Political Science Notes

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Political Science Notes
Introduction to Political Science (Vrije Universiteit Brussel)
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Political Science
LECTURE 1 (CHAPTER 1)
What is politics and political science?
• Politics = social activity, it's about power, laws, …
-> for more details see the handbook definition
Was the BBC documentary video political?

• Yes
1) it aims to change something like inequality (changing the general picture of the
woman)
2) A way of thinking is expressed
3) Want to give themselves a voice
4) Feminism is a consequence of the society
Very broad definition of politics:

• Politics come into existence when a minimum of 2 people live together -> living
together brings conflicts and those have to be managed (how to take care of your
trash, drive the car,…)
• Everybody has different opinions and those have to be compromised
• A society needs these rules to develop
What is politics?
• A traditional view of politics is that things which are not related to the state or the
government are not politics. A new view is that whatever concerns the public life or
the public sphere is related to politics.
• So the state, the political sphere and the private life overlap with each other
• Different countries draw different lines where politic starts and where it ends
• Politics engage with certain things and how decisions are made according to the
problem
• A political solution always comes before a military solution (the more civilized way)
What is power?
• Example of power: Person A gets person B to do something what person B wouldn't
have one out of it's own will
• Power can be used in many ways (practicing power when you promise a reward, sexual
violence within a partnership is use and abuse of power)
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Studying politics
• "Politics is more difficult than physics" - Albert Einstein (laws like in physics do not exist
in politics)
• Politics are old studies
• Since the 50ies/60ie political science became it's own discipline (it looks at politics
from a scientific point of view)
• A political scientist has to be neutral in his opinion
• Scientists take a look at the whole picture and try to find regularities to find out why
certain problems occur
• Approaches = particular way to look at things
• Philosophical traditional approach = talking about what should be
• Empirical approach = concerned what is happening and to find a solution for the
problem
Definition: Constructivism
• Based on the believe that learning occurs as learners are actively involved in the
process of meaning and knowledge construction as opposed to passively receiving
information
• Learners are the makers of meaning and knowledge
(Slides behind)
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LECTURE 2 (CHAPTER 3 & 5)

Politics and the State
• Politics can influence everywhere in our lives
• The state is a central political organisation
• The EU isn’t a stat but performs state like actions
• The state has:
o Territory (defending borders)
o Sovereignty (dt. die Oberherrschaft)
o Domination
o Public
• You have to adapt to the rules of each state
• The state has monopoly on legitimate use of physical force by army & police (but not
license to kill)
o If there is a mass demonstration against the government it isn’t legitimate to
use force -> too many different reasons for the protest
BUT: The state is also there to protect (if it doesn’t other states can interfere)
• Everything the state does is public = provides its public good

• Legitimation = to do something the common good, not only for a certain group
• You cannot have a state if nobody lives on its territory
Definition Sovereignty
• Within the states own territory it has the highest power and governs itself
• Not all states are recognized by other states (Scotland not being recognized as a state
by the UK)
• A state can also give up some of their sovereignty like becoming a member of the EU
-> they take decisions together and can no more decide on their own what to do
Debating the State

• The state appeared first in Europe
o In the 14th century it consisted of many small entities (often war)
• Peace of Westphalia = treaty for territorial sovereignty (1648)
• Every state had another road to become a state
o Italy & Germany: the entities decided to become one
Pluralist state (no detail learning)

• Pluralist state = one state is equal to one another in legal terms (not politically)
• The state protects the society
• Different interests can conflict (like car drivers & bicycle drivers)
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• The state regulates the conflict (like an impartial referee)

• Social contract = agreement between all the people to form a state
o Give up a part of their liberty so the state can create order
o Compromise interest
• State of nature = nasty life, people constantly trying to get their way
• Leviathan state creates a state and abandons the nasty life
o Follow the rules
o Give up some liberty but you get order in return
!Pluralist state isn’t leviathan state!
• the pluralist state is there to manage problems and create a state of order and
protect our ideals
Capitalist state
• the state is not a neutral referee
o works in favour of the elite
o panama papers: the state did not really act upon it (holds hand over the rich)
• Hegemony = dominance by one state or social groups over others
The leviathan state

• The state becomes a self-serving monster
o Too much power
o ”big brother is watching you”
• Negative state which interferes too much with our rights
• Cameron thought of the state from a more Leviathan view
The patriarchal state

• The state isn’t neutral because it works in the favour of men
• Fewer rights for women
The role of the state

All political thinkers have regarded the state as something worthwhile (dt. erstrebenswert)
Minimal states
• Only 3 core functions:
1) Domestic order
2) Ensure contracts are enforced
3) Provide protection against external attacks
• Popular in the 20th century
• No ministers of social affairs, … -> not their job
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Developmental states
• State can intervene to promote industrial/economic growth like investing in railroads
• Not intervening in the free market
Social democratic states

• Not only intervenes in economics but as an entity that promotes justice
• Promote social equality
• Very initial to protect
• Like an “upgrade” from the developmental states
• Everybody profits from the welfare
Collectivized states
• Entity of economic life under state control (no private companies)
Totalitarian states
• Penetrating every aspect of human life
• E.g.: North Korea
Religious states
• Laws are also religious laws
• Religion as the basis of poilitcs
• No public/private divide
Eclipse of the state?

• Due to globalization, the influence of an individual state becomes smaller
• Economics no more work within the borders alone
• Issues get influenced from all around the world
• Power of the state to regulate that companies stay becomes very small
• The EU can make very important decisions which the state has to follow
• Corporations which aren’t bound to a state can be very powerful (E.g.: Greenpeace)
Definition of Governance
• Various ways through which social life is coordinated
Failed states and state-building

• Weak, failing or collapsed states
• A legitimate monopoly of the use of force, thus leading to endemic warlordism,
widespread criminality and social dislocation
• These states fail the most basic test of state power:
o They are unable to maintain domestic order and personal security
o Civil strife and civil war becoming almost routine
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Nations and Nationalism

(Varieties of nationalism not to be studied)
What is a nation?
• Basically, defined by territory
• Group of people who share something (like language)
• A nation has a much more cultural basis
• Nation = a mixture of objective and subjective features
• Nation ≠ State
o Nation = cultural/political entity
o State = territorial/political entity
• Nation ≠ ethnic group
o Ethnic groups have no collective political aspiration
• Nation-state = states in which the majority of the population is united based on
factors that define a nation
• Usually nations don’t have the same borders as states
o E.g.: Flanders is a nation but doesn’t have its own state
Nations as cultural communities

• Bound together by strong ethnic ties
o You can be part because of your roots
o Volksgeist
• Draws on “popular” rituals
• Consequences:
o Ethnically very homogeneous & cohesive
o As a migrant very hard to fit in because you don’t have these ethnic ties
Nations as political communities

• Different then cultural communities
• Group of people bound together by citizenship or political allegiance (pledging
allegiance to the USA flag)
• Can be ethnically diverse (melting pot)
• Politically constructed
• Migrants can become more quickly part of the nation
• Benedict Anderson:
o Nations are a mental thing (you don’t know everybody in your nation)
o Create a sentiment over collective memory, media, language, public holiday,
etc.
(Slides behind)
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LECTURE 3 (printout sheets)

Democracies
• 1970s: 1/4 of all independent states were democratic
• The scientists mostly looked at differences, why some become democratic and why
some don’t
• Democracies seen as (small) homogenous group
• Little attention paid to comparisons of democracies
• 2000s: many states are democratic BUT heterogeneous group
• We identify differences among democracies and focus on variation
• Focus on variations among democracies
• 3 waves of democratization in recent history
o 1st wave: 1826-1926: Western Europe & North America
o 2nd wave: 1943-1962: Germany, decolonization processes
o 3rd wave: 1974-??: Spain, democratic transitions in Latin America, Asia Pacific
(S.-Korea, Taiwan), and Eastern Europe
• The 3rd wave was very big
• 4th wave -> Arab spring (the outcome isn’t clear yet it needs more time to evaluate)
• During the 1970s you only found democracy in a minority of countries
o This changes in the 1990s because of the fall of the Berlin Wall
• Era of optimism for democracy
o 2013: not a lot has changed and some countries are falling back, like Russia
➔ Democracy isn’t static; it is a constant evolution, it needs time
Defining democracy
• Two different approaches to defining democracy
• Procedural definitions (more common)
o Focus on how a regime is organized (institutional arrangements or
procedures)
o ‘Free competition for a free vote’ (Schumpeter 1947: 271)
• Substantive definitions
o Focus on goals and effectiveness of a democratic regime (e.g. do political
decisions realize the ‘common good’?)
• Dahl distinguished between 7 characteristics to differ polyarchy:
1) Elected officials control government and policy
2) Free and fair elections
3) Inclusive voting rights = everybody has the right to vote
4) Right to run for office
5) Freedom of speech/expression
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6) Citizens have access to alternative sources of information

7) Freedom of association
Polyarchy – R. Dahl (1971)

• ‘Thin’ version: democracy is about elections and extent to which citizens can actually
participate in political life – PARTICIPATION PILLAR (weakest one)
• ‘Thick’ version: democracy also requires the enforcement of constitutional rights and
civil liberties – CONSTITUTIONAL PILLAR
Liberal vs. illiberal democracy

• Liberal democracies = popular elections + civil rights, liberties are granted, focus of
the 1990s, fairness
• Illiberal democracies = popular elections BUT limits on individual rights and freedom
(popped up in the 90s)
• You have countries where you have both of these systems and some you have non
• Democracies where women cannot vote aren’t democracies
‘Democratically disguised dictatorships’

• Claim to use democratic institutions & elections
• BUT: elections are non-competitive or semi-competitive -> not democratic
• Fraud & manipulation of the votes
Developing Democracy
• Dahl (1966): 3 milestones in the development of democracies:
(1) Incorporation of the masses: voting rights
(2) Representation: rights to organize parties
(3) Organized opposition: right to appeal for votes against government
MILESTONE 1: INCORPORATION
• Extension of voting rights to all adult citizens
o Often gradual
o Restrictions on right to vote: census voting, capacity voting, race
o Plural voting system
o Male suffrage ≠ female suffrage
• How ‘universal’ is universal suffrage?
o Restricted in terms of age and nationality
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MILESTONE 2: REPRESENTATION
• The right to be represented:
o The right to organize parties and have these participate in parliament on
equal terms with other parties
o More proportional representation of all groups in society
MILESTONE 3: ORGANIZED OPPOSITION

• Right of opposition to appeal for votes against government
o When executive becomes fully responsible to legislature and can be dismissed
by majority in parliament
Paths of democratization (Dahl 1971)

• Along two dimensions
o Liberalization: public contestation (right to be represented and to organize
opposition & to bring parties into the parliament)
o Inclusiveness: right to participate and vote
• Paths of democratization have consequences for quality and stability of regimes
Typologies of democracy
• Majoritarian = the one which gets the majority has the absolute majority and power,
the other parties; the other parties, which got less votes, have less to say
• Many are either majoritarian (UK) or consensus (Belgium)
• Lijphart thinks that consensus democracies are better
• CD better government performance:
o More economic growth, inflation control, lower unemployment rates
• CD more inclusive democracies:
o More gender equality, political equality, …
• CD ‘kinder, gentler’ democracies:
o More social welfare, better environmental performance, more criminal
justice, more foreign aid
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Audience Democracy
• Democracy in danger?
o Declining levels of political participation (election turnout, party membership)
o Decreasing confidence in politics
o Manin (1997): evolution towards “audience democracy”
• People become indifferent and passive, they withdraw from politics and turn into an
audience
Alternatives?
• Pass decision-making down to citizens
o Participatory democracy (e.g. referenda)
o Deliberative democracy (e.g. G1000 in BE, We the Citizens in IRE, town hall
meetings in USA)
• Pass decision-making up to non-traditional political actors
o Technocracy
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LECTURE 4 (chapter 2)
Political ideas and Ideologies
What is political ideology?
• Ideologies are abstract believes and functions how the world should function
• Different believes that conflict with each other
• Sometimes different ideologies find some common ground
o Pro: bring people together
o Contra: only one perspective
• We should stay neutral (not favour one)
• All ideologies represent a particular world view as they see it, give examples how a
good society should look like, political change
• Ideologies are important to understand politics
o Each party is linked to an ideology, source of behaviour like voting, different
views solving problems, value systems
Liberalism
• Umbrella ideology, brings together many different ideologies
• Developed in traditional government (Kings, …) -> rejects this
• Challenges the idea that a single person possesses so much power, power should be
more divided
• Against absolutism, capitalism, industrialisation; for individualism, freedom, reason
equality
• State government should not interfere with economy
• Individualism = everybody is an individual with their own decisions, own goals and
dreams, states roles should be limited (let them have their own business and don’t
limit their creativity & energy
➔ European view, in the states different
• Maximum liberty but not a threat to others liberty
• The state should ensure that people make use of their freedom like public education
to teach them how to vote “correctly” and borrow money to start a business
• Equality in terms of moral worth, not intelligence!
• Equality of outcome is not support (how rich people are
• See p. 32
• Negative liberty = we are only free if we are not restraint of what we wish
• Positive liberty = freedom to vote, start a business, but when you are poor you
cannot start a business
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Classical liberalism (1970s-1980s)

• Extreme form of liberalism
• Support the negative liberty
• State just as minimal role like protecting the borders
o Stay out of economy
o Laissez faire
o Free trade!!! (more growth)
Modern liberalism (20th)

• Changed to the more positive view (=more power to the state)
• State playing role in housing, etc.; still not too many roles
• Liberty always connected to equality
Conservatism (classical)
• Rethinking economy and politics
• “we need to conserve traditional social order”
• Tradition is important
• “Society is God’s work and should be reserved”
• “Better keep the ways they are”
• Strong state and strong leader to keep order and strict law
• Human imperfection: maintenance of order requires a strong state, slow & cautious
change
• Organicism: people want to belong into groups
• Hierarchy: strong support, opinion of inequality which is natural for them, natural
hierarchy
• Reciprocity = Gegenseitigkeit, rich giving to the poor
• Authority: leadership and inequality are natural
• Property: sense of stability and security, people see themselves in what they own
• See p.35
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Christian Democracy
• A lot in common with conservatism
• Christianity as a source of inspiration (support others by staying at home and giving
money)
• Own decisions within family
• Support welfare/safety net, protection of weak
• Human dignity regarding non-material values (harmony, faith, …)
The New Right (UK Thatcher, USA Reagan)

• Combined neo-liberalism and ne-conservatism
• Neo-liberalism = free market, nanny state/watchdog
• Neo-conservatism = family & religion is important
• Neo-liberalism is just very little different to liberalism; adapted to the time change
Socialism (classical)
• Origin 19th century
• Consequence of industrial revolution because of the hard labour
• Marxism is the more extreme view like revolution
• Core: community, social equality, social class, common ownership
• Community: social creatures, individuals are members of groups
• !Social equality!: equal opportunities, some people are luckier because they are born
rich and have more opportunities; socialism is against that
• !Social class!: present interest of the oppressed class
• Common ownership: most important parts of economy should be owned/regulated
by the state to eliminate inequality (we are all members of the state and when the
state owns something we own it too)
Marxism
• Classless society
• Russian revolution (1917), Chinese revolution (1949), Cuban revolution (1959),
Khmer Rouge Cambodia (1975)
• We need a revolution to change inequality
Social democracy
• Gradual changes to improve working conditions
• Wealth should go back to the people
• Government plays a big role
• Functioning in a capital system socialist move closer to liberalism
• Third way = alternative to capitalism and old style socialism
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Fascism (post 1918)

• A lot of new parties
• Instability
• Famous fascists: Hitler (Germany); Mussolini (Italy)
• Core: anti-ideological people are driven by instincts/emotions, survival of the fittest,
no compassion with the weak, society needs a strong leader and should follow him
• Italian fascism = absolute loyalty to the state
• General = some races and nations are better then others
• Making society homogeneous
Feminism (1960s)
• Enhances the social role of the woman
• Genders should be the same
• Not sex but gender is the problem
• Sex = Bio
• Gender = what society decides you are
• E.g.: Society has the idea that men are better leaders
Green politics
• Reaction to industrialisation and fast development
• Quality of life, sustainable development (not nuclear energy), ecocentrism, self-
fulfilment
• We need to be more aware
• Right of nature
• Self-fulfilment = pay attention how others can fulfil themselves (connection to
Christian democracy)
Postcolonialism
• Distinctive political voice in contradiction to Western and Soviet ideological models
• Gandhi
• Offers 3rd world perspective
Religious fundamentalism
• Certain principles recognized as essential truth
• Religion as politics
• Anti-westernism = critical of western values
• High commitment to a goal (pick up fights)
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End of ideologies?
• Ideologies are coming closer together
(Slides behind)
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LECTURE 5 (chapter 11 & 8)

Political Culture and the Media
(Interest) group politics

• Interest group = an organized association that aims to influence policies or
government actions (but does not want to become part of government)
• Social movement = form of collective behavior in which members try to influence

policies or government actions within a loose organizational framework
• IG and SM perform two main functions:

o Interest aggregation: formation of a single policy platform from a diverse set
of group interests and views
o Interest articulation: expressing and voicing the group’s views and demands
• Interests = something that individuals or groups have at stake in the political process
• Interest groups = associational groups:
o Voluntary membership and action, based on common interests/aspirations
o <-> Communal groups: non-voluntary membership
o <-> Institutional groups: part of government
• Number of interest groups has exploded since 1960s and they appear in variety of
shapes and sizes
• Sectional versus promotional groups:
o Sectional: advance interests of their own members; represent a section of
society (selective benefits)
o Promotional: advance shared values/ideals; promote collective benefits
• Insider versus outsider groups:
o Insider groups:
▪ Regular, privileged and direct consultation by government
▪ Direct access is strength (but no ‘extreme’ demands)
o Outsider groups:
▪ No formal access to government, not consulted (regularly)
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▪ Methods of protest and publicity-attracting demonstrations

▪ Lack of access is weakness (but perceived as ‘untainted’ by supporters)
Patterns of group politics

• Importance of interest groups depends on:
o Political culture (1)
o Institutional structure (2)
o Nature of party system (3)
o Nature and style of public policy (4)
(1) Political culture

• More influence when legitimacy of interest groups (as perceived by the state and by
citizens) is high
(2) Institutional structure

• Centralized/unitary systems: limited influence because only one ‘access point’ for
interest groups
• Decentralized/fragmented systems: more influence because of multiple access points
(3) Nature of party system

• 1 dominant party: limited points of access for interest groups
• Multiple parties: multiple points of access
(4) Nature and style of public policy
• More state intervention in economic and social life often goes hand in hand with
stronger lobby groups
• In corporatist systems, states rely heavily on ‘peak organizations’ in policy-making
process
o Peak organizations bring knowledge and expertise
o Peak organization also help ‘sell’ policy outcomes to members
Interest groups’ channels of access:

• Bureaucracy
• Assembly (parliament)
• Courts
• Political parties
• Mass media and public opinion campaigns
• International organizations
Social movements
• Social movement = form of collective behavior in which members try to influence
policies or government actions within a loose organizational framework
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• ‘Traditional’ social movements (19th C.): labour movement, catholic movement, …

• ‘New’ social movements (since 1960s): environmental movements, women’s
movements, peace movement, ...
NSM
Member profile of NSM

o Young, better educated, relatively affluent
o <-> traditional social movements: members of disadvantaged groups
Orientation of NSM
o Postmaterial values (Ronald Inglehart):
▪ Personal freedom, self-expression, emancipation, quality of life, ...
▪ <-> material values: safety, social order, discipline, stability
o ‘New left’ issues:
▪ Abortion, euthanasia, sexual rights, racial equality, gender equality,
environmental protection, nuclear energy/weapons, individual
freedom and peace, …
Organization and activities of NSM
• New forms of political activism (‘New Politics’)

• More critical of politicians, parties, political institutions
• More assertive in political participation
• Protest politics and direct forms of political action
New social movements

• Impact of NSM
o Depends on resources: mobilize large group of people, access to media, …
o Collective action problem (Mancur Olson)
▪ Why would you join a social movement if you receive the benefits
without investing?
▪ ‘Free rider problem’
o Impact on public policy is often not direct but indirect:
▪ Increase political consciousness and change values
▪ Issues taken up by parties (e.g. environmental issues by Green parties)
Political culture and the Media

• Political culture
o People’s orientations to political objects such as parties, government, the
constitution, expressed in beliefs and long-term values
• Three focal points in this chapter:
o Social capital
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o Civic culture
o Postmaterialism (see before)
Social capital
• Associational life matters for democracy
• Social capital:
o Associations and networks + social trust + norms of reciprocity
• Higher levels of social capital make democracies more effective and efficient
• Social capital seems to be in decline due to:
o Decrease in political engagement, individualism, two-career families, role of
television, …
Civic culture
• Ideal of ‘civic culture’
o Allegiance crucial for stable democracy
o Citizens are law-abiding
o Citizens participate actively but indirectly (elections)
o Citizens support democracy, have confidence in and are satisfied with politics
o No room for questioning authority or civil disobedience
Rise of assertive citizens?
• ‘Assertive spirit’ (Inglehart)

• Citizens support democracy as an ideal but are dissatisfied with how democracy
functions in practice
• More critical of political elites, parties, institutions
• New politics: direct forms of political action, challenging authority, civil disobedience
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Groups, Interests and Movements
Party politics
• Political party = central actors in politics
o Parties exist in democratic and non-democratic regimes
o Governments of most countries are in hands of party leaders
• Political party = group of people that is organized for the purpose of winning
government power
• A number of characteristics:
o Parties aim to exercise government power by competing in and winning
elections
o They are organized bodies with a formal ’card carrying’ membership
o They typically adopt a broad issue focus
• Origins of parties
o Origins in 19th Century
o Earlier parties were of ‘intra-parliamentary’ origin: born in parliament
o E.g. Tories and Whigs in UK
• Other parties of ‘extra-parliamentary origin’: born as interest groups or social
movements, linked to extension of voting rights
o E.g. Labor movements -> socialist parties
o E.g. New social movements -> green parties
• Interest groups (like NGOs)
o Organized associations that aims to influence policies or government actions,
but don’t want to be part of the government
• Social movement (like women’s movement)
o form of collective behavior in which members try to influence policies or
government
o loose structure (no president)
o more concentrated on the common good
Types of parties: Organizations

• Cadre parties
o Party of notables/elites, 18th & 19th century
o Earliest ’modern’ party, before universal suffrage
o Loose alliances of like-minded people, led by a few elite notables, aristocrats
or wealthy people
o No mass membership, no party organization outside parliament
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• Mass parties
o Emergence beginning of 20th century, after adoption of universal suffrage
o Emphasis on mass membership (voters), often from one particular social class
o Extensive party network and organization outside parliament, led by party
leadership and supported by a large group of activists and volunteers
• Catch-all parties (Kirchheimer 1966)
o 1950s – recent
o Declining role of members, emphasis on unity and party leadership
o Weaker ideological ties, more general policies
o Electoral strategy to appeal across group boundaries
• Cartel parties
o 1970s – recent
o Declining party membership and voter volatility
o Parties rely on state financing: parties as agents of the state rather than
society
o Parties more concerned with governing than with interest articulation
o Rise of career politicians and ‘professionals’ in politics
Types of parties: Ideology

• Left-wing parties:
o Commitment to change; traditional support from poor, working class, blue
collar workers
o Progressive, socialist and communist parties
• Right-wing parties:
o Commitment to existing social order; traditional support from business,
employers, middle-high class
o Conservative, fascist and liberal parties
Problems with left/right divide:

o Simplistic and misleading
o Each party often has a ‘left’ and ‘right’ wing
o Position as ‘left’ or ‘right’ does not work for many parties
o E.g. Christian democratic – ‘centre’
o Definitions of ‘left’ and ‘right’ change over time and between countries
o Two-dimensional nature of ’left’ and ‘right’:
▪ Old left/right: socio-economic issues (employment, economic
interests, …)
▪ New left/right: postmaterialist values (abortion, same-sex marriage,
euthanasia, multiculturalism, …)
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Major party families in Europe

o Social democratic parties: Labour (UK), PS (France), SPD (Germany), PSD
(Romania)
o Communist parties: PCF (France)
o Green parties: Groen Links (Netherlands), Les Verts (France)
o Christian democratic parties: CDU (Germany), CDA (Netherlands), HDZ
(Croatia)
o Liberal parties: VLD, MR (Belgium), LibDem (UK)
o Conservative parties: Conservative party (UK), Partido Popular (Spain), PiS
(Poland)
o Agrarian parties: Centre Party (Sweden), Centre Party (Finland)
o Regionalist parties: N-VA (Belgium), Scottish National Party
o Populist radical right parties: FN (France), VB (Belgium), Fidesz (Hungary)
Main functions of political parties

o Representation
o Elite formation, recruitment and selection
o Goal formulation
o Interest articulation and aggregation
o Socialization and mobilization
o Organization of government
Functions of parties
• Representation
o Parties represent, articulate and respond to the views of their members and
voters
• Elite formation, recruitment and selection
o Parties are responsible for recruiting and selecting candidates for elections
o Parties also provide a training ground for politicians
• Goal formulation
o Parties set collective policy goals in government/party programmes
o Parties initiate and implement policies (together with other actors)
• Interest articulation and aggregation
o Parties articulate and aggregate various interests found in society
▪ E.g. Socialist parties traditionally package and voice interests of
working class and employees (! lost part of electoral base to populist
parties)
▪ E.g. Liberal parties - interests of employers and self-employed
• Socialization and mobilization
o Parties educate the public (> mass party)
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o Parties integrate groups of citizens into the political system

• Organization of government
o Parties help with formation of governments and give governments a degree
of stability and coherence
o Parties facilitate cooperation between legislative and executive branch of
government
Distribution of power within parties

• Iron law of oligarchy – Robert Michels (1911)
• Oligarchy = government by a few
• All large-scale organizations are controlled by a few leaders no matter how
democratic they try to be
• Leaders are better formed, have better organizational skills and experience than
members
• Members rely on leaders for direction and guidance
Party Organizations
• Since 1980s, more initiatives to support intra-party democracy (‘New Politics’)
o Give members more decision-making power
▪ E.g. Direct election of party leaders by members
▪ E.g. Direct participation in policies (online tools)
o Not one party leader, but team of party leaders
o Principle of rotation
Role of factions
• Faction = section or group within a political party

• Power struggles within parties, between factions
• Factionalism (= within-party struggles and rivalry between factions) can be a de-
stabilizing force, especially for new parties
Party organization in the USA

• Weak central organisation, focus on individuals, no formal membership organization
• But:
o Candidate selection run by primary elections (’primaries’)
o Registrants instead of formal members
Party systems
• Party system = a relatively stable constellation of parties in a political system
• Structured by the number of parties, their size and ideological distance between
parties -> shapes competition between parties
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Major party systems
• One-party system
• Two-party system
• Dominant-party system
• Multiparty system
• Two elements define format of party system:
o Number: how many competing parties?
o Size: how big/strong are parties?
• Quantitative measure:
o Effective number of parties: takes into account number and size of parties
• Qualitative measure:
o Coalition potential: whether parties are necessary to form coalition
governments
o Blackmail potential: whether parties can put pressure on government
decisions
One-party system
• Only 1 party present (and often only party possible)

• No other parties present –> no party competition
• Examples: Communist regimes of Soviet Union 20th Century, China (Chinese
Communist Party), North Korea, Fascist regimes in Italy & Germany, Zaire, Tanzania,
Zimbabwe, …
Two-party system
• 2 parties share large majority of the seats in parliament

• Larger party is able to rule alone, the other party provides the opposition
• Minor parties exist but their % of votes or seats is (very) small
• Alternation of power between two largest parties
• 1 party government
• Examples: UK, Austria, USA, Canada, Australia, …
• Advantages:
o Two major parties offer straightforward choice between two rival
programmes and alternative governments
• Disadvantages:
o Restrictions in terms of electoral and ideological choices
o Tendency towards ideological polarization and conflict
o Parties catering for median voter: no clear policy alternatives
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Dominant-party system
• 1 party > 50% of the votes and seats for several decades
• Minor parties exist but their % of votes or seats is (very) small
• No alternation of power, but theoretically possible
• 1 party government
• Examples: Sweden (Social Democratic Worker’s Party, 1945-1998), India (Congress
Party, 1947-1975)
• Advantages:
o Tendency towards stability and predictability
• Disadvantages:
o Weak and ineffective opposition
o ‘Natural’ party of government corrodes democratic spirit
Multiparty system
• From 3 to … parties
• Parties have different sizes, but no party > 50%
• Coalition governments
• Partial alternation of power
• Examples: Belgium, Netherlands, Norway, France, ...
• Advantages:
o Fosters debate, conciliation, compromise
o Coalition governments foster broad acceptance and moderate policies
• Disadvantages
o Takes longer to form a government after elections
o Coalition governments are sometimes unstable and short lived
o Sometimes lack of clear ideological alternatives
Decline of parties
• Parties remain central to democracy in 21st C. BUT… they face a number of
challenges:
o Declining party membership, identification, loyalty, trust
o Increasing volatility: voter attachment to one party decreases
o More dependent on state contributions
o Interest articulation: challenged by interest groups
o New forms of direct political action by citizens -> parties as intermediaries no
longer needed?
o Growing complexity of politics: do parties have enough expertise?
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Representation
• Direct democracy: decisions are taken directly by the people (e.g. Ancient Greece,
referendums) •
• Representative democracy: decisions are taken indirectly by the people – People
choose representatives who take decisions on their behalf – Effective link between
representatives and the people is crucial -> elections offer this link
• See p.92 in handbook
• Representation = relationship through which an individual or group (‘the
representative’) acts on behalf of a larger body of people (’the represented’) – To
‘represent’ = to ‘make present again’
• How can one person be said to represent another?
-> different theories of representation
Theories of Representation
Delegate Model
• The representative acts as a delegate of the represented

• Delegates has limited autonomy: (s)he gets specific instructions from the
represented and has to follow these to the letter
• Representative should not follow his/her own judgement when it does not
correspond with opinions of those (s)he represents
Trustee Model
• The representative acts as a trustee of the represented
• Trustee has more autonomy, for instance during negotiations and for representing
the common good
• Representative can follow his/her own judgement when making decisions, even if it
does not correspond with opinions of those (s)he represents
Mandate Model
• Brings parties into the equation
• By winning elections, a party gains a popular mandate to carry out party programmes
• Representatives represent by remaining loyal to their party and its policies
Resemblance Model
• Parliament should constitute a microcosm of larger society
• Representatives represent the interests of members of their own social groups
because they have shared life experiences and a similar position in society
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• Argument for political inclusion of traditionally disadvantaged groups (women,

working class, racial and ethnic minorities, …)
Elections
• Elections are a necessary condition for representation and democracy
• But many discussions:
o Which offices are subject to elections?
o Who is entitled to vote? – How are votes cast?
o Are elections competitive or not?
o Should voting be compulsory or not?
Should voting be compulsory?
Functions of Elections
1) Recruiting politicians
2) Making government
3) Providing representation
4) Influencing policy
5) Educating voters
6) Building legitimacy
Electoral Systems
• Electoral systems = a set of rules that govern the conduct of elections (broadly
speaking)
o How votes are converted into seats
o Whether voters choose between candidates or between parties
o Number of candidates elected in each electoral unit (= ‘constituency’ or
‘district’)
o Level of support needed to elect a candidate: plurality, majority, or a quota of
some kind
• Wide variety of rules across the world !
Majoritarian systems
• Larger parties win a higher proportion of seats than the proportion of votes they gain
in the election
• Goal is to identify a clear winner
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o Proportional representation (PR) systems:

• Proportion of seats is more or less proportional to votes gained in the election
• Goal is to represent diversity
Majoritarian systems:
• Single-member plurality / ‘first past the post’ – Second ballot system

• (Alternative vote)
PR systems
• Party-list system
• (Mixed-member proportional)
• (Single-transferable-vote)
Electoral systems: SMP

• Single-member plurality / ‘First past the post’:
o Country is divided into relatively small constituencies
o Voters make a mark beside the candidate of their choice
o In each constituency, 1 candidate is elected
o Candidate with highest percentage of votes is elected -> plurality (>%)
o E.g.: UK (House of Commons), USA, Canada, India
Advantages
• Clear link between representative and local constituency
• Clear winner, so governments that are formed are strong, stable and have clear
mandate from electorate
• Keeps extremism at bay
Disadvantages
• System wastes many votes cast for losing candidates

• Large parties are over-represented, small parties are under-represented
• Limited choice: usually systems where two major parties are competing for plurality
of votes
Electoral systems: SBS

• Second ballot system
o Voters mark the candidate of their choice
o In each constituency, eventually 1 candidate is elected
o Majority (>50%) of votes is needed to win the seat
o If no candidate wins a majority of votes in first round, a second round takes
place with only the two leading candidates
o In the second round, whoever wins the most votes is the winner
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o E.g.: France, Iran
Advantages
• Broadens electoral choice
• Strong and stable government is possible
• Keeps extremism at bay
Disadvantages
• Also unfair to smaller/third parties
• Second ballot may strain voters’ patience and interest in politics
Electoral systems: PLS

Party-list system
• Either country is treated as one single constituency (NET, ISR), or country is divided
into larger constituencies (BE)
• Parties compile a list of candidates
• Voters vote for parties (or for candidates on party lists)
• In each constituency, multiple candidates are elected
• Each party receives more or less the same share of seats as it won of the votes
o Perfect proportionality
▪ 20% votes = 20% seats – E.g.: Israel, Belgium, Netherlands, Spain, …
• Variation in party-list systems:
o Number of representatives elected in one constituency
o Party lists can be ’open’ or ‘closed’
▪ In open list systems voters can express preference for one/multiple
candidates, in open systems they cannot
• Electoral threshold for winning seats:
o To prevent fragmentation (too many small parties winning seats)
o E.g. Belgium (5%), Russia (7%)
Electoral system: PR
Advantages
• Fair to all parties

• Promotes unity: focus on nation rather than local community
Disadvantages
• No clear winner, potentially weak and unstable governments
• More extreme parties
• Unpopular candidates who are well-placed on a party list cannot be removed from
office
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Electoral Systems
• Electoral system design has an impact on:
o Party system:
▪ MAJ -> two-party systems
▪ PR -> multiparty systems
o Composition of government:
▪ MAJ -> one party governments (with majority party)
▪ PR -> coalition governments (with multiple parties that together can
form a majority)
• Is there such a thing as a ‘best electoral system’?
o NO, each system has pros and cons 7
1) Quality of representation: MAJ weaker than PR

• MAJ unfair to small parties; benefits largest parties
• MAJ allow parties to come to power with less than 50% of the votes
• MAJ produce parliaments than are less representative in socio-demographic terms
(e.g. fewer women and fewer ethnic minorities)
2) Government effectiveness: PR weaker than MAJ

• MAJ deliver clear/effective rule: one clear winner, government can implement
electoral program, no compromises
• MAJ produces stable and strong one-party governments, backed up by majority in
parliament
Voting Behavior
• Studies of voting behavior are central to PS
o Voting behavior is shaped by short-term and long-term influences:
▪ Short-term: specific to a particular election, e.g. the economy or the
role of campaigns
▪ Long-term: not specific to a particular election, e.g. partisan
identification
Rival theories of voting

1) Party-identification model
2) Sociological model
3) Rational-choice model
Party-identification model
• Voting linked to a psychological attachment people have to ‘their’ party

• Role of partisan loyalties and the family as a means through which loyalties are
forged
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• BUT: growing partisan dealignment: decline in extent to which people align/identify

themselves with a party
Sociological model
• Voting linked to group membership (class, gender, ethnicity, …)
• Group interests shape party allegiances
• BUT: growing class dealignment and realignment
Rational-choice model
• Voting as rational act
• Shaped by party policies and calculation of personal self-interest
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LECTURE 8 (chapter 13 & 14)

Assemblies and Executives
Separation of Powers
Assemblies
• (Political) assembly
o Most general term: ‘Coming together of people for some political purpose’
• Legislature
o Generic term: assembly with primary function as law-making bodies
(sometimes misleading)
• Parliament
o Assembly in ‘parliamentary systems’, focus on debate and discussion
• Congress
o Assembly in ‘presidential systems’, focus on policy-making
Structure of Assembly
• Unicameralism or bicameralism?
o Unicameral: 1 single chamber (China, Israel, Denmark, Sweden, Iceland, …)
o Bicameral: 2 chambers (USA, Austria, Switzerland, Germany, Australia, …)
Bicameralism
• Two chambers have different representative functions
o Lower house/first chamber: representing the population
o Upper house/second chamber/senate: representing socially or territorially
defined groups (e.g. In federal states)
• Two chambers have different members:
o Lower house/first chamber: elected members
o Upper house/second chamber: elected an/or appointed members
• Different versions of bicameralism:
o Strong bicameralism: both chambers have broadly equal powers
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o Weak bicameralism: second chamber constitutionally and politically

subordinate to first chamber
Parliamentary party groups (=‘fracties’)

• How parties organize in assemblies
• In most European countries, representatives are operating under strict party
discipline
Legislative committees
• Committees prepare and examine legislation, they scrutinize executive power and
investigate matters of public concern
• Can be very powerful
Functions of assemblies
1) Legislation
2) Representation
3) Scrutiny
4) Legitimacy
(1) Legislation
• = the act of initiating, debating and passing laws
• Often seen as key function of assemblies, but actual legislative power varies across
countries
o Often legislative power shared with the executive
o Positive legislative power: ability to initiate or propose laws
o Negative legislative power: ability to reject, amend or delay proposed laws
The complexity of lawmaking:
• Usually, a member of the assembly or executive introduces a bill

• Bill proposals are often considered in legislative committees and/or plenary
meetings, and are subject to modification
• Decisions (votes) are often preceded by a debate
• (If there’s a second chamber, the bill is considered there too)
• A bill proposal can only become law after being accepted by a majority of the
assembly
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• A lot of variation across Europe and other parts of the world
(2) Representation
• Assemblies provide a link between governments and the people: elected

representatives represent the interests of their constituencies
• Assemblies often not representative of society in socio-economic terms: over-
representation of male, middle-aged, middle class, majority group, professionalized
politicians
(3) Scrutiny and oversight

• Ability of assemblies to control or check executive power
o Institutional mechanisms, such as oral and written questioning,
interpellations, …
o Vote of no confidence or impeachment
o Approving executive appointments
(4) Legitimacy
• Assemblies promote the legitimacy or ‘rightfulness’ of the regime by mobilizing

consent and by endorsing laws and policies in the name of the public
Executives
• Executive = branch of government responsible for implementing laws and
ruling/governing the country
• Executives take many forms, and are often centralized around the leadership of a
single individual or a small group of senior figures:
o E.g. BE: Prime minister + cabinet ministers (+ constitutional monarch)
o E.g. USA: President
• Executives must be connected to the electoral process
o Sometimes directly -> directly elected president in USA, France, many Latin
American countries
o Sometimes indirectly -> ministers appointed/elected by parliament in
Belgium, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, …
Power in the Executive

• Head of state:
o Office of formal authority but largely symbolic importance; power severely
limited by constitution
o Can be constitutional monarch or constitutional president
• Head of government:
o Chief executive, has real power
o Can be prime minister, chancellor or executive president
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Presidential executives
• President = head of gov = head of state

• President alone has executive power
• President directly elected by citizens for a fixed term
• President is sovereign: cabinet advises but no collective decision-making system
• President names and directs composition of cabinet
• USA, many Latin American countries
Parliamentary executive
• The executive emerges from a directly elected assembly and is closely related to it
• The executive is a collegial body (cabinet or council of ministers) that shares
responsibility
• PM is often leader of the majority party or coalition
• PM/majority parties appoint cabinet ministers
• Head of gov ≠ head of state:
• Head of gov: PM/chancellor
• Head of state: constitutional monarch/president
• Many W-European countries (AUT, BEL, DEN, GER, IRE, ITA, NET, NOR, SPA, UK, …),
Australia, Canada
Parliamentary executive
• Cabinet government:
o Prime minister is “primus inter pares”
o Cabinet discusses decides collectively
• Prime ministerial government:
o Closer to presidential executive
o Centralization of executive power in hands of PM and effective subordination
of both cabinet and ministers
Semi-presidential executives
• Executive power is shared between a president and a prime minister
• President is directly elected for a fixed term
• President often appoints the PM from the elected assembly
• PM appoints a cabinet, usually from the ruling party or coalition in the assembly
• France, Finland, many postcommunist states
Functions of Executives
1) Ceremonial leadership
2) Policy-making leadership
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3) Popular political leadership

4) Bureaucratic management
5) Crisis response
1) Ceremonial leadership
• Give state authority a personal form and symbolize its unity
2) Policy-making leadership:
• Direct and control policy process -> govern
• Develop coherent economic and social programmes
• Growing legislative powers: initiate legislation and make legislative process work
(3) Popular leadership
• Popularity crucial to stability of regime
(4) Bureaucratic management

• Overseeing implementation of policy
• Acts as top managers, running the machinery of government
(5) Crisis leadership

• Take swift and decisive action when crisis breaks out
The Relationship between Assemblies and Executives

1) Presidential systems of government
2) Parliamentary systems of government
3) Semi-presidential systems of government
1) Presidential systems
• Modelled on the USA - system of strong checks and balances
• Executive power is balanced by an assembly that is independent of the president

• The assembly cannot remove the president – except in cases of serious legal wrong-
doing (impeachment)
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• President cannot dissolve parliament

• President is not accountable to the assembly
• President and members of cabinet are not members of the assembly
2) Parliamentary systems
• Modelled on the UK ‘Westminster-style’ system
• Fusion of executive and legislative power

• The executive (PM + cabinet) can dissolve the assembly and call an election
• PM + cabinet can be removed from office by a parliamentary vote of no confidence
• Chain of accountability from voters to parliament to cabinet to PM
• Executive not directly elected but drawn from the assembly
• Executive is accountable/answerable/responsible to parliament
3) Semi-presidential systems
• Mixture of two former systems
• President appoints (and dismisses) PM from the elected assembly
• President can dissolve the assembly and call a referendum
• PM appoints members of cabinet from the assembly which is then accountable to the
assembly
• Sometimes confusion about accountability
• Cohabitation: when PM and president are of different parties (Chirac-Jospin;
Mitterand-Chirac)
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Public Policy and Bureaucracy
• E.g. of policies:
o Not drinking publicly on the street
o No smoking before 16
• Government policies are trying to shape our behavior
Policy making
• Policies = the set of interrelated decisions made by governments with the aim of
steering public, social and economic life
o Outcomes
• Policy making = the process of making those decisions
o Process
1.  WHAT ARE POLICIES AND HOW ARE THEY MADE?

The Policy Cycle
1) Agenda setting
• How do issues become polically relevant?
• How do issues grab political attention?
• Crucial distinction:
o Public agenda vs policy agenda
• Traditional models:
o Important, serious, real problems
o Economic cycle
o Polical business cycle
• ‘From below’
o Citizens/citizen groups/social movements/… put issue on the agenda, and try
to win support from government
o Tactics: petitions, media, riots, strikes, contact official…
o Works best in pluralist systems
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• ‘From above’
o Government/leaders/… put issues on the agenda, and rally support among
citizens – Leaders mobilize citizens to support their ideas
• Media as linkage mechanism
2) Policy formulation
• Once a problem is on the agenda, a struggle breaks loose to define, elaborate and
propose solutions (= policy options)
• Limited number of actors (only insiders)
• Struggle between different frames
o Actors try to “frame”, i.e. define, their solutions in such a way as to gain
maximum support and increase the chances of policy adoption
• Example: different ways of framing measures aimed at facilitating women’s access to
the labour market:
o Progressive framing:
▪ Empowerment
▪ Human rights
o Conservative framing:
▪ Women at home = natural order of things
▪ Decay of social fiber
• Example: different ways of framing climate change policies:
o Progressive framing:
▪ Sustainability
▪ Future generations
o Conservative framing:
▪ Climate change is a hoax
▪ Climate change policies are bad for the economy
• Policy formulation differs strongly between countries
o Anticipatory vs. Reactive styles: do governments engage in long-term
planning or not?
o Consensus-seeking vs. Imposing styles: do governments want to consult and
find consensus, or simply impose policies?
• Anticipatory: looks at the policy in the long run
• Reactive: reacts to current problems, but doesn’t think about the future outcome
• Consensus: don’t value competition
• Imposing: huge amount of composition but in the end government takes the decision
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3) Policy adoption
• = the process through which public officials decide which proposed set of solutions (=
policy options) to adopt
• 4 decision-making models:
o Rational model
o Incremental model
o Bureaucratic organization model
o Belief system model
Rational model
• Decision makers start from a clear blueprint
o Clear problem definitions
• Clear solutions
• They choose the policy with the best results at the lowest cost (= utility
maximizing)
• Assumptions:
o All information is available
o All information can be cognitively processed
o All effects can be thoroughly assessed
• Problem: bounded rationality and perceptions
Incremental model
• Information = inadequate and incomplete
o Always small steps
o Decision makers are prudent and conservative
o Not goal orientated
o Decision-making is trial-and-error
▪ No clear aims or means, rather avoidance strategy
▪ Decision makers strive for consensus and feasibility (= legitimate try &
error)
• Problem: Better at explaining stability than change
• Compromise between rationalism and incrementalism: mixed scanning
• VERY applicable to Belgian politics
o The entire state reform is a prime example of incrementalism
• Also, applicable to European Union
o European integration happened incrementally
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• Bureaucratic organization model
• Policies reflect how bureaucracies are organized:

o Each organization has a specific culture, values, assumptions which influences
its decision
o Policy making is a power struggle. Decisions reflect the balance of power.
• Critique: BOM neglects:
o Role of political leadership
o Role of external pressures
Belief system model

• Policies reflect what decision-makers believe, i.e. their social, economic, political
values:
o Inconsistent information is disregarded
o Extreme form: group think (cf. Bay of Pigs Invasion)
• Beliefs operate at 3 levels:
o Deep core beliefs (ideology)
o Near-core beliefs (policy preferences)
o Secondary beliefs (views on implementation)
4) Policy Implementation
• Implementation = process of putting outputs/ decisions into practice
o Top-down:
▪ Top bureaucrats decide, lower levels implement
▪ Uniformity and control
o Bottom-up:
▪ Street-level bureaucrats have the knowledge to implement effectively
▪ Flexibility
• Policy instruments:
o NATO model (Hood):
▪ Nodality: giving people information about the consequences of their
behaviour
▪ Authority: imposing formal constraints on behaviour and sanctioning
violation
▪ Treasure: rewarding or punishing people financially
▪ Organization: shaping behaviour by changing the organization of
government
5) Policy Evaluation
• Once policies are implemented, their effects have to be assessed and evaluated
o If actual = intended situation -> policy termination
o If actual ≠ intended situation -> policy feedback
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• Types of evaluation:
o Outcome: were the intended goals reached?
o Cost-benefit: were the benefits worth the costs?
o Process: could implementation have gone more smoothly?
o Client satisfaction: how satisfied are the citizens?
2.  WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN POLITICIANS AND

BUREAUCRATS?
• They differ in terms of election (politicians are elected, bureaucrats appointed)
Political – administrative relations

• Woodrow Wilson:
“Administration lies outside the proper sphere of politics. Administrative questions are not
political questions”
• Lay = no exact expertise of the field they are dealing with

• Rational = the way they behave
3.  WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF BUREAUCRACIES?

Functions of Bureaucracy
• Administration:
o Implement and execute laws
o Make sure that policies are put into practice and that rules are obeyed
• Policy advice:
o Theory: politicians make decisions, bureaucrats offer the information because
they are experts in their fields
o Practice: bureaucrats control the information and steer politicians in certain
directions (reversal of power)
• Articulation of interests:
o Bureaucrats in close relationship with interest groups (iron triangle) and likely
to defend their interests
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o Risk of clientelism
• Ensure political stability:
o Theory: bureaucracy is permanent, neutral and provides long-term political
stability – Practice: Spoils system
4.  HOW ARE BUREAUCRACIES ORGANIZED?

Weber’s ideal type bureaucracy
• Core principles:
o Hierarchy: bureaucracies are led by the top bureaucrats. Lower levels execute
o Functionalism: each entity (group) has its own function
o Centralization: one central line of hierarchy and control (e.g. France)
o Legalism: following the rules is more important than actually attaining goals
New Public Management

• Core principles:
o Decentralization and departmentalization: Big government is bad government
o Govt should focus on core tasks, and leave the rest to executive agencies
(QUANGOs) and the market
o Skeletal state
• Output oriented: attaining goals more important than strictly following the rules
o Performance and quality management
5.  WHAT IS THE,POWER OF BUREAUCRATS AND HOW CAN THEY BE

CONTROLLED?
Bureaucratic Power
• Sources of power:
o Strategic position: knowledge and networks
o Logistical power: bureaucrats are
▪ Larger in numbers
▪ More permanent
▪ Full-time advisors
o Status: bureaucrats are a “meritocratic elite”
• Problems:
o Lack of accountability
o Corruption and maladministration
• Control mechanisms:
o Accountability: Make bureaucrats accountable to government, parliament,
courts or public
o Politicization: if bureaucrats gain too much power, allow for regular
alternation at the top (spoils system)
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o Counter bureaucracies: personal advisory staff to politicians
Conclusion
Policy-making is a cyclical process
• Clear distinction between politicians and bureaucrats (in theory)
• Evolution from bureaucracy to NPM
• Attempts to contain bureaucratic power
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(European regionalism (p.392-397) not part of course material)
Politics, Territory and Multilevel Governance

• Nation-states = dominant form of political organization
• State as a territorial unit
o Peace of Westphalia (1648): sovereignty defined in territorial terms
• Territorial sovereignty of the state increasingly challenged in recent decades:
o Pressures from above (e.g. globalization, EU)
o Pressures from below (e.g. regions, regionalism, local governments)
• Result: political organization and decision-making have become (much) more
complex -> multilevel governance
Multilevel governance
• Political authority is distributed to different levels of government:
• International or supranational government
• National, central or federal government
• Middle level government: state/regional/provincial/county
• Local or municipal government
• Different levels of government are often interdependent
1) Centralization
• Concentration of political power or government authority at the national level
2) Decentralization
• Expansion of sub-national autonomy through transfers of power and responsibilities
away from national bodies
Subnational Politics
• Three common forms of territorial organization:
o Federal systems
o (Confederal systems)
o Unitary systems
Federal System
• A system of government with…

o (At least) two distinct levels of government:
▪ A central (national/federal) and a peripheral (regional, state,
provincial) level
• One level is not legally or politically subordinate to the other
o Sovereignty is pooled/shared between the two levels
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• Federations are formed:

o Either by the coming together of a number of established political
communities: USA, Switzerland, Germany (= ‘centripetal federalism’)
o Or by the growing apart of political communities in a central/unitary state:
Belgium, Canada (=‘centrifugal federalism’)
• The regional units in the Belgian federal state
o 3 regions (‘gewesten’) deal with territorial matters including economy,
housing, infrastructure, …
o 3 communities (‘gemeenschappen’) deal with personal matters including
culture, language, education, …
Features of Federalism
• Two relatively autonomous levels of government
o One level is not legally or politically subordinate to the other
o ‘Self rule’: each level has the autonomy to make decisions on matters relating
to their own competences
o ‘Shared rule’: levels share authority to make decisions on certain matters (or
to block decisions)
• (2) Written constitution
o Determines powers of each level
• (3) Constitutional arbiter
o Arbitrates in case of disputes between two levels
• (4) Linking institutions
o Peripheral level is given a voice in central policy-making (> shared rule)
Varieties of Federalism
• Symmetric versus asymmetric federalism:

o Symmetric: all regional units have the same competences and powers
(Germany, Switzerland)
o Asymmetric: nature of competences and powers varies between regional
units (Russian Federation, Belgium)
Why Federalism?
• Giving voice to regional and local interests
• Diffusing government power and creating a network of checks and balances
• Providing an institutional mechanism through which divided societies can maintain
unity and coherence
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Confederal Systems
• A union of states in which each state retains its independence, but lends some power
to a central body that manages affairs of common interest
• No pooling of sovereignty by constituents members; sovereign power vested in
peripheral bodies
• Decision-making by unanimity
• Confederal principle often applied in international organizations: NATO, UN, African
Union
• Absence of effective central body makes them often unsustainable
• EU is a hybrid of confederal and federal features
o Confederal features:
▪ Only limited authority for the center
▪ Members can leave EU at any time
o Federal features:
▪ Deep integration of member states along quasi-federal lines
▪ Supranational, not intergovernmental (p.395)
Unitary System
• Central government is only sovereign body

• But forms of ‘decentralization’
o = Expansion of local/regional autonomy through transfers of powers and
responsibilities away from national level
o Role of local government
o Processes of devolution
Local government
o No share in sovereignty, so entirely subordinate to central (or regional)
government
o But politically relevant:
▪ Deliver wide range of adminstrative services
▪ Close to people -> foster local democracy
▪ Trend in recent years to give local governments more power
• Subsidiarity principle: decisions should be taken at the lowest possible level of
government
Devolution
• = transfer of power from central government to subordinate regional bodies

• Devolved bodies have no share in sovereignty
• Legislative devolution: transfer of political decision-making powers, often involving
the establishment of elected regional assemblies and executives
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• Administrative devolution: transfer of administrative tasks

• Legislative devolution in Spain:
o 17 autonomous communities with elected assemblies
• Legislative devolution in UK:
o 3 regions with elected assemblies
o Asymmetrical devolution:
▪ nature of devolved powers varies between Scotland, Wales and N.-
Ireland
o Administrative devolution in France:
▪ 18 administrative regions
Why devolution?
• Accommodate cultural diversity within a country and meet demands for more
autonomy: ITA, SPA, FRA, UK
• Promote modernization of government and state: ITA, SPA, FRA, UK
• Trigger economic development: FRA
• European influence (‘Europe of the regions’): UK, GRE, POR, IRE, DEN, SWE, FIN
Transnational Regionalism
• Regionalism = process through which geographical regions become significant
political and/or economic units
• Two faces:
o Subnational regionalism: process of decentralization that takes place within
countries (see above)
o Transnational regionalism: process of cooperation between countries in the
same region of the world
• Transnational regionalism fuelled by:
o Security concerns: protect states from their enemies (e.g. NATO, SEATO)
o Political concerns: safeguard the independence and self-government of a
group of countries (e.g. AU, Arab League, Council of Europe)
o Economic concerns: create greater economic opportunities by fostering trade
blocs (e.g. EU, Mercosur, NAFTA, APEC, …)
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Political Science Notes

Introduction to Political Science (Vrije Universiteit Brussel)

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Was the BBC documentary video political?

Very broad definition of politics:

LECTURE 2 (CHAPTER 3 & 5)

• Everything the state does is public = provides its public good

Debating the State

Pluralist state (no detail learning)

• The state regulates the conflict (like an impartial referee)

!Pluralist state isn’t leviathan state!

The leviathan state

The patriarchal state

The role of the state

Social democratic states

Eclipse of the state?

Failed states and state-building

Nations and Nationalism

Nations as cultural communities

Nations as political communities

LECTURE 3 (printout sheets)

6) Citizens have access to alternative sources of information

Polyarchy – R. Dahl (1971)

Liberal vs. illiberal democracy

‘Democratically disguised dictatorships’

MILESTONE 3: ORGANIZED OPPOSITION

Paths of democratization (Dahl 1971)

Classical liberalism (1970s-1980s)

Modern liberalism (20th)

The New Right (UK Thatcher, USA Reagan)

Fascism (post 1918)

LECTURE 5 (chapter 11 & 8)

(Interest) group politics

• Social movement = form of collective behavior in which members try to influence

• IG and SM perform two main functions:

▪ Methods of protest and publicity-attracting demonstrations

Patterns of group politics

(1) Political culture

(2) Institutional structure

(3) Nature of party system

(4) Nature and style of public policy

Interest groups’ channels of access:

• ‘Traditional’ social movements (19th C.): labour movement, catholic movement, …

Member profile of NSM

Organization and activities of NSM

• New forms of political activism (‘New Politics’)

New social movements

Political culture and the Media

Rise of assertive citizens?

• ‘Assertive spirit’ (Inglehart)

LECTURE 6 (chapter 10)

Types of parties: Organizations

Types of parties: Ideology

Problems with left/right divide:

Major party families in Europe

Main functions of political parties

o Parties integrate groups of citizens into the political system

1.  WHAT ARE POLICIES AND HOW ARE THEY MADE?

2.  WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN POLITICIANS AND

3.  WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF BUREAUCRACIES?

4.  HOW ARE BUREAUCRACIES ORGANIZED?

5.  WHAT IS THE,POWER OF BUREAUCRATS AND HOW CAN THEY BE