection tests .
During the second injection test attempt, a shear

pin in the pump broke while the slurry line (75 feet ) was
full. Water was absorbed through the injection nozzle and
the hose plugged . When the pump was repaired and restarted
the resulting high pressure ruptured the hose , making it
necessary to abort the test . As a result of this mishap ,
it was decided to construct a smaller , more portable
version of the injection rig to allow a closer approach
to the injection point . The result of this construction
is shown in Figure 14 . It was essentially a specially
designed variable - speed , positive displacement barrel pump ,
light enough to be handled by one man , yet capable of pumping
a viscoelastic slurry of the consistency of chassis lubricat
ing grease . This devise was successfully used for the pre
liminary injection tests , at rates up to about 4 . 5 pounds of
polymer per minute . Full - bore capacity was about 6 . 0 pounds
of polymer per minute .
* The Western Company , " Polymers for Sewer Flow Control" ,

USEPA Report No . 11020DIG08 /69 , August , 1969 .
39
FIGURE 11 TRAILER -MOUNTED EQUIPMENT
40
POLYMER
STORAGE FIRE
HOSE
( TACH
GASOLINE VARIABLE
ENGINE PUMP VENTURI
DRIVE
Figure 12 . Water - Dispersed Injection System

POLYMER
STORAGE
TACH
GASOLINE
ENGINEA
ENGINE PRIVESC
DRIVE PUMP
PUMP
Figure 13 . Modified Injection System
42
Fig. 14 Light -Weight Variable - Flow Polymer
Fig.14 Enge:Weightvariable-Flow
Injection Apparatus Polym
43
COMPARATIVE DISPERSION TESTS OF SLURRY AND DRY FEED
EQUIPMENT
Difficulties encountered in formulating and storing
slurry - type polymer suspensions made it necessary to
develop an alternative method for dispersing polymer
solids . A primary objective of this development was a
method which would allow the use of the materials in the
form in which they were received from the manufacturer .
Since no experimentation in sewer line friction reduction
has been performed using the dry materials without the aid of
a slurry or dispersing agent , it was decided to perform
comparative tests with the existing slurry feed equipment
and commercially available dry feed equipment .
The polymer slurry used in experimentation took
advantage of the fact that a liquid in which the polymer is
insoluble can serve as physical " spacer" to hold the
polymer particles separated until each particle could be
wetted requiring no mechanical agitation other than that
present in a turbulent flow stream . In fixed plants in which
polymer solutions are required , violent physical agitation
replaces the non - solvent " spacer " and a solution can be made
directly . A series of laboratory experiments illustrates the
comparative behavior of the two systems . In these experiments ,
a rotary viscometer was used to determine the time required
for the polymer forms to dissolve in solutions made from
slurries and dry powder. The dry powder solutions were pro
duced by introducing the required amount of material into a
1000 milliliter beaker of water violently agitated by a labor
atory stirrer , while the slurry solutions were agitated by the
action of the viscometer , alone . The polymer in both cases
was Union Carbide polyox WSR - 301 . Table 8 gives the summarized
results of these tests which indicated that the dry polymer
took about 50 % more time for solution .
TABLE 8 RESULTS OF COMPARATIVE SOLUTION TIME TESTS OF
DRY AND SLURRIED POLYOX WSR - 301
SLURRIED POLYMER UTDRY POLYMER

Time to 50 % of UiTime to 50 %
ICONCENTRATION | Ultimate Visco Ultimate Iof Ultimate Ultimate
sity ( sec . ) Viscosity Illviscosity Viscosity
(wppm ) ( centipoisell( sec . ) Icentipoise )
11000 43 44 65 45
2000 300 55 450 60
44
To confirm the effectiveness of a dry feeder system ,
parallel tests were run using the slurry used in the
experimentation and a Gaco Dry Chemical Feeder . This
device is installed temporarily on a 24 " line in the City
of Dallas which is subject to frequent surcharging .
Unfortunately , the dry feeder was capable of a maximum
throughput of only 0 . 8 pounds of dry polymer per minute ,
a quantity insufficient to relieve the surcharge , but
adequate to produce velocity changes on the order of 10 % .
The test proceeded as follows : polymer injection was

started using the slurry feed . Heads and velocities were
recorded continuously (head ) or at 10 minute intervals
( velocities ) . After 30 minutes of injection , the injection
rate was changed . At the end of 1 hour , the slurry feeder
was shut down and the dry feeder immediately started . The
feed rate was changed after 30 minutes and the injection
stopped at the end of the second hour . Table 9 is a
summary of the results of these tests . All velocities were
determined with a Gurley direct reading rotary meter .
The line in which the test was run consists of
4 , 127 feet of 24 " diameter reinforced concrete pipe with
five included manhole structures . At the velocities measured
during these tests , about 14 minutes should be required for
the sewage with polymer - Sewage without polymer interface
to travel from the injection point at the first manhole to
the outfall at the fifth manhole . The data reflects this
" travel time" in the amount of time required for a change
in injection rate to produce a change in flow rate .
The data indicates that the dry feeder is as effective
or perhaps more effective than the slurry feeder with each
producing a velocity increase of about 10 % . This would
indicate that the times required for a polymer solution to
be formed from the two polymer forms ( dry and slurry) are
either equivalent or the differences are not significant
for fielu applications .
It should be noted that most polymer manufacturers
recommend " aging" of the polymer solutions before use to
permit adequate time for the most persistent polymer part
icles to dissolve . At no time during the experimental
program was a solution prepared in which all the material
was dissolved without " aging . " The time required for aging
is dependent on polymer type , particle size , solution
temperature , level of agitation and concentration . From
qualitative observations of these solutions it can be
estimated that solutions made without aging time (as is
the case in a " quick -mix " system ) would actually contain
only about 75 to 95 percent of the polymer being mixed .
A trademark of the Gaddis Manufacturing Company ,
Bartlesville , Oklahoma .
45
TABLE 9
RESULTS OF COMPARATIVE INJECTION TESTS OF DRY

AND SLURRY FEEDERS
INJECTION
RATE VELOCITY % CHANGE
TIME ( 1bs/min ) CONC
(ppm ). S
(ft/1000 ft) VEL
fps IN VELOCITY
(minutes )
SLURRY
FEEDER :
oo
oo
T = 0 4 . 08 4 . 55
15 4 . 08 4 . 50 1 .1
30 0.8 112 4 . 08 4 . 55 0
45 0 .8 103 4 . 12 4 . 95 + 8 .8
60 0 .8 103 4 . 12 4 . 95 +8.8
61 1. 1 141 4 . 12 4 . 95 +8.8
75 1. 1 143 4 . 08 4 . 90 + 7 .7
90 1.1 135 4 . 03 5 . 20 + 14 . 3
DRY FEEDER :
91 0 . 75 92 4 . 03 5 . 20 + 14 . 3
105 0 . 75 96 4 , 08 4 . 95 + 8 .8
120 0 . 75 4 . 10 4 . 95 +8.8
WN
121 0 . 33 42 4 . 10 4 . 95 +8 .8
on
135 0 . 33 41 4 . 10 5 . 10 + 12 , 1
150 0 . 33 4 . 10 5 . 10 + 12 . 1
OOO
ooo
151 4 , 10 5 . 10 + 12 . 1
165 4 . 12 METER FOULED
180 4 . 15 4 . 70 + 3. 3
46
From the information gathered in the dispersion method
study , a number of conclusions were formulated :
A . Dry chemical feed into an eductor - type polymer
disperser is the perferred method of preparing
polymer solutions .
B . There were no packaged polymer dispersing units
of adequate capacity to meet the requirements of
the program .
Since a polymer solution cannot be pre - prepared in
anticipation of need , there will be some undissolved
polymers introduced into the treated sewer , resulting
in slight decreases in polymer efficiency .
DISPERSION EQUIPMENT FOR FIXED INSTALLATIONS .

The recommended method of dispersing dry polymer solids
in water is a standard piece of equipment called an " eductor
type polymer disperser " or more simply , an " eductor . " Figure
15 represents the basic construction of any eductor . It
consists of a water inlet connection , a polymer inlet , and a
discharge port for the mixture . Internally , it is simply
a Venturi tube which generates a low pressure area which
will draw air through the polymer inlet . Solid polymer
materials are dispersed first in the air , and are wetted in
the high energy mixing area in the lower part of the eductor .
Air vents are provided to avoid wetting the upper " dry "
area of the eductor in the event air flow through the
polymer inlet is cut off .
Eductors of this type are available in bronze , cast iron ,

and stainless steel from manufacturers like Hercules Chemical
Company , Penberthy , Incorporated , and Shutte and Koering .
The physical configuration of eductors from various manufac
turers varies but operational characteristics are similar
for all units . Figure 16 shows typical eductor performance .
It should be noted that the eductor requires some minimum
flow to operate , and that the permissible range of feed
rates is extremely broad . To utilize an eductor , it is
only necessary to establish a rate of flow which will
adequately disperse polymer at the maximum rate anticipated .
Once this flow rate is established , any solids feed rate up
to this maximum is possible without readjustment .
A type of eductor which has proved satisfactor is the

" Hootenanny " manufactered by C . E . Hooten Company in Miami ,
Florida
chlorid . i This particular
interne hadevice is constructed of polyvinyl
chloride e ( nPVCt)heand Teflon which l , and thebuild
s no alsuppresses ed - up of caked
material on the interior surfaces . As provided from the
factory , the Hootenanny has no air vents , so when mounting ,
a loose fit between the feed funnel and the eductor top
is recommended to suppress backsplash .
47
Polymer
Inlet
Air Vent Hole
Pressurized
Water
Inlet
- High Energy Mixing Zone
Dispersed Discharge
Figure 15 . Typical Eductor Construction
48
Polymer
Feed
Rate
,lbin
/m
Insufficient Dispersion
Operating Area For

Good Dispersion
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Water Flow Through Eductor , gpm
Figure 16 . Operating Characteristics of

A Typical 1 1 / 2 Inch Disperser
49
FEEDERS FOR POLYMER SOLIDS
There are basically two types of feeder systems for

dry polymer solids available ; feed weighing systems and volu
metric feeding systems. Both types of feed systems are
available with a variable feed rate adjustment . The former
system , which uses a weighing arrangement in a feedback loop
to control the rate at which solids are fed , has the advantage
that once calibrated any material may be fed at a controlled
rate ; that is , for a given setting of the control , all
polymers will be fed at the same rate regardless of particle
size and shape . However , the weighing systems are generally
a great deal more complicated to maintain , and the initial
cost is greater than volumetric systems .
Volumetric systems require that calibration tests be

made for each material to be fed . These tests should be
run over a wide range of feed rates , since the speed - feed
rate relationship is not linear . Once calibration has been
determined for any batch of material , the feeders can
usually dispense material to within plus or minus two percent
of a set rate , an accuracy which is more than sufficient for
polymer injection work .
There are a number of suitable volumetric feeders

available, and the manufacturers can usually provide
information on the specific capabilities of their device
to perform with a specific material . The requirements
for specifying a suitable volumetric feeder include :
1. The feeder must be able to dose accurately and

repeatably .
2 . The feeder should be independent of the depth of
material in the feed hopper .
3. The feed rate should be adjustable over the range

of feed required .
4. The feed rate should be controllable by standard
process control signal ( e . g . 4 - 20 ma. ) .
A volumetric feeder which meets the above requirements
and has been field tested is the Model 105 - Z manufactured by
Acrison , Incorporated , located in Carlstadt , New Jersey .
This particular feeder has two concentric helices , one
which preconditions the dry solids and the second which
extrudes the material . This feeder is widely used for
critical feed applications in the pharmaceutical industry .
50
ANCILLARY FEED EQUIPMENT
Two items of equipment which have been found virtually

indispensable in a reliable solids feeding system are a
polymer " clod " separator and a solids level detector . The
first of these is a device to avoid feed problems and the
second acts as a safety switch in the event the first fails .
Invariably , a water soluble polymer will form dry
lumps or flakes when stored in stasis for long periods of
time . Ball - like lumps can form from the compression caused
by overlying polymer . Flakes generally form on an exposed
surface or on a surface which " sweats " . Many of the balls
will be broken by the feed mechanism , but the flakes will
generally pass through the feeder . Also , bits of foreigh
material may be introduced into the bulk storage tank during
loading operations . Any of these items can cause a blockage
in the intake of the polymer disperser and stop the
polymer feed . This condition must be avoided .
Figure 17 is a design for a " clod " separator which func

tions adequately . The model shown was fabricated to order
by a local manufacturer from plans furnished by the engineer .
It consists of an inclined screen which is lightly vibrated
by an external inertial vibrator . The granular solids less
than one - half inch in diameter fall directly through the
screen into the polymer disperser inlet , and the " clods"
shaken from the surface of the screen are collected in
a plastic bag .
The second piece of ancillary equipment is a capacitance
solids level detector , such as that manufactured by Drexel
brook , Incorporated . The probe of this device is mounted
in such a position above the vibrating screen of the polymer
separator that a stoppage which produces a solids build - up
in the feed funnel will react with the probe and shut down
the feed . This action will prevent a messy solids spill and
will make clearing of the stoppage easier . The Drexelbrook
unit chosen for this function ignores film and dust build - ups
on the probe , avoiding unnecessary shut - downs .
STORAGE HOPPERS FOR POLYMER MATERIALS
Polymer manufacturers recommend that the dry solids be

stored in the shipping containers until used . This recom
mendation is based on the tendency of the polymer materials
to absorb large quantities of water from the storage
atmosphere, producing lumps , flakes , and in extreme cases
syrupy solutions . However , if one intends to operate an
un -manned , fully - automated polymer injection facility , this
51
HNOUT TO SEPARATOR FROM FEEDCA
You SavARE MESH STAINLESS
STELL JCACEN
NOM
> 0 -60 Hz VISNATOR MOUNTED ON
" FLOATINO* SOAND WITN SCREEN AS
SNOWN
1176 342"
PLAN
Tato
sk
hs
STAINLESS STEEL
SCREEN
-Y":2
CHOD
осни
SMLINED POLYMER
DISCMAASE
II VISION
SECTION "A-A" POLYMER CLOD SEPARATOR
ike . 1' 0"
Νοτι:
ENTIRL FUNNEL TO BE FABRICATD FROM
BACHMAN POLYMER INJECTION STATION
18 Aves STAINLESS STEEL EXCLPT FOR VALLAS WATER UTILITIES
SCREEN AND SCALIN SOAND. CITY OF DALLAS.
13 .ON PW . CHANDLER CONTEACT NO SA
DIAW LAUNT_
Figure · 17. TIACED
SMID IL MIDDELIROOKS
OCT 14
NO
52
implies that the polymer must be removed from its shipping
container and placed in bulk storage ready for use . To
insure that the materials will remain in a usable condition ,
this storage hopper must provide for humidity control ,
condensation prevention , " arch " breaking , and free feeding .
Tha
The exact dimensions and shape of a storage hopper will
vary , depending on the project needs , but the basic functions
will remain the same . The bottom of the storage hopper
should be conical in shape , with the sides of the cone at an
angle of about 30 degrees with the vertical . The angle
exceeds the angle of repose of most of the polymer materials
and will provide satifactory feed conditions .
After polymer materials have been stored for a long

period of time, settling produces a packed structure which
will bridge the discharge port . This arch must be mechanical
ly broken either by stirring , vibration , aeration , or any
combination . One satisfactory method of accomplishing this
function is by using a " vibrating hopper bottom " which forms
the bottom of the conical hopper and is mechanically excited .
The Acrison RP Hopper Bottom is an electrically - driven
product which uses a rocking motion to agitate the stored
material . In general , it is convenient to use a device
which is manufactured to mate directly with the feeder chosen ,
thereby reducing installation problems and eliminating the
need for fabrication of special fittings .
If the polymer storage hopper is to be exposed to
drastic temperature changes , it requires that the walls
of the hopper be insulated to suppress condensation . A
satisfactory method for accomplishing the insulation is
by spray coating the interior surface with urethane foam ,
and then painting the foam with a gloss finish latex paint.
The coating provides a surface to which the polymer does
not readily adhere .
Dehumidification of the polymer storage area is an

extremely important function , but one which is complicated
by the properties of the polymers . The polymers consist .
of a wide grain - size distribution including some dust which
will be drawn through the circulation system of a dehumidifier .
This dust is then dissolved or melted in the apparatus causing
air flow stoppages and overflowing drains .
There are two basic types of dehumidifiers , the desiccant
type or the condensing type . The former type , such as the
" Honeycombe" dehumidifier manufactured by Cargocaire Incor
porated , proved to be not sufficiently rugged to resist the
caustic action of the polymers , and dust drawn into the
system was melted by the heat dry air , causing air flow
53
restriction . Therefore it is recommended that a condensing
type of dehumidifier be utilized .
Those portions of the dehumidifier that will come in
contact with the polymer dust should be of materials which
will resist caustic action . For example , alumimum coils ,
enclosures, and ducting should be avoided unless the
surface is coated or plated with a more inert material .
INJECTION _ OF_ DISPERSED POLYMERS
After the polymer has been fed through a disperser

and mixed with water , the resulting mixture gets to a
viscous state very quickly as more and more of the solids
go into solution . If the feeding and dispersing apparatus
were to be mounted directly over a sewer line so that the
dispersion could discharge freely into the sewage, the
problem of injection would be non - existant . However , in
many cases the dispersion will be performed at some distance
from the sewer line and the dispersion piped to the desired
injection point .
The design of the eductor -type disperser prohibits the

attachment of long discharge piping directly . The common
method of overcoming this is to allow the discharge of the
disperser to fall into a " buffer" tank , and then pump the
dispersion to the injection location . The size of the
pump and the volume of the tank should be such that the dis
persion is not allowed to " age " more than about one minute ,
the permissible aging time being determined by the solution
characteristics of the polymer used .
Referring to Figure 16 , it can be noted that it is
possible to disperse approximately 8 pounds of polymer in
as little as 16 gallons of water . This corresponds to
a solution concentration of about 6 percent . At this
concentration , the polymer solution ( fully dissolved , or
aged ) has an estimated viscosity in excess of 100 , 000 centi
poise . In other words , the solution could be formed into
balls and bounced . Therefore, the time which the dis
persion resides in the buffer tank is very critical . Even
before the solution is fully aged , the material can become so
viscous that the injected material will resemble a rope
and fail to disperse in the sewage as is required in order
to be effective .
The buffer tank should be made of a non - corrosive ,

smooth - finish material such as stainless steel , polyethylene,
or polypropylene to withstand the caustic reaction of the
polymer solution and to facilitate wash down .
54
A centrifugal pump will not suffice to pump the viscous
dispersion of polymer and water . A positive displacement
pump capable of passing the undissolved , dispersed solids
should be used . A progressive cavity pump such as a Moyno
screw pump with stainless impeller and neoprene stator is
satisfactory , but sometimes inconvenient in geometry . A
gear pump with cast iron case and bronze impellers such
as those manufactured by Worthington perform satisfactorily ,
although some corrosion of the pump case will be encountered .
When sizing the pump and drive motor a viscosity of 2000
centipoise should be considered as the minimum .
If the dispersion is handled rapidly , no special pro

vision for injection into the sewer line are necessary . A
satisfactory method consists of attaching the injection
piping flush with the inside wall of the sewer with the
discharge at right angles to the flow in the sewer . The
turbulence in the sewer line will complete the dispersion
process .
If , for some reason the polymer dispersion tends to reach

the extrudable state before reaching the sewer line , the amount
of water used in the initial dispersion must be increased ,
or , additional water can be added to the buffer tank .
Supplemental mixing energy may be required if the latter
option is chosen .
55
SECTION 1
PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION

FOR POLYMER INJECTION
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INSTRUMENTATION AND PROCESS CONTROL

Although it is physcially possible to inject a friction -
reducing material into a sewer line and qualitatively observe
the results (many experiments have been so performed ) , it
would not be possible to efficiently dose the material, con
trol the process , or even evaluate the effectiveness of the
technology . The starting time of an injection will usually
be determined by a rising head in the sewer , but the rate
at which the polymer is to be injected is most efficiently
determined by proportioning to the flow rate . These two op
erational aspects require the installation of static pressure
gauges at critical locations on the line and at least one flow
meter at some point on the line . Hence , the equipment re
quired for process Control is also the minimum instrument
ation signals required to evaluate the effectiveness of
injection .
REQUIRED PROCESS CONTROL INSTRUMENTATION
Process control instrumentation is required in two separate

functional areas : ( 1 ) external to the injection facility to
provide " real world " data ; and ( 2 ) inside the station to con
trol the injection process . The external equipment is as dis
cussed above . The internal equipment performs the following
functions :
Polymer Feeder Rate Control

2. Injection Pump Start - Stop Control
Polymer Agitator Start - Stop Control
Process Overflow Shut - Down
Process Failure Shut Down
6 . Injection Completion Clean -Up Control
7 . Injection Start - Up Sequencing
The need for each of these functions will be discussed

individually , since some installations may not require every
function . To start an injection process correctly , a number
56
of things should happen in the following sequence:
a. Mixing water flow to the eductor should be established .
The polymer storage hopper should be agitated .
C. The polymer " clod " separator vibrator should be
activated .
The polymer feeder should be started .
e. The polymer dispersion injection pump should be started .
If the feeder starts much in advance of the agitator ,
arches may form above the moving hopper bottom , requiring some
other action to restart the solids flow . If the solids feeder
is started before the water flow through the eductor is establish
ed , the solids will clog the polymer inlet . In a similar manner
simultaneous cessation of solids feed and water flow at the end
of the injection period will leave solids in the feed train
which can cause clogging during the next feed interval .
A control scheme which will execute the required func

tions is illustrated in Figure 18 . Beginning at the left of the
diagrama " run " signal which can be derived from a set point re
lay which responds to head at critical points on the sewer
opens a solenoid valve , allowing water to enter the process ,
The water pressure then activates a pressure switch which turns
on the bin agitator and clod separator , and begins a time " on "
delay for the polymer feeder . At the end of the pre - set delay
the feeder starts at a rate determined by the flow through the
sewage flowmeter , and a dispersion is discharged into the
buffer tank . A low level switch starts the injection pump .
During an injection a solids build -up in the clod separator
will stop the solids feed until the stoppage is cleared manual
ly . In a like manner , a pump failure will activate a high
level sensor in the buffer tank , causing the solenoid valve
to close . The absence of water pressure will immediately
stop the solids feeder , killing the process until the problem
is corrected .
In normal operation , the disappearance of the " run " sig
nal starts the timing cycle of a time delay " off " relay which
will hold the solenoid valve open , but will shut down the
solids feed . This action provides a clean water flush of
the dispersion and injection systems , leaving the process
ready to perform at the next " run " signal .
SELECTION OF PROCESS CONTROL COMPONENTS

The first step in selecting process control components ,
once the control scheme is selected , is to decide on the pri
mary signal amplitude which will be utilized in the system ,
Standard signals include 1 to 5 , 4 to 20 , and 10 to 50
57
Water Supply
Polym
Il er
Suppl y
StartT Solenoid Bin
Signal Valve Agitator
Control
Rate
Feed
Pressure Polymer
Time Switch Feeder
Delay Time Sewage
"Off Delay 'Solids Flowmeter
"'On Overflow
Signal
clod
Separator
Polymer
58
Disperser
Overflow
Tank
SLe
"_-top - Polymer Injection
Dispersion Pump
Outlet
Buffer Sewer
To
Tank Pump Line
S" tart
Injection
Polymer
for
Scheme
Control
Process
.S
18uggested
Figure
milliamperes direct current, and 1 to 5 volts direct current .
The 4 to 20 milliampere DC signal is one of the most common
ly used , and there are many manufacturers who can provide
control elements and indicating devices for this signal range .
Which range is chosen is not important , but it is important
that the signals be compatible throughout .
A secondary signal for the direct operation of motor

starters , solenoid valves and operation equipment can be
either a low voltage DC or AC line current . The latter is
convenient , but greater care must be taken in the layout of
equipment to minimize shock hazards to maintenance personnel .
A few guidelines which should be considered during the
selection and assembly of process control equipment are as
follows :
control system and the elements which comprise
the system should be as simple as possible .
Reliability of components should be stressed , with
particular attention to the state in which a failure
will leave a control .
3. All relays used in the system should be of the en
closed type .
All connecting wiring should be color - coded or
marked at frequent intervals with easily readable
wire markers . Terminations on terminal strips should
be clearly marked with unique identifiers .
One piece of equipment which deserves special mention

is the sewage flowmeter . A meter should be chosen which does
not restrict flow in the line , and which will respond correct
ly to non - Newtonian flows. This last restriction eliminates
the possibility of using Venturi tubes , orifice plates , and
flow nozzles . Two types of metering which are satisfactory
are electromagnetic velocity sensing and ultrasonic velocity
sensing . Satisfactory devices of the first type are manu
factured by Fischer and Porter , Brooks Instruments , and others .
This type of meter should be ordered with a Neoprene or poly
urethane liner . Ultrasonic electrode cleaners are not recommen
ded . The second type of meter is manufactured by Nusonics , Inc . ,
Sparling Meter Co . , and others ; and can be built into a sec
tion of almost any type of pipe . Installation of the latter
device must include provisions for flushing across the trans
ducer faces with clean water .
59
SECTION 8
PRECAUTIONS IN STORING
AND HANDLING POLYMER
PROTECTION OF POLYMER MATERIALS

Shipping containers of polymer materials are either
polyethylene - lined fiber drums or polyethylene - lined multi
layer bags . These containers should be stored in a covered
area and kept sealed until transferred into an environmental
ly - controlled bulk storage container . The containers
should not be stored in close proximity to steam or hot
water pipes , heaters or other hot surfaces . Exposure to
direct sunlight should also be avoided because the resins
are thermoplastic with a low melting point .
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
The polyethylene oxides are formed by the reaction of
a gaseous monomer and as a result the presence of unreacted
monomer is not a problem . As previously mentioned , the polymer
gives a basic reaction ( solution pH = 10 ) So the dust can
cause minor irritation of mucous membranes and of the sensi
tive eye parts . Allergic reaction is possible as with any
material . Polyethylene oxides are non - toxic and can be
ingested without causing difficulties . The large mole
cule is relatively undigestable and will pass through the
system essentially unmodified . The FDA has recognized
and approved the use of polyox in certain food uses including
packaging as well as a direct additive to malt drinks
(beer , ale ) up to a proportion of 300 parts per million .
The Environmetal Protection Agency has approved Polyox
for unrestricted use as an inert ingredient in pesticide
formulations under Regulation Number 180 . 1001.
The polyacrylamides may contain small quantities of

unreacted monomers which are toxic until hydrolyzed by
mixing with water . They have a tendency to be more irritat
ing than the polyethylene oxides and dust masks and goggles
are recommended .
60
When the polymers are handled in a closed system , the
possibility exists that the concentration of dust could
build up to such a degree that a dust explosion could occur .
This fact should be considered in designing handling systems
such as bulk storage bins and pneumatic conveyers .
containers in which polymers have been stored should
never be used for strong oxidizing agents such as potassium
permanganate ( " potash " ) , sodium hypochlorite (HTH , Chlorox ) ,
or hydrogen peroxide . The polymer molecule is a long ,
active hydrocarbon chain which can provide a concentrated
fuel source . A mixture of Polyox and HTH , when wetted with
water , will often burst into flame . Unauthorized use or
disposal of the polymer materials by persons unaware of the
potential danger should be avoided .
61
SECTION 9
EVALUATION OF A SYSTEM FOR POTENTIAL USE OF

FRICTION REDUCING AGENTS
POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS OF FRICTION REDUCERS
The operator of a wastewater collection system should con
sider friction reduction as an alternative to other methods of
relief, such as pumping , based on a thorough engineering invest
igation of the basic problem , including evaluation of economic
considerations . This section of the report presents a recommend
ed sequence of steps in that investigation and evaluation .
It is probably safe to say that all operators of sanitary

sewage collection systems have faced , or will face , the problem
of gravity mains which are under - capacity because of unpredicted
population growth patterns , changes in land utilization after
the system has been built , or most often , because they are over
loaded by water from infiltration and inflow sources . In most
cases , the permanent solution to overloaded sewers can be found
by re - engineering , re -building or rehabilitating the offending
sewers. However , occasions will arise which will require a
problem solution on an interim basis until a permanent solution
can be effected . It is in these cases that the application of
water - soluble polymers as friction reducers may be most useful .
In those cases when sewers overload and surcharge infrequent :

ly , such as during major storms , it may not be economically feas
ible to reconstruct a part of the wastewater collection system .
In these situations , it is possible that permanent polymer in
jection points may be a suitable alternative . As in other pro
jects , the decision to use this particular technology must be
based on the probability that the desired results can be ach
ieved , the initial investment required , and the on - going opera
tion and maintenance costs associated with the constructed
facility .
EVALUATION OF A COLLECTION SYSTEM SEGMENT
The first step in the engineering of a possible friction

reduction application should be an analysis of that part of the
collection system in which surcharges are evident . This step
in the evaluation should be performed regardless of the action
contemplated .
62
The evaluation should begin with a determination of the
frequency and approximate duration of the surcharging , and more
importantly , the frequency and duration of the resulting over
flows . A rough estimate of the flow rate in the sewer will suf
fice to make a first estimate of the cost of polymer injection .
A concentration of 50 parts per million may be assumed as a norm
al value and the annual cost of polymer injection calculated as
follows :
Polymer Cost = Flow Rate (gpm ) x 8 . 33 pounds /gal

x (50 x 109 x Duration of Overflow (min )
x Annual Number of Overflows x $ 1 . 25 / pound
If the polymer cost derived above is within reason , then the
evaluation can be continued with a thorough definition of the
flow -head loss characteristics of the system . Studies to deter
mine flow rates should be performed in the most accurate manner
possible , and apparent anomalies should be carefully investigated
to insure that observed head losses are actually due to friction
losses . There have been a number of cases reported in which
obstructions , offset joints , sloppy manholes , or other loss - pro
ducing elements were the causes of overflows . All such head
loss producers should be corrected if possible , before the data
necessary to produce head -discharge curves is gathered .
Concurrent with the effort to gather the above data , con

struction drawings should be reviewed to determine " critical "
elevations in the flow network . These " critical " elevations are
the points in the system at which the hydraulic grade line first
reaches an elevation sufficient to produce overflows . Care must
be taken to consider that overflows may occur through branch
lines and building service connections . Since the elevations of
these types of potential overflows may not be shown on system
construction prints , field surveys and the establishment of level
nets may be necessary .
When the critical elevations for the flow network have been
determined , these points may be plotted on a profile sheet. The
line connecting the points plotted in this way will establish
the upper limits of the hydraulic grade line which cannot be ex
ceeded without causing overflows . A comparison should then be
made between the grade line so constructed and a hydraulic grade
line based on the values for flow and friction factor measured
during the field studies . This second line should be constructed
as if standpipes were to be placed at every overflow location ,
thereby eliminating the overflows . Candidate injection locations
can be determined by inspection of the differences between the
actual hydraulic grade line and the required hydraulic grade line .
63
The second check for the feasibility of friction reduction
can now be made by calculating the required friction -reduction
efficiency using Equation ( 17 ) and the existing and required
friction factors . As discussed in Section 4 , the maxi
mum possible efficiency is 80 percent, and the practical maximum
will be on the order of 50 percent. If the calculation perform
ed indicates feasibility , the next step in the analysis is
justified .
Since the limiting value of the hydraulic grade line has al

ready been established , the next operation is to calculate the
shear stress which the head loss characteristic of the grade line
represents . This is done by utilizing Equation ( 9 ) . Once the
shear stress is determined , the value for various materials at
several concentrations may be determined using Equation ( 22 )
and the appropriate constants previously determined by experi
ment. These o values determine corresponding values of B ( 0 )
(Figure 8 ) , which can then be used to determine achievable fric
tion factors . If it is possible to produce a friction factor
sufficiently small , it has then been determined that friction
reduction will result in head reductions or in flow increases .
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HEAD REDUCTIONS AND FLOW INCREASES
It has been pointed out in a preceding section that fric

tion reduction can result in either head reductions or flow in
creases , or a combination of both phenomena . If one is interest
ed in stopping overflows , head reduction is usually required ,
but is not always achievable even with high efficiency friction
reduction . There is no quick approach to determine if head re
ductions will result from reduced friction losses .
A definitive analysis of the piping system upstream of the
point of polymer application is necessary . The need for this
analysis is illustrated in the following discussion .
Downstream of an injection location , the effective fric

tion factor will be reduced . Using the Darcy -Weisbach equation
for frictional head loss , if the velocity (flow rate ) through
the pipe with a reduced friction factor were to remain constant ,
there would be a reduction in head loss proportional to the
reduction in friction factor . However , the flow in the pipe
immediately upstream of the injection point is also affected
since we have now reduced the head at the downstream end of
that pipe . The effect of this head reduction is to increase
the amount of sewage delivered to the injection point , thereby
increasing the head at the injection point . To further compli
cate matters , it should be noted that the effect of the inject
ed polymer on the friction factor can also be affected by the
change in flow conditions , requiring a recalculation of the
friction factor . The sketches of Figure 19 are intended to aid
in the clarification of this concept .
64
Hydraulic Grade Line
- Without Polymer Q
- - - - - With Polymer
- & se
i Polymer - - -
Injection
=
Figure 19(a ) . Polymer Injection To Change Head and Flow
– Hydraulic Grade Line with

and without Polymer
e >> Q
Polymer
Injection
FS - 154,IEF = =
Figure 19 (b ). Polymer Injection To Change Flow Only
Hydraulic Grade Line
- - - - - A
= = = = = 50
— —
Positive Displacement Pump
Figure 19 ( c ), Polymer Injection To Change Head Only
65
The analysis of the flow system to determine the effect of
friction reduction will consist of the following steps :
1. For the material , concentration , and flow conditions
anticipated , determine the modified friction factor
of the sewer line downstream of the injection point .
Calculate the expected head at the injection point by
summing the head losses downstream of the injection
point .
Using the head calculated in Step 2 , calculate the

increased flow in the upstream network . To be com
plete , the calculation should be performed for every
pipe to the limits of the flow network .
Use the new flow found in Step 3 to recalculate friction

factor .
Repeat Steps 2 through 4 a sufficient number of times

that the change in the calculated flows become negligi
ble .
Upon completion of the analysis just described it may be

found that the head reduction which will be produced will be
adequate to eliminate overflows , or it may be found that polymer
injection will result in flow increases only . In the event that
the calculations indicate the latter situation , the feasibility
of polymer injection for overflow relief is weakened , but there
is one additional possibility which may be considered .
The feasibility analysis discussed in the preceding section
was based on the premise that the collection system network was
filled , heads sufficient to produce overflow were existing , and
that head reductions were required " after - the - fact " to stop the
overflows . The second possibility would be to evacuate the ex
cess water in the system at a rate sufficient to prevent the
system from becoming overly full by starting injection earlier
in the period of maximum input , thereby making space in the sys
tem to accommodate the excess water at the peak input rate .
When an infiltration / inflow analysis is performed on a collect

ion system segment , one of the requirements is to different
iate between infiltration and inflow . In a graph of flow versus
time for a gravity sewer line , an inflow event is usually charac
terized by a very rapid increase which begins soon after the be
ginning of a storm , and whose duration is related to the dura
tion of precipitation . This type of flow increase produces rapid
surcharging and overflows , and the peak rate of excess flow will
generally exceed the capabilities of the friction reduction
technology . However , if these sources of rapid input can be
eliminated , the excess flows of infiltration which generally
66
increase more slowly and endure longer , can be accommodated by an
earlier injection start. This technique would obviously also
apply to any input which causes a slow rise in system flows .
67
SECTION 10
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RAINFALL AND
SEWER OVERFLOWS
During the performance of the preliminary tests , rainfall
data was collected from all of the Water Department gauging sta
tions around the city . Four of the stations were selected as
representative of the drainage area , stations numbers 27 , 41 , 43 ,
and the official United States Weather Bureau Love Field Station .
The location of those stations in relation to the trunk line
is shown by the circled numbers in Figure 20A .
Tables 10 and 11 are a listing of the 1969 and 1970 rain
fall records of the selected stations and an arithmetical average
of the four stations for each day that any precipitation was re
corded at one or more stations . The " T " found in the table indi
cates rainfalls of less than 0 . 01 inch . Data reflects rainfall
for the 24 hours preceding the date on which the data was re
corded . For instance the rainfall recorded for January 1 , 1970
occurred between 0800 , December 31 , 1969 and 0800 January 1 , 1970 .
Figures 21 and 22 are bar graphs of the average rainfall re

corded in Tables 10 and 11 . The star symbols mark those periods
of time when overflows occurred in the drainage system . Un
fortunately , the exact periods of overflow during 1969 were not
on record , but the rainfall data is presented for comparison .
Some anomalies can be noted on the bar chart. For instance ,

although a rainfall which averaged 0 . 97 inches over the test
area produced overflows on March 20 , 1970 , a rainfall of 1 . 44
inches on March 17 , 1970 did not cause overflows .
The problem of relating rainfall to flow in a sanitary sew
er is not equivalent to relating rainfall to flow in combined or
storm sewer . In the case of a storm or combined sewer , a unit
hydrograph is constructed using the measured drainage area , rain
fall intensity and a coefficient for runoff dependent on terrain
and ground cover . Infiltration , on the other hand , is dep
endent not only on those variables listed above but on the type
of soil and the history of rainfall and temperature for some
period of time preceding the overflow . A qualitative example
of this is the comparison of the lags between rainfall and over
flow start for two similar rains , May 31 and September 2 . The
68
overflow of May 31 started approximately six hours after the
rainfall began , but the lag on September 2 was only three hours .
A possible explanation lies in the difference of condition
of the ground at the two periods . The soil is largely a plastic
clay over weathered limestone . In the spring , the clay is swoll
en and forms a relatively impermeable surface . On the other hand ,
by September the ground is dry and cracked to considerable depth .
This same shrinkage can cause severe problems if a shallow line ,
such as a house lateral , is not properly installed . The shrink
age cracks provide a ready passage of water to the limestone ,
which is relatively permeable .
A simple regression analysis was performed using the limit

ed data available . The results of the analysis led to the
following conclusions :
A. A total rainfall of at least 3 . 5 - 4 . 0 inches in any
20 day period will cause overflows .
B. A total rainfall of at least 4 . 5 - 5 . 0 inches in any
30 day period will cause overflows .
Further analyses will be possible as additional data is

gathered .
For future work , another rain gauging station has been in

stalled in the northwest section of the drainage area . It is
anticipated that a more rational relationship between rainfall
and overflow can be developed with additional data over the life
of the project .
Table 12 relates the volume and duration of overflow with

the dates on which rainfall covered such overflows . It can be
seen that the period during which overflows persisted for the
various storms ranged from 9 to 39 hours . It should also be
noted that the overflow " patterns " , although similar , were not
the same for every flooding condition .
69
A
IEM
UPSTREAM
mm
2- RELIMINARY
INJECTION
PPOINT L" EVEL
SENSOR
WALNUT
LANEHILL
27RAIN
GAUGE
e een
goede
L AMSTATIOMENR
SAL
NOT
TO
ACONOUT
POLYMER
AU
SITE ALIMER INJECTION
NJECTION
STATOS
STATION
70
BACHMAN
LEVEL
STATION DOWNSTREAM
MATMENT
LEVEL
SENSOR WELCREST
Araw
GMC
KIO
CRESI
HILL
IVENUE
La
NU
KG
MON
OV
M
LI
VO
WEATHER
VS
BUREAU
RAIN
GAUCE
NUE
ACHMAN
AVE
B-ANIN
GAUGE
HINES
IMIRAY
MAP
OFPRIVATE
MEA
204
EKURE
POD
EMO
AGITNANEN
TWN IN
Puctore Dance
I
MAMEL
AKCHMAN
MULCTION
STATION
71
MART
TOM
DALLASAH
PRESTON
-8
20
FIGURE
550
M .H . 127 + 90
G . B . 124 + 50
G .B . 120 + 50
540
+
STATION
POLYMER
89
530 POINT
INJECTION
M . H . 97 + 50
00 + 88 99
81 + 69 -
540,62
520 NORIHANEN
FL
OW
)(UPSTREAM
SENSOR LI
530.52GB 100 + 00
172ZS
NE
TOUTFALLS
LANE
ROYAL LINE
72
M . H . 35 + 38
AF
LO
505.05 + 6 .8. 62150

490 W
ELEVATION (ft)
LIN
E
'
G .B. Il +00
480
00 + 34 99 + 48767
4 sl 26
4701 HILL
WALNUT
LANE
480.00
8 + + 'HWŁASZT
!
460
M OT
75|64
18
|
|01|
150
9020
00O2030
1ft 02
)X(DISTANCE
FIGURE
20
PBACHMAN
CREEK
-C18
L INE
" ROFILE
TABLE 10. 1969 RAINFALL RECORD (Values In Inches )
Weather
Month Day Station Number Bureau Average
27 41 43
January 0 . 05 0 . 10 0 . 13 0 . 08
0 . 00 0 . 14 10. 1 0 . 85
2 . 39 1 , 70 0 . 86 1 . 71
February 0 . 07 0 . 10 10. 14 0 . 10
0. 3 0 . 33 0. 36 0 . 26
1 . 12 1 . 00 0 . 94 1 . 01
0. 3 0 . 13 0 . 10
0. 46 0 . 50 0 . 43 0 . 47
0 . 45 0 . 44 0 . 52 0 . 44
March 0 . 45 0 . 51 0 . 44 0 . 40 0 . 45
0 . 30 0 . 29 0 . 34 0 . 32 0 . 31
0 . 34 0 , 20 0 . 19 0 . 22 0 . 24
1 . 00 1 . 01 0 . 80 0 . 55 0 . 84
0 . 85 1 . 02 0. 84 0 . 67 0 . 85
0 . 77 0 . 80 0 . 79 0 . 68 0 . 76
0 . 69 0 . 70 0 . 75 0 . 35 0 . 62
0 . 10 0 . 10 0 . 12 0 . 39 0 . 18
0 . 02 0 . 17 0.0 0 . 02 0 . 05
0 . 33 0 . 20 0 . 32 0 . 14 0 . 24
April 0 . 10 0 . 06 0 . 15 0 . 11
1 , 15 1 . 15 1 , 05 1 . 07
0.0 0. 0 0 . 65 0 , 16
0 . 60 0 . 60 0. 0 0 . 40
1 . 19 0 . 86 1, 38 1 , 14
May 2 . 38 1. 98 2 , 26 2 , 05 2 , 17
4 .50 4 .50 5 . 60 4 . 96 4 , 89
0 . 35 0 .86 1 . 10 0 . 46 0 . 69
0 . 06 0 . 03 0 . 22 0 . 02 0 , 08
0 . 59 0 . 50 0 . 52 0 , 25 0 . 47
0 . 49 0 , 65 0 . 73 0 . 66 0 . 63
0 . 40 0 . 50 10. 63 0 . 44 0 . 49
0. 0 0 . 02 0 . 32 0 . 04 0 . 10
0 . 76 0 . 78 0 . 09 0 . 04 0 . 42
0 .60 0 . 15 0 . 08 0 . 09 0 . 23
June 0. 0 0 . 04 10. 06 0 . 02 0 . 03
0 . 25 0 . 27 10 . 30 0 . 28 0 . 28
0 . 09 0 . 10 0 . 11 0 . 10 0 . 10
73
TABLE 10 (continued) 1969 RAINFALL RECORD
ooooor
Weather
idorio
onoo
oooo
riooo
27 | 41 43
ioni-o
July 0. 0 0. 0 O 0. 0 0. 0
August 1. 05 0 . 68 1 .69 1 , 29
0 . 20 0 . 26 0 , 59 0 . 37
0 . 27 0 . 25 0 . 09 0 . 15
0 . 45 0 . 15 0. 0 0 . 33
óóriorinio
September 0 . 78 0 . 40 10. 92 0 . 98 0 . 77
0 , 57 0 . 60 0 . 39 0 . 55
0 . 20 0 . 33 10. 0 0 , 08 0 . 15
O
0 . 45 0 . 20 10. 25 0. 0 0 . 23
O
0 . 12 0 . 19 10. 13 0.0 0 . 11
0. 18 0. 0 1 . 05 0. 0 0 . 31
0. 0 0 . 33 0. 0 0. 0 0 . 08
1 . 35 1 . 68 12 . 10 1. 71 1 . 71
October 0 . 11 0 . 04 0 . 04 0 . 03 0. 06
2 . 30 2 . 25 0 . 96 2 . 26 1 . 94
2 . 00 2 . 30 2 . 66 2 . 13 2 . 27
0 . 58 1 0 . 63 0 . 75 0 . 73 0. 67
0 . 86 0 . 22 0 . 26 0 . 24 0 . 40
1 . 71 2 . 17 1 . 83 1 . 87 1. 90
November 0 . 05 0 . 15 0 . 11 0 . 11
0 . 52 0 . 41 0 . 43 0 . 48
0 . 66 0 . 47 0 . 57 0 . 66
0 . 27 0 . 20 0 . 20 0 . 22
December 0 . 98 1 . 02 0 . 81 1. 02
0 . 51 0 . 50 0 . 50 0 . 53
0 . 04 0 . 10 0 . 11 0 . 09
1 . 28 1 . 60 1 . 63 1 . 52
0 . 07. 0 . 10 0 . 14 0 . 12
74
TABLE 11 1970 RAINFALL RECORD (Values In Inches )
Weather
27 41 | 43
January 0 . 22 0 . 14 0 , 05 0 . 15 0 , 14
0 . 12 0 . 12 0 , 33 0 . 14 0 . 18
0 , 40 0 . 42 0 . 34 0 . 36 0 . 38
February 1 , 33 1. 50 1 . 31 1 , 12 1 , 32
0 . 25 0 . 13 0 .0 0 . 28 0 . 16
0 , 04 0 . 06 0 . 04 0 . 03 0 , 04
0 . 48 0 . 52 0 , 55 0 . 48 0 . 51
0. 0 0 . 08 0.0 0 , 02 0 . 02
0 . 65 0 . 55 0 . 45 0 . 39 0 . 51
0 . 02 0 . 01 0 . 20 0 . 19 0 . 11
0 . 28 0 . 40 0 . 35 0 . 22 0 . 31
1 . 05 0 . 75 10 .68 0 . 60 0 . 77
1 . 04 1 . 10 1 . 35 1 . 05 1 . 13
0 . 85 0 . 75 0 . 76 0 . 68 0 . 76
March 0 . 02 0 , 03 0.0 0 . 02 0 . 02
0 .60 0 . 85 1 . 25 0 . 75 0 . 86
0 . 18 0 . 23 0 . 20 0 . 14 0 . 18
11 0 . 40 0 . 45 0 . 49 0 . 38 0 . 41
0 . 20 0 . 16 0 . 25 0 . 14 0 . 19
17 1 . 48 1 . 10 1 . 85 1 . 32 1 . 44
Un
19 0 . 08 0 . 06 0 . 05 0 . 03 0 . 05
21 0 . 95 0 . 87 0 . 97
0. 92 1 . 14
April 0 . 10 0 . 14 0 . 15 0 . 10 0 . 12
0 . 34 0 . 45 10 . 35 0 . 31 0 . 36
0 . 50 0 . 39 0 . 42 0 . 13 0 . 36
0 . 95 0 . 80 0 .61 0 . 81 0 .68
0 . 89 0 . 68 0 . 92 0 . 81 0 . 83
1 . 32 1 . 50 1 . 80 1 . 24 1 . 46
1 . 00 0. 0 10 . 0 0. 0 0 . 25
30 0.0 0. 0 0 . 36 0 . 21 0 . 28
31 0. 0 0.0 10 . 0 0 . 31 0 . 08
May 0 . 43 0 . 45 0 . 42 0 . 31 0 . 40
23 0 . 05 0. 0 0 . 04 0 . 12 0 . 05
27 0 .45 0 . 44 1 . 00 0 . 12 0 . 50
28 0 . 95 0 . 57 10 . 94 0 . 68 0 . 78
30 0 . 22 0 . 72 0 . 65 0 . 19 0 . 44
31 2 . 05 1 . 50 3 . 09 1 . 96 2 . 15
75
TABLE 11 (continued) 1970 RAINFALL RECORD
Weather
27 41 43
June 0 .0 0 . 07 10 . 20 0 .0 0 . 06
0.0 0.0 0 . 02 0.0 Τ
0. 0 0 .0 0 . 23 0 . 19 0 . 10
0 . 42 0.0 0 . 45 0 . 48 0 . 34
July 0.0 0 .0 0. 0 0 . 01 T
0.0 0. 0 0 . 11 0 . 05 0 . 04
0 .0 0 . 25 | 0 . 27 0 . 25 0 . 19
0 . 02 0. 0 0.0 0.0 Τ
0 .0 0. 0 0 . 06 0 . 20 0 . 06
August 0 .0 0.0 0 . 95 0 . 24
3 . 02 1 . 90 2 . 68 1 .09 2 . 17
1 . 98 1 . 90 1 .61 1 . 81
0 .0 0 . 01 0 . 73 0 . 36
September 0 . 70 0 . 50 0 . 64 0 . 55 0 . 60
NA
3 . 56 3 . 20 1 . 95 2 . 15 2 . 71
0 . 45 0.0 0.0 0 . 04 0 . 13
U
0 . 33 0 . 45 0 . 70 0 . 72 0 . 55
0.0 1 . 30 1 . 76 0 . 72 0 . 94
0.0 0 . 04 0 . 05 0 .0 0 . 02
0.0 0.0 0.0 0 . 03 T
22. 0.0 0. 0 0 . 17 0 . 28 0 . 11
1 . 10 · 1 . 30 1 . 96 1 . 95 1 . 58
0 .60 0 . 50 10.68 0 .65 0 .61
0 . 03 0. 0 0. 0 0 . 01 T
October 0 . 16 0 . 0 0. 02 0 . 07 0 . 06
0. 0 0 .0 0.0 0 . 03 T
0 .0 1 . 00 0 . 24 0 . 34 0 . 39
1 . 52 1 . 33 1 . 27 1 . 60 1 . 43
0.0 0 . 03 0 . 02 0 .01
1 . 11 1 . 05 1 . 15 0 . 94 1 . 06
0.0 0 . 05 0. 0 0.0
0. 0 0 . 0 0 .0 0 . 02
November 0 . 51 0 . 40 | 0 . 35 0 . 32 40
December 16 0. 0 0. 0 0 . 18 0 . 20 0 . 10
21 0 . 05 0 , 30 0 . 04 0. 0 0 . 10
30 0 . 77 0 . 72 0 . 82 0 . 73 0 . 76
76
77
Rainfall ( Inches )
J F M A M J J A S O N D
.Rainfall
21
Figure
B
(JRecord
Watershed
-D
19
anuary
achman
ecember
)
1969
Stations
Four
from
Data
+Overflow
78
Rainfall (Inches)
0 1
Jan Apr
Mar
Feb Jun
May Jul Dec
'Oct
Nov
Sept
Aug
)1970
-D ecember
Watershed
B achman
(JRecord
.Ranuary
ainfall
22
Figure
Stations
Four
From
Data
.12
TABLE
WATERSH
CREEK
BACHMAN
THE
IN
OVERFLO WS
OBSERVEDED
1970
YEAR
CALENDA
DURING R
Rate pm
SgPeak
()Obse
Note ee rved
Showing
Durat
(h) rs ion
Number
Overflow
1|9876|50 1|1123 15 1|6
# , # | -- | # | -- | # #
#
:
500
18
olo
olo
600 250
39
*
39
79
79
300 179
32 22
100
1000 200 22001 250

# 14
dlo do oo olo
do do oo
do do do do olo
of
list
ac
ishronological
table
above
The
T he
.points
overflow
observe
at
activitd y
followin
the
for
are
listed
activit g
ies
of
occurrenc
thendicates e
#isymbol
The :,respectively
1970
year
calendar
.record in
days
quantitat
no
with
event
an ive ,30
A
M25
21 ay
arch
.25pril
Feb
.closed
or
removed
overflow
iR ndicates .23
Septembe
2a nd rr
Septembe
SECTION 11
HYDRAULIC LINE ANALYSIS AND COMPUTER MODELING
GENERAL
Technical literature presents a number of ways by which the

relationship between flow , conduit properties and energy loss can
be expressed . In most cases , these expressions differ only by
the empirically - derived constants applied to make the mathemati
cal formula and the physical model consistent .
Normal application of flow equations by engineers is through

the use of nomographs and tables , with occasional spot calcula
tions to check the results obtained . Analysis of the flow system
of this project was accomplished through the use of nomographs ,
tables , and direct calculation , but in addition , electronic pro
cessing was used to permit more analysis , with an eye toward the
solution of a general " Branched -network " flow problem .
The basic equation chosen for use in analysis and modeling

is the Hazen -Williams Formula* expressed in the form :
(24 )
v= C , 10.63, 0 .54 0 . 001- 0. 04
v = average velocity in feet per second
C , = a coefficient of"roughness "
p = a / p = hydraulic radius , feet
s - energy loss per foot of pipe .
This equation can be transformed into the familiar " power
law " equation for round pipes by making the following sub -
stitutions :
Q = 1/ 4 D - x vx 448 . 86
D / 4 = R (round pipes flowing full )
Ah / Les
where :
Q = flow , in gallons per minute

D = pipe diameter in feet
Ah = head loss due to friction in feet of water
L = length of pipe
* " Handbook of Hydraulics " , 4th Edition , 1954 , McGraw -Hill .
80
The resulting equation is : An = ( 9 , 76 x 1
is :sh=1976 x 10-$4301.85 (25)
The quantity enclosed in the bracket is a constant assigned
the name " K " for a given length of pipe ; therefore , the frica
tion loss in a length of pipe is proportional to the flow in
the pipe raised to a " power " , hence , a " power - law " equation .
It should be kept always in mind that dilute polymer sol

utions do not obey this equation , since the equa
on experimental data for water , a Newtonian fluid . Therefore ,
the computer model discussed in the following is only appli
cable to a system before polymer addition is made . The com
plex problem of calculating the effect of polymer addition in
flowing systems is discussed in Section 4 of this report .
The values of C , used in the analysis are shown below :

Pipe & Condition
Extremely smooth , staight 140
Very smooth 130
Vitrified 110
Concrete 100
Tuberculated concrete 80
Small , rough concrete 60
Once a method of calculation was chosen , it was necessary to
make assumptions concerning quantities of sewage normally input
into the line and the infiltration conditions which produce
overflows .
Table 13 , " Land Use Parameters Used in Model " , was extract
ed from WPCF Manual of Practice 9 . " Design and construction of
Sanitary and Storm Sewers " (1969 ) . The average flows given in
this table are representative of the average design flows used by
the City of Dallas . For ease in programming , no variation with
tributary area was considered . The demographic data concerning
average - to - peak flow ratios shown in Figure 1 were also extracted
from the above reference and corresponds with the criteria es
tablished for the Dallas systems .
COMPUTER MODELING
The purpose of modeling is to accurately simulate , in as
many ways as possible , the behavior of a physical system under
any perturbation desired , or required . The model developed
under this program is a mathematical representation of a " branch -
ed -network " flow problem . A branched network differs from a
closed network (as represented by a water distribution system )
81
TABLE 13 LAND USE PARAMETERS USED IN MODEL
Average Average Flow (0 )

Density
(residential
uses in per Gallons /Day! Mgd
Land Use sons per acre ) Acre Sq. Mile
Rural or Conservation 2. 5 250 0 . 160
Institutional 500 0 . 320
Low Density
Residential 5. 5 550 0 . 352
Medium Density
Residential 9. 5 950 0 . 608
Commercial 1500 0. 960

Medium - High Density
Residential 1600 1 . 024
High Density
Residential 2500 1 . 600
Industrial 4000 2 . 560
82
T1
AN ANTONIO
Maxi
m
Flow um
83
Flow um
m
Mini
Ratio ofminimum or of peak to average daily sewage flow

4 6 60
40
20
5io 100 200 400
600 1000
ABA
thousand
n
,iPopulatiosn
Flows
Sewer
Average
to
Peak
of
Ratio
23
Figure
on
National
ased
(BPopulatio
Versus n
)Averages
in the increased number of restraints and conditions as input
data . The model also differs from that used for design * in
that the operator does not have the freedom of generating pipe
sizes , slopes and geometry .
The computer program presented here is designed as an " on
line" Fortran program , requiring the attendance of a person
knowledgeable of the purpose and method of the program to fur
nish additional data or to change input parameters . The program
was prepared and run using the GE time - sharing computer service.
The following discussion is presented as an example and user ' s
guide .
INDEXING CONVENTION
The flow network is first broken into " lines " as shown in
Figure 24 with the index " 1 " being assigned to the most down
stream line . The lines are then numbered , in order , by assign
ing even numbers to the deadend branch lines and odd numbers to
those lines which are joined to other lines at their upstream end .
The next step in subdivision is to assign numbers to each

node or " entry " along the previously defined line , starting at
the most downstream end with " 7 " and proceeding upstream . An
. , eral line
" entry " is required for each input from(e .a glateral line ,, " .each
change in pipe size or characteristic ( e . g . , roughness ) , and
nes "."
for junctions with other " lines " . It should be noted that later
als or lateral lines are distinct from " lines" .
The last index is that " serial" , which is either " 7 " or " 2 " .
The serial differentiates between two laterals entering at the
same entry . In the analysis of the Bachman Trunk Sewer , a " "
indicates a lateral entering from the north or west and a " 2 "
indicates a lateral entering from east or south .
GEOMETRIC RESTRICTIONS
Constructed overflows are treated as special cases of later

al lines .
The program is designed to accept a sewer network consist

ing of one trunk line fed by " n " dead - end branch lines as illus
trated in Figure 24 The number of branches ( " n " ) is limited only
by the capacity of the computer used to process the problem .
A branch line may not be split into sub branches .
Zepp , Paul L . , " A Computer Program for Sewer Design and cost
Estimation " , Regional Planning Council , 701 St . Paul Street ,
Baltimore , Maryland
21202 ( April 1969 ) .
84
be
can
lateral
This
Entry identified
the
by
3 (5,31)
indices
Entry
Lines
F( or
\2&3)
6
Entry 2 ne
ne Li
Entry Li
Entry
-
Line
5 7
r Entry Line
/ 3
1 ne 3Line
Li
85
1)Z(For
Line
Li
ne
4
.Example
24
Figure
Convention
Indexing
Showing
Network
Flow
To simplify processing , no more than two laterals may feed any
numbered entry . If more than two inputs are desired , two or
more adjacently numbered eptries may be defined to be connected
by pipes of length 1 x 10°5feet .
- INPUT DATA REQUIREMENTS
Input is accomplished by entering data into permanent" files "
(time - sharing systems ) or " tapes " (batch systems ) . The required
data is defined in groups in the order required for processing .
The first data input describes the geometry of the system to be
analyzed . It consists of the number of lines , and then for each
line : ( 1 ) the line number ; ( 2 ) the number of entries on the line ;
and ( 3 ) a " 0 " if the line dead - ends or a " 1 " if the line is join
ed by other lines at its extreme .
The second data input describes the tributary areas along the lines
in the system . For each lateral or constructed overflow along
each of the lines the following data is required :
A. The line, entry , and serial identifying the lateral

(or overflow ) .
B. The area of the tributary area in acres .
C. The land use factor in gallons /day /acre as shown in
Table 13 .
D. The critical , limiting or overflow elevation on the

lateral or overflow .
E. The estimated or measured total collector pipe length

in the tributary area .
F. The design roughness ( C in Hazen - Williams Formula )

of the connected lateral .
G . The diameter and length of pipe connecting the point

which was determined to be critical to the trunk .
The probability ( 0 to 1 ) that any given tributary area

will contribute to infiltration in proportion to the
length of the collection system in the area . This input
requires engineering judgment , assigned by knowledge of
code restrictions , construction techniques , and field
measurements .
The third set of input data consists of information to describe
the trunk line :
A . The line and entry numbers of the upstream end of the

pipe being described .
86
B. The Hazen -Williams coefficient of roughness , the diam
eter and the pipe length to the next downstream entry .
The elevation of the invert at the entry under consider
ation .
D. An allowance for head lose due to bends , restrictions .

manholes , and grade changes .
THE PROBLEM SOLUTION
The flow problem is solved using a limited iteration technique ,

limited in the sense that the operator of the program has the
option to continue interation , stop , or change the problem at
regular intervals during processing .
The processing proceeds as follow :
A. All data is entered ; calculation of constants is per

formed .
B. The flows in each lateral and in each section of the

trunk line under normal design peak daily flows are
calculated .
The hydraulic heads at each entry and lateral node

are calculated from the flows .
The calculated elevations are checked against over

flow elevations .
Identifying numbers , flows in all branches , elevations

and overflow rates are printed .
The operator enters an infiltration increment .

The infiltration increment is applied to all tributar
ies and tributary flows calculated .
System flows and elevations are recalculated .

І . Elevations
Етеу above critical points cause calculations
of overflows and reduced inputs .
System flows and elevations are recalculated and

checked for compatibility .
Steps I and I are performed three times , output is
printed , and the operator is queried for the option
to continue the problem or stop .
87
TWO successive outputs which are similar or within
operator determined accuracy criteria are used for a stop or
change problem decision .
A listing of the program is included in Appendix C . .

The program shown , which is dimensioned to fit the analysis
of the actual system is the largest which can be processed by
a computer with a core capacity of 65 , 000 words . A change in
the program to accept a larger problem will require a larger
core .
The input data established for the study area is in

cluded as Appendix D .
Appendix E is a " run " of the problem with the follow

ing assumptions :
A. The ratio of peak - to -average flow is 1 . 44 .

B . The probabilities of infiltration along the two
branch lines are approximately equal .
The allowed infiltration rates ( average ) are 0 ,

. 008 , . 01 , and . 015 gallons /minute / foot of lateral .
The first output is a printout after five iteration
cycles of a peak daily flow . The second output is a print
out of the system flows at an infiltration rate of . 008 after
five cycles . More cycles of iteration would eliminate the
overflows . The third output are the system flows after five
cycles with an infiltration rate of . 01 . The fourth output
is the result of five iterative cycles at an infiltration
rate of . 015 . The fifth and last printout shows the effect
of five additional iterative cycles with no change in the
infiltration rate . This final model is a good represent
ation of the system under general overflow conditions .
The program as presented was designed for use at full
pipe flow conditions and should not be used for computations
of varying or uniform flow in partially filled pipes .
88
SECTION 12
PRELIMINARY INSTRUMENTATION AND FLOW MEASUREMENT
GENERAL
In order to provide a basis for the design of injection tests

and to demonstrate the effect of the injections , measurement
of flows , overflows , and hydraulic heads is required . The re
quired and desirable characteristics of the measuring elements
were defined as follows :
Characteristics and desired features :
A . Ruggedness - As a field instrument , able to with
stand rough treatment before and during installa
tion . Preferably able to operate after submergence
in sewage .
B . Capability to measure flow in a surcharged line
Efficient use of polymer materials require higher
than normal velocities ; hence , surcharging is allowed .
Non - fouling - Experiments with standpipe and floats

in manholes indicated that projections foul rapidly .
Accurate - Precision to the limits of the method used .
Simple - For servicing requirements .

Recording - For unattended long - term measurements.
Easily interpretable data - Direct read - out in the
units required is preferable .
H. Semi -portable - To make movement from one measuring

point to another possible .
I. Adaptable - For mounting in conventional manholes , or

remote with taps sealed into the line .
The characteristics and features described above resulted from
the need to measure flow , pressure , or head under the following
conditions :
89
Flow and / or head measurements through conventional
and type " S " manholes .
Measurement of vertical flow out of specially - con
structed overflow manholes with hinged lids .
Flow measurement in overflow pipes (horizontal)

ranging in size from 4 - inch to 12 - inch diameter from
beginning of flow to full pipe .
Flow measurement in vertical 4 - inch overflows .

The instrument market was surveyed , information was solicited
from all the major equipment companies and many of the smaller
companies . The survey exposed the following general types of
flow and head measuring devices :
Float and Stilling Basin
Head measurement by mechanical means , limited to open

installations , extreme accuracy possible , subject to foul
ing .
Purae Tube Pressure
Head or pressure measurement by measuring the pressure

required to discharge bubbles against the head , with out
put converted to mechanical or electrical output .
ultrasonic Depth Measurement

Measures distance from a known elevation to a liquid - air
interface , sophisticated method .
Hook Gauge
Manual or servo - operated to determine surface elevation
of a stilling basin , limited in range by mechanical con
siderations , subject to fouling .
Sounding Rod
Manual, for use in a stilling basin .

Exposed Diaphragm Pressure transducer
Used for level in tanks , electrical output .
90
Weir
Flow measurement , constructed or prefabricated and used

with depth measuring device , in open channels .
Venturi
Flow measurement , restricted to small diameters because
of required proportions , required full cross - sectional
flow .
Flume
Flow measurement , in open channels .

Propeller - type Steam Meter
Velocity only , requires a minimum stream depth and is sub
ject to fouling .
Ultrasonic Doppler - effect Meter
In - stream velocity measurement , subject to fouling , sophis

ticated method .
Psuedo -Sound Listening Meter

Relative flow by turbulent noise generation , newly - develop
ed .
Orifice plate
Flow in full pipe , high energy losses .

Dilution Meter ( e . g . , Fluorometer )
Requires constant rate injection , subject to fouling and
interfering substances .
Magnetic Flow Meter

Flow in full pipe , limited to 24 - inch and smaller , sophis
ticated .
91
Turbine Meter
Flow in full pipe , subject to rapid fouling .
There are , in addition , combinations of and additions to the
above list if methods , rather than devices, are considered ; but
all of the devices in common use, fall in one of the above
categories .
A question was raised early in the program concerning the use
of the fluorometer , which had been used in an earlier polymer
program . Experience with that device had shown that some of
the constituents in sewage , and even the pipe wall , can intro
duce serious errors into flow measurement. For instance ,
grease fouls the transmission cell wall , suspended colloids
are dyed by the injected chemical * and the pipe walls can absorb
the dye .
A survey of consulting engineers concerned with doing sewer

surveys and flow studies uncovered some interesting informa
tion about the quality of flow measurements which they per
formed for their customers . The majority of flow tests per
formed use an empirical formula in combination with estimates
of line condition , construction data , and water depth measure
ments to determine flows . The consultants opinion of the
accuracy of these methods vary from estimated error of 10 - to 50
percent .
The factor which seems to be susceptible to error in the cal
culation of flow is the line condition or roughness , which co
incidentally is the factor which also possesses a large sensi
tivity in most flow equations .
Based on the above considerations , it was decided to use float
type level recorders and dip - sticks in combination with tables
and nomographs to supplement a system of interconnected bubble
purge level meters to be installed on the sewer trunk .
The bubble purge level meters are a variation on a system used

by some engineers for field survey work . The system consists
of a bottle of liqufied carbon dioxide discharging gaseous
carbon dioxide through a regulator into a tube equipped with a
sensitive pressure gauge. The devices built for this project
make use of the fact that a bottle of liquid carbon dioxide
holds essentially a constant pressure so that a constant rate
of discharge can be obtained by venting through an orifice .
* Buchtela , K . , et al . " Comparative Investigations into Recent
Methods of Tracing Subterranean Water " , National Speleological
Society Bulletin Vol. 30 , No . 3 , July 1968 (70 ) .
92
The pressure gauge was replaced with a semiconductor strain - gauge
pressure transducer and associated circuitry to provide an analog
signal proportional to the depth of submergence of the purge tube .
Figure 25 shows one of the devices installed in a manhole .
The signal was brought out by drilling a hole through the man
hole wall near the top , through which a cable was passed . Be
cause of the remote locations of the measuring stations , it
was not possible to use existing telephone lines , So cables
were trenched into the ground , run overhead , or buried in pave
ment as required . The overhead lines for which natural support
was used were the most troublesome in that breakage sometimes
occurred during the windstorm which accompany many of the
thunderstorms in the test area . The buried lines have given no
problems .
The signal cables from groups of measuring points were brought

to centrally - located recording stations . One of the stations
is shown in Figure 26 . This station consists of a power supply
to provide the operating voltage to all of the remote sensing
locations , a signal timer to sequentially connect each signal
source to a recorder , and a single - channel strip chart recorder .
The multiple signals are recorded side -by - side with a calibra
tion signal and a zero check . An example of the record is
shown in Figure 27 .
In those cases where a convenient entry , such as a manhole ,
was not available , the level sensors were chained to convenient
structures or trees and the purge tube was un to the sensing
location . In small pipes , the tube end was sealed in place .
For type " S " manholes (pressure manholes ) in the stream bed ,
iron pipe standards were welded into the manhole covers and
guyed to the bank to guard against the bombardment of flotsam
during flood stage . The purge tube was then inserted into
these standpipes .
The instruments which were exposed to gross temperature changes
required a miudification to isolate the pressure transducer from
thermal stresses in the support . This was done by mounting the
transducer in a material having a low coefficient of thermal
expansion . This modification was not necessary for those
instruments mounted in the relatively constant environments
of a conventional manhole .
One additional method of flow measurement which was used during
the field survey is the " salt velocity " method . This technique
has been describ ed by John Schmidt * for use in determin ing
discharge coeefficients and is very simple to apply to field
s
measurement problem . The techniqu e avoids the clogging and
mechanical interference caused by solids when a rotating - cup
velocity meter is used .
93
It should be kept in mind that the methods chosen for " flow "
measurements during the preliminary injection tests did not
have the capability of performing during the tests , only be
fore and after injections. This is because assumptions made
in designing most water flow -measuring devices assume the
properties of the fluid as Newtonian , a necessary condition
which is violated when the flow is non - Newtonian .
* Schmidt, 0 . John , "Determination of Discharge coefficients
by the Salt - Velocity Method " Journal Water Pollution Control
Federation , 1969 .
94
Fig . 25 . Purge- Tube Level Meter Installed in Conventional
Manhole
95
Fig . 26 . A Multiple - Input Recording Station
96
.27uilding
ABFig
Showing
Recording
Example
Flow
Storm
Receding
and
SECTION 13
RESULT OF POLYMER INJECTION IN
SURCHARGED GRAVITY LINES
The purposes of performing polymer injection tests were as

follows :
1. To verify that the overflows from the Bachman trunk

sewer could be eliminated or reduced by the injection
of friction - reducing chemicals .
To determine design criteria concerning the injection

rate for the permanent injection station .
To establish a suitable location for the permanent

injection station .
Two injection locations were chosen for the 15 " and 18 " branches
of the trunk sewer , one for the most desirable location and one
to check the effect of injecting the polymer far upstream of the
required line section . One injection location on the 24 " line
was chosen to check the effectiveness of the polymer after being
subjected to the destructive forces of a long run of pipe .
These five injection locations are indicated on the area map of
Figure 20 A . A secondary consideration in the selection of the
temporary injection points was the presence of an existing entry
into the line .
All data gathered during the early stages of the program in

dicated that the problem line section was the 2 ,590 feet of 24 "
line at the upper end of Bachman Trunk and the 18 " line of
Bachman Branch . This indicated the need for injection on the
Bachman Branch , a location which would also satisfy the require
ment for friction reduction in the 24 " line .
Figure 28 is a surcharge - time plot for a complete storm flow as

recorded by one of the monitoring stations on March 20 , 1970 .
The average rainfall over the test area was less than one inch
and the rainfall was of low intensity so that the rise and fall
are gradual . The overflows caused by this storm were short
lived and of low total volume .
98
Conversely , the rainfall of April 25 was short and intense and
produced the flood waves shown in Figures 29 and 30 . Notable
is the quick rise and the long decay recorded on both of these
graphs . The graph of Figure 29 . was produced by a station about
8300 feet upstream of the station which produced the record of
Figure 30 . The lag in the front of the wave is indicative of
the distance between the two points on the line. The results
of an injection is shown on Figure 29 about hour 15 . The same
injection appears on Figure 30at hour 17 . The storm peaks
shown in Figures 29 and 30 are typical and represent flows at
the downstream measuring point of 10 . 7 MGD at peak . This com
pares to a design of about 10 . 7 MGD with new pipe conditions .
Table 14 gives the dates , injection locations , injection rates
and results in terms of maximum head reduction . The locations
are keyed to the map of Figure 20. The type of slurry used is
also noted .
The philosophy of the injection tests was to inject polymer at
the prescribed rate until the head reduction ceased , then stop
injection and allow the system to come back to equilibrium . This
procedure was repeated at least once if possible to quarantee
that any reduction in head was truly related to the injection
of polymer and not caused by a coincidental phenomenon .
Figures 31 , 32 , and 33 show the results of some of the tests
as observed from the location noted on the figures .
Injections at locations four and five were not performed .

There were no significant surcharges or overflows on this branch
line during the conduct of the program .
Figure 33 indicates that a polymer rate of 4 . 5 pounds /minute
is in excess of that required for actual control of overflows .
This injection halted all overflows on the Bachman Trunk and the
Bachman Branch . The most efficient injection rate would be that
which holds the head at a " safe " level below the overflow .
Injection of sufficient quantities of material to put all the
flow in the conduit would not be economical for any purpose ex
cept experimentation .
99
TESTS
INJECTION
POLYMER
OF
RESULTS
14
TABLE
REDUCTION
HEAD
-INJECTION
PRE LOCATION
MAGNITUDE
LOCATION
INJECTION RATE
INJECTION RATE
FLOW .)(ft
.
NO
TEST DATE STATION
NUMBERT )./m(lbs
in )(gpm
70
April
25 +401
35 1.2 5000 2 +40
'35
70
May
30 +402
35 ABORTED
BECAUSE
EQUIPMENT
OF
FAILURE
.2S70ept +401
35 1.5 4500 1.0 +401
35
.2S70ept +401
35 2.25 4500 1.75 +401
35
.2S70ept 4+3501 2.25 4500 1.5 +332
164
,bc
5a .2S70ept +662
170 2. 5 8000 2.0 +332
164
100
.70
23
Sept 01
0+128 2. 5 3600 5.0 7 +401
35
.70
23
Sept +401
35 4.5 5000 +351
29
overflow
anintervening
through
lost
was
polymer
the
of
#Alarge
portion
stopped
#All
overflow
Line
Branch
Bachman
1Stationing
on
Line
Trunk
Bachman
?Stationing
on
101
Surcharge (Feet Above Pipe )
6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48
inHours
Time
at
Highway
Northwest
Stage
B
)Trunk
+3
Station
(at3achman
.Storm
28
Figure
164
1970
March
20
on
102
Surcharge (Feet Above Pipe)
6 12 _18
24 3. ' 36 _4 - 48
2_ 4 _30 _36 4 2 48
in
Hou
Timers
Figure
29
S
Stage
. torm
Station
at
35
+4
at 0
achman
Walnut
Branch
Hill
Lane
)(B
1970
April
25
on
103
Hours
inTime
)Highway
Northwest
at
Trunk
(B 3achman
+3164
Station
at
Stage
Storm
30
Figure
1970
April
25
on
8000 gpm
11000 gpm
5
2 8
1
66
S.+1ta
E
458 5a 5b 5c
104
457
Head (Elevation Above MSL)

3
3+Sta
.164
456
3 4 11
Hours
in
Time
at
5on
Heads
Test
Injection
of
Results
31
Figure
164
166
B5Stations
383elow
+2 1
Northwest
Highway
)(.and
|3 |4a 4b
105
Noon
Time
Hours
in
Surcharges
Figure
R
Tests
Injection
a
at
32
,3of
on nd
Station
. 0aesults
+44b
35
Lane
Walnut
Hill
B
Branch
at
() achman
Overflow
Level
106
-
Observat
ofLimit
Observat
of
Limit ionion

1300 1330 1400
Time
Figure
33 Effect
of
Polymer
Injection
o7Test
23 n970
)1.Sept
on
Overflow
at
Station
B
(3+295achman
Branch
Lanebelow
Walnut
)Hill
SECTION 14
RESULTS OF POLYMER INJECTION IN 6 " FORCE MAIN

While the main emphasis of this program is the overflow reduc
tion in surcharged gravity sewers , a portion of the program re
quired the determination of head loss reduction or pump flow
increase possible through the use of polymers in a lift station .
The lift station selected for tests was the Riverwood Station
in East Dallas . The station serves a small residential area
generating daily flows of about 30 , 000 gallons. This flow is
sufficient to require the pump to operate for about 3 minutes
twice an hour normally and more often during peak periods . This
site was chosen because it could be instrumented readily and
effectively and was representative of the many " package plants "
in the city . The prefabricated lift station was installed
adjacent to a sump which stored the sewage between pumping cycles .
The sump was emptied by one of the two pumps , pumping the sewage
through a 6 - inch cast iron pipe for some 2 , 000 feet over a hill
to a suitable collector line . Table 15 lists the nameplate data
on the pumps .
TABLE 15 . LIFT STATION PUMP DATA
Make Smith & Loveless

Size 4 B
Capacity 250 GPM
Speed 1760 RPM
Head 65 feet
Power 15 Horsepower
Phase
Voltage 220 - 440 .
Current 58 . 6 - 19 . 5
A review of the design criteria indicates the following:

1. Design static head - 35 feet of water
- 15 . 2 psi
107
TABLE
16
RESULTS
OF
LIFT
STATION
TESTS
between
March
10
1Marcherformed
,and
( 971
P)19
Applica
Polymer tion
Rate
on
Based
Initial Final
(1bin
)/m Polymer Polymer Initial Discharge
Flow
.
Conc .Conc Flow
Velocity
Pressure
Increase
)(ppm )(ppm ec
si
G()/sf(ptPM ( %
108
2.95
260 026
120 90 3.97
350 25 .6
34
185 125 385 4.37 24 .1
48
350 210 425 4.82 24 .5
63
Total head at 400 gpm
Total - 62 feet of water
- 26 . 9 psi
A 6 - inch Foxboro magnetic flow meter was installed in the pump
discharge line to accurately measure the flow . A Westinghouse
type 44 recording anmeter was connected to the pump leads to
measure current variations . A corporation stop was installed
in the pump suction line for the polymer application . The
lightweight variable flow polymer injection device was used
to apply polymer to the pump suction during tests .
The low normal flow of sewage to the sump was augmented by a
fire hose discharging into the last manhole on the line leading
to the sump . This augumented flow resulted in shorter emptying
cycle , with the pump operating every ten minutes . This allowed
more tests to be performed over a shorter period .
Fifteen pumping cycles were observed of the augmented flow with

no polymer . The observed flow rate , and discharge pressure gave
base line data upon which to compare the polymer data . It
should be noted that at the rated total head the discharge was
35 % low . Table 16 , Results of Lift Station Tests , lists the
flow data both from the base line tests and the subsequent poly
mer tests .
The polymer tests were performed with applications of . 26 , 4,

and . 74 pounds per minute of polymer . Five tests each were per
formed using . 74 and . 4 pounds per minute of polymer with the
results as shown on Table 16 . The polymer feed line plugged
during the second tests on the . 26 series , therefore , the re
sults shown are for only one test .
Following the polymer tests , the system was allowed to purge the
polymer from the lines , and the base line data observed . The
non - polymer flow rate and pressure returned to that originally
measured .
The change in flow rate from polymer application increased the
electrical current draw of the pumps . The ammeter showed
normal flow to require 19 . 5 amperes as stated on the nameplate .
The highest polymer application , . 74 pounds per minute , result
ed in a current draw of 22 amperes or an increase of 12 . 5 % .
Figures 34 and 35 are reproductions of recorder charts which
show the flow rates with no polymer added and at the maximum
injection rate . Chart values should be multiplied by 2 to ob
tain actual flow rates . The charts were run at an accelerated
rate so that a complete rotation occurs every 24 minutes
rather than 24 hours . This permitted the average flow rates
to be calculated from the volume of the pump from pump turn - on
level to pump turn - off level. In this manner , the recorded
output of the flowmeter was verified . It should be noted that
109
the " spiking" recorded is an actual phenomenon , apparently
an amplification of normal short - term oscillations around the
normal flow * , or a result of varying solution efficiency of
the injected slurry .
One notable aspect of this experiment is the relationship be
tween flow rate and discharge pressure . When working in a
gravity sewer , it is usually desirable to cause a decrease in
head while holding the flow rate constant ; on the other hand ,
for polymer applications to force mains it is desirable to
increase pumping capacity for a given discharge pressure . This
is exactly the result shown by the data ; significant increases
in flow rate with negligible changes in discharge head .
Figure 36 is a graph relating polymer injection rate to per

cent flow increase . The bottom line represents the results of
the field tests , and the top line represents a laboratory
test of the same material in a six - inch diameter line . It
should be noted that although the shape of the graphs are
similar , the flow increases for a given injection rate were
significantly lower for the field tests .
* Rouse , Hunter , " Engineering Hydraulics " , John Wiley and

Sons , Inc . , New York , 1950 , p . 86 .
110
Gallongs per Minute
34
Figure .m
3 in
Added
Polymer
No
111
www m
mmmwww many
im
human
Gallons per Minute

.2min .2min .2min
35
Figure
m
/lbs
0.7atin
44
at
added
Polymer
)rate
injectio
(Maximum n
140
6 " Test
Facility
ercent
)(pIncrease
Flow
6 " Force
Main
50 100 150 200 250

Polymer Concentration (parts per million )
Figure 36 . COMPARISON OF RESULTS FOR
6 " TEST AND FORCE MAIN TESTS
112
SECTION 15
THE CONSTRUCTED INJECTION STATION
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE FACILITY

-
The Bachman Polymer Injection Station is a fully automated

facility for the storage , mixing , and injection of selected
turbulent friction - reducing chemicals which generally are
amorphous , water - soluble , high molecular weight polymeric sub
stances . The facility can be divided into six functional groups
as follow (Refer to Figure 37 . )
A. Polymer de - drumming - Consists of a 600 cfm centrifugal
blower driven by a 3 horsepower , three phase electric
motor , 50 feet of three inch diameter flexible hose
and a centrifugal separation system which is an integral
part of the storage hopper .
B . Polymer storage - consists of a cylindrical tank with

a conical bottom , lined with urethane foam insulation
and equipped with a dessicant - type dehumidifier and
humidistat .
C. Polymer feed and metering - consists of a vibrating
cone hopper bottom and a helical screw volumetric feeder
equipped with a variable - speed DC drive motor .
Polymer dispersing and injection - Consists of a water
jet eductor , buffer tank , and a positive displacement
gear pump with a three -phase AC drive motor .
Control Circuitry - Consists of motor starter control
relays , time sequencing relays and two DC motor speed
controls .
F. Instrumentation - Consists of one 18 " magnetic flow

meter , three bubble - type level transducers , one thermo
couple temperature transducer , one elapsed time meter
and one six - channel scanning strip chart recorder .
OPERATING PRINCIPLES OF THE POLYMER INJECTION STATION
A . Normal Operation
113
- AIR VENT
DEHUMIDIFIER –
DRY AIR OUT
- - F-
HIGH LEVEL SENSOR

- -
Low LEVEL SENSOR

HOPPER BOTTOM
W / AGITATOR
- SPACE HEATER
– VOLUMETRIC FEEDER
- CONTROL CABINET
ra7
BLOWER -
-Air COMPRESSOR
EMERGENCY
CUTOFF
FLOOD
SWITCH
BACKFLOW VALVE
w / CUTOFF
- Sump Pump
FIGURE 37
ELEVATION OF POLYMER INJECTION STATION
LOCATING MAJOR COMPONENTS
114
854 gss 856 8 57
O O O O O O O
WATER BIN FEEDER PUMP Low Bin HIGH BIN SOLIDS
55R2
FUNCTION
FEEDER MOTOR SWITCH
HOUR METER SPEED
STRIP CHART RECORDER
UPSTREAM LOCAL DOWNSTREAM

LEVEL RELAY LEVEL RELAY LEVEL RELAY
TO
RECORDER SW SIGNAL CONVERTER
FIGURE 38
SKETCH OF MAIN CONTROL PANEL
SHOWING THE LOCATION OF
CONTROLS, METERS, AND INDICATORS
115
DTI
Operation of the polymer injection mechanism is
initiated by a rise in the level of the free water sur
face at any one of the three level -measuring sensors -
upstream at Royal Lane , downstream at Brookview Lane ,
and in the vault which also houses the primary flow
measuring apparatus . These levels are converted to a
4 to 20 milliampere signal and displayed on the three
Beede Meters located immediately below the multipoint
recorder on the instrument panel . (Refer to Figure
38 ) These three meters are " percent of full - scale "
indicators , with 100 percent corresponding to a head
of 150 inches of water above the sensing point . These
meters are equipped with two manually - set relay point
ers ; green for low set - point and red for high set - point .
The position of these pointers determine the indicated
levet at which two normally open sets of relay contacts
will close. Figure 39 is a schematic of the process
control system .
During stand - by operation of the station , with the
" Run - Auto - Test " switch in the " Auto" position , signals
O
are received from the three level transducers and the
magnetic flowmeter , but these signals are not recorded .
If the indicator pointer (black ) of any of the three
meters passes the green pointer , the recorder is acti
vated . The signals recorded and their symbols are :
( 1 ) Flow ; ( 2 ) Sewage Temperature ; ( 3 ) Local Level ;
( 4 ) upstream Level ; ( 5 ) Downstream Level ; and ( 6 )
Polymer Feeder Speed .
The red pointers on the three level meters are always
set at a higher scale position than the green , and
their positions determine at what water level the
injection station goes into an " Active " status . When
the indicator pointer (black ) passes any one of the
three red pointers , the station will start operation .
Operation will continue until all three indicators
are at a lower scale position than the red set - point ,
assuming that none of the emergency shutdown devices
are activated .
Once a signal activates the station , the following
sequence is executed automatically :
1 . The solenoid valve opens , allowing process water

to flow through the polymer dispersing eductor ,
thereby setting up an air flow through the intake
port of the eductor , and simultaneously closing
the pressure switch on the feed water line .
116
POLYMER HOPPER
FEED
VIBRATOR
SCREW FEEDER
SCREEN E POLYMER DISCHARGE
VIBRATOR PLUMP SEPARATOR
SHAKER SCREEN
WATER FEED FUNNEL
KLUMP DISCHARGE CHUTE
HI PEDUCTOR
LEVEL
ALARM
MIXING TANK
LOW PUMP + MOTOR
LEVEL
ALARM THE =
OLYMER SLURRY
METER VAULT
18 " SANITARY
SEWER LINE
METER VAULT DISCHARGE
FLOW
DOWN MAGNETIC | FLOW UPSTREAM

STREAM METER LEVEL
LEVEL LOCAL LEVEL SENSOR
SENSOR SENSOR
CONTROL D D MULTI - POINT

RECORDER
PANEL
BEEDE INDICATORS
FIGURE 39
SCHEMATI OF PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM
C
BACHMAN POLYMER INJECTION STATION
117
2. When the pressure switch closes , a time - delay
relay (adjustable 0 to 180 seconds ) will start.
At the end of the pre - set period , a time - delay
relay closes , activating the bin activator and
polymer feeder .
The speed of the polymer feeder is determined

by any of five manually selected signals . The
signal is selected with the large rotary switch
located on the control panel at the upper right .
If this switch is placed in the " Manual " position ,
feeder speed is determined by the potentiometer
to the left of the " Run - Auto - Test " switch . If
this switch is placed in the " Flow " position , the
feeder speed is determined by the output signal
of the magnetic flowmeter , and a constant propor
tion of polymer to sewage flow will be maintained .
If the selector switch is placed in the " Up
stream " , " Local " , or " Downstream " positions , the
feeder speed will be determined by the corres
ponding level signal . This would normally be
the mode of operation , and the position chosen is
determined by establishing the most critical
level which must be maintained . Regardless of the
source of the feeder control signal , the speed of
the feeder is indicated on the tachometer located
on the control panel , and the speed is recorded
as percent of full scale on the strip - chart re
corder .
Note : The hour -meter located on the panel is operational

when the polymer feeder is activated . The read
ing of this meter can be utilized as an aid to
determining polymer usage .
The injection pump is activated by the lower
sensor mounted in the side of the stainless
steel mixing tank . A thermal -delay relay is
incorporated in the starting circuit , so the pump
will not start until the sensor has been covered
by the process fluid for the timing period of
this relay . The pump will continue to run
until the fluid level drops below this sensor .
The pump speed is controlled by the potentio
meter to the right of the " Run - Auto - Test" switch .
The pump will normally run at such a speed that
fluid is removed from the tank at the same rate
that it is being added .
118
6 . When the level in the sewer drops below the level
which initiates the operation as described above ,
the bin activator and polymer feeder will stop
immediately . The process water continues to run
for a period of time determined by a second time
delay relay adjustable from 1 to 30 minutes in
order to wash down solids which may be clinging
to the sides of the tank . At the end of the
delay period , the water flow will stop ( solenoid
valve closes ) and the injection pump will stop
when the lower sensor is exposed .
7 . The station now returns to a " Stand -By" status .

B. Tests , Indicators, and Emergency Shutdown
The operation described as normal sequence above can
be initiated for test purposes by placing the " Run
Auto - Test" switch in the " Run " position to start the
sequence . Turning the switch to the " Auto " position
will start the wash - down sequence .
Seven indicator lights on the main control panel indi

cate the status of the station at any time . When the
station is in a " Standby " mode , none of the indicators
should be illuminated . The meanings of each light ,
reading from left to right on the panel , are as follows:
" Water " - This indicator is lit at any time that the
solenoid valve should be open . Certain interlocking
safeties may stop the water flow but leave the indic
ator lit . These are : (a ) flooded sump ; ( b ) over
flowing mixing tank ; (c ) no water pressure ; and ( d )
a full polymer mixing tank ( upper sensor covered ) .
" Bin " . This indicator is lit when the bin activator
should be running . A lack of water pressure for one
of the reasons enumerated above , or a stoppage in the
polymer disperser eductor will stop the bin activator
and leave this indicator illuminated .
" Feeder " . This indicator is lit when the feeder

should be running . Any of the abnormal conditions
described under " Bin " will also stop the feeder .
" Pump " - This indicator is lit if the fluid level
in themixing tank is above the lower sensor and
the injection pump should be operating .
5. " Low Bin " . If this indicator is on , there is
less than ten cubic feet of polymer in the storage
bin .
119
" High Bin " . If this indicator is on , the storage
bin is filled to or past , the recommended maximum
fill level .
" Solids Level" . This indicator is illuminated if

the polymer disperser eductor will not accept the
polymer feed . That is , the feed funnel is plugged .
C . The Injection and Metering Vault
Because the sewer line into which the polymer is in

jected is located in the bottom of a creek channel ,
it was necessary to construct a vauit to house the
required metering equipment . It is in this vault that
the connection of the discharge from the metering and
mixing equipment was made .
In joining the fiberglass - reinforced pipe to the con

crete sewer line , a polyethylene heat shrinkable
tubing was used as discussed in EPA Report No .
" Heat Shrinkable Tubing for Sewer Pipe Joints . "
Figure 40 is a plan view of the injection and meter

ing vault showing the location of major components ,
including :
1 . Temperature transmitter for sewage temperature .

2 . Magnetic flowmeter for sewage flow .
3 . Pressure transmitter for the "local level" .
4. The polymer slurry feed line.
120
MAGNETIC FLOWMETER
SUMP
- - - -
SOSE
- - -
TEMPERATURE
TRANSMITTER PRESSURE
TRANSMITTER
ULTRASONIC
ELECTRODE
CLEANER
HEA
=L'
CIRCUIT BREAKERS POLYMER FEED LINE
FIGURE 40
PLAN OF INJECTION AND METERING VAULT
SHOWING THE LOCATION
OF MAJOR COMPONENTS
121
SECTION 16
ON - LINE OPERATION OF THE INJECTION FACILITY
GENERAL
Phase IV , the demonstration phase of the program , was designed
to show that overflows in the study area could be controlled
by the injection of friction -reducing chemicals into the sewer
line and that the injection could be unattended ( fully auto
mated ) . In addition , it was intended that the data gathered
during injection periods would extend the state of knowledge
of the effect of polymer addition to larger pipes than had
heretofore been utilized . Once the facility had been
" de - bugged " , it was extremely easy to demonstrate the control
of overflows in both manual and automatic control modes . How
ever , the generation of data which could be generalized was
more difficult by orders of magnitude .
Earlier experiments in friction reduction were either per

formed under laboratory conditions or the subtle nuances of
friction -reduction were ignored . Most of the field work per
formed falls in the second category with one notable exception ;
the work of Dr . R . H . J . Sellin in Wales . Dr . Sellin was fortune
ate enough to have a pressure wastewater line which was fed from
a positive displacement pump , thereby making experiments at
constant flow and constant concentration possible .
Friction - reduction data from earlier field tests had been re

ported in " percent flow increase" or " head reduction " with no
correlation between the two parameters . The difference bet
ween these two parameters can be better understood by consider
ing two experiments :
1. Constant Flow - Variable Head

2. Constant Head - Variable Flow
If one has a means whereby the flow through a pipeline can be
kept constant , such as Dr . Sellin ' s pipe fed by a constant - dis
placement pump , then friction reduction affects only the pressure
122
at the pump discharge . On the other hand , if a pipeline is fed
from an overflowing head box , then friction reduction affects
only the flow through the line . Unfortunately , most practical
problems in dealing with sewage flow do not correspond to
either of these examples , especially when one considers flow in
gravity sewers .
Therefore , four types of experiments in friction reduction were

designed for the demonstration phase of the program :
1. Manual control with fixed polymer feed rates to deter

mine maximum head reduction as a function of polymer
feed rate ;
Automatic control with fixed polymer feed rates to

determine the ability of holding a head in a band of
values around a pre - selected set point ;
Automatic control with the polymer feed rate proportion

al to the flow so that a constant polymer concentration
can be maintained ;
4 . Automatic control with the polymer feed rate pro
portional to the critical sewer level to provide
smoothing of the flow .
Experiments of all four types have been performed . The experi
ments are discussed in the following pages .
MANUAL CONTROL -FIXED FEED RATES
The first opportunity to check out the injection equipment
occurred on October 16 , 1973 at a time before the instrument
ation had been de - bugged , so the data obtained was limited to
level at the injection site . Figure 41 is a representation of
that data . The test was started while the level in the sewer
was rising . The injection was started at a rate of 1 . 46 pounds
per minute and maintained until the level dropped to the top
of the pipe . The injection was then stopped and the level
returned to its previous high . The injection was re - started at
a reduced rate of 1 . 1 pounds per minute . After the level
dropped about 0 . 7 feet , the feed rate was reduced to 0 . 85
pounds per minute . The object of this reduction was to
determine the minimum feed rate which would control the over
flow . Note the reduced rate at which the level continued to
drop .
One difficulty with a test at constant injection rate is caused

by the reduced head ; the effective concentration generally
increases as the level drops . Although there is a concurrent
phenomenon of increased flow initially , the flow system attempts
to establish equilibrium at a lower head ; this leads to reduced
123
124
AT VARIOUS FEED RATES (POLYOX WSR - 301)
FIGURE 41 . GRAPH OF MANUAL INJECTION TEST ON OCTOBER 16 , 1973
- LOCAL LEVEL(feet)
LOCAL LEVEL ( feet)
1.5
5.4
3.5
L
0060
. ON -
Feed Rate 1 . 46 lbs/min
OFF
0930
Feed Rate 1 . 1 lbs/min - ON
REDUCE
1000
1030
Feed Rate 0 .85 lbs/min
of
Day
Time
1100
OFF — <
1130
Feed Rate 0 . 75 lbs /min
NO
- OFF
1200
Level
Local Flow - - - -
63°F
Temperature
bs
in tion
m/8l0.Rate
Injec
01 x
3-WSR
Polyo
-
-
-
-
-
- - -
- - - -
125
LEVEL (feet) & FLOW (gpm x 1000 )
On
Off -
-
FIGURE
G
. RAPH
42
LEVEL
FLOW
OF
DEMONSTRATION
DURING
AND
974
,127
MARCH
OF
INJECTION
MANUAL
Local
Level
Downstream
Level
on
Intermittent
Po lymer
Feed
Off
126
feet of Head
w -
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700
Time
of
Day
.Figure
43
G
Manual
Injectio
ofraph n
15,May
974
Feed
Rate
Constan
Because
of
Low
Polymer
Supply t
flow which results in a higher concentration which results in
greater friction reduction , et cetera . The foregoing is a
simplified explanation of a very complex continuous function ,
but serves to illustrate the enormous difficulty one faces in
analyzing large scale experimental data .
The second test was run as a demonstration on March 27 , 1974 .
Since a suitable rainfall could not be scheduled for this
demonstration , an inflow source was simulated by installing
a " valve " in the place of a manhole cover approximately two
miles upstream from the injection site and diverting the
stream flow through this valve . The valve utilizes an 18
inch diameter " pillow packer " as the valve element .
Figure 42 is a graph of the demonstration test . The injection

was manually controlled , with the injection rate set at 0 . 8
pounds per minute .
The third injection test performed under manual control began

on May 5 , 1974 as an automatic test . However , when the tech
nician arrived at the station , he found that the polymer being
dispensed was lumpy , causing the actual feed rate to vary . The
lumps resulted from a failure of the dehumidifier which caused
" crusting" of the surface layer . This layer was fed when the
polymer supply was low . It was necessary to abort the inject
ion after three hours because of difficulties in clearing
the lumps . See figure 43 .
AUTOMATIC CONTROL - FIXED POLYMER FEED RATE
With the control level set to start the injection at 45 inches ,

the graph of Figure 44 was produced on April 21 , 1974 . Under
automatic control , the injection starts and stops at the preset
level . A series of oscillations of level results from this
type of control . Three on -off cycles appear on Figure 44 . In
spection of the graph indicates the time lag caused by the
build - up and purging of polymer over the 3 ,540 feet of sewer
line immediately downstream .
Figure 45 is a graph of an injection at the same rate ( 0 . 8

pounds per minute ) with the control level set at 30 inches .
The level and flow graphs have similar characteristics as
before , only at a lower level . There are four short injection
cycles presented on the figure , with the last two of such short
duration that the flow rate was not significantly affected .
AUTOMATIC CONTROL - POLYMER FEED RATE PROPORTIONAL TO FLOW

_ _
Because of repeated failures of the flowmeter only one success

ful test of constant polymer concentration has been performed .
127
Flow - - -
Lev al
Locel
Downstream
Level
Temperature
70°F
Rate
Injection
in
m.8l/0 bs
Polyox
3-WSR
01
-1
- -
128
LEVEL (feet) & FLOW (gpm x 1000)
ours
h)(Time
FIGURE
.44 GRAPH
OF
AND
FLOW
LEVELS
DURING
AUTOMATIC
INJECTION
, 974
21
APRIL
1OF
FLOW
5 E Level
Local
69°F
Temperature
in
bs
m/l0.8Rate
Injection
01
3-WSR
Polyox
129
LEVEL ( feet ) & FLOW (gpm x 1000 )
ours
)h(Time
.45
FIGURE AUTOMATIC
DURING
LEVEL
AND
FLOW
OF
GRAPH
974
,122
APRIL
OF
INJECTION
This test is graphed in Figure 46 , and occurred on May 1 ,
1974 . The start - up level was set to 27 inches and the poly
mer feeder controls set to yield 30 parts per million
concentration . Absent from Figure 46 are the rapidly changing
levels which have characterized tests under other types of
control . Rather , the flow graph showed variation as the in
jection mechanism executed two start -stop cycles .
AUTOMATIC CONTROL - POLYMER FEED RATE PROPORTIONAL
TO LEVEL
Figure 47 illustrates the effect of allowing the magnitude
of the " Local Level" govern the rate of polymer feed . This
graph represents a test conducted on June 9 , 1974 . As the
level in the sewer drops , the feed rate is decreased , causing a
" rounding - out " of the level graph as it approaches some lower
value a symtotically . Theoretically , there will be a gradual
dampening of the curve variation when the feed rate is variable
and level controlled . The level will even out at a particular
level and maintain that level through control of the feed rate .
If the level control uses a fixed feed rate , there will be a
constant sawtooth pattern as the high head engages the feed
mechanism ; the head is reduced as a result of the polymer feed
and a low head level disengages the feed mechanism . If the
fixed feed rate is not enough to bring the head down to the
cutoff point , the head will follow a pattern similar to that
which would exist if no polymer were being added . The only
difference would be that the head would be lower and the total
flow would be higher .
130
Flow - - - Level
Local
Level
Downstream
run
,
131
Level (feet) & Flow (gom * 1000)
S 0930
0800 0830 0900 0930
Day
of
Time
,11MAY
OF 974
INJECTION
AUTOMATIC
G46RAPH
.FIGURE
FLOW
TO
PROPORTIONAL
RATE
FEED
POLYMER
Local
Level
Level
Downstream
UO
On
Feed
Variable Fixed
Feed
m.0Rate
5
/lbs6in
132
Off
Feet of Head
Manual
Off
Off
Manual Off
Manual
Manual
1200 1300
1500
-71400
600
1700
1800
Time
of
Day
47
Graph
of
Downstre
Figure am
and
Local
Levels
During
Automati c
Feed Injectio
of
974
P.,19June
Proport
to
Level n
olymer ion
APPENDIX A
FRICTION REDUCING MATERIALS

TESTED FOR CONFORMANCE TO
PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATION
Limiting Shear Stress*

Product (psi) Manufacturer
Percol 139 . 011 Allied Colloids
Percol 155 . 029
Percol 351 . 018
RC - 301 . 011 American Cyanamid

RC - 322 . 011
Polymer 1100 .018 Betz Chemical co .

FR - X . 011 Calgon Chemical co .
WCL 727 . 011
WCL 755 . 011
WT 3000 . 011
Separan AP 30 .015 Dow Chemical Co.
Separan AP273 . 022
NGL 3958 . 011 Stein , Hall and Co .
Polyox WSR 301 . 011 Union Carbide
Polyox WSR 701 . 018
Polyox FRA . 022
* Shear stress at which apparent degradation (or rupture ) of the

polymer chains occur che
eshendetinetyre . apparen
133
APPENDIX B
CITY OF DALLAS
SPECIFICATION FOR
HIGH MOLECULAR -WEIGHT WATER SOLUBLE
FRICTION - REDUCING ADDITIVES
No . PA - 106 - 4061- 70
I. PURPOSE
The purpose of this specification is to describe the performance
characteristics of organic polymer materials for use as a viscoelastic fluid

energy loss reducer in aqueous media .
II . GENERAL
A. These specifications are meant to include both natural and syn
thetic high -molecular weight materials such as polyacrylamides, polyethyl
ene oxides and guar gum formulations .

B. The materialmay be supplied as a dry material, solution or stable
suspension .
C . The material as supplied must not be highly hazardous in nature ;

i. e . , it must not be toxic, highly corrosive, explosive or highly volatile .
D . The container in which the material is supplied should be suf
ficient to maintain the material in a usable state for a period of six months
under reasonable storage conditions. Sacks or bags are not generally
acceptable .
E . Each container should be clearly marked as to contents , pre

cautions and storage instructions .
III. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
The specifications shown in the following table are indicative of the
materials commonly accepted under these specifications. Materials which

134
depart from these guidelines will be evaluated on the basis of performance
as a friction reducer .
PHYSICO - CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Solubility in water Readily soluble

Usable in pH range 4 - 11 . 5
Storage stability temperatures

(for slurries or solutions) 35°F - 110°F
Molecular weight 500, 000
Particle size 95 % passing 30 mesh
or smaller
100 % retained on
50 mesh
* May be waived
IV . PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
A . Equipment
The equipment used in the evaluation test shall be a pressurized

straight - tube flow apparatus illustrated by the attached drawing. It consists
of a pressure vessel (A ) fitted with a removable cover for filling and cleaning;
a thermometer (B) mounted through the wall of (A) such that the temperature
10
of the contents is determined ; a tube (C ) of stainless steel seamless tubing

having an inside diameter of 0 . 18 inches and proportions as shown; pressure
taps ( D ) and ( E ) assembled in such a manner to produce a minimum stream
disturbance; laboratory - type differential pressure gauges ( H ) of ranges
selected to provide a resolution of not more than 0 . 5 -percent of the measured
quantity ; a throttling valve ( F) to control the flow velocity; and apparatus
Or
(G ) manual or automatic to determine flow rate gravimetrically or volumetrically .
la
135
B. Preparation of Test Material
A sample of the test material shall be dissolved in de - ionized
water in the manner prescribed by the manufacturer in the proportions re
quired to give a concentration of active friction reducer of up to 50 parts

per -million (ppm ) by weight of water. This solution will be gently agitated
for a sufficient length of time to insure a clear solution with no lumps or
" fish - eyes . " Materials shall be tested immediately after solution agitation.
Made - up solutions will not be tested more than once or retained longer
than 30 hours.
C . Method of Test
Two gallons of the solution prepared in ( B ) above shall be
placed in the pressure vessel with valve (F ) in closed position . With the
pressure vessel open to atmospheric pressure, valve ( F) will then be opened
slightly until the tube (C ) and fittings have been purged of air bubbles .
Valve ( F) will then be closed .
Static pressure is then built - up in the pressure vessel by means
of an auxiliary pressure regulator and air or nitrogen source . The applied

ee
pressure should be adjusted between 10 - 160 psi.
essure
When the above preparations have been completed, a " run " is
made by opening valve ( F ) a preselected amount, measuring the steady
state flow and frictional pressure loss (as indicated by the differential
pressure gauges) .
Tests should be performed at a minimum of three flow rates,
with fresh solution used for each run .
136
D . Reporting of Results
Results should include the following information:
1 . Material name or designation .
2 . Material chemical genera (i . e . , polyacrylamide) .
3 . Manufacturer.
4 . Batch or lot number (if available) .
5 . Approximate molecular weight.
6 . Remarks on solution appearance ( i. e . , clarity , etc . ) .
7 . Temperature ofmaterial at the time of test.
8 . A graph of pressure drop reduced to pressure loss
per 100 feet of length and velocity in feet per second .
To qualify under the performance requirements of this speci
fication , the graph results from item eight, above, should fall below and
to the right of the dashed line in the figure below .
137
2000
e
abl
ept
its
Acc
Lim
1000
)ft Pressure
/1(pDrop
si
00
r
te
Wa
100 H
20 30 40 50 100
Fluid Velocity (Feet / Second )
138
APPENDIX C
SEWER MODELING PROGRAM
100 DIMENSION Q ( 3 , 23 , 3 ) , AQC3, 23 , 3 ) , PKC 3 , 23 , 3 ) , EL ( 3 , 23 , 3 ) , TEL ( 3 , 23 , 3 )

110 REAL LUF , INFIL , LOSS ( 3 , 23 ) , INF ( 3 , 23, 2 ) , DELOC 3 , 23, 3 )
120 INTEGER ENT, SEP , ENTMAX ( 3 ) , TT ( 3 )
140 DO 5 , I = 1 , 3
150 DO 5 , J = 1 , 23
160 DO 5 , K = 1 , 3
170 TEL ( I , J , K ) = 1F 4 ; DELOCI , J , K ) = 0) ; ARCU , J , K ) = 0 ; EL ( 1 , J , K ) = 0 ; OCI , JOK ) = 0
180 5 : PKCL , J , K ) = 1
190 $ FILE DEFINE , LINES
200 READC D ) NLINES
210 DO 10 , 1 = 1 , NLINES
220 PFADC 1 ) LIN , ENTMAX ( LIN ) , IT (LIN )
230 10 : CONTINUE
240 15 : READCI) LIN , ENT, SER , AR , LUF , TEL (LIN , ENT, SER ) , TPL , C , D , PL , FAC
250 D = D / 12 .
260 OCLIN , ENT, SER ) = Ak *LUF / 720
270 AQCLIN , ENT, SER ) = OCLIN , ENT, SER )
275 IF ( D ) 999 , 17 , 16
280 16 : PKCLIN , ENT, SER ) = ( ) / ( ( C + 1 . 85 ) * ( DO
281 GØTO 13
289 17 : PKCLIN , ENT , SER ) = 1
290 18 : INF (LIN , ENT, SER ) = TPL * FAC
310 IF ( ENDFILE 1 ) 15
320 READ ( 2 ) ØLİTFALL
330 20 : FEAD ( 2 ) LIN , ENT, C , D , PL , TEL ( LIN , ENT, 3 ) , LOSSLIN , ENT)
340 D - D / 12 .
350 PKCLIN , ENT, 3 ) = ( PLII ( CC41.85) * ( DE ))
360 IFCENDFILE 2 ) 20
370 P = 1
380 30 : 1 = NLINES
390 40 : J = ENTMAX ( I )
400 OCI, J , 3 ) = ADCI , J , 1 ) + AOCI, J , 2 )
410 GOTO 60
420 50 : @ ( I , J, 3 ) = AQCI , J, 1 ) + AOCI , J, 2 ) + OCI , J + 1 , 3 )
430 60 : J - J - 1
440 IF ( J ) 70 , 70 , 50
450 70 : 1 = 1 - 1
460 IFCI) 100 , 100 , 75
470 75 : IF ( TICI ) 100 , 40 , 90
480 90 : J = ENTMAX ( I )
490 QCI , J , 3 ) = AQCI , J , 1 ) + AQCI, J , 2 ) + ( [ + 1 , 1 , 3 ) + OCI + 2 , 1 , 3 )
139
500 j = J - 1
510 IF ( J ) 100 , 100 , 50
520 100 : CONTINUE
530 DO 170 , 1 = 1 , NLINES
540 J= 1
550 IF ( I - 1) 999 , 120, 130
560 120 : EL ( 1 , 1, 3 ) =OUTFALL
570 GØTØ 160
580 130 : BB = 1 ; PB = BB / 2
590 IFCRR - INTE ( BF ) ) 999 , 140 , 150
600 140 : AB= EN TMAX ( 1 - 1 )
610 ELCI , 1 , 3 ) = ELCI - 1 , FR , 3 )
620 GOTO 160
630 150 : PPEEN TMAX ( 1 - 2 )
640 EL ( 1 , 1 , 3 ) = ELCI - 2 , RE , 3 )
660 160: 8B = EN TMAX ( I )
670 DO 170 , J = 2 , BR
680 C ( = SIGNFCARSCOCI , J , 3 ) ) + 1 . 85 , 6. ( I , J , 3 ) )
700 161 : ELCI , J , 3 ) = ELCI , J - 1 , 3 ) + C © * PR ( I , J , 3 ) + LOSS ( I , J )
730 ELCI , J , 3 ) = AMAX ICEL ( I , J , 3 ) , IEL ( I , J , 3 ) )
740 166 : IF ( PKCIJ, 1 ) - 1 ) 167, 168 , 167
750 167: ELCI , J , 1 ) = ELCI , J , 3 ) + SI GNFCCABSCAGCI , J , 1 ) ) + 1 . 85 ) , ACCI , J, 1 ) )
760 + * PR ( I , J , 1 )
765 ELCI , J, 1 ) = AMAX ICELCI , J, 1 ) , TEL ( I , J , 3 ) + 1) .
770 168 : IFCPKCI , J , 2 ) - 1 ) 169 , 170 , 169
780 169 : EL ( I , J , 2 ) = ELCL , Jo 3 ) + SI GNFCCASCAG ( 1 , 1 , 2 ) ) + 1 .85) , AOCI , J , 2 ) )
790 + * PKCI , J , 2 )
795 ELCI , J , 2 ) = AMAX ICELCI , J , 2 ) , TELCI , J , 3 ) + 1 ).
800 170 : CONTINUE
810 IFCP110 - INTFCP710 ) 1999 , 171, 179
820 171 : PRINT 600
830 PRINT 610
840 DO 172 , I = 1 ,NLINES
850 PP = ENTMAX ( I )
860 DO 172 , J = 1 , PR .
870 PRIVT 620 , 1 , J, ELCI, J , 3 ) , ( 1 , J , 3 )
880 DO 172 , K = 1 , 2
890 IF ( PK ( I , J , K ) - 1 ) STRETCH , 172 , STRETCH
900 STRETCH : PRINT 630 , K , EL ( I , J , K ) , ACCI , J , K ) , DFLOCI , Jok ) , ( 1 , Jok )
910 172 : CONTINL'E .
920 PRINT , " THE INFILTRATION RATE IS PRESENTLY " , INFIL " CALLONS /MIN / FT
930 PRINT , " DO YOU WISH TO CONTINUE THE PROBLEM ( YES OF NO ) ? "
940 INPUT , IA
950 IFCIAL " NO " ) 173, 999, 173
960 173 : PRINT , " TYPE A VALUE FOR THE INFILTRATION RATE INCREMENT"
970 PRINT , " CDECREMENT) AFTER THE QUESTION MAFK . "
980 INPUT
985 IF ( E ) 174, 179 , 174
990 174 : INFIL - INFIL + B
1000 DO 177 , 1 = 1 , NLINES
1010 BENENTMAX ( I )
1020 DO 177 , J = 1 , EB
140
1030 DO 1770 K = 1 , 2
1040 OCI , J , K ) = E ( I , J , K ) + INF ( I , J , K ) * B
1050 177 : AO ( I , J , K ) = O ( I , J , K )
1060 GOTO 210
1070 179 : DO 200 , 1 = 1 , NLINES
1080 BB = ENTMAX ( I )
1100 DO 200 , K = 1 , 2
1110 IF ( PK ( I , J , K ) - 1 ) STAP , 200 , STAR
1120 STAR : CK = TEL ( I , J , K ) - EL ( I , J , K )
1130 IF ( CK ) 191, 200 , 180
1140 180 : ACCI , JAK ) = AQCI , J , K ) + 0 . 5 * ABSCAGCI , Jok ) )
1145 IF ( AGCI , J , K ) - ( I , J , K ) ) 200 , 200 , 185
1150 185 : AQ ( I , J , K ) = ( 1 , J , K )
1160 GO TO 200
1180 191: AO ( I , J , K ) = AE (LJ, K ) - ( . S * ARSCAQCI , J , K ) )
1185 AQ ( I , J , K ) = AMAX ICAGCI , J , K ) , OCI, J + 1 , 3 ) )
1190 IF ( AECI , J , K ) ) 200 , 192 , 200
1195 192 : IFCQC1 , Jok ) ) 200 , 195 , 200
1210 19 5 : AQCI , J , K ) = - 10 .
1230 200 : DELOCI, J, K ) = 001, J, K ) - AQCI, J, K )
1240 210 : P = P + 1
1250 GO TO 30
1260 600 : FØRMAT ( 2X , 4HLINE , 2X , 4HNØDE , 2X , AHAREA , 7X , SHELEV . , 6X , AHFLOW ,
1270 + 7X , 8 HOVERFLOh , 7X , 9HAREA FLOW )
1280 610 : FORMAT ( 26X , 3HFT. , 8X , 3H GEM , 10X , 34 GPM , 10X , 3H GPM )
1290 620 : FORMAT ( 16 , 16 , 11X , F7. 2 , 3X , F9 . 2 , 3H * * * )
1300 630 : FORMAT ( 12X , 1 6 , 5X , F7. 2 , 3X , F9 . 2 , 3X , F9 . 2 , 3X , F9 . 2 )
1310 999 STOP
141
D
APPENDIX
DATA
INPUT
CREEK
BACHMAN
MODEL
COMPUTER
CREEK
BACHMAN
FOR
DATA
INPUT
1-N;W Area Land Pipe
Total
Overflow Pipe
Feed
Pipe
2S;E- in Use Length
Elevation .Length
Dia
SELine
| ntry
erial Acres eet
(F)Factor )(FC eet eet
|Fnches
)(I Factor
-
.5
427 100
.5448 100
.0
447 100
.5
446 100
! III
.0
17 1600 .0
455 235
0. 0 100 .0
320
.031 1600 .0
444 .04070 100 .0150
vou AWN
5.0 550 .0
444 .06520 100 .0
267
7.0 1600 .4444 078
. 30 100 .0175
10 .041 950 .0
490 .07400 100 .0
1800
11 .3
11 1600 446
.0 .01150 100 0.450
142
11 .0
122 950 500
.0 .05800 100 .01700
12 .6
51 950 .0
500 054
. 00 100 .01725
89
.0 950 .93
473 .07800 100 .01200
14 .0
134 950 450
.0 .51392 100 5.0
287
14 .0
59 550 .0
474 .05124 100 .03370
0o 0 07 0 0 0 0 01
15 0.1 250 .2471

5 .0
200 100 .0200
16 .02 500 .5
471 .0
1300 100 .0
300
17 1.0 250 .0482 .0
2000 100 .0
200
18 .0
79 550 .0
493 .0
7100 100 .01050
ooo 0
18 .0
189 550 .0
475 .0
18325 100 .0
450
19 .0
13 550 .0
495 .01100 100 .0
1900
20 .0
579 550 .0
485 .0
60913 100 .0
250
21 .0
47 550 .0497 .0
4905 100 .0330
21 .0
307 550 .4
487 .0
28940 100 .0500
22 .060 550 .5
487 .0
5675 100 .0
675
o ñ oo oo
)(Continued
1-N;W and
1A|Lrea Overflow Pipe
Total Feed
Pipe
2-S;E U
|in se Elevation Length .LDia
ength
Line |Serial
Entry Acresr
Facto )(Feet )(Feet C )|(FIeet
nches Factor
.5
41 550 .0
515 .0
4060 100 8 .0
2600
.0
75 550 .0536 .06175 100 10 .0
525
.6
513 100 12 3.0
1
.0
254 550 .5534 .0
24275 100 .0
1700
.0
46 550 .0
545 .03725 100 .0425
.0
47 550 .0
553 .0
3200 100 .0
550
.0
15 550 .0
585 .0
1500 100 .0
1200
.0
28 550 .0585 .0
2800 100 .01000
Ovoir ur A WN
10 .0
32 550 .0
587 .0
3200 100 .0
1000
11 .0
32 550 .0
588 .03200 100 .0
1000
550 590
143
12 .029 .0 .0
3000 100 .01000
13 30
.0 550 .0593 3000
.0 100 1000
.0
14 .0
30 550 .0
596 .0
3000 100 .0
1000
15 .0
30 550 .0
598 .0
3000 100 .0
1000
16 .0
39 550 .0
599 .0
3900 100 .0
1000
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ir
17 - - - .0
588 12
100 0.3
17 .0
38 550 .0
598 .0
3800 100 10 .01000
18 .
040 550 .0
599 .0
4000 10
100 .01000
19 - - -
.0
589 100 1| 2 .0
50
19 .0
41 550 597
.0 .0
4100 100 .0
1000
20 .0
114 950 .0
598 .015200 |1100 0 .01700
Our
.085 950 .0602 .0
8500 100 .0
700
.0
1779 300 .0
700 .0
1177900 10
i|.10no0 .0
100
.0
477 60 0.
30
.0
140 550 .0
500 .0
7875 100 .02200
.1489
5 60 .020
1
.0
487 60 .0
15
1
11
)(Continued
1-N;W |Land
Area Overflow Pipe
Total Pipe Pipe
Feed
-S;E2 in
Use Elevation Length .Dia Length
Entry
Line Serial Factor
Acres (F) eet )(Feet C I)( nches F)( eet Factor
.0
488 .0
15
.0
490 .015
.1493 .0
20
.0
212 550 .0
515 2190
0. 0 100 .0
400
.5
14 550 .0
520 .01050 90 OO A A A .0
300
550 .0
520
oooo va
.0142 .0
11950 100 10 .0
20
12 .0
128 550 .0532 .0
11375 100 10 .0
1125
-
13 .0
131 550 .0
547 .0
9125 100 10 .0800
-
14 .0|112 550 .0
530 .07425 100 .0
50
‫یبایب ایب ایب ایب ایب ایب ایب‬

15 .01
1156 550 .0
600 .0
115600100 18 .0
1000
‫ن‬
144
‫ات‬
)(Continued
|Minor
Head
Length
Pipe
Diameter
Pipe .EInvert
levation
Loss
Entry
.Line
No .
No
Station )(IFnches
eet (Feet
MSL
)Above
eet
0+00 .0418
0
.25+782 30 .28
572 .26
420
+175
.715 .47
945 .0424
4 325
+750
16
.0 30 .25
157 .00
425 .2
.0
+7
23
0 9 36 .07040 .60
426
OL
+250
33
.0 36 .00
946 .80
427
+3. 00
047 36 .00
405 .89
429
+405
.082 36 .00
3515 .9434
0
+0
.087 36 455
.0 0 .50
435
+500
.0106 36 .00
1950 .1438
8
+627
.3116 36 .2
31170 .60
439
oooo vou A WNA
145
12 +203
.0121 .68
456 .24
440
13 +103
128
.8 .83
687 .20
441
H
14 +329
.0150 36 .26
2056 .89
446 9
. 3
15 +7. 0
0160 24 .91
1037 .0452
8
16 +330
164
.0 24 .00
363 .80
453
0
17 +281
.5166 24 .58
188 .84
454
18 +66
.0170 24 .42
344 .06
457
19 +742
.1181 24 .11106
4 .10
466
20 +668
.7186 24 .62
496 .14
466
24 .24
1209 .37
470 .47
+21 +780
.0198
+254
.0206 24 .04
747 .9472
9 1. 7
22
#
23 +900
.0211 .96
564 .24
475 .32
+Overflow Size
Pipe
in
C
# hange Installation
Instrument
)(Continued
Head
Minor
Length
Diameter
Pipe .EInvert
levation Loss
Line
ntry
E.No
No Station
.
No eet
IF()L nches MSL
)(Feet
Above )(Feet
.2 2.221
+6 .2936
6 .78
481 .58
+
Browning 9.233
+574 15 .71
1228 .58
496 .3
Branch 3.245
+787 1222
.4 1 ,36
506
6.259
+367 .29
1359 .8516 4
+ +
4.262
+19 .73
282 .00
538
6.293
+345 .25
3115 .94
570
.6
+242
297 .9389
7 U
.52
571
NOONW
.7309
+ 73 .15
1249 .53
573
urururururur
.7313
+481 12 368
.0 1 .59
575
.7
7222 .77
576
ooco vou A WN
11 5.315
+654
12 2.317
+060 12 .65
141 .52
577
146
13 8.320
+649 .12 .64
363 .14
578
A
14 3.324
+ 54 12 .51
364 .75786
15 1.328
+008 .85
373 .39
579
16 3.332
+577 12 .27
449 .16
580
0.340
+50 12 .63
792 .67
581
18 1.346
+604 10 .10
614 .82
585
+
19 0.349
+0 10 .90
235 .4587
0
20 .1355
+40 10 .10
640 .58
591
ORB 10 .00
1000 .00
601
Bachman .4+00 18 .00
400 .95
476 .01
oW
i +
Branch .07+408 18 .00
348 .54782 .15
09+2. 0 18 .00
172 .15
479 .1
Awni
01NU
+Overflow inSize
Pipe
#Change Installation
+Instrument
)(Continued
Head
Minor
Diameter
Pipe Length
Pipe Invert
.Elevation Loss
.
No
Line .
No
Entry .
No
Station )(Inches )(Feet )(Feet
MSL
Above )(Feet
5+ +707
.514 18 .50
557 482
.9 0 1. 7
‫ن‬
+704
.016 18 .50
196 .80
483 .6
‫ن‬
+8. 60
19
0 18 312
.0 0 .08
485 .01
-
‫ن‬
va
+30
29
.0 5 18 .00
920 .15
489 1. 1
‫ن‬
9 +400
.035 18 .0605
0 .17
492
‫ن‬
.
10 +800
.035 18 .00
40 .20
492
‫ن‬
DO + + +
11 +410
.562 18 .50
2661 .65050
NM 12 +. 0
75
0 18 .50
1258 .86
513
OR NU
NM 13 +606
.379 18 .3966
0 .12
517
- -
14 +500
97
.0 18 .70
1783 527
.7 5
3 ORB 18 1000
.0 0 .00
550
-. -. -. -. --. -.
147
+Overflow #Change
Size
Pipe
in Installation
Instrument
APPENDIX E
COMPUTER OUTPUT FROM MODELING PROGRAM
RUN # 1
LINE NØDE AREA EL EV . FLOW OVERFLOW AREA FLOW

FT. GPM GPM GPM
0000
AWN
419 . 00 3567. 60 * * *
an
420 . 26 3567. 60 * * *
424 . 04 3567. 60 * * *
425 . 00 3567. 60 * * *
426 . 60 3567 . 60 * * *
427 . 80 3567 . 60 * * *
428 .80 27 . 20 00 27. 20
429 .89 3540 . 40 * * *
430 . 89 49 . 60 . 00 49 . 60
434 . 90 3490 . 80 * * *
435 . 90 2 . 75 . 00 2 . 75
435 . 50 3488 . 05 * * *
436 . 50 11 . 20 . 00 11. 20
438 . 18 3476 .85* * *
439 . 18 38 . 95 . 00 38 . 95
439 . 60 3437 . 90 * * *
440 . 60 18 . 08 . 00 18 . 08
440 . 60 115 . 90 . 00 115 . 90
12 440 . 24 3303 . 92 * * *
441 . 24 49 . 02 . 00 49 . 02
441 . 20 3254 . 90 * * *
442 . 20 84. 55 . 00 84 . 55
14 446 .89 3170 . 35 * * *
447 . 89 127. 30 . 00 127. 30
447 . 89 32 . 45 . 00 32 . 45
15 452 . 08 3010 .60 * * *
453 . 08 •25 . 00 . 25
453 . 80 3010 . 35 :* * *
454 .80 1 . 00 . 00 1 . 00
454 .84 3009 . 35 * * *
455 . 84 . 25 . 00 . 25
18. 457 . 06 3009 . 10 * * *
458 . 06 43 . 45 . 00 43 . 45
458 . 06 103 . 95 . 00 103 . 95
19 466 . 10 2861. 70 * * *
467 . 10 7 . 15 . 00 7 . 15
20 466 . 92 2854 . 55 * * *
148
ELEV . FLOW OVERFLOW APEA FLOW
LINE
aa
NODE AREA FT . GPM GPM GPM
467. 14 318 . 45 . 00 318 . 45
Na
aa
21 470 . 37 2536 . 10 * * *
471. 37 25 . 85 . 00 25 .85
aa-wa
471 . 37 168 .85 . 00 168 . 85
22 472 . 99 2341 . 40 * * *
aa
aa
473 . 99 33 . 00 . 00 33 . 00
475. 24 2308 . 40 * * *
aa
aaaja-
475 . 24 1188 .87* * *

481. 78 1188 .87* * *
482 . 78 22 . 82 . 00 22 . 82
496 . 58 1166 . 05 * * *
497. 58 41 . 25 . 00 41 . 25
506 . 36 1124 . 80 * * *
507. 36 . 00 . 00 . 00
516 . 84 1124 . 80 * * *
517 .84 139 . 70 . 00 139 . 70
517 .84 25 . 30 . 00 25 . 30
538 . 00 959 .80* * *
539 . 00 25 . 85 . 00 25 . 85
570 . 94 933 . 95 * * *
571 . 94 8 . 25 8 . 25
571 . 65 925 . 70 * * *
573 . 68 925 . 70 * * *
574 . 53 15 . 40 . 00 15 . 40
575 . 59 910 . 30 * * *
576 . 59 17. 60 . 00 17. 60
576 . 77 892 . 70 * * *
577 . 77 17 .60 . 00 17 . 60
577. 52 875 . 10 * * *
578 . 52 15 . 95 . 00 15 . 95
578 . 76 859 . 15 * * *
579 . 14 16 . 50 . 00 16 . 50
14 579 . 96 8 .42 . 65 * * *
579 . 97 16 . 50 . 00 16 . 50
15 581. 15 826 . 15 * * *
581. 16 16 . 50 . 00 16 . 50
582 . 51 809 . 65 * * *
582. 53 21. 45 . 00 21. 45
58 4 . 72 788 . 20 * * *
58 4 . 72 . 00 . 00 . 00
58 4 . 73 20 . 90 . 00 20 . 90
18 588 . 39 767. 30 * * *
588 . 39 22 . 00 . 00 22. 00
589 . 98 745 . 30 * * *
589 . 98 . 00 . 00 •00
589 . 99 22 . 55 00 22 . 55
20 593 . 41 722 . 75 * * *
593 . 67 108 . 30 . 00 108 . 30
593 . 58 80) . 75 . 00 80 . 75
21 601 . 00 533 . 70 * * *
149
LINE NØDE AREA ELEV . FLOW OVERFLOK AREA FLOW
FT . GPM GPM
602 . 00 GFM
533 . 70 . 00 533 . 70
475 . 24 1119 . 52 * * *
‫د د‬
476 . 95 1119 . 52 * * *
477. 95 . 00 . 00
478 . 52 1119 . 52 * * *
. 00
‫د‬
479 . 52 77 . 00 . 00
77. 00
479 . 15 1042 . 52 * * *
‫د‬
48 0 . 15 . 00 . 00
482 . 90 1042 . 52 * * *
‫د‬
483 . 90 . 00 . 00 . 00
483 .80 1042 . 52 * * *
‫د‬
48 4 . 80 .00 . 00 . 00
485 . 08. 1042 . 52 * * *
‫د‬
486 . 08 . 00 . 00 . 00
489 . 15 1042 . 52 * * *
‫د‬
490 . 15 . 00 . 00 . 00
492 . 17 1042 . 52 * * *
‫دی‬
493 . 17 115 . 60 . 00 116 . 60

492 . 29 925 . 92* * *
‫د‬
493. 20 7 .97 . 00 7 . 97
505 . 60 917 . 95 * * *
‫دی‬
506 . 60 78 . 10 . 00 78 . 10
513 . 86 839 .85* * *
‫د‬
514 . 86 70 . 40 . 00 70 . 40
3 13 517 . 12 769 . 45 * * *
‫له‬
518 . 12 72 . 05 . 00 72 . 05
3 14 527 . 75 697. 40 * * *
‫دی‬
528 . 75 61 . 60 . 00 61. 60
3 15 550 . 00 635 .80* * *
‫دا‬
551 . 00 635 . 80 . 00 635 .80

THE INFILTRATION RATE IS PRESENTLY . 00 GALLON S / MIN / FT OF LATERAL
150
RUN # 2
LINE NØDE AREA EL EV . FLOW OVERFLOW AREA FLOW
FT . GPM GPM GPIM
419 . 00 7281 . 85* * *
420 . 57 7281 .85 * * *
424. 04 728 1 . 85 * * *
425 . 00 7281. 85 * * *
426 . 60 7281. 85 * * *
427. 80 7281.85 * * *
428 . 80 46 . 00 . 00 46 . 00
429 . 89 7235 . 85 * * *
430 . 89 82 . 16 . 00 82. 16
434 . 90 7153 . 69 * * *
435 . 90 54 . 91 . 00 54 .91
435 . 50 7098 . 78 * * *
436 . 50 73 . 84 . 00 73 . 84
438 . 18 7024 . 9 4 * * *
439 . 18 98 . 15 . 00 98 . 15
439 . 60 6926 . 73 * * *
440 . 60 27. 28 . 00 27. 28
440 . 60 162 . 30 . 00 162 . 30
12 440 . 24 6737. 21* ** *
441 . 24 92 . 22 . 00 92 . 22
441. 20 6644 . 99 * * *
442 . 20 146 . 95 . 00 146 . 95
446 . 89 6498 . 04 * * *
448 .81 238 . 70 . 00 238 . 70
447 .89 73 . 44 . 00 73 . 44
452 . 51 618 5 . 90 * * *
453. 08 1 .85 . 00 1 .85
454 .51 618 4 . 05 * * *
454. 80 11. 40 . 00 11 . 40
455 . 59 6172 . 65* * *
455 .84 16 . 25 . 00 16 . 25
18 457. 57 6156 . 40 * * *
458 . 06 100 . 25 . 00 100 . 25
458 . 06 250 . 55 . 00 250 . 55
19 466 . 10 5805 . 60 * * *
467 . 10 15 . 95 . 00 15 . 95
20 468 . 60 5789 . 65 * * *
468 . 71 805 . 75 . 00 805 . 75
21 473 . 30 4983 . 89 * * *
473 . 36 65 . 09 . 00 65 . 09
473 . 68 400 . 37 . 00 400 . 37
475 . 65 4518 . 43 * * *
475 .81 78 . 40 . 00 78 . 40
477. 57 4440 . 03 * * *
477 . 57 1830 . 11* * *
481 . 78 1830 . 11* * *
482 . 78 55 . 30 . 00 55 . 30
496 . 58 1774 . 80 * * *
49 7 . 58 90 . 65 . 00 90.65
151
aa
aa
aa♡a~
LINE NODE AREA ELEVE FLOW OVEEFLOW AREE FLOW
FT . (GPM ( PM
506 . 36 1684. 15 * * *
507 . 36 . 00 . 00 . 00
516 . 84 1684. 15 * * *
517 . 84 333 . 90 .00 333 . 90
517 .84 55 . 10 . 00 55 . 10
538 . 00 1295 . 15 * * *
539 . 00 51. 45 . 00 51 . 45
570 . 94 1243 . 70 * * *
571 .94 20 . 25 . 00 20 . 25
571 . 99 1223 . 45 * * *
575 . 13 1223 . 45 * * *
575 . 19 37. 80 . 00 37. 80
577 . 32 1185 . 65* * *
577 . 40 43 . 20 . co 43 . 20
578 . 60 1142 . 45* * *
578 . 68 43 . 20 . 00 43 . 20
579 . 40 1099 . 25 * * *
579 . 47 39 . 95 . 00 39 . 95
581. 18 1059 . 30 * * *
581 . 25 40 . 50 . 00 40 . 50
582 .84 1018 .90* * *
582 .91 40 . 50 . 00 40 . 50
58 4 . 43 978 . 30 * * *
584 . 50 40 . 50 . 00 40 . 50
586 . 19 937 . 80 * * *
586 . 30 52 . 65 . 00 52. 65
588 . 91 885 . 15 * * *
588 . 91 - 33 . 75 33 . 75 . 00
588 .95 51 . 30 . 00 51 . 30
593 . 48 867. 60 * * *
593 . 49 30 . 37 23 . 62 54. 00
595 . 39 837 . 23* * *
595 . 39 - 33 . 75 33 . 75 . 00
595 . 39 10 . 38 44 .97 55. 35
600 . 08 860 . 60 * * *
600 . 08 14 . 37 215 . 53 229 . 90
600 . 10 27 . 39 120 . 86 1 48 . 75
606 . 71 818 . 34* * *
607 . 36 818 . 34 . 00 818 . 34
477 . 57 2509 . 92 * * *
479 . 14 2609 . 92 * * *
V
479 . 14 . 00 . 00 . 00
480 .65 2609 . 92 * * *
480 .89 140 . 00 . 00 1 40 . 00
481 . 35 2469 . 92 * * *
481. 35 . 00 . 00 . 00
483. 48 2469 . 92 * * *
483 . 90 . 00 . 00 . 00
48 4 . 77 2469 . 92* * *
48 4 . 80 . 00 . 00 . 00
152
LINE NODF AREA ELEV • FLOW OVERFLØB AFEA FLOW
FT . GPM CPM ( PM
7 48 5 . 88 2469 . 92 * * *
w
486 . 08 . 00 . 00 . 00
489 . 23 2469 . 92 * * *
w
490 . 15 . 00 . 00 . 00
492 . 17 2469 . 92 * * *
w
493 . 17 291 .80 . 00 29 1 .80

492 . 38 2178 . 12 * * *
w
493 . 20 16 . 37 . 00 16 . 37
505 . 60 2161. 75 * * *
w
506 . 60 173 . 70 . 00 173. 70

513 . 86 1988 . 05 * * *
w
514 .86 161. 40 . 00 161 . 40

517. 12 1826 . 65 * * *
w
518 . 12 145 . 05 . 00 145 . 05

527. 75 1681. 60 * * *
w
528 . 75 121. 00 . 00 121. 00

550 . 00 1560 . 60* * *
w
551. 50 1560 .60 . 00 1560 . 60

THE INFILTRATION RATE IS PRESENTLY . 008 GALLONS /MIN / FT OF LATERAL
153
RUN # 3
FLOW
varaw
LINE NØDE AREA ELEV . OVERFLOW AREA FLOW
FT . GPM GPM GPM
419 . 00 8217 . 89 *
*
420 .94 8217 . 89 * * *
424 . 30 8217 . 89 * * *
425 . 01 8217 . 39 * * *
426 . 60 3217 . 89 * * *
428 . 03 8217 . 89 * * *
428 . 80 50 . 70 . 00 50 . 70
429 . 89 8167. 19 * * *
430 .89 90 . 30 . 00 90 . 30
434 . 98 8076 . 89* * *
20
435 . 90 67. 95 . 00 67 .95

435 . 69 8008 . 94* * *
©
436 . 50 89 . 50 . 00 79 . 50
438 . 36 7919 . 44* * *
. 00
©
439 . 19 112 . 95 112 . 95

11 439 . 95 78 06 . 49 * * *
440 . 60 29 . 58 . 00 29 . 53
440 . 60 173 . 90 . 00 173 . 90
12 440 . 61 7603 . 01* * *
441 . 28 103 . 02 • 00 103 . 02
13 441 . 53 7499 . 99 * * *
442 . 61 162 . 55 162 . 55
14 446 . 89 7337 . 44 * * *
449 . 25 266 . 55 . 00 265 . 55
447 . 89 83 . 69 . 00 83 . 69
15 453 . 88 6987. 20* * *
453 .88 2 . 25 . 00 2 . 25
16 456 . 36 6984 .95* * *
456 . 36 14 . 00 . 00 14 . 00
17 457 . 69 69 70 . 95 * * *
457 . 70 20 . 25 . 00 20 . 25
18 460 . 12 69 50 . 70 * * *
460 . 61 114 . 45 114 . 45
460 . 19 287 . 20 287. 20
19 466 . 81 6549 . 05 * * *
467 . 10 18 . 15 18 . 15
20 469 . 88 6530 . 90 * * *
470 . 02 927. 58 . 00 927. 58
475 . 61 5603 . 32 * * *
475 . 68 74 . 90 74 . 90
476 . 10 458 . 25 458 . 25
478 . 48 5070 . 17* * *
478 . 68 89 . 75 . 00 89 . 75
480 . 78 4980 . 42 * * *
480 . 78 2004 . 15 * * *
483 . 59 2004 . 15 * * *
483 . 63 63. 42 . 00 63. 42
496 . 58 1940 . 72 * * *
49 7 . 58 103 . 00 . 00 103. 00
154
FLFV . FLOW OVERFLON AREA FLEU
LINE NØDE AREA FT . GEM ( PM ( PV
506 . 36 1837 . 72* * *
.
507. 36 . 00 . 00 . 00
516 .84 1837. 72 * * *
.
517 .84 382 . 45 . 00 382 . 45

517 .84 62 . 55 . 00 62 . 55
538 . 00 1392 . 72* **
.
539 . 00 57. 85 . 00 57 . 85
570 . 94 1334.87* **
oo .
571 . 94 23. 25 . 00 23 . 25
572 . 11 1311 .62* **
575 . 62 1311 . 62 * * *
575 . 70 43 . 40 . 00 43 . 40
578 . 09 1268 . 22* * *
.
578 . 19 49 . 60 . 00 49 . 60
579 . 52 1218 . 62 * * *
.
579 .62 49 . 60 . 00 49 . 60
12 580 . 41 1169 . 02 * * *
.
580 . 49 45 . 95 . 00 45 . 95
13 582 . 38 1123. 07* * *
.
582 . 47 46 . 50 . 00 46 . 50
584 . 21 1076 . 57 * * *
.
58 4 . 30 46 . 50 . 00 46 . 50
585 . 95 1030 . 07* * *
.
586 . 03 45 . 50 . 00 6 . 50
587 .85 983. 57* * *
.
588 . 00 60 . 45 . 00 60 . 45
17 590 . 79 923 . 12* * *
.
590 . 79 - 33 . 75 33 . 75 . 00
590 . 84 58 . 90 . 00 58 . 90
18 595 . 65 897. 97* * *
.
595 . 65 11 .62 50 . 37 62 . 00
597. 74 886 . 35* * *
.
59 7 . 74 - 33 . 75 33 . 75 . 00
597 . 74 3 .97 59 . 58 63 . 55
20 602 . 99 916 . 13* * *
.
603 . 00 16 . 27 244 . 03 260 . 30

602 . 99 10 . 36 155 . 39 165 . 75
21 610 . 71 889 . 50 * * *
. 00
ww .
611 . 48 889 . 50 889 . 50

480 . 78 29 76 . 27* * *
482 . 77 29 76 . 27* * *
482 . 77 - 1 . 25 1 . 25 . 00
484 .65 2977 . 52 * * *

484 . 95 155 . 75 . 00 155 . 75
w
485 . 53 2821. 77* * *

. 00
w
485 . 53 . CO . 00
488 . 21 2821 . 77 * * *
488 . 21 - 1 . 25 1 . 25 . 00
w
489 . 69 2823 . 02* * *

489 . 69 - 1 . 25 1 . 25 . 00
w
155
LINE VODE AREA FLEV . Flou OVERFLOW FREE FLOW
ET . GPM ( PM ! Pivi
491 . 11 2824 . 27* * *
491 . 11 - 1 . 25 . 00
w
1 . 25
49 5 . 37 28 25 . 52 * * *
w
495 . 37 - 1 . 25 1 . 25 . 00
498 . 46 2826 . 77* * *
w
498 . 97 335 . 60 . 00 335 . 60

498 . 71 2491 . 17* * *
3 10
w
498 . 75 18 . 47 . 00 18 . 47
3 11 508 . 21 2472 . 70 * * *
197. 60 . 00 197 . 60
w
508 . 22
3 12 513 . 86 2275 . 10 * * *
w
514 . 86 18 4 . 15 . 00 134 . 15
517. 12 2090 . 95 * * *
w
518 . 12 163 . 30 . 00 163 . 30

3 14 527. 75 1927 . 65 * * *
135 .85
w
528 . 75 135 . 85 . 00
3 15 550 . 00 1791 .80 * * *
w
551 . 94 179 1 .80 . 00 179 1 . 80

THE INFILTRATION RATE IS PRESENTLY . 01 GALLONS/MIN / FT OF LATERAL
156
RUN # 4
LINE NØDE AREA ELEV . FLOW OVERFLOW AREA FLOW
419 . 00 8062 . 57 * * *
-Мво
пол 420 . 88 8062 . 57* * *
424 . 14 8062 . 57* * *
425 . 00 8062 . 57* * *
426 . 60 8062 . 57 * * *
427. 99 8062 . 57* * *
429 .80 62 . 45 . 00 62 . 45
429 .89 8000 . 12 * * *
430 . 89 110 . 65 • 00 110 . 65
434 . 90 7889 . 47* * *
o
435 . 90 100 . 55 . 00 100 . 55

435 . 58 7788 . 92 * * *
o
436 . 50 128 . 65 . 00 128 . 65

10 438 . 18 7660 . 27* * *
439 . 58 149 . 95 . 00 149 .95
439 . 67 7510 . 32 * * *
440 . 60 17 . 66 17 . 66 35 . 33
440 . 60 202 . 90 . 00 202 . 90
440 . 29 7289 . 76 * * *
441. 32 130 . 02 . 00 130 . 02
441 . 20 7159 . 74* * *
442 . 81 201 . 55 . 00 201 . 55
14 446 . 89 69 58 . 19 * * *
447 . 89 63 . 03 273 . 14 336 . 17
448 . 35 109 . 31 . 00 103 . 31
453 . 52 6 78 5 .84* ** *
453 . 53 - 3 .25 . 00 3 . 25
455 .87 6782 . 59 * * *
455 . 88 20 . 50 . 00 20 . 50
17. 457. 13 6762 . 09 * * *
457. 16 30 . 25 . 00 30 . 25
18 459 . 44 6731. 84 * * *
460 . 26 149 . 95 .00 149 . 95
459 . 55 378 .82 . 00 378 . 82
19 466 . 10 6203 . 07* * *
467. 10 23 . 65 . 00 23 . 65
20 468 . 89 6179 . 42 * * *
468 . 96 616 . 07 616 . 07 1232 . 14
21 474 . 55 5563. 35 * * *
474 . 67 99 . 42 . 00 99 . 42
474 . 78 301 . 47 301. 47 602. 95
477. 51 5162 . 45 * * *
477. 61 59 . 06 59 . 06 118 . 12
479 . 90 5103 . 38 * * *
479 . 90 2231 . 27* * *
48 3 . 21 2231. 27* * *
483 . 28 83 . 72 . 00 83. 72
496 . 58 2147 . 54* * *
49 7 . 58 133. 87 .00 133 .87
506 . 36 2013 . 67* * *
507 . 36 1. -3 . 75 3 . 75 . 00
157
ELEV . FLOW OVERFLOW ARFA FLOK
LINE NODE AREA to T . C.PM CPM í PV
25 516 .84 2017 . 42 * * *
517. 34 251 . 91 251.91 503 .82
517 .84 81. 17 . 00 31: 17
538 . 00 1684 . 33 * * .*
539 . 00 73 .85 . 00 73 . 85
570 .94 161 ( . 48 * * *
571 . 94 30 . 75 . 00 30 . 75
572 . 51 1579 . 73 * * *
577. 30 1579 . 73 * * *
577 . 43 57 . 40 . 00 57. 40
580 . 72 1522 . 33* * *
580 . 89 65 . 60 . 00 65 . 60
532 .67 1456 . 73 * * *
582 . 84 65 . 60 . 00 65 .60
583 . 35 1391. 13 * * *
584 . 00 60 . 95 . 00 60 . 95
586 . 51 1330. 18 * * *
586 . 66 61. 50 . 00 61. 50
588 . 96 1268 . 68 * * *
589 . 11 61. 50 . 00 61. 50
591. 25 1207. 18 * * *
591. 40 61 . 50 600 61. 50
593 . 75 1145 . 63 * * *
593 .82 39 . 97 39 . 97 79 . 95
59 7 .81 1105 . 71 * * *
597 .81 - 33 . 75 33 . 75 . 00
597.81 14 . 61 63 . 29 77 . 90
605 . 13 1124 .85 * * *
605 . 14 15 . 37 66 . 62 82. 00
608 . 14 1109 . 47* * *
608 . 14 - 33 . 75 33 . 75 . 00
608 . 14 15 . 76 68 . 29 84 . 05
615 .81 1127. 47* * *
615 . 82 21. 02 315 . 28 336 . 30
615 . 85 39 . 05 169 . 20 209 . 25
626 . 59 1067. 40 * * *
627 . 66 1067. 40 . 00 1067. 40
ww
479 . 90 28 72 . 12 * * *
481. 77 2872 . 12 * * *
.
481. 76 - 11 . 25 11 . 25 . 00
483 . 55 2883. 37 * * *
97. 56
w
483. 67 97 . 56 195 . 12
48 4 . 41 278 5 . 80 * * *
w
48 4 . 41 - 3 . 75 3 . 75 . 00
487. 03 2789 . 55 * * *
- 11 . 25 11. 25 . 00
w
48 7 . 03
488 . 51 2800 . 80* * *
w
488 . 50 - 11 . 25 11 . 25 . 00
158
LINE NODE AREA ELEV . FLOW OVERFLOW AREE FLOW
FT . („ PM CPM ( PM
489 . 91 28 12 . 05 * * *
‫د‬
489 . 90 - 11 . 25 11 . 25 . 00
494. 17 2823 . 30 * * *
‫د‬
49 4 . 16 - 11 . 25 11 . 25 . 00
497. 27 2834 . 55 * * *
‫دد‬
497 . 51 222 . 55 222 . 55 445 . 10

497 . 53 2612 . 00 * * *
‫دی‬
497 . 55 11 . 86 11 .86 23 . 72
3ū 507.95 2600 . 14* * *
‫د‬
507 . 95 48 . 25 209 . 10 257. 35

3 12 513 . 86 2551.89 * * **
‫دی‬
514 .86 45 . 19 195 . 83 241 .02

517 . 45 2506 . 70 * * *
‫د‬
518 . 12 104 . 46 104 . 46 208 . 92

527 . 75 2402 . 23* * *
‫ده‬
528 . 75 32 . 43 140 . 54 172 . 97

3 15 550 . 00 2369 . 80* * *
. 00
‫دا‬
553 . 26 2369 . 80 2369 .80

159
RUN # 5
LINE NODE AREA EL EV . FLOW OVERFLOW AREA FLOW
FT . GPM GPM GPMV
419 . 00 9432 . 35 * * *
421 . 47 9432 . 35 * * *
425 . 72 9432 . 35 * * *
426 . 57 9432 . 35 * * *
-- - -
428 . 00 9432 . 35 * * *
429 . 82 9432 . 35 * * *
429 .87 62 . 45 62 . 45
430 . 65 9369 . 90 * * *
430 . 89 110 . 65 . 00 110 . 65
- -
437 . 12 9259 . 25 * * *
437 . 12 100 . 55 . 00 100 . 55
438 . 00 9158 . 70 * **
-
438 . 00 128 . 65 . 00 128 . 65

- - -
441 . 37 9030 . 05 * **
-
442 . 77 149 . 95 . 00 149 . 95

443 . 37 8880 . 10 * **
443 . 40 35 . 33 . 00 35 . 33
444 . 21 202 . 90 . 00 202 . 90
-
444 . 18 8641 .87* **

445 . 21 130 . 02 . 00 130 . 02
- -
445 . 31 8511 . 85 * **
O
On
I
446 . 92 201. 55 . 00 201. 55

449 . 20 8310 . 30 * * *
450 . 11 159 . 55 176 . 62 336 . 17
-
450 . 66 109 . 31 . 00 109 . 31

-
458 . 20 8041. 44* **

458 . 20 3 . 25 . 00 3 . 25
-
461 . 38 8038 . 19 * * *
-
461. 39 20 . 50 . 00 20 . 50
- -
463 . 07 8017 . 69* **

463 . 10 30 . 25 . 00 30 . 25
466 . 16 7987. 44 * * *
466 . 98 149 . 95 . 00 149 . 95
-
466 .27 378 . 82 . 00 378 . 82

-
474 . 60 7458 . 67* * *

474. 65 23 . 65 . 00 23 .65
-
478 . 45 7435 . 02 * * *
-
478 . 69 1232 . 14 . 00 1232 . 14

- -
485 . 27 6202 .87* * *

n
485 . 39 99 . 42 . 00 99 . 42
486 . 08 602 .95 . 00 602 .95
-
488 . 58 5500 . 50 * * *
488 . 91 118 . 12 . 00 118 . 12
-o o -
491. 18 5382 . 37* * *

-
491. 18 2061. 25* * *

494 . 11 2061. 25 * * *
n
49 4 . 18 83 . 72 . 00 83. 72
500 . 96 1977 . 52 * * *
133 .87
o
501. 08 133 .87 . 00
160
N
ELFV . FLOW OVERFLOW AREA FLOW
LINE NO DE AREA GPM
FT. GPM GPM
506 . 78 18 43 . 65 * * *
507 . 36 - . 35 •35 . 00
aa
516 .84 18 44. 00 * * *

517 .84 503 . 82 503 . 82
wa
aa
aa
517.84 81. 17 81. 17

538 . 00 1259 . 00 * * *
Na~a
539 . 00 73 . 35 . 00 73 .85
570 . 94 1185. 15 * * *
571 . 94 30 . 75 . 00 30 . 75
571. 91 1154 . 40 * * *
574 . 77 1154. 40 * * *
574 . 90 57. 40 • 00 57. 40
576 . 68 1097 . 00 * * *
576 . 84 65 . 60 . 00 65 .60
577 . 75 1031 . 40 * * *
577 . 92 65 . 60 . 00 65 . 60
578 . 40 965 . 80 * * *
578 . 55 60 . 95 . 00 60 . 95
579 . 76 904 . 85 * * *
579 . 91 61 . 50 . 00 61 . 50
580 . 96 843 . 35 * * *
581 . 11 61. 50 . 00 61. 50
582 . 04 781. 85 * * *
582 . 19 61. 50 . 00 61 . 50
58 3 . 16 720 . 35 * * *
583 . 40 79 . 95 . 00 79 . 95
58 4 . 70 640 . 40 * * *
58 4 . 70 - 256 . 29 256 . 29 . 00
58.4 . 78 77 . 90 . 00 77 . 90
588 . 82 818 . 79 * * *
588 . 82 4 . 32 77. 68 82. 00
590 . 64 814 . 47 * * *
590 . 63 - 256 . 29 256 . 29 . 00
590 . 64 1 . 48 82 . 57 84. 05
597. 60 1069 . 23 * * *
597. 60 . 66 335 .64 336 . 30
597 . 60 1 . 22 207 . 03 208 . 25
608 . 39 1067. 40 * * *
609 . 45 1067 . 40 . 00 1067. 40
491 . 18 3321 . 12 * * *
493 . 62 3321 . 12 * * *
493. 61 - 9 . 49 9 . 49 . 00
49 5 . 90 3330 . 61* * *
49 6 . 34 195 . 12 . 00 195 . 12
3 4 496 . 94 3135 . 49 * * *
496 . 94 - . 35 . 35
3 5 500 . 16 3135 . 84* * *
9 . 49
500 . 16 - 9 . 49
161
LINE NODE AREA ELEV . FLOW OVERFLOW AREA FLOW
FT . GPM GPM GPM
501 .84 3145 . 33* * *
501 .84 - 9 . 49 9 . 49 •
w
503 . 58 3154 . 82 * * *
503 . 54 - 28 . 43 28 . 48 . 00
w
508 . 87 3183. 30 * * *
508 .82 - 28 . 48 28 . 48 . 00
w
512 . 69 3211 . 78 * * *
513 . 53 445 . 10 . 00 445 . 10
w
512 . 96 2766 . 68 * * *
513 . 03 23 . 72 . 00 23 . 72
w
524 . 45 2742 . 95 * * *
524 . 45 40 . 71 216 . 64 257. 35
w
3 12 529 . 78
529 . 97
2702 . 24* * *
114 . 39 126 . 63 241 . 02
533 . 58 2587. 8 5 * * *
534 . 00 208 . 92 . 00 208 . 92
w
539 .61 2378 . 92 * * *

539 . 61 9 . 12 163 . 85 172 . 97
w
3 15 550 . 00
553 . 26
2369 . 80 * * *
2369 . 80 . 00 2369 . 80
162
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No . Nonr 2285 (03) Task No. NR062 -2941, Office of Naval
Research , Washington , DC , 1967 , AD 660 788 .
38 . Seyer , F . A . , and A . B . Metzner , " Turbulence Phenomena in Drag

Reducing Systems" , University of Delaware , Newark , Delaware ,
December 1969 .
39. Shin , Hyunkrak , " Reduction of Drag in Turbulence by Dilute

Polymer Solutions" (Doctoral Thesis ), Department of Chemical
Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , May 1965 .
40 . Slattery , John C . , " Scale - Up for Viscoelastic Fluids" , American

Institute Chemical Engineering Journal, Vol. 11 , No. 5 , p . 831.
166
41. Tlapa , Gerald A . , and Barry Bernstein , " Elastic Recovery and the
Toms Effect" , Illinois Institute of Technology ; Contract No .
N00014 -67 - A -0210 - 001 Task No . NR041- 438 , Office of Naval
Research , Washington , DC , July 1968 , AD 673 009.
42. Tulin , Marshal P . , " Hydrodynamic Aspects of Macromolecular

Solutions" , Hydronautics , Inc . , Laurel, Maryland ; Technical
Report No . 353 - 4 , Contract No . Nonr - 4181(00 ) NR062 - 325 ,
Office of NavalResearch , Washington , DC , May 1967 ,
AD 653 097 .
43. van Driest, E . R . , " The Damping of Turbulent Flow by Long
Chain Molecules" , North American Rockwell , Inc . , Anaheim ,
California ; Contract AF49 (638 ) - 1442 , Air Force Office of Scientific
Research , Office of Aerospace Research , September 1967 ,
AD 660 883.
44 . van Driest, E . R . , " Turbulent Drag Reduction Polymeric Solutions" ,
North American Rockwell Corporation , Downey , California ;
AFOSR 70 -0593TR , American Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics , New York , New York , January 1970 , AD 702 466 .
45 . Virk , Preetinder Singh , " The Toms Phenomenon - Turbulent

Pipe Flow of Dilute Polymer Solutions" (Doctoral Thesis ) , Indian
Institute of Technology , Kharagpun ; Massachusetts Institute of
Technology , November 1966 .
46 . Walsh , Myles, " Theory of Drag Reduction in Dilute High - Polymer

Flows" , California Institute of Technology ; Naval Ordnance
Test Station , Physics of Fluids Conference , October 1966 .
47 . (The) Western Company, " Polymers for Sewer Flow Control" ,
Water Pollution Control Research Series WP - 20 - 22 , August 1969 .
48 . White , Frank M . , " An Analyses of the Effect of a Polymer Additive

on Turbulent Wall Friction and Pressure Fluctuations" , U . S .
Navy Underwater Sound Laboratories , Fort Trumbull, New London ,
Conn . ; USL Report No. 881, December 1967 , AD 666 818 .
49. White , J . L . , A . B . Metzner , " Constitutive Equations for

Viscoelastic Fluids with Application to Rapid External Flows" ,
American Institute Chemical Engineering Journal, March 1965 ,
pp . 324 - 330 .
50 . White , J . L . , A . B . Metzner , "Measurement of Normal Stresses " ,
University of Delaware , Newark , Delaware .
167
51. White , W . D . , and D . M . McEligat, " Transition of Mixtures of
Polymers in a Dilute Aqueous Solution " , ASME Publication ,
Paper No. 69 WA / FC - 20 .
52 . Whits itt , N . F . , L . J . Harrington , H . R . Crawford , " Effect of
Wall Shear Stress on Drag Reduction of Viscoelastic Solutions " ,
Viscous Drag Reduction , Plenum Press, 1969.
R
53. Zimmerman , Barry , " How to Dissolve Polyox Water Soluble
Resins " , Union Carbide Corporation , Chemicals and Plastics ,
R & D Department, Tarrytown Technical Center , Tarrytown , New
York , March 1970 .
168
METRIC CONVERSION TABLE
TO CONVERT . . . INTO . . . MULTIPLY BY . . .
acres sq meters 4 ,047 .

cubic feet cu meters 0 . 02832
feet meters 0 . 3048
feet of water kgs / sq meter 304 . 8
feet / sec cms /sec 30 . 48

feet / sec meters /min 18 . 29
gallons cu meters 3 . 785 x 10 - 3
gallons liters 3 . 785
gallons /min liters / sec 0 . 06308

inches centimeters 2 . 540
inches meters 2.540 x 10 -2

Poise Gram / cm . sec . 1 . 00
pounds kilograms 0 . 4536
pounds / cu ft kgs / cu meter 16 . 02

pounds /sq ft kgs / sq meter 4 . 882
pounds / sq in atmospheres 0 . 06804

Slug Kilogram 14 . 59
temperature ( °F ) - 32 temperature (°C ) 5 /9
169
REPORT NO . 3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO .
PA -600 / 2 - 77 - 189
5 . REPORT DATE
ITLE AND SUBTITLE September 1977 (Issuing Date
ONTROL OF SEWER OVERFLOWS BY POLYMER INJEC 6 .PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
ION
8 . PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
(UTHOR (S)
1. W . Chandler and W . R . Lewis
ERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS 10 . PROGRAM ELEMENT NO .
ater Utilities Department 1BC611
11. CONTRAGT /GRANT NO .
ity of Dallas
allas , Texas 75201 11020 DZU
SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS 13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
lunicipal Environmental Research Laboratory - - Final
Cin . , OH 14 . SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
ffice of Research and Development
nvironmental Protection Agency EPA / 600 / 14
incinnati , Ohio 45268
SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
1. 0 . Richard Field (201) - 321 - 6674 FTS 340 - 6674
ABSTRACT
In the past , the operator of a sewage collection system has had
hree alternatives for dealing with overloaded sanitary sewers ; ignoring
hem , diverting them to storm sewers and streams , or pumping to other
ocations . An EPA - sponsored research program entitled , " Polymers for
ewer Flow Control , " Contract No . 14 - 12 - 34 , suggested a possible alter
native system wherein the capacity of a sewer might be increased by the
njection of certain water - soluble chemicals to reduce turbulent friction .
This concept was further developed and demonstrated during this project,
PA Grant entitled , " Elimination or Reduction of Sanitary Sewer Over
Flows in the Bachman Creek Sewershed , " which was executed in Dallas ,
Texas . This report was prepared to help operators of sanitary sewage
collection systems determine the feasibility of using turbulent friction
-eduction , designing an injection facility , choosing a friction reduc
ng material , and evaluating the results .

DESCRIPTORS b .IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS Jc. COSATI Field/Group
ombined sewers , Fluid friction , - Water - souble chemicals

luid flow , Overflows , Water pollu - Injection facility ,
ion , Polymers , Addition resins Turbulent friction
reduction , Polymer 13B
injection
DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT 19 . SECURITY CLASS (This Report) 21. NO . OF PA

UNCLASSIFIED 180
ELEASE TO PUBLIC 20. SECURITY CLASS (This page ) 22 . PRICE
UNCLASSIFIED
Form 2220 - 1 ( 9 -73) U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1977 –757 -056 /6559
170
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This is a reproduction of a library book that was digitized

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6SITY BRARI S SITYS

SITY O TBRARIE RSITY O

' LIBR IES

SITY OROF IG VETRVSERISAI O

LIB 1812 E . N VER El 18US 11 SIINID

LIBR IES ERSIT

K.T UTEND VER

O ZIS IBRARIES RSITY

' RAARLIE TERSISIYOS

ANNUAL AND SEASONAL PRECIPITATION PROBABILITIES

ROBERT S . KERR ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY

EPA ' s Office of Research and Development conducts this search

This report contributes to the knowledge essential if the EPA is to

The planning , design , and operation of land -based wastewater management

B . Station List by States . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 8

SELECTED Fifty -two or less arbitrarily selected cumulative theoretical

EXC PRB Probabilities of exceeding the arbitrarily selected cumulative

It is a rather simple matter to determine the probability of exceeding arbitrarily

As indicated in the description of column headings similar runs can be made

La Vera Dodge City

Abilene Fort Worth

Del Rio San Antonio Houston

Inte.rnat. ionalO Falls

Minneapolis Green Bay / Alban

Des Moines Chicago Pittsburgh Philadelphia

Station Location Page Number

09- 0451 Atlanta , GA

19- 0770 Boston , MA

23 -4358 Kansas City , MO

0 .600 26 .835 12 . 705 0 .999 0 .600 28 . 639 13. 910 0 . 974

0 . 900 32 . 604 22 . 869 0 .697 0 . 900 34. 975 25 .038 0 . 651

0 .970 36 . 653 38 . 115 0 .018 0 .970 39 . 033 41 . 730 0 . 012

0 . 990 39 . 696 48. 279 0 .000 0 . 990 42 . 235 52 . 858 0 . 000

STATION 10831 BIRMINGHAM . AL STATION 15478 MOBILE . AL

0 .600 55 . 274 26 .615 1 . 000 0 .600 39 . 240 19. 290 0 . 992

0 . 960 68 . 507 66 .538 0 . 062 0 . 960 54 . 861 46 . 225 0 . 124

STATION 15478 MOBILE . AL STATION 15478 MOBILE , AL

0 . 400 25 .643 7 . 100 0 . 975 0 . 400 61. 482 16 . 745 1 . 000

0 .900 35 .071 25 . 560 0 .606 0 .900 8 : . 657 60. 282 0 .639

0 . 950 37 . 566 28. 400 0 . 411 0 .950 66 , 995 66 . 980 0 . 423

0 . 960 35 .500 0 . 009 0 . 960 88 . 592 83 . 725 0 .077

0 .970 39 . 244 42 .600 0 .010 0 . 970 90 . 581 100 . 470

STATION 26481 PHOENIX . AZ STATION 29660 YUMA . AZ

STATION 29660 YUMA ,AZ STATION 29660 YUMA . AZ

0 . 400 0 . 952 0 . 423 0 .822 0 . 400 2 .040 0 .666 0.949

0 . 990 72 . 540 92 . 168 0 . 000 0 . 990 13 . 999 12 . 882 0 . 020

STATION 42910 EUREKA . CA STATION 42910 EUREKA . CA

0. 400 31 . 053 8 . 245 0 .975 0 . 400 37 . 190 9 . 940 1 . 000

0 . 900 43 . 245 29 .682 0 .672 0 . 900 50 .635 35 . 784 0 .666

0 . 970 48 . 602 49 . 470 0 .025 0 . 970 56 .643 59 .640 0 .0is

0 . 990 52 . 991 62 . 662 0 . 003 0 . 990 61 . 398 75 . 544 0 .000

STATION 47630 SACRAMENTO . CA STATION 47740 SAN DIEGO . CA

STATION 47740 SAN DIEGO . CA STATION 47740 SA DIEGO .. CA

0 . 950 14 . 775 8 . 230 0 . 434 0 . 950 16 . 990 9 . 450 0 . 453

0 .900 4 . 202 0 . 400 0 .900 25 . 493 15 . 480 0 .541

0 . 900 6 . 375 4 . 078 0 . 109 0 .980 32 . 474 30 . 100 0 .036