Chapter 4

System Design & Operation

Cogeneration or Combined Heat and Power (CHP) is the process which derive two
forms of energy from a single fuel source. Generally, the process produces electricity and
steam from the same fuel. The type of the system is usually used in manufacturing plant
like sugar manufacturing plant in which the fuel itself, which is a biomass, came from
leftovers of the raw materials to be processed. The goal of every manufacturing plant that
uses combine heat and power system is to achieve self- sufficiency and to generate small
amount of electricity that can be sold into the grid.

Compared to other plants like coal-fired, natural gas and others, cogeneration
power plants efficiency can be up to 85% which is already proven by most of the
countries, including Philippines, where cogeneration power are utilized.

For this chapter, selected CHP system is stated as well as the other technical
options recommended by most designers in choosing the most effective system to attain
well-suited cogeneration.

Figure 4.1 shows the schematic diagram of a cogeneration steam power plant.

Source: David, 2003

Figure 4.1: Cogeneration Steam Power Plant

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 The selection of combine heat and power system and its design will be discussed
as well as the technical recommendations with accordance of the international and local
standards to come up an effective and well suited cogeneration power plant design.

4.1 Cogeneration Cycle

Cogeneration cycle is being selected based on the electricity and steam

requirements of the manufacturing plant. Main parameters on selecting cogeneration
cycle for the design are listed as follows:

a. Electrical Requirements
All the power requirements of the site like power for driving the motors
and equipment’s; and
b. Thermal Requirements
Low temperature and pressure steam must be observed for heating
purposes to avoid sticking of juice on the vessel walls.

A typical cogeneration system employing steam power is consists of a steam

generator, turbo generator, condenser, pumps and others. A cogeneration system can
be classified as either a topping or a bottoming cycle on the basis of the sequence of
energy use.

4.1.1 Topping Cycle

The fuel supplied is used to first produce power and thermal energy, which is the
by-product of the cycle and is used to satisfy process heat or other thermal requirements.
Topping cycle cogeneration is widely used and is the most popular method of
cogeneration (George, 2009).

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 Figure 4.2 shows the schematic diagram of topping cycle system.

Source: David, 2003

Figure 4.2: Topping Cycle

4.1.2 Bottoming Cycle

The primary fuel produces high temperature thermal energy and the heat rejected
from the process is used to generate power though a recovery boiler and a turbine
generator. Bottoming cycle is suitable for manufacturing processes that require heat at
high temperature in furnaces and fins, and reject heat at significantly high temperatures.
Bottoming cycle plants are much less common than topping cycle plants (George, 2009).

Figure 4.3 shoes the diagram of bottoming cycle system.

Source: David, 2003

Figure 3.3: Bottoming Cycle

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4.1.3 Selected Cogeneration Cycle

To achieve good quality sugar products, low operating pressure of exhaust steam
for process usage should be in the range of 68 to 115 KPa. The sand values are
commonly observed by operating plants in the country to avoid development of color in
the juices as well as destruction of sucrose (SRA).

The designers selected cogeneration topping cycle. Manufacturing requirements for

a sugar plant only allow a low pressure and low temperature steam. Therefore, with
topping cycle being used, more electricity can be generated by letting first the
superheated steam strike the turbo generator. The higher power generated by the plant
can certainly supply the electric-driven utilities in the whole plant.

4.2 Cogeneration System

Cogeneration technologies that have been widely used include steam turbine, gas
turbine, reciprocating engine and heat recovery system. The technologies differ mostly in
the energy conversion device that is used depending on the fluid that is fed into them.
Combine heat and power (CHP) plant that used bagasse as fuel focuses on the operation
of steam turbine cogeneration system, which will be the only type of the system that will
be discussed for the whole design.

4.2.1 Steam Turbine Cogeneration System

Steam turbines are widely used for combined heat and power (CHP) application.
The thermodynamic cycle for the steam turbine is the Rankine Cycle. The cycle is the
basis for conventional power generating stations and consists of a heat source boiler that
converts water to high-pressure steam (Woodruff et. al. 2004).

Since the objective of Cogeneration Plant is to produce steam for the generation of
electricity that satisfy the manufacturing plant, steam turbine cogeneration system is
suitable as the prime mover of the system. The two types of steam turbines for

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cogeneration system that widely used are back pressure steam turbine and extraction
condensing steam turbine.

4.2.1.1 Back Pressure Steam Turbine

Back pressure turbine operates by expanding high pressure steam through a

turbine and then the output steam is then exhaust at a low pressure suitable for heat
requirements for processing with an overall efficiency 84-92%. The type of turbine is
commonly used by existing refineries, sugar and pulp and paper mills and desalination
facilities. In the case of some sugar mill and refinery, one of the configurations of a back
pressure steam turbine is that the extracted steam will not be only be used for heating
purpose but also for driving the turbine-driven parasitic loads like pumps and fans
(Woodruff et. al. 2004).

Figure 4.4 shows the diagram of back pressure steam turbine.

Source: David, 2003

Figure 4.4: Back Pressure Turbine

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4.2.1.2 Extraction Condensing Steam Turbine

Extraction condensing turbine is the combination of back pressure and condensing

turbine in which the required quantity of low pressure steam is automatically extracted
from the turbine to various stages like for process use and the remaining steam flows into
a surface condenser achieving possible pressure drop. The turbine has an overall
efficiency of 60-80 % but having the type of turbine can generate more electricity
compared to back pressure turbine (Woodruff et. al. 2004).

Figure 4.5 shows the diagram of extraction condensing steam turbine.

Source: David, 2003

Figure 4.5: Extraction Condensing Steam Turbine

4.2.2 Selected Steam Turbine Configuration

In order to choose the ideal steam turbine configuration, one has to consider the
requirements and the objectives of the manufacturing plant which is to attain a high
electric generation for the continuous operation of the whole manufacturing plant. And,
also the portion of the whole generated power is for the other plant requirements.

The designers selected extraction condensing turbine cogeneration system. The

overall thermal efficiency of the extraction condensing turbine cogeneration system is
lower than the back pressure turbine system for the reason that the exhaust heat cannot
be utilized which is normally considered as a loss in the cooling water circuit.

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 In spite of lower thermal efficiency of the system, extraction condensing
cogeneration system produce more electricity which results to more excess power which
is presented in table below.

4.3 Combustion Technology

Choosing proper combustion technology is essential for a combine heat plant

(CHP) also for the purpose of attaining a much higher efficiency. One of the basic
parameters that must be consider is the type and size of fuel to be burned, proper
handling and disposal of ashes and lastly, maintenance of the equipment used in the
system. The bagasse is the fuel that must be considered. Typical and up-to-date trends
of combustion technology used in sugar cogeneration plant using bagasse as fuel will
be discussed below.

Pulverized combustion technology is disregarded to the selection of the

combustion system, since it requires a fuel size of less than 75 microns. Therefore,
pulverize combustion system is not ideal for fuels such as bagasse.

4.3.1 Travelling grate

Travelling grate furnaces are built of grate bars forming an endless band (like
moving staircase) moving through the combustion chamber. Fuel is supplied at one end
of the combustion chamber onto the grate, by e.g. screw conveyor, or is distributed over
the grate by spreader stockers injecting the fuel into the combustion chamber. The fuel
bed itself does not move, but is transported through the combustion chamber by the
grate, contrary to moving grate furnaces where the fuel bed is moved over the grate. At
the end of the combustion chamber is cleaned of ash and dirt while the band turns
around automatic ash removal. On the way back, the grate bars are cooled by primary air
in order to avoid overheating and to minimized wear out. The speed of the travelling grate
is continuously adjustable in order to achieve complete charcoal burnout (Sjaok van loo
et. al. 2008). The advantages of travelling grate are noted as follows:

1. Uniform combustion condition for wood, bagasse, chips and pallets;

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 2. Low dust emissions due to stable and almost unmoving bed of embers;
3. Maintenance or replacement of grate bars is easy to handle;
4. Motion assures the automatic rejection of ashes without any type of modification in
the flow or the produced steam; and
5. High burning efficiency.
Travelling grate is a kind of grate and stocker furnace, under overfeed fuel
classification. Table 4.1 shows the combustion analysis of grate and stoker.

Table 4.1: Combustion Analysis of Travelling Grate

PARAMETER TRAVELLING REMARK

GRATE S
Uneven size of fuel can be Bagasse has an uneven
FUEL used 19-35 mm. size ranges from 2-25
SIZE mm.
 The combustion is Bagasse produces a large
better version of pile amount of ash, therefore ash
COMBUSTION combustion. must be removed a
 Heavier size mass
continuous basis to prevent
falls on the grate. the building up to clinker.
 Ash is removed on a
continuous basis and
therefore the chances
of clinker formation are
less.

Most common furnace

BED TEMP. 1000-1640°C
MOISTUR It can handle fuels with high
E moisture condition up to 45-
55%
LHV Travelling grate has a 8000
kJ/kg heating value can be
burned in stoker fired.
ASH CONTENT Ash content range 4%-25%
with a dry basis.
Source: Black & Veatch, 2003
temperature for bagasse
combustion is approximately
1110°C.
Bagasse has a moisture
content of 45%.
Bagasse has a uniform
heating value near 8214.03
kJ/kg
Bagasse fuel has an ash
content range from 4 to 18
percent.

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 Figure 4.6 shows the travelling grate furnace.

Source: Bobcock, 2009

Figure 4.6: Travelling Grate Furnace

4.3.2 Fluidized Bed Furnace

In fluidized bed combustion, fuel is burned in a bed of hot particles that are
suspended by an upward flow of fluidizing gas. The fuel is solid fuel such as coal, wood
chips, etc. The Fluidizing gas is a combination of the combustion air and the flue gas
products of combustion. When sulphur capture is not required, the fuel ash may be
supplemented by an inert material such as sand to maintain the bed. Bed is use in heat
absorbing surface within or enclosing the bed. The type of combustion technology is
noted for its advantages that are follows (Woodruff et. al. 2004). The advantages of
fluidized bed are noted as follows:

1. Ability to burn wide range of fuels at lower temperature;

2. Can handle solid fuels;
3. Good heat and mass transfer; and
4. Cleanly burns the fuel.

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 Fluidized bed combustion is divided into two types namely bubbling and circulating
fluidized bed. Table 4.2 shows the combustion analysis of fluidized bed.

Table 4.2: Fluidized Bed Combustion Analysis

PARAMETER FLUIDIZED BED REMARKS

Bagasse has an uneven size;

FUEL SIZE Uniform size fuel in range of 1 in fluidized bed it requires a
to10 mm. uniform size fuel in range of 1
to 10 mm.
 Fuel particles are in
fluidized state and there
is adequate mixing of Easy ash removal system
COMBUSTION which is appropriate especially
fuel and air.
 The fly ash which is bagasse produces a large
produced by the amount of ash.
Combustion remains
suspended.

Fluidized bed temperature has

a range of 800-870°C lower
BED TEMP. 800-870°C than the common furnace
temperature for bagasse which
is equal to 1110°C.

Combustion condition not very Moisture content of bagasse is

MOISTURE much to interfere with 4-5% equal to 45%; fluidized bed
increase in moisture. cannot handle fuel with high
moisture condition.

LHV A heating value of 8000 kJ/kg Bagasse has a uniform heating

can be burned in a water- higher value near 8214.03 kJ
cooled fluid bed boiler. /kg not acceptable due to the
lower value of fluidized bed.

ASH CONTENT a high-ash fuel with a low Ash content is acceptable

moisture content less than 30 based on the range from 4-18
percent. %.
Source: Black & Veatch, 2003

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 Figure 4.7 shows the Fluidized bed furnace.

Source: Bobcock, 2009

Figure 4.7: Fluidized Bed Furnace

4.3.3 Selected Combustion Technology

The two stated combustion technology is suitable for the sugar manufacturing
plant but it only differ in the requirements of the combined heat plant. The requirements
for selecting the suitable furnace for the CHP plant are stated as follows:

1. Uniform combustion;
2. High burning efficiency;
3. Ability to handle typical prepared size of bagasse;
4. Maintenance; and
5. Low ash emission.

Table 4.3 shows the summary comparison between the two combustion
technologies. The comparison will help to choose what type of combustion technology is
suitable for the requirements of the cogeneration power plant.

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 Table 4.3: Summary Comparison of Combustion Technology

PARAMETER TRAVELLING GRATE FLUIDIZED BED REMARKS

FUEL SIZE Uneven size of fuel can be used 19- Uniform size fuel in range of 1 to10 mm. Bagasse has an uneven size; the
(Uneven size ranges from 2-25 mm) 35 mm. fuel size must comply to the fuel size
requirement of combustion
technology
 The combustion is better
version of pile  Fuel particles are in fluidized state Easy ash removal system which is
combustion. and there is adequate mixing of appropriate especially bagasse
 Heavier size mass falls on
fuel and air. produces a large amount of ash.
the grate.
 The fly ash which is produced by Bagasse produces a large amount of
COMBUSTION  Ash is removed on a
the combustion remains ash, therefore ash must be removed
continuous basis and a continuous basis to prevent the
suspended.
therefore the chances of building up to clinker.
clinker formation are less.

BED TEMP. Fluidized bed temperature has a

(Most common furnace temperature for range of 800-870°C lower than the
bagasse combustion is approximately common furnace temperature for
1110°C). 1000-1640°C 800-870°C bagasse which is equal to 1110°C.

Combustion condition not very much to Combustion technology must have

MOISTURE It can handle fuels with high moisture interfere with 4-5% increase in moisture. the capability to handle the moisture
(45% moisture). condition up to 45-55% content of the bagasse fuel.

LHV
( Bagasse has a uniform heating
value of 8214.03 kJ/kg)
ASH CONTENT
( Bagasse fuel has an ash content
range from 4 to 18 percent)
Travelling grate has a 8000 kJ/kg
heating value can be burned in stoker
fired.
Ash content range 4%-25% with a dry
basis.
A heating value of 23000 kJ/kg can be
burned in a water-cooled fluid bed boiler.
a high-ash fuel with a low moisture
content less than 30 percent.
Bagasse has a uniform heating value
of 8214.03 kJ /kg; the LHV of
combustion technology that will be
chosen must be near to the value of
LHV of bagasse
Ash content is acceptable based on
the range from 4-18 %.
Bagasse fuel has an ash content
range from 4 to 18 percent.

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50
 To meet the said parameters, the designers choose traveling grate as its furnace
for the design. The chosen furnace can burn bagasse up to 35 mm size which makes it
more suitable for the designed plant compared to fluidized bed combustion which requires
a very fine fuel particle 6.35 mm. Systematic analysis on the size of bagasse through the
cane preparation and milling equipment can be eliminated using the technology, since it
can cater efficiently a large size of fuel compared to the fluidized bed combustion.

In the Philippines, series of optimization of several sugar mill and refinery is in trend
nowadays. Maintaining minimum of 1 boiler and maximum of 3 boilers for economic
purposes, instead of their existing installations having 5 or more. Therefore, with upgraded
installations; furnace maintenance should lessen to assure the plant can sustain the
energy requirements at any time which could be done by the chosen combustion
technology. Compared to the fluidized bed the chosen combustion technology, which is
traveling grate require less maintenance.

Furthermore, even if a fluidized bed firing is more environmental friendly than the
chosen furnace but through the enhanced pollution facility of a travelling grate furnace,
mainly the ash rejection facility, scrubbers and others and still emission rates can be
efficiently controlled.

4.4 Summary of the Selected Systems

The systems are being selected to meet the manufacturing plant requirements and
to come up a suitable design for cogeneration power plant. Table 4.4 shows the selected
systems in the whole design of combine heat plant (CHP).

Table 4.4: Summary of Selected System

SYSTEM SELECTED SYSTEM

Cogeneration Cycle Cogeneration System Topping Cycle

Cogeneration System Steam Turbine Cogeneration System

Steam Turbine Configuration Extraction Condensing Steam Turbine

Combustion Technology Travelling Grate

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