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Vehicle System Dynamics: International

Journal of Vehicle Mechanics and
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Simulation and validation of the ply

steer residual aligning torque induced
by the tyre tread pattern
a a a b
R. Mundl , M. Fischer , M. Wajroch & S. W. Lee
a
Continental AG , Hannover, Germany
b
Continental Tire North America, Inc , Charlotte, North Carolina,
USA
Published online: 12 Oct 2011.

To cite this article: R. Mundl , M. Fischer , M. Wajroch & S. W. Lee (2005) Simulation and
validation of the ply steer residual aligning torque induced by the tyre tread pattern, Vehicle
System Dynamics: International Journal of Vehicle Mechanics and Mobility, 43:sup1, 434-443, DOI:
10.1080/00423110500109265

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00423110500109265

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 Vehicle System Dynamics
Vol. 43, Supplement, 2005, 434–443

Simulation and validation of the ply steer residual aligning

torque induced by the tyre tread pattern
Downloaded by [Massachusetts Institute of Technology] at 04:31 05 November 2014

R. MUNDL*†, M. FISCHER†, M. WAJROCH† and S. W. LEE‡

†Continental AG, Hannover, Germany
‡Continental Tire North America, Inc, Charlotte, North Carolina, USA

This paper describes the simulation procedure of a ply steer residual aligning torque (PRAT) using a
stationary global rolling finite-element method (FEM) tyre model combined with a detailed local FEM
tread pattern model. The simulated results of the PRAT for eight tread pattern variants are compared
with measured values of experimental tyres and do show a high correlation. Additionally, simulated
local contact stress distributions of the tread blocks on a rolling tyre show a high degree of similarity
compared with measured distributions generated with a specific in-house test drum. Finally, the local
contact stresses are mechanically interpreted to obtain a basic understanding of how the PRAT is
generated by the tread pattern. The application of the prescribed simulation procedure to realistic
serial patterns is planned for the future. Thus tyre body and pattern PRAT effects can be balanced and
the car manufacturers’ requirements will be met in an early stage of product development.

Keywords: Plysteer residual aligning torque; Finite-element simulation; Tread pattern; Tread block
deformation; Coupling stiffness

1. Introduction

Straight running of a vehicle is a relevant safety feature of vehicle performance. Typical causes
such as cross wind, road crown, vehicle alignment and possibly tyres do sometimes require
a steering pull to keep the vehicle running straight. Belted radial tyres generate measurable
lateral forces and aligning torques even when rolling with a zero slip angle. From these
force and moment tyre characteristics around zero slip angle, a so-called ‘ply steer residual
aligning torque’ (PRAT), is derived. Some car manufacturers in the USA and Japan ensure
proper straight running of their vehicles by using the PRAT as an approval value.
The PRAT value depends on tyre body design, for example tyre size and belt cord angle,
but to a greater extent on tread pattern layout. In the industrialization phase of a new tyre line,
major investments have to be made on tyre-curing moulds. Changes after the pattern freeze
at the end of the development phase become very costly. Therefore a reliable simulation
or prediction procedure of the tyre patterns’ PRAT value generates savings. Expensive test
costs using experimental moulds or even a costly mould exchange in serial production can
be avoided.

*Corresponding author. Email: reinhard.mundl@conti.de

Vehicle System Dynamics

ISSN 0042-3114 print/ISSN 1744-5159 online © 2005 Taylor & Francis
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
DOI: 10.1080/00423110500109265
 PRAT induced by the tyre tread pattern 435

2. Vehicle dynamics

2.1 Definition of the ply steer residual aligning torque

The so-called ply steer side force is an inherent property of a belted tyre and is the non-zero side
force at slip angle zero. The side force itself becomes zero at a small slip angle. The analogous
behaviour of the self-aligning torque is slightly different. It reveals generally a non-vanishing
amount of residual self-aligning torque at the point where the side force becomes zero. In
figure 1 the side force and self-aligning torque behaviours are visualized around zero slip
angle defined in a tyre fixed coordinate system following ISO 8855. The described behaviour
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depends on the sense of rotation of the tyre, clockwise or counterclockwise. The differences
occurring between clockwise and counterclockwise behaviours are described by the so-called
conicity, which is for a symmetrical tyre design mainly due to production scatter. Taking
into account conicity effects, the PRAT is defined by averaging the clockwise and counter
clockwise behaviours given by the formula

PRAT = 0.5[SAT(SF = 0)cw + SAT(SF = 0)ccw ],

where SAT is the self-aligning torque, SF is the side force and the subscripts CW and CCW
represent clockwise and counterclockwise respectively.
As the later-described finite-element model is strongly symmetrical with respect to the
midplane of the tyre, no conicity effects are simulated, whereas the related measurement
results do average the clockwise and counterclockwise directions.

2.2 Straight-ahead running

In the straight running condition the average lateral forces on the front and rear axles must
be zero for equilibrium reasons. To accomplish that the whole car is travelling at a small side

Figure 1. Definition of PRAT: SF, side force; SAT, self-aligning torque; SA, slip angle; PRCF, ply residual c—
force; CW, clockwise; CCW, counterclockwise.
 436 R. Mundl et al.
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Figure 2. Vehicle straight-running behaviour: SF, side force; PRCF, ply residual c—- force; RAT, residual
self-aligning torque.

slip angle, defined by the average slip angle for zero side force at the rear axle. If no steering
moment is applied to the steering wheel, the front axle tyres tend to roll at the slip angle where
the self-aligning torque is zero. In general, the remaining averaged side forces will give the
vehicle a small lateral acceleration that causes the car to drift away. On the other hand, if the
steering wheel is kept in a position for straight running, the remaining averaged self-aligning
torque of the front wheels for side force zero evokes a pull on to the steering wheel. It gives
the driver the feeling that he/she has to enforce straight running by steering (figure 2).
With these considerations, to work out the main effect clearly, zero conicity, camber and
toe-in have been assumed.

3. Simulation and validation of the ply steer residual aligning torque

3.1 Tyre modelling

As a consequence of the fact that the Finite-element method (FEM) simulation of a whole tyre
including the tread pattern needs too high a computational effort, the total model is separated
into two parts: the tyre body and the tread. The strategy to solve the equilibrium conditions
for the whole tyre model is called the ‘global–local procedure’ [1].
‘Global’ stands for the complete smooth tyre with longitudinal grooves on which the test
conditions of the real tyre are applied. The deformation of the global model is calculated by
an in-house FEM program called GENFEP. The simulation of such a tyre model is easier
because the tread design in this case is rotationally symmetrical and the number of ele-
ments is small enough using the adopted element sizes shown in figure 3. The elements
in the contact patch are as small as necessary and the remaining element size is as large as
possible.
‘Local’ stands for the ‘pitch’ of a tyre pattern that represents the recurrent design element of
the whole tread. The deformation of the local model is calculated by the FEM code ABAQUS.
Figure 4 shows the single pitch which sums up by superposition to a full tread pattern sector
necessary to cover the contact area, illustrated in figure 5.
 PRAT induced by the tyre tread pattern 437
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Figure 3. Global tyre model: SF, side force; SAT, self-aligning torque; SA, slip angle.

The basic idea of the global–local procedure is to calculate the belt deformation of the
loaded global model and to pass one pitch model through the gap between the rotating belt
and the moving rigid road surface as fixed boundary conditions. The reactive forces of the road
on to this pitch are summed at equidistant angular positions without overlapping and clear-
ance between the pitches. Furthermore, to achieve the predefined load conditions, additional
adaptation steps have to be made as summarized in figure 6. The global model has tread ribs,
which can bulge under compression only into the longitudinal grooves. The local model has
tread blocks, which can bulge into the longitudinal and lateral grooves. Consequently, the local
tread model is softer in the radial direction than the respective tread of the global tyre model.
To account for this difference in radial stiffness the road surface has to be shifted iteratively
closer to the tyre centre until the reactive vertical force reaches the tyre load. An analogous
procedure between tyre rotation and longitudinal road movement is necessary to reach the
free-rolling condition. This procedure is applied for two slip angle conditions around 0◦ and
linear behaviours for the lateral force and aligning torque assumed. Thus the PRAT can be
calculated as shown in figure 1.

Figure 4. Pitch of model D.

 438 R. Mundl et al.
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Figure 5. Complete contact patch of model D.

3.2 Experimental design

Figure 7 gives an overview of all analysed tread designs. From these eight Taguchi L8 designs
of tread pattern variants the local tyre models have been created and simulated with the
above-described global–local procedure. The global model (tyre body) is kept constant. The
same set of variants was realized by robot-carved experimental tyres and the PRAT behaviour
has been measured on a flat track test machine.

Figure 6. Global–local procedure.

 PRAT induced by the tyre tread pattern 439
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Figure 7. Taguchi L8 designs of tread pattern variants.

3.3 Simulation versus experimental results

Figures 8 and 9 represent the simulated PRAT values in comparison with the measured values.
It has to be noted that simulated and measured results are not exactly at the same level but
show similar behaviours over the variants, confirmed by a correlation coefficient R 2 = 0.9.
Considering the hand-carving irregularity, the testing and manufacturing variances and the
tyre model simplification, the congruence is regarded as very high.

Figure 8. PRAT simulated versus measured results.

 440 R. Mundl et al.
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Figure 9. Correlation of simulated and measured values.

4. Simulation and measurement of the local contact stress distribution

4.1 Example of simulated versus measured shear stress distribution

For validation of the simulated shear stress distributions, additional measurements were car-
ried out. The three components of the contact stress distribution in the contact patch were
measured with a Continental in-house test [2]. Figures 10 and 11 show comparable lateral and
longitudinal shear stress distributions in simulation and measurement.

4.2 Interpretation of lateral and longitudinal shear stress distributions

The stress distribution in the contact patch is the result of the superposition of global tyre
body deformation and local block deformation. These effects act in a contrary manner on the
tread surface in contact. The global deformation shears the tread blocks in the direction of
the contact patch boundary, whereas the local block deformation causes shear from the block
edge to its centre. This can be clearly seen in figure 10. The dominant areas in the left and
right shoulder blocks respectively are located inversely compared with the arrangement of

Figure 10. Lateral shear stress distribution (free rolling in a direction going straight forwards).
 PRAT induced by the tyre tread pattern 441
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Figure 11. Longitudinal shear stress distribution (free rolling in a direction going straight forwards).

the partial areas in the tread blocks of the intermediate and centre rows. This is also because
lateral shear forces caused by tyre deformations occur primarily in the shoulders whereas the
block effect is independent of the location in the contact patch.
The longitudinal shear stress distribution can be explained in an analogous way (figure 11).
On the leading and trailing edges, shear forces due to tyre body deformation dominate. The
tread pattern pitches located in the centre show longitudinal shear stresses caused by pure
block deformation.

5. Tread pattern mechanics for the ply steer residual aligning torque

The shape and the location of the tread blocks mainly influence the PRAT value, which
originates from the tread pattern design. Tread block shapes, which are not symmetric with
respect to the X axis (longitudinal direction) or Y axis (lateral direction with respect to the tyre
plane) as shown in figure 12 have so-called coupling stiffness [3]. This means that a reactive
force in the y direction proportional to the coupling stiffness is necessary when deforming the
block in only the x direction.

Figure 12. Principal axes and coupling stiffness.

 442 R. Mundl et al.

The phenomenon can be explained by beam-bending theory, in which the cross section of
the beam is equal to the block shape. Beam deformations occur only in load direction when the
load is in-line with one of the principal axes ξ and η of the cross sections [4]. If the principal
axes ξ and η of the tread block are inclined at an angle ϕ versus the directions x and y and if
the principal stiffnesses cξ and cη are different, a coupling stiffness cxy occurs:

sin(2ϕ)
cxy = (cξ − cη ) .
2
If the tyre is free rolling, lateral and longitudinal shear stresses are generated in the contact
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area by flattening the toroidal shape of the tyre surface. These shear stresses are applied to the
single blocks and do cause coupled reaction forces, resulting in an aligning torque as shown
in figure 13.
The summation of the reaction forces in the shoulder areas gives a positive contribution to
the residual aligning torque in the case of a negative lateral block edge inclination α. With a
positive lateral block edge inclination in the centre area the contribution becomes positive as
well.
Thus the coupling stiffness and the position of the tread blocks within the contact patch
determine the PRAT potential. In conjunction with the lateral and longitudinal contact stress
distributions the PRAT can be quantified. As the tyre contour and size of the contact area
influence the contact shear stresses significantly, they are important design parameters for the
estimation of the PRAT.

6. Outlook

The investigated Taguchi L8 (Taguchi design code) designs of tread pattern variants are based
on a ‘technical’pattern concept, avoiding any unnecessary detailed styling aspects and focusing
on block typed patterns. Realistic serial patterns on the market are generally more complex
and often exhibit ‘ribs’ or steeply inclined lateral grooves extending over several pitches.
In this case the mechanical interaction between the pitches becomes important and special
consideration has to be placed on defining suitable boundary conditions between the pitches,

Figure 13. Shear forces in contact patch block reactions.

 PRAT induced by the tyre tread pattern 443

so that the described superposition strategy can still be used. Another strategy would be the
introduction of orthotropic finite elements, the parameters of which are to be identified by
averaging the stiffness of a tread in ‘rows’ over the whole contact patch.
The paper describes only tread pattern effects, but for the tyre as a whole the interaction with
the tyre’s body PRAT performance might become significant. The validation of the described
global local procedure including variations in tyre constructions will show whether a simple
superposition of tyre body and tyre tread effects hold for prediction purposes.
Nevertheless time-consuming FEM modelling enforces the development of rules to predict
the PRAT when a single-size developed pattern has to be transferred to a whole range of
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tyre sizes. The FEM has then to secure prediction quality only for anchor points covering the
production range of sizes.
In the future, PRAT simulation by FEM will therefore help to develop more rapidly and
precisely the straight-running capability of whole tyre lines.

References
[1] Wajroch, M., 2003, Simulation of tread pattern related plysteer residual aligning torque PRAT. Diploma thesis,
University of Applied Sciences and Art Hannover, Germany.
[2] Köhne, S.H., Matute, B. and Mundl, R., 2003, Evaluation of tire tread body interactions in the contact patch. Tire
Science and Technology, 31, 159–172.
[3] Okonieski, R.E., Moseley, D.J. and Cai, K.Y., 2003, Simplified approach to calculating geometric stiffness
properties of tread pattern elements. Tire Science and Technology, 31, 132–158.
[4] Beitz, W. and Grote, K.-H., 1997, Kapitel 2.4.5 Biegespannungen in geraden Balken. In Dubbel Taschenbuch für
den Maschinenbau, 19th edition (Berlin: Springer), p. C12.