Control Surveying 1

CONTROL SURVEYING
John Hamilton
hamilton@terrasurv.com
412-341-5620
What is Geodesy???
Science concerned with size and shape of the
Earth (Helmert 1880)
Science that locates positions on the Earth and
determines Earth’s gravity field
The branch of surveying in which the curvature
of the Earth must be taken into account when
determining directions and distances
What is control surveying?
NGS definition-”A survey that provides
coordinates (H & V) of points to which
supplementary surveys are adjusted
My definition-”A survey which is performed to
achieve higher than normal accuracies”
Usually adjusted from redundant measurements
Horizontal, Vertical, 3-D (GPS)
1974 Specifications
Spatial Accuracy Standards
COORDINATES
One of an ordered set of N numbers which designates
the location of a point in a space of N dimensions
In surveying and mapping, 1≤N≤3
Could also be time tagged (N=4)
A coordinate is AN ESTIMATE OF THE POSITION of a
point
As more data is collected, the position is refined,
coordinate changes
Coordinate Systems
ECEF - Earth Centered Earth Fixed
LLH - Latitude, Longitude, Height
Grid - State Plane, UTM, local
Height Systems
Geoid
Ellipsoid
Datums
A coordinate system needs a datum to be complete
ECEF
three dimensional cartesian system
origin at center of mass
used by GPS system
convert to/from LLH
cartesian geometry
independent of ellipsoid
LLH
Latitude, Longitude,
(Ellipsoidal) Height
convert to/from ECEF
convert to/from grid
coordinates
complicated formulas for
direct/inverse
computations
depends on ellipsoid
LLHÆECEF
⎡ X ⎤ ⎡ ( N + h) cos Φ cos λ ⎤
⎢ Y ⎥ = ⎢ ( N + h) cos Φ sin λ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ Z ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ((1 − e 2 ) N + h) sin Φ ⎥⎦
a
N=
1 − e sin φ
2 2
a=semi-major axis
b=semi-minor axis
a −b 2 2
e =
2
2
h=height above ellipsoid
a
ECEFÆLLH
⎛ Z ⎛ N ⎞
−1
⎞
−1
Φ = tan ⎜ ⎜ 1− e 2
⎟ ⎟
⎜ X 2 +Y2 ⎝ N +h⎠ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Y
λ = tan −1
X Must use iterative

process since h
depends on Φ and
X +Y 2 2
vice-versa
h= −N
cos φ
Grid Coordinates
two dimensional - Y and X or N and E
related to LLH, can convert back and forth
easy computations
most systems distort distances
vary in extent
plane, Transverse Mercator, Lambert
UTM, State Plane, Local
State Plane
developed by the US Coast & Geodetic Survey
(now NGS) to enable use of geodetic control by
local surveyors
mathematically rigorous
Lambert or Transverse Mercator Projections
maximum 100 ppm distance distortion
transform to/from LLH
UTM
Universal Transverse Mercator
developed by US military
worldwide, broken into sixty 6° zones
maximum distance distortion 400 ppm
MGRS - Military Grid Reference System
transform to/from LLH
easy to program into GPS receiver
Local Grid Systems
usually tangent system (plane)
if origin is known, can transform to/from LLH
simplified computations
very common, not recommended unless origin is
tied to NSRS and documented
Example: City of Pittsburgh
Selected origin based on arbitrary point
Based on USGS published NAD positions for 3 triangulation stations (done in
early 1920’s
Extended by triangulation, supplemented by taped baselines and astro azimuths
Local coordinates=100,000N/100,000E
Ellipsoid
mathematical surface which closely
approximates the physical shape of the earth
generated by rotating an ellipsoid about its semi-
minor axis
defined by two axes (a, b), or by one axis and
the flattening (a, 1/f)
geocentric or non-geocentric (“local”)
THE ELLIPSOID
MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF THE EARTH
GRS 1980
S a = Semi major axis
a=6,378,137 m
b = Semi minor axis
b=6,356,752.3141 m
f = a-b = Flattening
1/f=298.257222101 a
Geoid
level surface of the gravity field which best fits
mean sea level
not a smooth mathematical surface
affected by gravity anomalies, such as
mountains
reference surface for orthometric heights
Relation between Ellipsoid and
Geoid
N is the separation
varies from point to point
interpolated using geoid model
GEOID03 (North America), other regional models
EGM96 – worldwide, but coarser than regional
models
Geoid models
1993, 1996, 1999, 2003
Combination of gravity measurements,
Astronomic Observations, DEM, and Global
Geopotential Model
Latest model (2003) adds 14000+ benchmarks
(GPS on benchmarks) to more accurately match
the two surfaces
GEOID03
ELLIPSOID - GEOID RELATIONSHIP
H = Orthometric Height (NAVD 88)
h = Ellipsoidal Height (NAD 83)
N = Geoid Height (GEOID03) H=h-N
H h TOPOGRAPHIC SURFACE
N
GEOID03
Geoid PERPENDICULAR
TO ELLIPSOID
Ellipsoid
PERPENDICULAR DEFLECTION OF THE VERTICAL
GRS80
TO GEOID (PLUMBLINE) DEFLEC99
GEOID03 in Colorado
Geoid Slope
Distance=7.67 km
Geoid Undulation
Difference=0.6 m
E-W slope=η
0 .6 m
η = Tan −1
= 16 .1"
7670 m
η
λ A − λG = = 20.9"
cos φ
Observed Astronomic Position
Obtained from NGS database
Station BLACK (PID KK1879)
Astronomic Observations in 1980
Latitude=39°31’04.13″ σ=0.26 ″
Longitude=105°20’45.22″ σ=0.33 ″
NAD 1983 Geodetic
Latitude=39°31’04.29238″
Longitude=105°21’09.69043″
Astronomic minus Geodetic
¾ N-S Difference=meridian deflection
¾ ξ=ΦA-ΦG (Xi)
¾ =4.13″-4.29″=-0.16″
¾ DEFLEC99=-0.13″
¾ E-W Difference=prime vertical deflection
¾η =(λA- λG)*cosΦ (Eta)
¾ =(45.22″-69.69″)*cos(39°31’04.3)"=-18.88″
¾ DEFLEC99=+18.40“
¾ (different sign convention)
LaPlace Correction
Definition: The equation which expresses the
relationship between astronomic azimuth and
geodetic azimuth in terms of astronomic
longitude, geodetic longitude, and geodetic
latitude
αA-αG=(λA-λG)*sinΦ=η*tanΦ
DEFLEC99 provides interpolated value from
model
LaPlace Correction
Astronomic Observation BLACK->VA 9700
(BERGEN)
September 1977: 347°31’48.58" σ=1.5 “
October 1977: 347°31’51.48" σ=1.5 “
Mean= 347°31’50.03"
αA-αG=(λA-λG)*sinΦ
αG= αA- 24.47" * sin(39°31’04.29 ")
αG= 347°31’34.46 "
Inverse= 347°31’32.19"
LaPlace Correction
Computed Value=-15.57"
DEFLEC99=-15.18"
Uses a geoid model
For this purpose, GEOID99 is the same as GEOID03
Ellipsoids used in the US
Clarke 1866
a=6,378,206.4 m b=6,356,583.8 m
Used for New England Datum, NAD, and NAD 1927
Geodetic Reference System 1980 (GRS80)
a=6378137 m b=6,356,752.3141 m
Used for NAD 1983
World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS 1984)
a=6378137 m b=6,356,752.3142
Military
Also a datum
THE GEOID AND TWO ELLIPSOIDS
CLARKE 1866
GRS80-WGS84
Earth Mass Approximately

Center 236 meters
GEOID
Datum
“Any quantity or set of such quantities that may
serve as a reference or basis for calculation of
other quantities”
Geodetic Datum-”A set of constants specifying
the coordinate system used for geodetic control,
i.e., for calculating coordinates of points on the
Earth”
Defining a Datum
5 parameter-horizontal location (2), azimuth, and
size of ellipsoid (2)
Used for older datums before geocentric datums
were possible
8 parameter-spatial location (3), spatial
orientation (3), and size of ellipsoid (2)
Used for modern datums
Other possibilities
Early US Horizontal Datums
New England Datum – based on astronomic
position of PRINCIPIO in Maryland (1879)
Position transferred (through triangulation
network) to MEADES RANCH (Kansas), later
renamed US Standard Datum in 1901 and North
American Datum (NAD) in 1913
Meades Ranch, Kansas
Horizontal Control - 1901
Horizontal Control - 1927
NAD 1927
Clarke 1866 ellipsoid
Origin at MEADES RANCH, KS
Astronomic position, but not measured at station
Assumed geoid separation=0 at origin
Used all data observed up to that time
Non Geocentric (best fit to North America)
NAD 1927 problems
Lack of geoid model led to scale problems in the
western US
Lack of simultaneous adjustment
Data observed later forced to fit
EDM’s used by surveyors were more accurate
than the network in many cases
NAD 1983 1986
readjustment by NGS of all NSRS data
geocentric, GRS 1980 ellipsoid, same
parameters (nominally) as WGS 1984
contained small (up to 1 m) distortions
fixed to the North American continent
Based on VLBI, SLR, Doppler
NAD 1983 199X
NAD 1983 199X
based on HARN surveys
different states have different year suffixes
improvement on NAD 1983 1986, with space
based technologies
Same Ellipsoid/Same Datum-improved positions
IMPROVING POSITIONAL ACCURACY
TIME NETWORK LOCAL

NETWORK SPAN ACCURACY ACCURACY
NAD 27 1927-1986 10 Meters First-Order (1 part in 0.1 million)
NAD 83 1986-1990 1 Meter First-Order(1 part in 0.1 million)
HARN 1987-1997 0.1 Meter B-Order(1 part in 1 million)

A-Order (1 part in 10 million)
CORS 1994 - 0.02 Meter - Horizontal

0.04 Meter - Ellipsoid Height
NEW ADJUSTMENT
NAD 1983 (NSRS)
February 2007 completion
GPS observations only
Hold CORS fixed
Accurate to a couple of cm
Changes in existing coordinates up to 10 cm, usually
less than 5 cm
Same parameters as NAD 1983, more accurate
realization
WGS 1984
Created by Defense Department (third in a
series, replaced WGS 1972)
Intended to be the same as NAD 1983, used
same ellipsoid (very slight difference)
DIFFERENT REALIZATION THAN NAD 1983
“realized” by coordinates of GPS tracking stations
NOT GENERALLY ACCESSIBLE to non-military
users
WGS 1984
GPS satellites use this system
Early realizations by precise point positioning
Newer Realizations based on ITRF
Periodically “redefined” by being made to coincide with
ITRF at a certain epoch
WGS 1984 (G873)=ITRF 1994 1997.0
WGS 1984 (G1150)=ITRF 2000 2001.0 (current)
Broadcast by GPS satellites in the ephemeris
Will change again due to plate tectonics
WORLD GEODETIC SYSTEM 1984
TR8350.2 World Geodetic System 1984 - It’s Definition and
Relationships with Local Geodetic Systems
(http://www.nima.mil/GandG/pubs.html)
DATUM = WGS 84
RELEASED - SEPTEMBER 1987
BASED ON OBSERVATIONS AT MORE THAN 1900
DOPPLER STATIONS
DATUM = WGS 84(G730)
Datum redefined with respect to the International Terrestrial
Reference Frame of 1992 (ITRF92) +/- 20 cm in each component
(Proceedings of the ION GPS-94 pgs 285-292)

(Proceedings of the ION GPS-97 pgs 841-850)

(Proceedings of the ION GPS-02 pgs xxx-xxx)
http://164.214.2.59/GandG/sathtml/IONReport8-20-02.pdf
MY SOFTWARE SAYS I’M
WORKING IN WGS-84
Unless you doing autonomous positioning
(point positioning +/- 6-10 meters)
you’re probably NOT in WGS-84
Project tied to WGS-84 control points obtained

from the Defense Department -- Good Luck!
You’re really working in the same reference frame

as your control points -- NAD 83?
I NEED TO TRANSFORM
BETWEEN WGS 84 AND NAD 83
Federal Register Notice: Vol. 60, No. 157, August 15, 1995, pg. 42146
“Use of NAD 83/WGS 84 Datum Tag on Mapping Products”
ITRF XX
International Terrestrial Reference Frame, where
XX is the epoch of the system, for example ITRF
00
Most accurate system in use – cm level accuracy
worldwide, not fixed to any continental plate
ALL NAD 1983 coordinates have velocity
components in ITRF
constantly being refined by I
ITRF
Slightly different ellipsoid, basically same as
GRS 1980
Updated every few years, latest is ITRF 2000,
ITRF 2004 is due out soon
Plate Tectonics are accounted for
No single fixed point
All points have velocities
NAD 83 and ITRF
NAD 83
ITRF
Earth Mass 2.2 m (3-D)

Center dX,dY,dZ
GEOID
SHANNON (1900)
SHANNON
NAD 1983 (1992)
40º21´33.39838" N/80º01´25.03102" W
NAD 1983 (1995)
40º21´33.39907" N/80º01´25.03264" W
NAD 1983 (1986)
40º21´33.40178" N/80º01´25.03959" W
NAD 1927
40º21´33.15538" N/80º01´25.85590" W
NAD
40º21´33.53" N/80º01´26.95" W
Inverses from HARN (1992) position
NAD 1983 1995
0.044 m (0.14 ft) 299º
NAD 1983 1986
0.228 m (0.75 ft) 297º
NAD 1927
20.86 m (68.44 ft) 249º
NAD
45.46 m (149.15 ft) 275º
NAD 83, NAD 27, NAD
NAD 1983 versus NAD 1927
Clarke 1866 GRS 1980
Origin=MEADES Origin=Center of earth
RANCH mass
25,000 stations 250,000 stations
Several hundred taped 30,000 EDM baselines
baselines 5,000 azimuths
Several hundred
azimuths
NADCON
DESIGNED TO SATISFY THE MAJORITY OF THE “IDEAL METHOD” DESIGN AND
IS DEFINED AS THE NATIONAL STANDARD.
Federal Register Notice: Vol. 55, No. 155, August 10, 1990, pg. 32681
“Notice to Adopt Standard Method for Mathematical Horizontal Datum Transformation”
DESIGN CRITERIA:
Relies only on NGS archived data existing in both NAD 27 and NAD 83
Provides consistent results, both forward and inverse
Fast
Not tied to NGS Data Base
Small - Fit on PC
Accurate
15 cm (1 sigma) in Conterminous U.S. NAD 27 - NAD 83(1986)
5 cm (1 sigma) per State/Region NAD 83 (1986) - HARN
NADCON
N = +0.12344 N = +0.12249
8 = -1.87842 8 = -1.88963
N = +0.12354
N = +0.12438 8 = -1.8594
8 = -1.86547
N = +0.12423 N = +0.12568
8 = -1.81246 8 = -1.83364
N = +0.12431
8 = -1.86291
N = +0.12441
8 = -1.83879
N = +0.12449
8 = -1.88905
N = +0.12640
8 = -1.85407
N = +0.12499
8 = -1.86543
Vertical Datums
NGVD 1929 - formerly known as Mean Sea
Level
based on constraining local sea level at various
(21 US, 5 Canada) tide stations
NAVD 1988 - more accurate, consistent system
based on sea level at one tide station between
US and Canada
Vertical Datums
GEOID03 model works best when using GRS 80
and NAVD 1988
Local datums - often based on local sea level,
need to exercise caution when using
USGS benchmarks do not, in general, have
NAVD 1988 heights
can use VERTCON to convert NGVD 1929 to
NAVD 1988
NGVD 1929 vs. NAVD 1988
26 tide gauges in North One tide gauge on St.
America Lawrence River
100,000 BM’s 450,000 BM’s
100,000 km of leveling 1,000,000+ km of
Warped to fit tide gauges leveling
Sea level ≠ 0 at tide
stations
NGVD 29 and NAVD 88
METADATA
METADATA IS DATA ABOUT DATA
DATUMS
NAD 27, NAD 83(1986), NAD83 (199X), NAD83(CORS96)
NGVD29, NAVD88
UNITS
Meters, U.S. Survey Feet, International Feet, Chains, Rods, Pole
ACCURACY
A, B, 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 3cm, Scaled
METADATA??
Horizontal Datum??
Plane Coordinate Zone ??
Units of Measure ??
How Accurate ??
HIGH ACCURACY REFERENCE NETWORKS
Wide Area Augmentation System
(WAAS)
FAA program
Provides corrections via geosynchronous
satellite
Based on ITRF NOT NAD 1983
GEODETIC d’
vs.
GRID DISTANCE c’
d
c cd < c’d’
b
b’
ab > a’b’
a
a’
Earth Center
Conventional Surveys
Horizontal – traverse/triangulation/trilateration
Horizontal angles
Slope distances & vertical angles
Vertical
Differential leveling
Trigonometric leveling
Horizontal
Actually 3-D with modern equipment
Limited to line of sight, affected by atmospheric
conditions
Usually used only in limited areas since GPS
became widespread
EDM measurements must be carefully reduced
to obtain high accuracy
Applicable standards
Standards and Specifications for Geodetic
Control Networks – 1984
Mainly for networks covering large areas-good
leveling specs
US Army Corps of Engineers – Geodetic and
Control Surveying – very appropriate
Caltrans
Distance Reductions
Atmospheric
Temperature, Pressure,Humidity (optional)
Geometric
Curvature of ray path
Reduction to marks
Reduction to the ellipsoid
Reduction to grid
Atmospheric Correction
Ambient Refractive Index
T=temperature in °K (°C+273°)
P=pressure in millibars
E=partial water vapor in millibars
Ng=Group Refractive Index (depends on instrument
N g * p - 41.8 * e
N=
3.709 * T
How Accurate do we need to be?
1 Ng
dN T = 2 ( - * p + 11.3* e )dT
T 3.709
11.3
dN e = _ de
T
Ng
dN p = dP
3.709 * T
How Accurate?
1º C=1.8º FÎ1 ppm
0.03 mbar=0.1“ HgÎ1 ppm
IMPORTANT: atmospheric pressure changes by
1“ Hg per 1000´ elevation change
By distance
Short (<3 km)
2 ppm acceptable error
±1° C (±1.8°F)
±3 mb (±0.1” Hg)
Humidity ignored
Medium (or high accuracy short lines)
1 ppm acceptable error
<±1°C
±1 mb (±0.03” Hg)
Sling psychrometer (or electronic humidity device)
Measure at both ends
PPM correction accuracy
Biggest limitation to high accuracy over longer
lines
Some newer total stations have PPM on-board
BUT, this only samples at the standpoint
If large difference in elevation is present, may not
accurately reflect line conditions
Both temperature and pressure vary spatially as well
as by elevation
Altitude effects
Temperature lapse rate (standard)
0.0065° C per meter
Can vary due to temperature inversion/ground
heating
Pressure lapse rate (standard)
0.115 mb per meter (~1” per thousand feet)
More consistent than temperature
Geometric Corrections
Slant range from EDM to reflector
First reduced for any non colinear EDM/reflector
Reduced to mark-to-mark (can skip this step)
Reduced to ellipsoid (not sea level!)
Reduced to grid
Depends on what value is expected by the
software
Example
Point at Pittsburgh
03016CB 03016CA
Latitude=40º26'45.98795" N Latitude=40º26'30.67851" N
Longitude=80º02'01.48205" W Longitude=80º00'43.34624" W
NAVD88=337.762 m NAVD88=219.493 m
Ellip H=303.938 m Ellip H=185.695 m
Geoid 2003 N=-33.825 m Geoid 2003 N=-33.798 m
Total Station Observations:
Zeiss S10, from 03016CB to 03016CA at 10:45 AM on 7/23/2003
HI=1.435 m HT=2.100 m
Atmospheric conditions:
At KAGC: T=64°F DP=63°F RH=96.5% P=29.90”
At KPIT: T=64.9°F DP=62.1°F RH=90.6% P=29.91”
Convert 29.90” SLP to station pressure=28.73” hg
Zeiss on-board sensors: 67° F/28.7” hg
On Board ppm=+18.61 ppm

Actual value=+18.64 ppm (using T & P from airports)
Computed ppm at forepoint=+14.97 (due to elevation difference)
Mean PPM correction=+16.81
Observations:
Direct: ZD=93°32’59.3” SD=1904.6573 m
Reverse: ZD=266°27’03.6” SD=1904.6585 m
Mean: ZD=93°32’57.9” SD=1904.6579 m
DM=1904.6579 m (mean, corrected for T and P in S10)
DR=1904.6225 m (raw, uncorrected for T and P)
DEDM=1904.6545 m (corrected for actual conditions)
This latter value, DEDM, is the ray path length,

corrected for atmospheric delay.
reduce Z to mark-to-mark
( ht - hth )×sin Z th
Ω≅
dG
Ω≅
(2.1 − 1.435)× sin(93°32'57.9" )
1904.6545
:=0.000348475 radians =0°01w11.9
Z G = Z th + Ω
ZG = 93°32w57.9+0°01w11.9
ZG = 93°34w09.8
Reduce D to mark-to-mark
d edm
dG=
- ) 2 × ( h edm - h r )
2
(
1+ h edm 2h r - × cos Z G
dG dG
1904.6545
dG =
(1.435 − 2.1) 2 × (1.435 − 2.1)
2
1+ − × cos ( 93°34 '09.8")

1904.65452 1904.6545
dG=1904.6958 m
Comparison with GPS
GPS processing usually gives mark-to-mark
Observed 2 30 minute sessions
Session 1=1904.6955 m
Session 2=1904.6979 m
Mean=1904.6967 m
EDM=1904.6958
Difference=0.0009 m (0.47 ppm)
Reduce mark-to-mark to the ellipsoid
2 2
d - ( H2- H1)
de =
G
(1+ H 1 )×(1+ H 2 )
R R
2 2
1904.6958 - ( 185.695 - 303.938 )
de =
185.695 303.938
(1+ )×(1+ )
6371000 6371000
de=1900.9490 m
Which radius of curvature?
The radius of curvature is used to reduce to the
ellipsoid
Standard practice is to use a mean value
(6,371,000 m or 20,906,000 US Feet)
What effect does this have?
M=Radius of Curvature in Meridian
⎧⎪ a ×(1 - e2 ) ⎫⎪
M =⎨ ⎬
⎪⎩ (1 - e2 × sin 2 φ ) ⎪⎭
3/2
⎧⎪ 6378137 ×(1- 0.00669438002290 ) ⎫⎪

M =⎨ 3/2 ⎬
⎪⎩ (1- 0.00669438002290 × sin ( 40º26'45.98795") ) ⎪⎭
2
M=6362307.7 m
N=Radius of Curvature in the Prime
Vertical
⎧⎪ a
2 ⎫
⎪
N=⎨ ⎬
⎪⎩ a × cos φ + b × sin φ ⎪⎭
2 2 2 2
⎧⎪ 2 ⎫⎪
6378137
N=⎨ ⎬
⎩⎪ 6378137 cos (
× ) 6356752.3141 sin (
× ) ⎪⎭
2 2 2 2
40º26'45.98795" + 40º26'45.98795"
N=6387140.8 m
Radius of Curvature in azimuth of line
⎧ M ×N ⎫
RA = ⎨ ⎬
⎩ M × sin A + N × cos A ⎭
2 2
⎧⎪ 6362307.7 × 6387140.8 ⎫⎪
RA= ⎨ ⎬
⎪⎩ 6362307.7 × sin (104°22'36.14") + 6387140.8 × cos (104°22'36.14") ⎪⎭
2 2
RA=6385604.2 m
Reduction to ellipsoid
2 2
1904.6958 - ( 185.695 - 303.938 )
de =
185.695 303.938
(1+ )×(1+ )
6385604.2 6385604.2
de=1900.9491 m (difference of 0.0001 m, 0.05 ppm)

(negligible, OK to use mean value)
Reduction to grid
Depends on grid system
Scale varies N-S in Lambert
Scale varies E-W in transverse Mercator
Should be applied to the ellipsoidal distance
UTM Zone 17
0.99968265 (317 ppm) at 03016CB
0.99968641 (314 ppm) at 03016CA
Mean=0.99968453
Grid distance=1900.349 m
Trigonometric Height Difference
One way only (not reciprocal)
No curvature and refraction correction:
∆H = dG × cos ( ZG )
∆H = 1904.6958 × cos ( 93°34'09.8")
H=-118.581 m
Curvature & Refraction estimated
1- k
∆H = d G × cos( Z G ) +( )×( d G × sin Z G ) 2
2× R
K can vary, assumed to be 0.13

1- 0.13
∆H = 1904.6958 × cos(93°34 '09.8") +( )×( 1904.6958 × sin ( 93°34 '09.8") )2
2 × 6371000
H=-118.581+0.247 =-118.324 m
Refraction Coefficient, k
Can vary from –1.0 to +1.0, especially if grazing
the ground
Mean value of +0.13 often assumed
Knowing actual DE, we can solve for k
R × ( ∆H − d G × cos ( Z G ) )
k = 0.5 −
(d × sin ( Z G ) )
2
G
=-0.050
Refraction Coefficient
Simultaneous (or near-simultaneous)
observations will eliminate the uncertainty
Accurate work should not use one-way
observations
Especially important where the line of sight is
affected by heat waves
Azimuths
From backsight (i.e. intervisible pair)
From Astronomic Observations
From GPS (basically same as backsight method)
Astronomic Azimuth
Can use sun, moon, planets, stars
Must have accurate time
Must have accurate ephemeris
Sun and moon can be observed in daylight
Other objects require night observations
10” easily achieved, ±2” with advanced
equipment and procedures
Astronomical triangle
Astronomical triangle
Unknown=Azimuth to star
Knowns=latitude, longitude, declination, right
ascension, time
Once we solve the azimuth to the star, apply the
horizontal angle to get the azimuth to the mark
Position
Latitude and longitude should be astronomic
rather than geodetic
Difference between astronomic and geodetic
coordinates is the deflection of the vertical
Usually small and can frequently be ignored
Should be considered for highest accuracy if not
using Polaris
Time
UTC=uniform scale, broadcast by radio
Changes by integer second steps when necessary
UT1=measure of actual rotation of earth
Within ±0.9 s of UTC, correction=DUT1
UT1=UTC+DUT1
DUT1 is broadcast with signal, also predictions are
available
Time
TT=Terrestrial Time
Offset from UTC by 32.184s + offset (currently 32)
Used as argument for apparent geocentric ephemerides
GPS time=synchronized with UTC at January 5, 1980
Currently offset by +13s
New Leap second 12/31/2005 (1st since 12/31/98)
Ephemeris Data
Need Local Hour Angle (LHA) of the object at the
instant of observation
Some ephemerides directly list the Greenwich Hour
Angle (GHA)
LHA=GHA+λ
Others list Right Ascension (RA)
LHA=Local Apparent Sidereal Time (LAST)-RA
LAST=computed from GMST, equation of equinoxes, and
longitude
UTÆLAST
Lookup GAST for 0h and 24h UT
Interpolate for actual UT of observation
Subtract west longitude (convert to HHMMSS)
This is the hour angle of the vernal equinox
(origin of right ascension system)
Add/subtract right ascension of object to get
local hour angle
Azimuth equation
sin(h)
TanA =
cos Φ tan δ − sin Φ cos(h)
Where h is the local hour angle
δ is the declination
Φ is the (astronomic) latitude
Laplace Correction
Converts astronomic azimuth to geodetic
azimuth
η=deflection of the vertical in the meridian
Φ=latitude
η * tan φ
Astronomic Azimuth Reductions
Compute UT1 from UTC (apply DUT1)
(compute TT if necessary) interpolate ephemeris to obtain right
ascension and declination
Obtain Greenwich Apparent Sidereal Time (GAST)
Compute Local Apparent Sidereal Time (LAST)
Compute hour angle
Solve for azimuth of object
Apply angle measured angle right to get azimuth to mark
Apply Laplace correction & grid convergence (if needed)
Solar and Polaris
Can use online ephemerides
(www.cadastral.com) to obtain GHA directly and
declination (interpolate for UT of observation)
LHA (local hour angle)=GHA-west longitude
Proper leveling is VERY IMPORTANT-not
corrected by D&R
Causes error which is a function of elevation
angle
Solar Azimuth Errors
Lat=30° Decl=+23°
error Noon ±2 hr ±4 hr ±6 hr
1s time 1’53” 11” 6” 6”
10” latitude 0” 19” 7” 2”
10” longitude 1’15” 7” 4” 4”

Lunar Azimuth
Same steps, but must compute topocentric
values for right ascension and declination rather
than geocentric
Interpolate for R.A and Decl. using polynomials
Often easier to use-no filter required
Correct for semi-diameter (same procedure as
for sun)
Simulated Traverse
14 Stations, 500 m to 1500 m spacing
1 intersection station available
EDM shot both ways
Adjustment 1
Two control points, one at each end
No azimuth control
5” angular accuracy, 10” vertical
0.005 m ± 5 ppm EDM
2-D and 1-D Station Confidence Regions (95.000 and 95.000 percent):
STATION MAJOR SEMI-AXIS AZ MINOR SEMI-AXIS VERTICAL
------------ --------------------- --- ------------------- --------------------
00002 0.060 147 0.016 0.058
00003 0.103 147 0.020 0.069
00004 0.131 147 0.023 0.076
00005 0.145 147 0.025 0.082
00006 0.144 147 0.027 0.083
00007 0.137 146 0.029 0.082
00008 0.125 147 0.033 0.081
00009 0.091 144 0.034 0.079
00010 0.047 116 0.032 0.071
00011 0.039 67 0.023 0.066
00012 0.037 68 0.020 0.060
00013 0.031 68 0.016 0.055
Adjustment 2
Two control points at west end
Open traverse
0.005 m ± 5 ppm EDM
------------ --------------------- --- ------------------- --------------------
00002 0.000 0 0.000 0.062
00003 0.044 149 0.011 0.078
00004 0.102 148 0.016 0.092
00005 0.179 148 0.020 0.107
00006 0.264 148 0.023 0.119
00007 0.328 148 0.025 0.124
00008 0.369 145 0.030 0.126
00009 0.457 146 0.031 0.133
00010 0.579 148 0.033 0.143
00011 0.665 148 0.035 0.148
00012 0.676 141 0.063 0.152
00013 0.696 134 0.110 0.155
00014 0.746 125 0.174 0.165
Adjustment 3
Two control points at each end of traverse
Closed traverse
5” Angular Accuracy, 10” vertical
0.005 m ± 5 ppm EDM
------------ --------------------- --- ------------------- --------------------
00002 0.000 0 0.000 0.057
00003 0.035 148 0.011 0.067
00004 0.065 147 0.016 0.074
00005 0.090 147 0.019 0.077
00006 0.105 147 0.021 0.076
00007 0.107 146 0.023 0.074
00008 0.102 146 0.026 0.073
00009 0.077 142 0.026 0.068
00010 0.041 117 0.025 0.054
00011 0.031 63 0.016 0.044
00012 0.018 63 0.011 0.030
00014 0.000 0 0.000 0.058
Adjustment 4
Two control points at each end
Closed traverse
0.005 m ± 5 ppm EDM
Intersection station with unknown coordinates
sighted at ends and in middle
------------ --------------------- --- ------------------- --------------------
00002 0.000 0 0.000 0.058
00003 0.034 148 0.011 0.069
00004 0.064 146 0.015 0.076
00005 0.088 147 0.018 0.082
00006 0.102 146 0.021 0.083
00007 0.105 146 0.023 0.082
00008 0.101 146 0.024 0.081
00009 0.077 142 0.025 0.079
00010 0.040 119 0.024 0.071
00011 0.030 62 0.016 0.066
00012 0.017 63 0.011 0.060
00013 0.000 0 0.000 0.055
00015 0.250 124 0.188 0.000
Adjustment 5
Closed traverse
0.005 m ± 5 ppm EDM
Intersection station with unknown coordinates
sighted from every setup
------------ --------------------- --- ------------------- --------------------
00002 0.000 0 0.000 0.058
00003 0.027 147 0.011 0.069
00004 0.045 145 0.015 0.076
00005 0.059 145 0.018 0.082
00006 0.065 144 0.020 0.083
00007 0.066 143 0.021 0.082
00008 0.064 142 0.022 0.081
00009 0.052 137 0.023 0.079
00010 0.032 108 0.022 0.071
00011 0.028 62 0.016 0.066
00012 0.016 63 0.011 0.060
00013 0.000 0 0.000 0.055
00015 0.187 142 0.072 0.000
Adjustment 6
Closed traverse
0.005 m ± 5 ppm EDM
Intersection station with known coordinates
------------ --------------------- --- ------------------- --------------------
00002 0.000 0 0.000 0.058
00003 0.024 149 0.011 0.069
00004 0.036 147 0.015 0.076
00005 0.044 147 0.018 0.082
00006 0.047 147 0.020 0.083
00007 0.048 146 0.021 0.082
00008 0.047 146 0.022 0.081
00009 0.040 142 0.023 0.079
00010 0.027 111 0.022 0.071
00011 0.024 60 0.016 0.066
00012 0.015 63 0.011 0.060
00013 0.000 0 0.000 0.055
Adjustment 7
Closed traverse
1.4” angular accuracy, 5” vertical
0.001 m ± 2 ppm EDM
No intersection station
------------ --------------------- --- ------------------- --------------------
00002 0.000 0 0.000 0.029
00003 0.015 147 0.007 0.034
00004 0.029 146 0.010 0.038
00005 0.041 146 0.012 0.041
00006 0.051 146 0.013 0.041
00007 0.055 145 0.015 0.041
00008 0.052 145 0.016 0.041
00009 0.039 140 0.016 0.039
00010 0.022 110 0.014 0.036
00011 0.018 62 0.011 0.033
00012 0.010 63 0.008 0.030
00013 0.000 0 0.000 0.027
Adjustment 8
Closed traverse
1.4” angular accuracy, 5” vertical
0.001 m ± 2 ppm EDM
Intersection station with known coordinates
------------ --------------------- --- ------------------- --------------------
00002 0.000 0 0.000 0.029
00003 0.009 151 0.007 0.034
00004 0.014 149 0.010 0.038
00005 0.017 149 0.011 0.041
00006 0.019 149 0.012 0.041
00007 0.020 148 0.013 0.041
00008 0.019 146 0.013 0.041
00009 0.017 140 0.013 0.039
00010 0.014 102 0.012 0.036
00011 0.012 51 0.010 0.033
00012 0.008 52 0.007 0.030
00013 0.000 0 0.000 0.027
Point ADJ1 ADJ2 ADJ3 ADJ4 ADJ5 ADJ6 ADJ7 ADJ8
2 0.06 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 0.103 0.044 0.035 0.034 0.027 0.024 0.015 0.009
4 0.131 0.102 0.065 0.064 0.045 0.036 0.029 0.014
5 0.145 0.179 0.09 0.088 0.059 0.044 0.041 0.017
6 0.144 0.264 0.105 0.102 0.065 0.047 0.051 0.019
7 0.137 0.328 0.107 0.105 0.066 0.048 0.055 0.02
8 0.125 0.369 0.102 0.101 0.064 0.047 0.052 0.019
9 0.091 0.457 0.077 0.077 0.052 0.04 0.039 0.017
10 0.047 0.579 0.041 0.04 0.032 0.027 0.022 0.014
11 0.039 0.665 0.031 0.03 0.028 0.024 0.018 0.012
12 0.037 0.676 0.018 0.017 0.016 0.015 0.01 0.008
13 0.031 0.696 0 0 0 0 0 0
14 0 0.746 0 0 0
15 0.25 0.187
0.8
0.7
0.6 Series1
Series2
0.5 Series3
Series4
0.4
Series5
0.3 Series6
Series7
0.2 Series8
0.1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
0.12
0.1
0.08 Series1
Series2
Series3
0.06
Series4
Series5
0.04 Series6
0.02
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Vertical Control
Trigonometric Leveling
With modern total stations, the accuracy
attainable with proper procedures can rival that
of differential leveling
Comparable with second order leveling
Very efficient in areas of relief
Jesse Kozlowski presentation
Can easily provide third order accuracies
With care, can provide second order results
Carry elevations along through horizontal control
traverse
Vertical control only (easier)
Obstacle crossing (rivers, ravines, etc)
Traverse
Must keep sight distances shorter than would
normally be done in a traverse
Use forced centering OR carefully measure HI’s
and HT’s (potential error source!)
Should always measure distances and vertical
angles forward and back, not just one way
Pure Trig levels
Horizontal not important
Leapfrog ahead similar to conventional
differential leveling, no need to record HI
Use fixed height pole, no need to record HT’s,
simplifies computations
Greater productivity in hilly areas
LIMIT SIGHT DISTANCE!
Trigonometric Heighting
Observations are
affected by deflection of
the vertical
Observations are
affected by curvature
and refraction
We need orthometric
height differences, so
ignore deflections (for
short distances)
Curvature and Refraction
AL is level line
AH is tangent to surface
at A
HL is curvature
correction
HP is refraction
correction
PL is combined
correction
Coefficient of Refraction
Ratio between the refraction angle and the angle at the
center of the earth
Can vary from –2.0 to +1.50 for grazing rays close to
the ground
Usually assume a value of k=0.13
For σk of 1.0:
Error in height for 100 m sight: 0.8 mm
To determine k
K=0.5+15.4728(θa+θb)/S
Where θa and θb are in

seconds of arc, S is in
meters
Observe simultaneously from

both ends
“Near” simultaneous is more
feasible
Curvature & Refraction
CR=S2(1-k)/2R
Where:
k is the coefficient of refraction (0.13?)
R is the radius of the earth
S is the distance measured
Conventional Leveling
Curvature and refraction
cancel out for short
sights
Horizontal line of sight
Limits sighting distance
in hilly areas
One way zenith distance
One way zenith distance
•H2 -H1=d * cos Z + (1-k)*(d * sin Z)2 /2*R
Uncertainty in k, refraction coefficient, is the

limiting factor for this method
Reciprocal Zenith Distances
H2-H 1=d*(cos Z12-cos Z21)/2
Uncertainty in k can be greatly reduced if
reciprocal, simultaneous zenith distances are
observed
Uncertainty in σ∆k:
Error in height for 100 m sight: 0.1 mm (0.8)
Trig Heighting
Add HI and subtract HR to get ∆H between
monuments
MAJOR SOURCE of ERROR
Eliminate by using leapfrog method or forced
centering
Leapfrog Method
Methodology is same as for conventional level
Instrument is setup halfway between turning points
(random point, not marked, no HI)
Observe BS D&R zenith distances and slope distances
Observe FS D&R zenith distances and slope distances
LEAVE ROD AT SAME HEIGHT for BS and FS!
Leapfrog Method
Alternatively, record only vertical distance for
each sight, mean the D&R
Computations greatly reduced
If BS distance≅FS distance, and ∆t is small, C &
R will cancel
Obstacle Crossing
Setup four tripods, two on each side
Set a TBM nearby (10-20 m)
Setup a total station (preferably 1”) on one tripod
on each side, and a target/prism on the other
tripod on each side
Can be done with separate EDM/theodolite
Obstacle Crossing – Each Side
Observe 4 D&R zenith distances to 4 different
rod graduations on TBM (i.e.
1.00,2.00,3.00,4.00)
Observe 2 D&R zenith distances and EDM
distances to nearby target and opposite target
Second order accuracy up to 500 m
Vertical Control
Methods of determining elevation differences.
Vertical Datums
Standards and Specifications
Equipment
Sources of Error
Computations and Adjustment of Level Data
Vertical Control
Differential Leveling
Differential Leveling
“Loop” Examples
Vertical Datums
NAVD 88
NGVD 29
Local datums
USGS ≠NGS (NOS,USCGS)
Standards and
Specifications
Standards and Specifications for Geodetic
Control Networks, FGCC-1984
Geospatial Positioning Accuracy Standards,
FGDC, FGCS-1998
Local standards (DOTs, etc)
Draft of standards for digital levels
Orders and Classes of
Accuracy
First Order
Class I
Class II
Second Order
Class I
Class II
Third Order
Maximum Closure Examples
1st Order
Class I (4mm*K1/2) (loop or line)
z 12.6 mm in 10 km (0.041 ft in 6.2 miles)
Class II (5mm*K1/2 ) (loop or line)
2nd Order
Class I (6mm*K1/2)
Class II (8mm*K1/2 ) (loop or line)
3rd Order
(12mm*K1/2) or (0.05ft*M1/2)
z 12.0 mm in 1.61 km (0.050 ft in 1 mile)
z 34.0 mm in 8.1 km (0.112 ft in 5 miles)
z 48.1mm in 16.1 km (0.158 ft in 10 miles)
Equipment for Direct Leveling
Levels
Dumpy
Tilting
Automatic
Digital
Rods (staffs)
Fiberglass
Wood
Invar
Tripods, Turning Points, Verniers, Struts, Rod Levels,
etc.
Sources of Error in Leveling
Instrument Errors
Parallax
Earth’s curvature
Atmospheric Refraction
Variations in Temperature
Rod errors (equipment not people)
Human error
Typical Direct Leveling Project
Define Scope of Work
Determines Equipment and Methodology required
Research and Recover Existing Control
Establish TBM’s and PBM’s
Plan Primary and Secondary Loops
Perform Field Operations
Reduce, Compute, and Adjust Data
Report Results
Preparation for Field Work
(Two Peg Test)
Makes line of sight parallel to the axis of the level
tube
Manual adjustment for most levels
“Software” adjustment of some digital levels
(doesn’t physically move crosshair)
Sighting Errors
Two Peg Test
Two Peg Test
∆H Setup 1 = ∆H Setup 2: level in adjustment
∆H Setup 1 ≠ ∆H Setup 2: level requires
adjustment
Always recheck after adjustment
Balancing BS and FS minimizes this error
Alternative Two Peg Test Methods
Forstner Method
Nahbauer Method
Kukkamaki Method
Three Wire Leveling
Also called “precise leveling”
All three crosshairs (threads) read and recorded
Known thread spacing allows computation of
interval distance
Use of digital level eliminates need for three wire
leveling
Three Wire Level Notes
Collimation Correction
(C factor)
C factor is used to correct for inclined line of
sight when precise levels are run. ΣBS ≠ ΣFS.
C factor
C = (Σ near rod readings - Σ far rod readings)
/ (Σ far rod intervals - Σ near rod intervals)
C factor and
imbalanced BS and FS
∆H corrected =
∆H observed + C*(ΣBS interval - ΣFS interval)
Reciprocal Leveling
Used when leveling across large obstructions
Rivers, Ravines, Canyons, Bridges
Reciprocal Leveling
Level set up on one side and readings taken on near and
far rods, ∆H1 obtained.
Procedure repeated for other side, ∆H2 obtained.
Average of ∆H1 and ∆H2 computed.
Multiple readings or using two levels increases accuracy of
results.
Computations
Single line or loop of levels
Begin at known elevation
End at known elevation
Misclosure at end of run
Adjust elevations of intermediate points
Corrections made directly proportional to the number
of setups or distances between points
Single Loop or Line Computations
Example:
10 mile run
Misclosure of +0.35 feet
5 intermediate BM’s set
Elevations corrected by distance
Elevations corrected by number of turns
Single loop example
Number Difference
Distance of between
Station Observed H from BM Correction Adjusted H turns Correction Adjusted H methods
BM 470.680 0 0.000 470.680 0 0.000 470.680 0.000
TBM1 479.350 1.7 -0.060 479.291 25 -0.044 479.306 -0.016
TBM2 486.350 3 -0.105 486.245 45 -0.079 486.271 -0.026
TBM3 460.280 5 -0.175 460.105 95 -0.166 460.114 -0.009
TBM4 451.350 7.8 -0.273 451.077 130 -0.228 451.123 -0.046
TBM5 480.020 9 -0.315 479.705 160 -0.280 479.740 -0.035
BM 520.740 10 -0.350 520.390 200 -0.350 520.390 0.000
Adjusted H = Observed H + ((distance from BM / total distance) * misclosure)
Adjusted H = Observed H + ((turns from BM / total turns) * misclosure)

Multiple loop level runs
Begin on known elevation
End on known elevation
May have intermediate known elevations
May run individual loops more than once
May have several (many) interconnected loops
Multiple loop level runs
Have more than one observed elevation for new
BM’s
Goal is to compute the best unique value for
each new BM
Least Squares provides the best available
solution
Why Least Squares??
Uses weighted means to obtain a solution
Weights can be based on number of turns or distance of a
run
Uses observed differences in elevation and observed
elevations
This is what we measure in a level run
Computer software readily available
Digital level files read directly by some software
Check for blunders
Estimation of error
Least Squares Example
Multiple elevations at B,C, and D from raw
measurements
Known elevations at A and F
Measured height differences and length of runs
(could use number of turns)
Weights
Use distance between points
Errors in elevation difference varies with distance
between points
Weight for observations obs1= 1 / 2.01
obs2=1 / 0.84, etc….
Look at Station C
3 observed (computed) elevations
z 42.248 (A 1 2 C)
z 42.262 (F 7 4 6 2 C)
z 42.252 (F 7 5 C)
z “Correct” elevation????
Best available estimate from LS
distance of
3 elevations at C level line
42.248 2.85
42.262 17.7
42.252 3.98
mean 42.254
IS THIS OUR BEST ESTIMATE??? NO!!!
USE A WEIGHTED AVERAGE
C= 42.248*(1/2.85) + 42.262*(1/17.7) + 42.252*(1/3.98)= 42.250

(1/2.85)+(1/17.7)+(1/3.98)
variance at C = 0.004 (from LS adjustment output)

Using Least Squares
Check out various programs
Training
Experience
Consultants
Compatibility with file types
Typical steps in a LS adjustment using a software package
Load the data

Fix (hold) one known elevation and
run adjustment
“Free” or minimally constrained
adjustment
Review results: compare computed
elevations at other known BM’s
Fix additional known BM’s and run
subsequent adjustments

Control Surveying 1

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Control Surveying 1

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CONTROL SURVEYING

X Must use iterative

Earth Mass Approximately

TIME NETWORK LOCAL

NAD 83 1986-1990 1 Meter First-Order(1 part in 0.1 million)

HARN 1987-1997 0.1 Meter B-Order(1 part in 1 million)

CORS 1994 - 0.02 Meter - Horizontal

DATUM = WGS 84(G873)

DATUM = WGS 84(G1150)

Project tied to WGS-84 control points obtained

You’re really working in the same reference frame

Earth Mass 2.2 m (3-D)

Plane Coordinate Zone ??

On Board ppm=+18.61 ppm

This latter value, DEDM, is the ray path length,

1+ − × cos ( 93°34 '09.8")

⎧⎪ 6378137 ×(1- 0.00669438002290 ) ⎫⎪

de=1900.9491 m (difference of 0.0001 m, 0.05 ppm)

∆H = 1904.6958 × cos ( 93°34'09.8")

K can vary, assumed to be 0.13

1s time 1’53” 11” 6” 6”

10” latitude 0” 19” 7” 2”

10” longitude 1’15” 7” 4” 4”

Where θa and θb are in

Observe simultaneously from

Uncertainty in k, refraction coefficient, is the

Adjusted H = Observed H + ((distance from BM / total distance) * misclosure)

Adjusted H = Observed H + ((turns from BM / total turns) * misclosure)

USE A WEIGHTED AVERAGE

C= 42.248*(1/2.85) + 42.262*(1/17.7) + 42.252*(1/3.98)= 42.250

variance at C = 0.004 (from LS adjustment output)

Load the data

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C= 42.248(1/2.85) + 42.262(1/17.7) + 42.252*(1/3.98)= 42.250