MODULE 1: PRINCIPLES ASSOCIATED TO COGNITIVE, METACOGNITIVE,

MOTIVATIONAL, AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

∙ explain the cognitive, metacognitive, motivational and affective factors of teaching and
learning;
∙ summarize learning using graphic organizers; and
∙ cite classroom situations that manifest applications of the principles.
THINK

In the early 1990s, the American Psychological Association (APA) appointed a group, a
Task Force on Psychology in Education to conduct further studies in both psychology and
education.

The purpose of this group was to conduct studies that could further enhance the current
understanding of educators on the nature of the learners about the teaching and learning
process. The end goal was to improve the existing school practices so that learning becomes
more meaningful to all kinds of learners.

The 14 Learner-Centered Psychological Principles are categorized as follows: (1) cognitive

and metacognitive factors; (2) motivational and affective; (3) developmental and social; and (4)
individual difference factors. All these principles influence the teaching and learning process
(APA, 1997).

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

Cognitive factors refer to the mental processes the learners undergo as they process
information. The way learners think about their thinking as they engaged in mental tasks is the
concern of the metacognitive factors.

1. The learning of complicated subject matter is most effective when it is an

intentional process of constructing meaning from information and
experience.

Teachers play a significant role in guiding their learners to become active, goal
directed, and self-regulating, and to assume personal responsibility for their learning.
The learning activities and opportunities provided by the teacher are very important
situations where learners can integrate knowledge and concepts to their experiences.
Whenever teachers plan their lessons and topics, they always need to consider how they
can bring reality in the classroom. Learners need to have a clear and concrete
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understanding of knowledge and concepts presented so that they would also know in
what particular situation they have to apply them. Learning through experience is the
most effective way of teaching. An intentional learning environment is one that fosters
activity and feedback and creates a culture that promotes metacognition, that is, one in
which the learner becomes aware of his or her learning process and can use tools to
enhance their learning process (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1989).

2. The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional
guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.

Learners need to be goal-directed. Teachers have to guide learners in terms of

determining their personal goals. They need to set their goals, not dictated by others, to
ensure their willingness to achieve them. Meaningful learning takes place when what is
presented to learners is very much related to their needs and interests. When learners
have good understanding of the concepts discussed in school, they can reach long-term
goals most likely. Indeed, it is challenging to motivate learners to succeed.

3. The successful learner can link new information from existing knowledge in
meaningful ways.

In planning a new lesson to be presented, teachers would usually find it more

effective when they connect the learners’ existing knowledge to new information. The
integration of prior experiences to a new concept to be learned is a way of making
connections between what is new and what is already known. This is the very heart of
constructivism – that new knowledge is created from old knowledge. Teachers should
initiate more opportunities for learns to share ideas, experiences, observations, and
readings as the need arises. Sharing prior knowledge can be done in creative strategies
like concept mapping, group activities, and other collaborative techniques where
learners are also able to learn from each other’s experiences.

4. The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and
reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals.

Strategic thinking is a person’s ability to use knowledge in different ways to solve

problems, address concerns and issues, decrease difficulties in certain situations, and
make sound decisions and judgments in varied conditions. A strategic thinker does not
easily give up even in difficult situations. They are more challenged to find ways to solve
a problem no matter how many times they already failed. They are not afraid to commit
mistakes because they perceive them as meaningful learning experiences to
continuously discover other ways of arriving at solutions. Teachers are supposed to give
them as many opportunities to learn, experiment, solve, and explore new ideas and
 concepts. Thus, to motivate and encourage the learners to be more creative and
innovative in their ideas, opinions, and responses are musts for teachers.

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5. Higher-order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations
facilitate creative and critical thinking.

One of the most challenging roles of the teachers is to develop among their
learners’ higher order thinking skills (HOTS). This means that their learners can do
evaluation, synthesis, analysis, and interpretation of varied concepts, information, and
knowledge. As previously mentioned, learners develop their thinking skills when they
are provided with opportunities and learning experiences to process varied events and
situations, specifically if given real problems. This context means that aside from
mastering information, discovery, problem solving, creation, and evaluation should be
integrated into their learning experiences.

6. Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture,

technology, and instructional practices.

Learning does not only take place inside the classroom. Much of what learners
learn in the classroom with their teachers can only have meaning once they see them
concretely in their everyday life. Examples given should be a reflection of their actual life
experiences. The digital tools and instructional practices must be carefully selected to
facilitate a motivating, stimulating, and encouraging learning environment geared
toward effective acquisition of knowledge, concepts, and skills among learners.

Motivational and Affective Factors

How the learners push themselves to learn and how they value learning are the
concerns of the motivational factors, meanwhile, the affective factors relate to the attitude,
feelings, and emotions that learners put into the learning task.

1. What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner’s motivation.

Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual’s emotional states,

beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of thinking. Motivation plays a very important
role in learning. This pertains to an individual’s inner drive to do something, accomplish
something, pursue a goal, learn, and master a skill, or just discover without necessarily
being forced or pushed by anyone. The level of one’s motivation would also determine
the extent of his/her ability to accomplish desired tasks. They way teachers motivate
 their learners is then crucial to make them actively engaged in the learning process.

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In lesson planning, the motivation part of the lesson sets the positive mindset of
the learners. No matter how new, challenging, and technical a topic is, if the level of
their motivation is high, they would always find the interest to participate and get
themselves engaged. Meanwhile, if there were no efforts to motivate learners, then,
there would also be no engagement to learning.

Teachers as well as parents’ encouragements, praises, and rewards can boost the
learners’ confidence. They can also establish positive emotional states and good habits
of thinking in individuals. Learners will always feel that mistakes and errors are normal
parts of learning. Teachers should also use learning materials and strategies that would
eradicate learners’ anxiety, panic, and even insecurities.

2. The learner’s creativity, higher-order thinking, and natural curiosity all

contribute to the motivation to learn.

Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty,

relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal choice and control. There are
two kinds of motivation – intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is
manifested when an individual engages in an activity or task that is personally gratifying.
It is personally rewarding, and there is no expectation for any external or tangible
reward. Extrinsic motivation, meanwhile, is its direct opposite. A person engages in a
task or activity to earn external rewards or to avoid punishments in some situations.

As teachers and mentors, the most important way to motivate the students to
learn is to present the value of that knowledge or concept to their life. Learning is not
only about getting good grades or complying with requirements, but it is more of
knowing why they need to learn such and what specific instances in their life they will be
able to use them. When what is being taught to the students is presented creatively, it
stimulates their HOTS, enhances their curiosity, and heightens their interest to learn
more about it. Teaching strategies that allow personal choice and control, collaboration,
and creation for learners contribute to a more heightened intrinsic motivation for
learning.

3. Acquisition of sophisticated knowledge and skills requires extensive

learner’s effort and guided practice.

The learners’ motivation to learn is also partnered by their extended efforts.

Teachers facilitate learning opportunities and experiences that encourage learners to
exert time and effort and at the same time commitment and enthusiasm toward a task
 they have to do and a concept they have to learn. It is through the teachers’
encouragement that they will have to do tasks with quality and not just for compliance’s
sake.

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Teacher can praise works that have been done well. They can also acknowledge
every little achievement of a person. Teachers can use their errors or mistakes as
opportunities for mentoring. All these raise a person’s motivation to learn. Positive
emotions established in the classroom as well as with others make learning interesting
for everybody in general. The learning environment can also foster positive emotions
when there is no competition between and among learners, and numeric grades are just
secondary considerations as pieces of evidence of learning.
EXPERIENCE

Learners acquire knowledge and skills from the experiences that they actively engage in.
this scenario demands the teachers to be in an active as well to effect the intended positive
changes to the learners. Initially, teachers’ awareness of students’ background or characteristics
is vital input in instructional design. Common experienced shared by teachers in seminars and
trainings reveal the varied methodologies and strategies they have proven in their action
researches to be effective. Cognition is triggered by the varied types of motivation used by
teachers and the strategies they use to build a more positive effect among the learners.
Likewise, prior knowledge has been found useful in the learners’ metacognitive thinking. The
stock knowledge and skills have developed greater confidence for the learners to hurdle the
task – in the planning of the strategies to solve a task, in their monitoring of their solving
processes, and in evaluating their output. Based on common experiences by teachers, learners
achieve more if they exert effort in the tasks given to them.

The teachers should consider all the major elements of the cognitive and metacognitive
factors of learning as follows: nature of the learning process, goals of the learning process,
construction of knowledge, strategic thinking, thinking about thinking, and the context of
learning. Each teacher’s learning plan should be carefully checked as to its appropriateness and
effectiveness in lesson delivery. Mentoring of new teachers by seasoned teachers should also be
a good practice that needs to be observed in schools. Teachers have best practices in motivating
and stimulating their learners depending on their age and grade levels. Sometimes, extrinsic
motivation works effectively among those in the lower grades, like giving tokens, stars, or any
tangible reward. As they progress from one grade level to the other, teachers also modify
motivation from being extrinsic to intrinsic because they are now becoming more matured
learners. Their interests as well as the commitment to finish their tasks are now more critical
rather than just the concrete rewards.
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ASSESS

Activity 1: Read and analyze the statements. If true, write YES before the item; if false, write
NO.

___ 1. Differentiated instruction attempts to resolve diversity of learners in the classroom. ___
2. The motivation of a learner from the urban community is similar to that from the rural
area.
___ 3. The development of higher-order thinking skills is attainable among the lower years.
___ 4. Making learning alive and active initiates students’ positive love for the subject. ___ 5.
Verbal reinforcements, as they seem fitted for the elementary level, are avoided in the senior
high school level.
___ 6. The practice of unlocking difficulties for a difficult lesson provides scaffold to the
learners.
___ 7. The assistance of a more advanced student to a slow learner in explaining the lesson is
defeating the purpose of active engagement of the learner.
___ 8. Praising a slow learner for a little effort is a stepping stone for his/her progress. ___ 9.
Using new technologies in the classroom has more disadvantages than advantages, as
learners are overwhelmed.

Activity 2: In a three-paragraph essay, explain the cognitive, metacognitive, motivation, and

affective factors of psychological learner-centered principle of learning in your own words. Cite
at least two classroom situations that apply two principles of these factors.
CHALLENGE

1. “Variety is a spice of life.” How is this statement applicable in the selection of instructional
strategies, motivational strategies, and affective strategies?

2. “This subject is my Waterloo” – a statement most learners attribute to subjects they find
 difficult. If you were the teacher, what motivation and affective strategies would you use to
alter this perception and attitude.
HARNESS

1. Complete the graphic organizer by filing it up with novel classroom practices that address
the psychological principles of learner-centered learning.

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Practice

Cognitive
and Meta
cognitve
Classroom
Practice Factors Classroom
Classroom Practice
Practice

Classroom
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