PACIFIC LINGUISTICS

Se�ie� B - No. 39

THE SEMANTICS OF CLASSIFICATORY VERBS IN ENGA

(AND OTHER PAPUA NEW GUINEA LANGUAGES)

by

Adrianne Lang

Department of Linguistics

Research School of Pacific Studies

THE AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

Lang, A. The semantics of classificatory verbs in Enga (and other Papua New Guinea languages).
B-39, xii + 246 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1975. DOI:10.15144/PL-B39.cover
©1975 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative.
 PAC I F I C L I NGU I S T I CS is published by the Li�g ui¢ tic C i� c l e 06 Ca�b e��a
and consists of four series:

S ER I ES A - O C C A S I O NA L PA PERS
S ER I ES B - M O N OG R A PHS
S ER I ES C - B O O KS
S ER I ES V - S P EC I A L PU B L I CA T I O NS .

EDITOR: S.A. Wurm. ASSOCIATE EDITORS: D.C. Laycock , C . L. Voorhoeve .

ALL CORRESPONDENCE concerning PA C I F I C L I NGU I ST I CS, including orders

and subscriptions, should be addressed to:

The Secretary ,
PA C I F I C L I NGU I S T I CS,
Department of Lingu i s tic s ,
School o f Pac i f ic Studies ,
The Australian National University ,
Box 4 , P.O. ,
Canberra , A.C.T . 2600 .
Australia.

Copyright � Adrianne Lang.

First published 1 975 .

The editors are indebted to the Australian National University for

help in the production of this series.

This publication was made possible by an initial grant from the

Hunter Douglas Fund.

National Library of Australia Card Number and I SBN 0 8 5 8 8 3 1 2 3 6

 TAB L E O F C O N T E NTS

Page
Acknowledgments vi
Preface vi i i
Presentation and Abbrevi ations x
Index of Bound Morphemes xii

0.0 INTRODUCT ION 1

0.1 Theoretical Orientation and Problems 4
0.2.1 The Semantic F eatures 5
0.2.2 Semanti c Redundancy Rules 7
0.2.3 Exceptions 10
0.2.3.1 Loan I tems 11
0.2.3.2 Intersection 12
0 . 2 .3.3 Change of C l a s s 13
0.2.4 Dominance Relations Between Nouns and Verbs 13
0 . 2.5 The Pr iority of Syntax or Semanti c s 15
0.3 Data Compi l ation 15
Notes 17

1.0 ENGA CULTURE AND GRAMMAT ICAL SKETCH 23

1.1 The Enga 23
1.2 Grammatical Sketch 24
1. 2 . 1 The Noun 24
1.2.2 The Verb 33
1.2.2.1 Incorporated Pronoun Objects 33
1.2.2.2 Sentence-medial and Sentence-f inal Forms 34
1.2.2.3 Tenses and Moods 36
Notes 38

iii
iv

2.0 THE EXISTENTIAL VERB 41

2.1 Syntactic Properties
2.2 Semantics 44
2.2.1 Meaning of the EV 44
2.2.2 Features 47
2 . 2 .3 Redundancy Rules 48
2 . 2 .4 Loan Items 52
2 . 2 .5 Intersection 53
2.2.6 Change of Class 56
2.3 Conclusion 58
Notes 62

3.0 THE ANIMATE NOUNS 67

3. 1 Semantic � eatures 68
3.1 . 1 Overt F eatures 68
3. 1 . 2 Covert F eatures 69
3.2 Redundancy Rules 72
3.3 Loan I tems 74
3. 4 Change of Class 75
3.5 Compari son of F eatures 76
Notes 79

4.0 PREDICAT IONS 85

4.1 F orm and Syntacti c Properties 85
4.1.1 Form 85
4. 1.2 Objects 88
4.1.3 Predications in the Stative Form 91
4.1.4 The O-Complementi zer 92
4.1 . 5 Verbs 94
4.1.6 A Problem 94
4.2 Semantics 97
4.2.1 Rules 97
4 .2 . 2 Loan I tems 101
4 . 2 .3 Intersection 103
4 . 2 .3. 1 The Adjuncts in Intersection 103
4.2.3.2 The Verbs in Intersection 105
4.3 Conclusion 106
Notes 10 8

5.0 COMPARAT IVE PERSPECTIVE 1 15

5.1 The EV 116
5. 1.2 Discussion of the Comparative EV 121
 v

5.2 The Predications 123

5.2.1 The Phenomenon 123
5.2.2 Compari son 125
5.2.3 Examples 125
5.3 Conclus ion 130
Notes 132

6.0 CONCLUSION 135

Appendix A: Semantic Clas ses of Verbs 137

Appendix B: Data Compilation 143
Appendix C: The Exi stential Verb s 149
Appendix D: The Predications o f Enga 156
Appendix E: Predicat ions for Compar i s on 180
Bibliography 220

Map 1: The Enga Area 21

Map 2 : Comparative Perspective 114

Chart 1 . 1: Noun Clas ses 26

Chart 3 . 3: Covert Features 71
Chart 5 . 1 : The Comparative EV 12 2
Chart 5.2: Comparative Predi cations Part I 12 6
Comparative Predications Part I I 127

Diagram 2 . 1: The Exis tent ial Verbs 49

Diagram 3.2: The Enga Animates 70
Diagram 4 . 3: Predications 98

Tab le 1.1 Verb Paradigm 37

Table 2 . 2: Loan Items in the EV 52
Table 2 . 3: Intersection in the EV 54
Tab le 2.4: Intersection Data 54
Tabl e 3.1: The Animate Nouns 68
Table 4 . 1: Compound Verbs and Predications 91
Table 4 . 2: Verbs in the Predications 94
Tab le 4 . 3: Loan I tems in the Predications 102
Table 4.4: Intersect ion in the Predications 104
 A C KNOWLEVGMENTS

The r e s e ar c h report ed o n i n t h i s monograph was spons ored by The

Aus t ra l i an Nat i onal Univers i t y , and I owe t h i s ins t i t ut i on a c on s ider­
ab le debt of grat itude for their generous finan c i a l s upport and fac i l­
it i e s made avai lab le t o me .
Ms . Katharine E . W . Mather and Ms . Mary L . R o s e made the dat a pro­
c e s s in g of the Enga mono l ingual d i c t ionary p o s s ib l e . Dr . Jenny Hope
a s s i s t e d i n the t en t at ive c l a s s i fi cat i on o f the Enga animat e s , and
Drs . D . N . McVean and J . Flenley a s s i s t ed in the t e nt at ive c la s s i f i c a­
t i on of the Enga p l ant s .
Spe c i al thanks are due t o Profe s s or S . A . Wurm who provided h i s
c ont i nu i n g s upport throughout my t enure a s a Re s earch Scholar , wh i l e
Drs . D. C . Lay c o c k and D . T . Tryon guided my original r e s earch pro­
gramme . Dr . T . E . Dut t on provided the final s uperv i s i on of the Ph . D
t h e s i s on wh i c h t h i s w ork i s b a s e d dur i ng the final s i x months o f the
programme . I have e sp e c i a l ly appre c iated h i s p a i n s t aking c omment s and
d i s cus s i o n on s everal draft s , and the fini shed product has b en e f i t t e d
gre a t l y from h i s intere s t . Dr . C . L . Voorhoeve h a s a l s o c omme nted o n
t h e e a r l ier draft o f Chap t er F i ve , and great ly as s i s t e d w i t h the ma­
t er i a l s in Dut ch .
Memb e r s o f the Admin i s t rat i on o f the then Territory of Papua New Gu:1nea
who ext ended their h e l p t o me and my husb and during 1 96 7 - 1 96 9 were
Mr . Deny s Faithful ( ADC , Lai agam ) and �1r . Davi d Hook ( ADC , Wab ag ) .
During the f i e l dwork p e r i od 1 97 3- 1 97 4 , the ADC , Laiagam , Mr . I an
Thomp s on and h i s w i fe Linda were mos t h e l p ful , as a l s o the Magi s t r a t e
a t Wab ag , Mr . Mal c o lm McKe l l ar a n d h i s w i fe Sh irley Anne .
The New Guinea Lutheran Mi s s i on -Mi s s ouri Synod was kind enough t o
a l l ow u s t o at t end the Enga l anguage c ou r s e a t Irelya ; w e a l s o appre c i ­
a t e d t h e hosp i t a l i t y and help sh own us b y var i ous s t aff memb ers : Re v .
Dave Hau s er and h i s w i fe Mona , Rev . V i c and Norma H e i n i c k e , Rev . Harley

vi
 vii

and Donna Kop i t ske , Rev . J im and Mar i e Lars on , Rev . Karl and Ruth
Reko , Rev . Max and J udy Scheimann , Rev . Marv and Chri s t a Sacks chewsky ,
Rev . Kar l and E s t her St ot ik , and Rev . B i l l and Ruth Wagner . Especial
thanks g o t o our n e i ghbours a t Mul i t aka ( Yamb a l e ) , Rev . Herb and Faye
Sc haan , Terry and Sharon Lehmann , and Gary and Darl e ne Parker. Map 1
i s b a s e d on a map or i g inally produced by the NGLM-MS .
Thanks are a l s o due t o our near e s t n e i ghb our , Father Imre S z a b o o f
Kas s ap .
The Enga t hems e l v e s provided us w i t h a mos t i n t ere s t ing and enj oy­
a b l e s t ay , i n c luding pig e xchange s , marr i age s , midn i gh t b ir t h s , am­
b u s h e s , b at t le s , and c ompe n s at i on payment s . Our i n formant s Tumu
Pope ok and Ngangane Y a i t u s a of Aipus a , and P e s a t us a , Pas one , Yoane ,
P i s in i and Jone of Kop e t e s a were mo s t he lpful . Spe c i a l t hanks are
owed to C o un c i l lo r Alua Waly i s a , who originally invi t e d us to Kop e t e s �
who a c t e d a s m y maj or i nformant f o r the d i c t i onary c omp i l at io n , and
who s e c omment on my work was the c l a s s i c a l fnda nong6 prp a e d�p a me
kalai 16ng6 ping( (wh i c h i s s ure ly worthy of b e c oming an Enga proverb ) .
Thanks a l s o t o our s ch o o l b oy s , Aninias a , San i s a , a n d Y a s owa , who
t ran s la t e d Enga my t h s and folk t al e s for me , and t o Kat h l e e n J e ffe r s
a n d Y a n Kai , s t uden t s at the Unive r s i t y o f Papua N e w Guine a .
Ran i e r Lang , who originally sugge s t ed t hat I at t emp t t o c omp i l e a
mon o l i ngual d i c t ionary , has prov ided unl imi t e d c omment s , cr i t i c i s m and
t ime t hrough out .
 P R E FACE

This b ook i s b a s e d o n fie ldwork c arried out among t he Enga from

Augu s t 1 9 6 7 to Augu s t 1 96 8 , and from May 1969 to Sept ember 1 96 9 , a
t o t a l of s event e en months , as a R e s e arch Scho lar of The A u s t ra l i an
Nat ional Univer s i t y . The f i r s t few months of thi s period were spent
at or near Wab ag , the remainder at Kope t e s a , a s ma l l hamle t appro x i ­
mat e ly t h ir t y mi l e s w e s t o f Wab ag in t he w e s t e rn d i a l e c t are a o f Enga .
The final w ork for t h i s b ook was c arried out from De c emb er 1 97 3 t o
February 1 9 7 4 in the Enga D i s t r i c t . A t r i p t o t h e Summer I n s t i t u t e o f
L i n gu i s t i c s b a s e a t Ukarumpa in Sept emb er 1 97 3 y i elded mat e r i a l inc or­
porat e d in Chap ter F i ve ( C omp arat ive P e r s p e c t ive ) and in App end i x E .
The de c i s i on t o undert ake a s t udy o f Enga was b ased on two con­
s iderat ions : firs t ly , that in c onne ct i on w i t h my husb and ' s f i e l dwork
I was already living among the Enga and had att ained a fair de gre e o f
s p e aking p r o f i c iency in the l anguage , and s e c ondl y , t hat a c ons ider­
ab le amount of l ingu i s t i c and e t hnograph i c w ork h ad a lre ady b e en d one
on the Enga .
This i s a s eman t i c s t udy . It aro s e out of my previous intere s t in
ethno s c i en c e and b e cause o f this b e gan w i t h the det erminat ion of the
feature s o f the an imat e s ub - s e t o f Enga nouns . Since s tudi e s " o f any
sort in e t hn o z o o logy are rare " ( S turt evant 1 96 4 : 1 2 0 ) , I felt that th i s
would provide a c ont ribut i on t o a n e g l e c t e d domain . The e l i c i t at ion
o f s emant i c feature s o f the animate nouns provided the first evidence
o f the Enga e x i s t ent ial verb s : any noun e l i c i t e d would b e fol lowed by
a verb whi ch ind i c a t e d its hab i t ua l state of e x i s t en c e . I n t e re s t i n
the e x i s t en t i a l verb s and t h e e l i c itat ion o f the ir fe at ure s led t o t h e
di s c overy t h a t t h e y were c la s s i fi c at ory verb s and t hat t h e y c o- o c c urred
only w i t h [ +c oncret e ] nouns . This led t o furt her work on the verb a l
s y s tem w i t h the r e s ul t t h a t [ -c on c re t e ] n o u n s w e r e found t o c o-oc c ur
w i t h another s e t of c l as s i fi c at ory verb s .

viii
 ix

Thus , t h e t op i c b e c ame fo c u s e d a s a semant i c s t udy o f a p ort i on o f

Enga , the an ima t e nouns and t he c l a s s i ficat ory verb s . O n e o f t he main
feat ure s is t hat t h e b ook at temp t s not only t o explain the u s ua l o c ­
c urre n c e s b y me an s o f s eman t i c re dundancy rule s , but al s o t o a c c ount
for t h e e x c e p t i o n s t o t h e s e , i . e . , t he a s s umpt i on t hat rules are brok­
en in a c c ordan c e w i t h ( cu l t ura l l y d e t e rmined ) rul e s for b r e aking r u l e s
( c f . Landar 1 9 6 5 a n d Dixon 1 9 6 8 : 1 2 0 ) . T h e a s s o c i at e d prob l ems were :
Can s emant i c fe atur e s b e given? C an s e mant i c re dundanc y rul e s b e
formulat ed? What are t h e e x c ep t i on s t o t h e s e rule s , and c an t h e y a l s o
b e a c c ount e d for? Are t h e rul e s p art o f a s emant i c h i erarchy o r d o e s
c ro s s - c l as s i fi c at ion o f t he i t e ms e x i s t? C a n c omparat i ve data b e
given f o r o t h e r Papua N e w G u i n e a l anguage s w i t h s imi l ar phenomena?
The int r oduc t ory chapter s tat e s the problem and gi ve s a de s cr i p t i on
of t he dat a b a s e ; Chapt e r One give s a s k e t c h of t h e Enga and t h e i r
c u l t ure a n d of p r e v i o u s l ingu i s t i c work on Enga. Chap t er Two d e s c r i b e s
t h e e x i s t ent i a l verb s , t h e i r s y n t ax a n d s emant i c s . Chap t e r Three i s a
b r i e f e xcurs i on into the animate nouns , one sub-set o f the [ + c oncret e ]
nouns whi ch c o-oc c ur w i t h the e x i s t e n t i a l verb s . Chap t e r Four de­
s c r ib e s t he c l as s i fi cat ory verb s wh i c h c o- o c c ur w i t h the [ - c on c re t e ]
nouns , s ome prob lems c onne c t e d w i t h t hem , and t h e i r s emant i c s .
Chap t e r Five deals w i t h c omp arat ive mat e r i a l s from other New Guinea
language s on t h e t wo kinds o f c l a s s i fi c atory verb s . The monograph
c o n c l u d e s with a b r i e f d i s cus s i on of t he re s u l t s o f the s t udy in
Chap t e r S i x .
The append i c e s c on t a i n s up p l ement ary mat e r i a l s on the s emant i c
c l as s e s o f Enga verb s ( A ) , me thods o f dat a c omp i l at i on ( B ) , d a t a o n
t h e Enga e x i s t en t i a l verb s ( C ) , d a t a on t h e c la s s i fi c at ory verb s for
the [ - c on c r e t e ] nouns o f Enga ( D ) , and s ome c omparat ive data from
p o s s i b ly re l at ed l an guages ( E ) .
 PRES ENTAT I ON ANV A B B REVI A T I ONS

A l l e x amp l e s are given in t h e u s u a l Enga ort h o graphy ; t h e t onal

s t ru c t ure o f i t e ms wit hout t one marks i s , at pre s e nt , not known . In
the i n t e r l inear t rans lat i on , morpheme b ound a r i e s are ind i c a t e d b y a
hyphe n ; the p eriod C.) i nd i c at e s a unit ary l e x i c a l i t e m in Enga ;
s quare bracket s e n c l o s e feature s .
Enga e x amp l e s in running t e x t are p r i n t e d b ol d , t he i r Engl i s h
gl o s s e s appear i n i t a l i c s . Text w i t h in d oub l e quotat i o n marks i s
quot e d from t h e l i t erature .
The e xamp l e s are numb ered w i t h i n e a c h chapt er , and t he not e s may
be found a t the end of e a c h chap t e r .

AG Agent ive
AS A s s o c i at ive
BEN Bene fact ive
CAUS Caus at ive
COMP Comp l e t ive
CONF C o n format ive
CONJ Conj unct ive
DEC De c l arat ive
DET Det e rminer
DU Dual
EXCL Exc l u s ive
FP Far Past
FUT Fut ure
GEN Genit ive
HAB H ab it ual
HIST H i s t or i c a l events
IMM Imme d i at e
IMP Imp erat ive

x
 xi

INCL Inc l u s ive

INF I n f i n i t ive
INST I n s t rume n t a l
IP Imme d i at e P a s t
LAKA D e s iderat ive marker
LOC Locat i ve
N Noun
NP Noun Phras e
NP Near Past
-0 o-c omp lement i z er
PAST Past
PL P lura l
POSS P o s s e s s ive
PRES Present
PUR Purp o s e
QU Que s t i on
STA St at ive
SENSE Sensed
SG S ingu l ar
TEMP Temp o r a l
UP Up
V Verb
VP Verb Phr a s e
1 1 s t p e r s on
2 2nd p e r s o n
3 3rd p e r s on
+ Loan i t ems
? Que s t ionab l e
* Ungrammat i c a l
/ Or
 INVEX O F B OUNV M O R PH E MES

-a- 3SG -n- 3 imperative

-ami 3PL nae- negative
-e- far past tense -ngr/-ngi habitual
-i- immediate imperative , 2SG, -no declarati ve
far past tense
-nya locative , possessive , genitive
-ka locative , benefactive
-0 lSG, O-complement izer
laka des i derati ve
-p- near past tense
- (1 ) a- infinitive
-pa conjunctive
lamo deductive
-pae stative
-l y- present tense
-pyaa histori cal
-lya- infinitive , location ( up )
-pel-pi question
-ma i - exclusive
-5- causative
-me agentive , instrumental
-sa locative , temporal , completive
-mo declarati ve
-te- completive
-mu sensed
-u O-complementizer
na- negative

xii

Lang, A. The semantics of classificatory verbs in Enga (and other Papua New Guinea languages).
B-39, xii + 246 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1975. DOI:10.15144/PL-B39.cover
©1975 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative.
 INTRODUCTION

0.1 INTROVUCTION

Much i s now known ab out the general s t ru c t ural charac t e r of P ap ua

l
New Guinea l anguage s , although relat ively few o f t h e s e have b e e n
2
s t ud i e d a n d d e s c r i b e d in any d e t a i l . Whatever s t u d i e s have b e e n
made have f o c u s e d on the phono l ogy , morp h o l o gy / s yn t a x o f part i c u l ar
language s . And o f t h e s e , the b u l k has c on c e nt ra t e d on the morpho­
l o g i c al s t ru c t ure and/or syntac t i c func t i on o f verb s a l on e , s i n c e
t he s e are u s u a l l y very c omp l e x l ingu i s t i c e nt it i e s w h i c h may b e s ai d
t o ' domina t e ' the l anguage s in wh i c h t h e y o c cur ( C ap e l l 1 9 6 9 ) . Th i s
work i s a further c ontribut ion t o verb s t u d i e s in P apua N e w Guinea
language s . I t b u i l d s on previous l ingui s t i c work and knowl e d ge and
a t t e mp t s to e x t e nd this to a new level b y t ak i n g a d e t a i l e d l o ok a t
the s e man t i c s o f a s e t o f verb s in Enga , a non-Au s t rone s i an l anguage
3
of the c e n t r al h i gh l ands of Papua New Guinea .
In p art i cular , t h i s i s a de s c ri p t ive and e xp l orat ory s emant i c
s t udy o f a group o f verb s in Enga wh i c h c o- o c c ur only w i t h c e r t a i n
c l a s s e s o f nouns , a n d s o a r e d e s c r ib e d a s ' c las s i f i c at ory verb s ' .
H i t h e r t o t h e s e verb s have not b e e n d i s c u s s e d as s u c h in t h e l i t e rature
on t h e s truc t ure of Papua New Guinea verb s , and no s e mant i c anal y s i s
4
o r d e s c r ip t i on o f them h a s b e e n a t t e mp t e d . They h ave, h oweve r , b e e n
men t i oned i n c onne c t i on w i t h synta c t i c de s c ri p t i on s o f Papua New
Guinea languages in a more genera l way , so that t h i s provides s ome
b a s e for d i s c us s ing the e x t e n t and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h i s phenomenon
t hroughout P apua New Gu1.nea .
The t e rm ' c l a s s i fi c a t ory ve rb ' i s not new . I t has b e e n u s e d for
s ome t ime i n s t ud i e s o f Ame r i c an Indian languages where phenomena
s im i l ar to t h o s e of Enga have been d e s c r i b e d in t h e s e t e rms . That
the phenomena are imp o r t ant and w or t hy of d e t a i le d inve s t i gat ion
has b e e n p o in t e d out b y Haa s , Berl in , and others . Thu s , Haas has

Lang, A. The semantics of classificatory verbs in Enga (and other Papua New Guinea languages).
B-39, xii + 246 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1975. DOI:10.15144/PL-B39.1
©1975 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative.
 2

s aid that
clas sificatory verbs clearly deserve far more attention than they
have received in the past as indi cators of covert taxonomic systems
of considerable complexity ( 1967 : 361 ) .
Brent Be r l i n has s t at e d that c la s s i f i c a t ory verb s , noun c l a s s markers
(as in the Ban t u language s ) , and numeral c la s s i f i e r s ( as in Chine s e ,
Mayan and Tara s c an ) are " three s y n t ac t i c devi c e s ut i l i z ed by many
langua ge s of the world l i ngui s t i c a l l y marking h i gh ly s a l ient feat ure s
o f the p hy s i c a l wor1d . . . u1t imat e 1 y it w i l l be ne c e s s ary t o c on s ider
e a c h of t h e s e three synt a c t i c devi c e s a s f o c u s i ng on s im i l ar s e man t i c
feature s . . . " ( Friedrich 1 9 7 0 : 38 0 ) .
Clas s i f i c at ory verb s may be e ither overt , a s in the Athap a s can
language s ( Ho i j er 1 9 4 5 ; Haas 1 9 48 , 1 9 6 7 ; Landar 1 9 6 4 , 1 9 6 5 , et a Z . ) ,
or c overt , a s in Taras can ( Friedrich 1 9 7 0 ) and Enga . As a p o int o f
d e p arture f o r t h i s d e s cript i on , w e w i l l t ake Ho i j er ' s c la s s i c art i c l e
on t he verb s t ems o f Apache , whi c h out l i ne s three kinds o f verb s :
i non- c l as s i fi c a t ory verb s ,
ii c l a s s i fi c at ory verb s , and
5
iii ' p seudo ' c l as s i fi c at ory verb s .
Ho i j er ( 1 9 4 5 ) has defined t h e s e as f o l l ow s :
i Non-clas sificatory verbs :
. . . verb stems denoting a specific type of action or behavior .
Forms like ' he speaks so ' ,
• . • ' he is walking , moving ' ,
• • • • • •

' you buy it ' employ verb stems of this kind ( 22 ) .

• . •

ii Clas s ificatory verbs :

verb stems which refer to a clas s of obj ects participating
. • .

in an event , either as actor or goal (22) there is no

. . • • • • •

s imple verb ' to give ' but a number of parallel verb themes
consisting of a certain sequence of prefixes plus a classifi­
catory verb stem. The sequence of prefixes is the same for
each theme but the stem varies with the class of obj ect
referred to ( 13 ) .
Some examples of these include :
' she gave [ a twenty-five cent piece] to him ' , ' he gave [ a
bundle o f arrows] t o him ' , ' you take a round obj ect out of
( an enclosed space ) ' , ' you take a fabric-like obj ect out of
( an enclosed space ) ' ( 14 ) .
These verb stems have a
. . . neuter intransitive denoting an obj ect of a particular
type in position or at rest , ' a mountain lies [ over
• . .

yonder] ' ( 22 ) .
• . .

i i i ' Pseudo ' clas si fi c atory verbs :

stems which stand between the two categories just outlined .
• . .

Some of these are to be distingui sed from the clas sificatory

stems only in their neuter forms ; active verbs denoting the
movement or handling of their obj ect clas s are the same as
those of some other clas sificatory type . An example of this
phenomenon is found in Navaho ' it is bent bow-like ' , for
. • .

when we speak of handling a 'bow-like obj ect ' we must use

active verbs of the ' long obj ect ' class ( 22f . ) .
 3

N o t e e sp e c i a l l y that the form that d i s t ingu i s h e s the c l a s s i f i c a­

t ory from t h e ' p s e ud o ' c la s s i f i ca t ory verb s is t he ' neut e r ' form o f
the t yp e ' a moun t a i n l i e s ' . Enga d o e s n o t have ' p s eudo ' c l as s i fi c a ­
t ory verb s , b ut t h e Enga form c orre s p onding t o t h e ' neut e r ' Navaho
form , the e x i s t e n t i a l verb , a l s o c ompr i s e s a s p e c i a l s ub - s e t of the
c lass i f i c at ory verb s in Enga . O f the three t yp e s given by H o i j er
( non-c l a s s i fi c at ory , c la s s i fi c a t ory , and ' p s e udo ' c l a s s i f i c at ory
verb s ) , Enga has t he f i r s t two , b ut not the l a s t .
Both t h e Athapas c an l anguage s and Enga h ave non-c l a s s i f i c at ory
verb s ; i n Enga these are e xemp l i f i e d here b y y a w a - s te am (in an e a r t h
o v e n ) in :

1. A k � 1 i d 6 p a - me me n a d 6 p a y a we - l y - a m r -n o . 6
man the-AG pig the s t e am- PRE S - 3 PL-DEC
The men are s te aming t h e p i g s (in an e ar t h o v e n ) .

The s e are b r i e f l y p re s e nt e d in 1 . 2 . 1 ( fo l l owing ) and appear grouped

into s e mant i c c la s s e s in Appendi x A ; t h e y are hereafter i gnore d ,
s in c e the s t udy d e a l s only w i t h the c la s s i fi c a t ory verb s of Enga .
The c la s s i f i c at ory verb s in Enga are of two t yp e s , and are d is­
t i ngui shed by the t y p e of noun wh i c h c o - o c c ur s w i t h t hem . The f i r s t
t yp e c o- o c c urs w i t h c on c r e t e n o u n s in Enga , a n d c orre s p onds t o
H o i j er ' s ' neut e r ' s t em which denot e s " . . . a n ob j e c t o f a part i cular
t y p e in a p o s it i on or at re s t " (1 9 4 5 : 2 2 ) . In Enga these verb s c la s ­
s i fy t he c o n c re t e nouns i n t o s even sub-c las s e s , o f w h i c h t hree are
e xemp l i f i e d in (2 -4 ) :

2. En d a d u pa pete-nge .
lJoman the BE-HAB
Wom e n e xi s t .

house the BE-HAB

Hou s e s exi s t .

4. J r p i d up a d- n g i .
jeep the BE-HAB
J e e p s /cars e xi s t .

I n the s e s en t e n c e s , the verb s p i t a - , k a t a - , and s a - ind i c a t e that

obj e c t s o f a p ar t i c ular t y p e ( e . g . , lJoman , house and j e e p ) are in a
p o s it i o n at re s t . The s e verb s ( and the others wh i c h c o n s t i t u t e the
s e t ) will be referred to as e x i s t en t ia l verb s ( hereafter EV ) and w i l l
form o n e o f t h e main t op i c s o f de s c r i p t i on a n d analy s i s in Chapt e r
2.0.
 4

The s e c ond t yp e of c la s s i f i c at ory verb s in Enga c o - o c cur w i t h t h e

non- c on c r e t e nouns ; they a r e in c omp lement ary d i st ribut i on w i t h t he
f i r s t t ype , the EV . Th i s s e c ond t ype of c la s s i fi c a t ory verb o c c ur s
i n what wi l l b e re ferred t o as a ' predi c a t i on ' . Two t y p i c a l Enga
predicat i o n s , t e e p i - pay re s ti t u t i o n (for a homi c i de ) , and i t � k r
p y a - coun t are exemp l i f i e d in ( 5 ) and ( 6 ) :

p i -l y - a m i - n 6 .
man t h e - A G r e s t i t u t i o n do-PRES- 3PL-DEC
The men are pay ing re s t i t u t i on ( for a homicide ) .

p i - l y -� - mo .
man t h e - AG pig t he count h i t - PRE S - 3 SG-DEC
The man is counting the p i g s .

The se pre d i c a t i on s wi l l be d e s cribed and ana l y z e d in Chap t e r 4 .

I n d i s c u s s in g the s emant i c s t ruc t ure of t h e EV and predi c at i o n s ,
l e x i c a l s t ems w i l l be c ons idered t o c on s i s t of bundles of s emant i c
f e at ure s , mainly for prac t i c a l reasons , s ince t h e prob lems n o t e d i n
the s e c t i on t o f o l l ow have n o t y e t b e e n s o lved .

0.2 TH EOR E T ICAL OR I ENTAT I ON ANV PROBLEMS

After years o f b e i n g d i s c r e d i t e d and ignored , the s t udy o f s e man­

t i c s was revi t a l i z e d in 1 9 6 3 with the p i oneering e ffort o f Kat z and
Fodor whi c h att emp t e d not " . . . to pres ent a s emant i c t he ory of a
natural language , but rather t o chara c t e r i z e the ab s tr a c t form o f
s u c h a the ory " ( 1 9 6 4 : 47 9 ) . The importance o f t h i s work i s empha s i z e d
b y i t s be ing imme d i at e ly i n c orpora t e d i n t o a n i n t e grated t he ory o f
l ingui s t i c de s cript i on ( Kat z and P o s t a l 1 9 6 4 ) and i t s inc orporat ion
i n t o generat ive trans format i onal t he ory ( Chomsky 1 9 6 5 ) .
The s eman t i c theory p re s en t e d b y Kat z and F odor was heavily c r i t ­
7
i c i s ed on s everal p o i nt s , o f whi c h we w i l l d e a l only w i t h t h o s e o f
i n t ere s t in the pre s e nt s e mant i c s tudy o f Enga , e . g . , the i d e a of
s e mant i c markers ( fe a t ur e s or c omp onent s ) . I n t h e fol lowing s e c t ions
we will briefly sketch s ome of t h e more s a lient points to b e a c c ount­
e d for i n a s emant i c s tudy and wh i c h we intend to c on c entrate most
heavily up on in the chap t e r s to f o l l ow . The p o i n t s inc lude :
0.2.1 The s emant i c fe ature s
0.2.2 Redundanc y r u l e s in s emant i c s
0.2.3 Var ious e x c e p t i o n s t o the redundancy r u l e s
0.2.4 Dominan c e relat ions b etween nouns a n d verb s
0 . 2 .5 The p r i o r i t y of s y n t a x or s emant i c s .
 5

0.2 .1 T h e S e m a n t i c F e a tu r e s

We inre i c h s t a t e s t h a t the i d e a o f u s in g featur e s was f i r s t p ro­

posed by G . H . Matthews ab out 1 9 5 7 and was indep ende n t l y w orked out
to s ome e x t e n t by Robert P . S t o ckwe l l and his s t ud e n t s ( 19 6 6 : 401 ) .
Lyons s ay s that the c omp onent ial approach t o s eman t i c s " . . . has a long
h i s t ory i n linguis t i c s , l o g i c and p h i l o s ophy . I t i s inherent in t h e
trad i t i onal met h od o f d e finit ion by divid ing a g e n u s i n t o s p e c i e s and
s p e c i e s into s ub s p e c ie s ; and t h i s method o f de fin i t i on is r e f l e c t e d
i n mo s t o f the d i c t i onarie s that have e v e r b e e n c omp i led f o r p art i c u­
lar l anguage s , and in the organ i z a t i on o f s uc h works as R o g e�l¢
The¢ au� u¢ II ( 19 68 : 4 7 2 ) . In t h e c ompone n t i a l ( or feat ure ) method ,
words are d e s cribed s eman t i c a l l y by fact oring out the m o s t ' basic '
c omponen t s . Ethn o s c i e n c e h a s s uc c e s s fu l l y app l i e d t h i s t e chn i que
mos t ly w i t h i n the domain o f var i ou s c l o s e d c ontrast s e t s , s uc h a s
8
kinship t e rms .
One c la im advan c ed for s eman t i c comp onent s i s t he i r p o t ent ia l
univer s a l it y , i . e . , t hat a l l human language s m a y be e i t her part i a l l y
or c omp l e t e ly analyzed i n t erms o f a f i n i t e s e t o f s eman t i c feature s
in much the s ame way as c an be d one for phono l ogy w i t h d i s t in c t ive
feature s . Chomsky c i t e s s evera l e xamp l e s wh ich c ont ain ( forma l )
univers a l s :
Consider , for example , the as sumption that proper names in any lan­
guage , must designate objects meet ing a condition of spatiotemporal
contiguity , and that the same is true of other terms designating
objects ; or the condition that the color words of any language must
subdivide the color spectrum into continuous segments; or the con­
di tion that arti facts are defined in terms of certain human goals ,
needs, and functions instead of solely in terms of phys i cal quali­
ties ( 1965 : 29, notes omitte d ) .
Of c ourse the value of a c omponent ial analy s i s in the s eman t i c de s ­
c r i p t i o n o f a p art i c ular l anguage ( in t h i s c a s e , Enga ) rema i n s un­
a f fe c t e d by the e x i s t en c e ( or non-e x i s t en c e ) of p o s s ib le unive r s a l
c omp onen t s , y e t s uc h a de s c ript i on may b e evidence t o even t u a l l y c on­
firm ( or r e fut e ) the hypothe s i s of the unive r s a l i t y of feature s .
One o f t he advant age s of s e mant i c feature s i s that t h e s e a l l ow
word s wh i c h have one or more featur e s in c ommon t o be r e l a t e d v i a
the s e feature s , i . e . , w o r d s may b e c on s i dered t o b e s ynonymous i f
they c on t a i n ident i c al s emant i c c omp onent s and d e s c r i p t i o n s . Th i s
s ame r e l at ion may h o l d b e tween s e n t e nc e s , s u c h that
. . . relat i ons like paraphrase , entailment , etc . are suitable general­
i z ations of lexical relat ions like synonymy, hyponymy , etc . This i s
a natural consequence o f the fact that the semanti c representations
of sentences are in principle of the same character as lexical mean­
ings ( Bierwisch 1970 : 180 ) .
 6

Thus the s eman t i c c omponent s may demon s t ra t e the o c c urre n c e s and show
t he r e l at i o n s h ip s b e tween synonyms , ant onyms , and other related word s .
A s we l l , t h e ove rlapping o f s emant i c c omp onent s o r d e s c r i p t ions p ro­
vid e s for that s ub - s e t o f i t ems whi ch w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d b e low and
t hroughout t h i s monograph a s ' in t e r s e c t ion ' (cf . 0. 2 . 3 . 2 ) .
S e veral of the p rob l em s m o s t freque n t l y ment ioned in c onne c t i on
w i t h s eman t i c c ompo nent s are
( 1 ) that there is no d i s c overy p r o c edure t o d e t e rmine whi c h
a r e t he ' c orre c t ' marker s ;
( 2 ) how e x a c t l y are t he s eman t i c c omponents re lated t o t h e
s y nt a c t ic feature s ;
( 3 ) i s t he numb er o f c omp onent s needed s o large a s t o b e
unfe a s ab l e ;
( 4 ) are latent markers pre s e nt ;
( 5 ) do the f e atur e s h ave ' c o gn i t ive r e a l i t y ' ?
The d i s c overy o f s eman t i c markers i s u sually demon s t ra t e d v i a a
f a c t oring pro c e s s on s u c h c lo s e d c ontrast s e t s as "man , woman , b oy ,
gir l , c h i ld" or " s t a l l ion , mare , gelding , f i l ly , c o lt , foa l " ( c f.
.
Bierw i s ch 1 9 7 0 : 1 68 and Lyons 1 9 68 : 4 7 0 ) . Th i s is i n c i d e n t a l l y t h e
s ame m e t h o d adop t e d in e thno s c i e nc e , which has e lab orat e d u p o n the
d i s c overy t e chnique s and methods to be u s ed in the det e rminat i on o f
t he c l o s e d s e t , the feature s , et c . F o r an e xc e l l ent e xamp l e o f t h i s ,
s e e Ber l in 1 9 68 and referen c e s therein . Bol in ger u s e s t h e s ame t e c h ­
nique in demon s t ra t i n g that the dua l i sm o f semant i c markers and
' di s t ingu i sher s ' in the s emant i c t h e ory o f Kat z and Fodor is an art i­
f i c i a l i t y ( 1 9 6 5 : 5 58ff ) . I t i s B o l i n ger who p o int s out that s e mant i c
c omponent s must r e f l e c t our knowle dge o f t he world ; i f not , t h e n
" Where d o marke rs l ike ( Anima l ) , ( Ph y s i c a l Ob j ec t ) , . . . c ome from i f
not from our know ledge o f the world ? " ( 1965 : 568) .
Kat z and Fodor claimed t hat semant i c and s y n t a c t i c markers were
d i s t inc t , an a s sump t i on that has b e en att acked by We inr e i c h , who
s t at e s that
The presence of syntacti c and semant ic markers with identi c al
names ( Male , Female , Abstract , etc . ) offers strong prima facie
ground for the suspi cion that the distinction between s emantic
and syntact ic markers--a distinction theoreti c ally crucial for
KF --is ill-founded ( 1966 : 402 ) . 9
. . .

The large numb e r of s emant i c c omp onent s n e eded t o de fine even j us t

one word i s one o f t h e main prob l ems t o be faced . Th i s i s ment ioned
b y D i x on 1 9 7 1 : 4 4 0 , We inre i c h 1 9 6 6 : 4 7 3 , and Bol in ger 1 9 6 5 : 5 6 0 . Br i e f ­
l y , the a s s umpt i on i s that the large ( but pre s umab ly f i n i t e numb e r )
of even minimal marke r s needed would be b ut l i t t l e b e t t e r t han a l i s t
of £ words as sumed t o b e p r imit iv e s ( s in c e i t i s ent ire l y p os s ib l e
 7

t hat the numb er o f marker s needed would be only � - 1) . Pract i c al l y ,

the idea of s eman t i c redundancy r u l e s ( s imi lar t o t h o s e of phon o l o gy
and syntax l O ) , wh i l e s t i l l fraught w i t h d i ff i cu l t i e s ( c f . 0 . 2 . 2 ) ,
d o e s offer at l e a s t s ome hope in the s eman t i c d e s c r i p t ion o f any
hierar c h i c c l a s s of i t em s ( i . e . f o l k t axonomy ) , and s emant i c c ompo ­
ne n t s h a v e a s We inre i c h s t at e s " . . . proved the ir u s e fulne s s long a g o "
( 19 6 6 : 47 3 ) .
Another r e l a t e d prob lem is that of latent marke r s , as d i s c u s s e d b y
B o l in ge r 1 9 6 5 : 5 6 2 f f . Th i s i s t h a t t o a c c ount f o r t he s p e aker ' s ab i l­
i t y t o r e c o gn i z e an anomaly ( a s we l l a s amb i gu it y ) would require mak­
ing e xp l i c it a very large numb er of markers or as Weinre i c h s t a t e s it
" . . . the need to mark e a c h morpheme w i t h a zero for an e x t re me ly large
number o f s eman t i c feature s l ooms as a most unat t r a c t ive ne c e s s it y "
( 1966 : 47 3 ) . B o l inger ' s propo s e d s olut i on would b e a d i c t i onary ( w i t h
o n e o r t w o do zen markers p e r entry ) f o r t h e amb iguit ie s , and a t h e ­
s aurus ( wi t h e ac h marker appearing o n l y once , and l e x i c a l i t ems b e ing
l inked by p a t h s b e tween marke r s ) for the anoma l i e s ( 1 9 6 5 : 5 6 4 ) . ( Com­
pare t h i s idea of s emant i c n e t w orks w i t h t ho s e to be d i s cu s s e d in
0.2.2) .
One prob lem of s e man t i c c omp onent s , d i s c u s s ed main ly by anthro p o l ­
ogi s t s int e r e s t e d in ethno s c i e n c e , i s t h a t of the ' c ogn it ive r e a l it y '
or ' va l i d i t y ' of the s emant i c c omponent s t hems e lve s . The prob l em i s
that t o d i f ferent i a t e any it ems in t erms of only one feat ure , a s ani­
mat e s in t erms o f t h e i r sex ( i . e . , as man-woman , b u l l- c ow , e t c . ) , i s
t o emphas ize o n l y one o f t h e many r e l e vant feat ure s whi c h may d i s t in ­
gui s h the it ems :
If one asks a young child (most of whose utterances are perfectly
accept able and manifest the same semanti c relationships , as far
as one can judge , as the utterances of his elders ) what is the
difference between men and women , he might answer by l i sting a
whole set of typic al characteristics--the kind of clothes they
wear , how their hair is cut , . . . Why should one suppose that sex
is the sole criterion even in adult speech? ( Lyons 1968 : 478 ) . 1 1
Thi s que s t ion o f t h e ' c o gni t i ve r e a l i t y ' o f s e mant i c c omp o n e n t s i s
un s o lvab le ( at p r e s ent , a t l e a s t ) , and anthrop o l o gi s t s are divide d ,
w i t h s ome c l aiming that the que s t ion is irre levant , others t hat t h e
s y s tems p o s t u lat e d a r e c ogni t i ve ly re al , a n d yet o t h e r s t hat s uc h a
c o gn i t i ve r e a l i t y may e x i s t but that it mus t be demons t rat e d by oper­
12
ations e x t e rnal t o t h e me thods of analy s i s .

0 .2 .2 Semantic Redundancy Rules

The p o s s i b i l i t y of s emant i c redundancy rule s i s not me nt ioned by

Kat z and Fodor in t h e ir s emant i c t he ory . Chom s ky app l i e d the not i o n
 8

of redundanc y r u l e s as u s e d in phono logy by H a l l e ( 1 9 5 9 a and b ) t o

s y n t a x t o form s y nt a c t i c redundancy rule s . He s t a t e s that t h e s e ru l e s
" ar e de s i gned t o d e a l w i t h t he f a c t t h a t c e r t a i n phono l og i c a l feature
s p e c i f i c at i on s are pred i c t ab le , given o t h er s " ( 19 6 5 : 168 ) . A d i s t in c ­
t i on i s made b e tween c onvent i on s ( the s e are " . . . univers a l , and t h e r e ­
f o r e need no s p e c i f i c s t a t ement in the grammar " ( 1 9 6 5 : 1 68 ) ) and
redundancy rule s , which are " . . . p art i c ular to a given l anguage , and
t h e r e fore mus t be given in the grammar " ( 1965 : 168) . The redundanc y
rules w i l l
make a distinction between "pos sible , but nonoccurring lexi cal
entry" and "impos sible lexic al entry" , precisely as the phono­
logi c al redundancy rules do But in general not all of the
. . •

pos s ibilities will be actually realized in the lexicon. . . the

pos s ible but nonoccurring lexical entries have the status of
"accidental semantic gaps" in the sense that they correspond
to lexical items that the language does not provide for speci­
fically but could in principle incorporate with no alterat i on
of the general s emanti c system within which it functions
(1965 : 170) .
Gething ( 1 9 6 8 ) pre sent s an app l i c at ion o f redundancy r u l e s t o s em­
ant i c s ( i . e . , to a c l o s e d set o f t erms for Buddh i s t r e l i g i o u s fun c ­
t i onari e s ) , w h i c h p re s ent s one s o lut i on t o t h e fa c t s pre s e n t e d above
of the p o t e n t i a l ly l arge numb er o f s emant i c comp onents n e c e s s ary for
an analy s i s . He does this by f ir s t as s uming that only p e r t inent
feature s o f a w ord are l i s t e d , with a genera l rule for the ent ire
l e x i c on wh ich s t a t e s that featur e s not l i s t ed for an item are non­
app li cab le t o i t . Furthermore , predi c t ab le ( and thus redundant )
featur e s are i s o la t e d and reduc e d by a s e t of rule s , s o t hat t h e l e x i ­
c on c on t a i n s o n l y the ' emi c ' ( non-predi c t ab l e ) l e x i c a l entr i e s . Th i s
q u i t e c o n s i derably reduc e s the s emant i c markers needed--in G e t hing ' s
e xamp le o f r e l i gious t erms , only one feature , r e l at ive s t a t u s , i s
a c t ua l l y needed i n t he entry . That t h i s i s p o s s ib le ( i . e . , t o reduce
the feature s to only one , p lus a s e t o f redundanc y rule s ) i s l arge ly
the result o f t h e hierarchic nature o f the data chosen by Ge thing .
In the c a s e of non-h ierarc h i c it ems s emant i c redundan c y r u l e s fa c e
a very r e a l chal lenge . A d i s c u s s ion o f t h i s i s p r e s e n t e d i n
We inr e i c h ( 1 9 6 6 : 4 08f ) and b ri e fly here . We inre i c h argue s t hat Kat z
and Fodor give an over- s imp l i f i e d view o f the p rob lem by e xe mp l i f y i n g
t r e e s as p ure t axonomi e s , s u c h that ( 7 a ) c an b e repre s en t e d by ( 7b ) : 1 3

7b .

��I
7a .

A ! T

And , as We inr e i c h p o int s out , many d i c t ionary entr i e s tend t o form

matr i c e s o f fe at ure s , as in ( 8a ) , and " t he re i s n o mot ivat ed r e a s on
 9

t o rewr i t e them as . . . [8b ] ; the only e c onomy would b e achieved b y rep-

r e s entat i o n s s u c h a s . . . [ 8c , d,e ] " ( 1966 : 409 ) :

8a . 8b .

Q
A)
R �R B C C

8c . 8d .

8e . A
~
I
B C

Q R

This prob l em ( c ro s s - c l a s s i f i c at i on ) i s a l s o d i s c u s s e d b y Choms ky

( 1 9 6 5 : 7 9-86 ) , who c r e d i t s G . H . Mat thews w i t h f i r s t d i s c overing i t
and w i t h one s o lut i on v i a inde x i n g c at e gory symb ol s . Choms ky men t i on s
s ome other s o lu t i on s b y St o ckwe l l a n d Schacht e r , and Bac h ; a n d s t at e s
that the " prob lem i s very muc h open , and d e s e rve s much further s tudy "
( 1965 : 213 ) . Thus c r o s s -c las s i fi c at ion would c learly p r e s e n t a maj or
d i ff i c u l t y i n the formu l at i on of s eman t i c redundanc y rul e s for any
non-hierar c h i c i t ems .
We i nre i c h a l s o d e a l s w i t h the prob l em of r e c onverge n c e o f marker s ,
wh i ch he s t a t e s i s s uch that " . . . the c r i t e ria of a fixed order o f
markers and a f i x e d form o f b ranching may b e mutual ly irre c on c i lab l e "
( 1966 : 408) . The p rob lem i s exemp l i fi e d b y the e nt ry for ' fox ' :
( Human )
9. fox � ( Ob j e c t ) � ( An i ma t e ) � � ( Cunni ng ) �. . .
( An i ma l )
The e nt ry for ( 9 ) w i th a f i x e d order of markers would b e repre s e n t e d
as ( 1 0 ) , a n d w i t h a f i x e d form o f branching ( i . e . the non­
rec onverge n c e of branche s ) a s ( 1 1 ) :

10 .

We inre i ch c r i t i c i z e s Kat z and Fodor for t h e i r b e l ie f that Bo o l e an

op erat i o n s are " . . . an adequate mode l for c omb in a t o r i a l s emant i c s "
( 1 9 6 6 : 4 1 1 ) , and that one "would have t hough t that w i t h the develop­
ment o f the c al c u lu s o f many- p l a c e pre d i c at e s , the l o g i c o f Boolean
10

( on e - p l ac e ) pred i c at e s would b e p e rmanen t ly dropp ed a s a mode l for

natural l anguage " ( 1966 : 41 1 ) .
As We inre i c h a l s o s t at e s , one of the maj or mot ivat ions o f s emant i c
re s e ar c h h a s b e e n a " de s ire t o ana l y z e a glob al meaning i n t o c omp o­
nent s , and to e s t ab l i s h a h ierarchy among t he c omp onent s . . . " ( 19 6 6 :
40 5 ) . Yet as we have s e e n above , s emant i c redundancy r u l e s c an a c ­
c ount only for h ierarch i c a l ly-ordered s y s t ems ( or s ub - s y s t ems ) o f
s e mant i c s , a n d c annot a c c ount f o r i ns t an c e s o f c r o s s - c l a s s i fi c at i o n
a n d r e - c onverge n c e o f feature s . One p o s s i b le s o l u t i o n t o t h e l a t t e r
prob lem h a s b e e n offered i n the i d e a o f s emant i c ' ne t works ' , but t h e
14
idea rema in s t o b e developed a n d t e s t e d .

0 . 2 .3 Exceptions

Choms ky has s ai d t hat e x c e p t i on s " . . . are rarely l a c king , in a s y s ­

t e m o f t h e c omp le x i t y o f a natural l anguage " ( 1 9 6 5 : 2 18 ) . A c omp l e t e
de s c r ip t i o n o f any l an guage , and a t h e ory o f c ompe t en c e f o r t h a t l an­
guage , mus t inc lude an a c c ount o f e x c e p t i on s , i n p art i c ular , t h o s e
e x c ep t i on s wh i c h o c cur s y s t emat i c a l ly i n relat i on t o t he mai n s y s ­
15
t em . The e xc e p t i on s a r e that very s ma l l numb e r ( five p e r c e n t o r
le s s ) o f c a s e s i n a natural language wh i c h c ontrad i c t t h e ma i n s y s ­
t e m o f ru l e s u s e d t o a c c ount for t he maj ority of i t ems i n t hat par­
t i c u l ar s y s tem . Th i s t op i c o f e x c ep t i on s is o f imp ort ance t o
theoret i c a l l ingui s t i c s , s i n c e t h e y are pres ent i n natural l anguage s
( in c on t r a s t t o art i f i c i a l language s who s e rules a l l ow for no e x c ep ­
t i ons ) a n d s i n c e they mus t t here fore b e a c c ount e d f o r b y a t h e ory o f
c ompe t e nc e . The a t t e mp t t o a c c ount f o r e x c e p t ions i s obvi ou s ly t o
try t o formu late rules t o a c c ount for t h e regular i t i e s o f t h e e x c ep ­
t i on s i n t erms o f t h e mai n s y s t em :
i . e . , t o formul a t e a s ub - s y s t em
of rul e s for 'break ing ' the mai n s y s t em of rul e s . 1 6
Throughout t he chapt ers t o f o l l ow w e w i l l b e d e a l i n g w i t h three
kinds o f e x c ep t i on s pre s e nt i n the s emant i c s y s t em o f Enga nouns and
verb s .
1. the a s s i gnment o f loan i t ems
2. s e mant i c i n t e rs e c t i o n o f features
3. change o f c l as se s or s t a t e s
For a l l three o f the s e kinds o f e x c ep t i ons ( and p o s s ib ly f o r a l l e x ­
c e p t i on s i n any language ) , t h e maj or pOint t o b e noted i s t hat the
e xc e p t i o n s do not o c cur i n free or random d i s t r ibut i o n , but are a l ­
way s c ont ained w i t h i n c e r t a i n l imit s . Th i s w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d i n more
d e t a i l i n the fo l lowing s e c t i on s d e a l ing w i t h t he spe c i f i c kinds o f
e x c ep t i o n s we w i l l enc ounter and d i s cu s s for Enga .
 11

0 . 2 . 3 .1 L o a n l£emc

A l t h ou gh t h e numb er of l oan i t ems in any l anguage i s a s ma l l pro­

port i on o f t he total vocabulary , t he s e form a s ub s e t o f int ere s t i n
s emant i c s t udy s in c e they m a y b e u s e d t o t e s t t h e m a i n s e t o f r u l e s
a s t o degr e e o f pred i c t ab i l it y . The features whereby l oan i t ems are
a s s i gned to c la s s e s thus provide a mechan i s m for t e s t ing the val i d i t y
of the s emant i c feature s p o s t u l at ed f o r non- l oan i t ems . The a s s i gn ­
ment o f loan i t ems may dep end on s uc h features a s t h e pre s t i ge o f t h e
s ource language ( En g l i s h or Tok P i s in int o Enga ) ; the group a s s o c i­
a t e d w i t h the int rodu c e d i t e m ( mi s s i onari e s , government , b u s i ne s s ,
e t c . ) and other s o c i o - l ingui s t i c fac t or s . Genera l l y we w ou l d p o s tu ­
l a t e t h e a s s i gnment o f l o an i t ems by t h e c u l tural ly-det ermined r e l e ­
vant fe atur e s a s b e ing a s s im i l a t e d i n t o Enga c la s s e s o f the great e s t
s imi l a r i t y ( i . e . , having t h e s ame feature s ) .
The feat ure s wh i ch det ermine t he a s s i gnment may a l s o vary , i.e .
phone t i c a l ly , morpho l og i c a l l y , or s emant i c a l l y . In c a s e s where
gender , for e xamp l e , is marked phonet i c a l l y , the l oan i t e m may be
q u i t e arb itrari l y a s s i gned to a c la s s b a s e d upon i t s phono l o gy : as
i n Span i s h , the - a ending i n f l u e n c i n g the a s s i gnment of the I n c a l oan
17
word l l a m a into the fem i n i ne c la s s . Whe n t he s y s t e m is b a s e d o n
morp h o l ogy , t h i s a l s o t ake s precedence : a s i n German , the - l e i n and
- c h e n demanding neuter c la s s i f i c at ion , and over-ri d i n g the s eman t i c
f e at ure o f [ +Fema l e ] i n t h e c a s e s o f d a s Ma d c h e n and d a s F r a u l e i n .
18

In s emant i c a l ly b a s e d s y s t em s , the c r i t e r i a are s emant i c : in Tara s c an,

w i t h emphas i s on features of shap e , c ar s are u s ua l ly c la s s e d as one­
dime n s i o na l , b ut t h e Vo lkswagen is c l a s s e d a s t hree-dime n s i on a l
" b e c aus e o f i t s roundi sh , b ug- l ike qua l i t y " ( Fr i e dr i c h 19 7 0 : 3 8 6 ) .
The fai lure o f a s y s t em o f rule s t o a c c ount for the appropr i a t e
a s s i gnmen t o f l oan i t ems w o u l d indi c a t e a b a s i c f a u l t w i t h in the s y s ­
t em ' s features o r rul e s , and c onver s e l y , t h e c orre c t ly pre d i c t e d
a s s i gnment ( i . e . i f t h i s agre e s w i t h t h e c l a s s i f i cat ion as made b y
nat ive s peakers ) w o u ld a l l ow u s t o a s s ume at l e a s t s ome degree o f
v a l i d i t y for t h e p o s t u l a t e d s y s t em o f features a n d rul e s . Thu s , l oan
i t ems are , s t r i c t ly s p e a k in g , not e xc e p t i o n s to the main b ody o f
rule s , b ut i n s t ead a l l ow the t e s t ing o f t h i s sy s t em . Loan i t ems are
i n c lude d i n t h i s s e c t i on s i n c e , i n t h e i r s ma l l p e r c ent age of o c cur­
rence i n the t ot a l v o c ab ulary , they h ave one of t h e mai n c hara c t e r i s ­
t i c s o f e x c e p t i on s , i . e . , t h e y c on s t i t u t e a s ma l l b u t r e gular p ort i on
o f the main s y s t em .
12

0.2 .3 .2 I nt e�4 eet� o n

A s men t i oned ab ove , one o f t h e advant age s o f s emant i c c omp onent s

i s that the s e a l low words whi c h have one ( or more ) features in c ommon
19
t o be r e l a t e d via t he s e c ommon feature s . D e f in i t i on by s y nonyms i s
o f t e n u s e d i n l e x i c o graphy , where , a s Bol inger s t a t e s

the sense is characterized b y an overlap o f the s emanti c ranges of

two other terms presumed to be already known , and two are the
minimum necess ary to have an overlap . Of course it can be argued
that thi s is just a shorthand way of s aying ' X has those markers of
Y and Z that are not mutually exclusive ' . . ( 1965:565 ) .
.

Synonyms and ne ar- s ynonyms p r e s e nt a c a s e o f intere s t for s emant i c

analy s i s . I n fact , We inre i ch has s ugge s t ed that the most imp o rt ant
p rob l em i n s emant i c de s c r i p t ion ( and l e x i c ography ) is to de l imit t h e
s i gn i f i c a t i on o f near-s ynonyms : " On the whole , a s emant i c d e s c r i p ­
t i on should not aim at " ab s o lut e " de finit i o n s , but at d e f in i t i ons
wh i ch d e l imit t h e me aning o f a t erm from that o f t erms w i t h s i mi lar
20
me anings ( sy nonyms ) " ( 1 9 6 2 : 3 0 ) . I nt e r s e c t i o n t hu s involves non-
mut u a l l y e x c l u s ive s emant i c marke rs , or a s Fri e dr i c h s t a t e s " . . . an
ident i t y or c l o s e s imilarity o f me aning with r e s p e c t to one or more
s emant i c fe ature s in two or more d i s c r e t e , s eman t i c a l l y or d i s t r ibu­
t io n a l l y d e f ined s et s " ( 19 7 0 : 3 9 6 ) .
In any noun c l as s or gender s y s t e m , t h i s i n t er s e c t ion ( or s haring )
o f one or more s eman t i c markers might w e l l r e s u l t in c o n f l i c t i n the
c la s s a s s i gnment . Thus , a s c it e d ab ove , in Taras c an cars are gener­
ally a s s i gned int o the one d ime n s i onal c la s s , but the Volkswagen ' s
' bu g- l ike ' features i nt e r s e c t w i t h t he three dimen s i onal c l a s s and i t
may a l s o be c l a s s ed w i t h in t h e three dime n s i onal c la s s . D i x on c i t e s
a j oking reference t o a hermaphro d it e , " the u s e o f t he non-normal
c l a s s I I marker p o int ing out t h e female chara c t e ri s t i c s of t h i s ' man ' "
( 1 9 68 : 1 1 1 ) . The i t e m i t s e l f may b e amb i gu ou s , as ribbons , w i t h fea­
tures o f both length and flatne s s , whi ch in Tara s c an may b e a s s i gned
to e it h e r ( or b o t h ) shape c la s s e s ( Fri e d r i c h 1 9 7 0 : 385 ) . Friedrich
a l s o c it e s the humorous ' How many women d o e s P a n c h o have ' w i t h t h e
rep ly ' three i ra-hku ', " t hereby imp l i c it ly c la s s ing h i s p l ump m i s ­
t re s s e s w i t h p o t s b e c au s e o f t h e i r three-dimens i onal b o t t oms " ( 1970 :
3 85 ) . Sap i r ha s ob s erved Navaho gender rule breaking duri n g punning
( 19 32 ) . ThUS , a·few o f the p o s s i b i l i t i e s that o ffer t hems e lve s i n
exp lana t i on a r e that the referent i t s e l f m a y b e amb i guous ; the c on­
t e xt or l ingu i s t i c s i t uat i o n may b e amb i gu ou s ; c a s e s o f humour and
punning ; c a s e s o f t e a s ing or naught ine s s ; individual i d io s y n c ra c i e s ;
and e rrors o f per formance .
 13

The c a s e s o f int e r s e c t ion thus p r e s ent data o n t h e s emant i c fea­

t ur e s of t he s y s t em which may b e e it h e r t h e s ame o r very s imi lar , and
a l s o provide informa t ion o n the l ingu i s t i c c on t e x t , and t h e way s in
wh i c h the featur e s may be manipulated by the native s p e aker . In mos t
c l a s s s y s t ems it i s a l s o s u c h that a mo s t neutra l or r e s idue c l a s s i s
p r e sent . T h i s c l a s s i s l ik e l y t o b e i l luminated b y the ana ly s i s o f
the int e r s e c t ing it ems , s i n c e it may w e l l b e t h e m o s t freque n t l y o c ­
21
curring i n t h e s e c as e s .

0.2 . 3 .3 C hang� 0 6 Cia&&

In any s y s t em of s emant i c s , it i s a l s o p o s s i b l e for a sma l l numb e r

o f i t ems t o change t h e ir s emant i c c l as s , depending u p o n the s emant i c
feat ure s o f t h e s y s tem . In Taras c a n , where t h e c l as s i fi c at ion
" . . . often depends on the shape a s p e r c e ived in t he c on t e xt o f a p ar­
t i cular s p e e c h s i t ua t i on " ( Fr i e d r i c h 1 9 7 0 : 385 ) , the c hange o f c la s s
o f a l ong , de f l a t e d ( and thus one dime n s i onal ) b a l l o o n i n t o a round
( thus three d ime n s iona l ) inflated b a l loon i s r e f l e c t e d in the numeral
c l a s s i fi e r s u s e d for t he two d i f fe rent s t at e s . A l s o , human i nfant s
may b e c l a s s e d as s h ap e d ob j e c t s ( c la s s I ) , but when capab l e o f
s p e e c h ( and thus rat i ona l ) are c l a s s e d a s c la s s I I ( Fri edrich 1 9 7 0 :
22
385 ) .
I n t h e c a s e of t h e Engl i s h ' nat ural ' gender s y s t e m , t h e pronominal
r e fe r e n c e to a p ar t i c u l ar re ferent may c hange if t he re ferent noun
undergoe s a change o f s t at e : the most u s ua l one in Engl i s h prob ab l y
b e ing t hat o f a m a l e b e ing a l t ered t o a gelding ( i . e. , a c as t ra t e d
male ) . For Engl i s h we c ould p o s t ul a t e a ' ge ld i n g ' rule , whereby the
referent i a l change from colt to geld ing o r bull to s t eer c ould be
predicted :

I f X is a male an imat e ( pronomina l reference ' he ' ) and

is ge lded , future reference to X should b e a s ' it ' ;
( but a l s o , p o s s ib ly s t i l l as ' he ' ) . 2 3

The it ems wh i c h may e xp e r i e n c e change o f s t ate ( t hough u s ua l l y few

in numb e r ) are o f i n t e r e s t in a s eman t i c d e s c r i p t i o n , s i n c e they
h i gh l i gh t t h e feature s invo lved i n t he change , a s ab ove , w hen the
feature s are [+Se x ] for ge ldings , in Tara s c an [+Sp e e c h , Rat ional ] for
human i nfant s , and [+Long , One D imen s iona l ] to [+Round , Three
Dimens ional ] for b a l loons .

0 . 2 .4 Dominance Relations between Nouns and Verbs

One of t he b a s i c a s s umpt i ons made in generat ive grammar i s that

the nouns and verb s are o f equal s t atus , i . e . , t hat n e i t h e r ' governs '
14

the other . Chomsky 1 9 6 5 d i s cu s s e s whether s e le c t ional rul e s should

b e inc orporat ed i n t o the grammar e i ther in t erms o f the noun s ' d omi­
nance ( i . e . nouns are as s i gned feature s , and the verb s are s e le c t ed
w i t h reference t o nouns ) or in t e rm s of the verb s ' dominance ( th e
verb s a r e a s s i gned feat ure s a n d the nouns s e l e c t ed in t erms o f t h e
verb s ) . Within the framework then p r e s e n t ed , Chomsky demon s t r at e s
that the s e le c t ion o f nouns in t e rms o f the verb s ( i . e . , verb domi­
nanc e ) introdu c e s " c on s iderab l e c omp l i c at ion o f the grammar " ( 1 9 6 5 :
1 1 5 ) , and t hat the b e s t s olut ion ( in t erms o f formal s imp l i c i t y ) i s
t o a s s i gn features t o nouns ( i . e. , noun dominan c e ) .
Th i s s o lu t i o n was a t t acked in Matthews ' review as ' rather t r iv i a l ' .
Mat thews c on t inue s :

Although we may have fallen into the habit , as linguist s , of using

' inherent ' -type terms for Nouns and ' contextual ' -type terms for
Verbs ( e . g . ' Animate ' Nouns but Verbs 'which can take an Animate
Subject ' ) , there is no certainty that this reflects a valuable
intuition about language . It may simply reflect the fact that it
is eas ier to find notional labels for Noun-classes than it is for
Verb-classes ( 1967 : 131 ) .

Chomsky had hoped that " . . . a s imilar argument c ould b e given for
any language " ( 1 9 6 5 :1 15 ) , yet more r e c e n t inve s t i gat ions in t h i s area
would s eem t o indicate that , even if noun dominance i s o f gre a t e r
s i mp l i c i t y in Engl i s h , t h i s i s b y n o means n e c e s s ar i l y s o in other
language s . 2
4
For examp l e , M i l l er ( 1 9 7 0 ) has pre s en t e d evidence for
the choice o f verb dominan c e in Rus s i an ( rather than the Chomskian-
noun d ominanc e )

I f the choice of verbs were made conditional on the choice of noun

features , two dependency systems would operate in the grammar :
adverbs would be dependent on verbs and verbs would be dependent
on nouns . However , if the choice of noun were made conditional on
the choice of verb features , the gramm ar would contain one s ingle
dependency system with both nouns and adverbs dependent on verbs
( 1970 : 501 )
•

N o t e a l s o that verb s in the A6pec�6 model may in fact a s s i gn fe at ure s

t o c o- o c c urring nouns : in the e xamp l e of ' gored b y a kudu ' , the verb
' gore ' , whi c h imp l i e s ' p ierce with a horn or sharp obj e c t ' a s s ign s the
feature o f [+horn or sharp obj e c t ] to the noun ' kudu ' . 2
5 This prob­
lem w i l l me rit add i t ional d i s c us s i on in the c on c lus i on to Chap t e r Two ,
when we w i l l a t t empt t o det ermine t he dominanc e re lat ions wh i c h h o l d
f o r E n g a c la s s i fi c at ory verb s .
 15

0.2 . 5 T h e P r i o r i ty of Syn t ax o r S e m an t i c s

O n t h i s t o p i c Chomsky originally s t at e s

. . . one should not expect to b e able t o delimit a large and complex

domain before it has been thoroughly explored . A decision as to
the boundary separating syntax and semantics ( if there is one ) i s
not a prerequisite for theoretical and des criptive study o f
synt act i c and semant i c rules . O n the contrary , t h e problem o f
delimination will clearly remain open until these fields are much
better understood than they are today ( 19 6 5 : 159 ) .

and further

it should not be t aken for granted , necessarily , that syntactic

• . •

and semanti c considerations can be sharply distinguised ( 196 5 : 77).

One of the maj or c ontrovers i e s t oday is b e tween the Int erpret ive
and Generat ive Semant i c i s t s , one a s s uming p r i o r i t y of s y n t ax , t he
26
other of s emant i c s . One area where t h e s e two s ch o o l s d iffer i s
t h a t o f s e l e c t ional r e s t r i c t ions . Chomsky ( 1 9 6 5 ) treat s t h e s e a s a
mat t e r for s y n t a x ( no t s emant iCS ) , y e t as Lyons s t a t e s , the more t ra­
d i t i onal view is o ft e n that s e le c t ional r e s t r i c t ions are s emant i c ,
s in c e s uch deviant s e n t e n c e s as ' *C o l or l e s s gre e n ideas s l eep fur i o u s ­
ly ' c an b e d e s c r ib e d a s " ' gramma t i c al , b u t me aningl e s s ' " ( 19 7 0 : 1 36 ) as
27
c ompared t o ' Brainle s s l i t t le things t y p e fur i ou s l y ' . And , a s Lyons
conc lude s ,

. . . concentration upon the complex interrelations that exist be­

tween syntax and semant i cs , and the attempts that are being made
to formalize these by the ' generative semanticists ' , cannot but
contribute to our underst anding of the structure of language
( 1970 : 138 ) .

This t o p i c is o f intere s t here , s ince one of the maj or prob lems t o

b e c on fronted i s h ow t o a c c ount for the features o f the c la s s i fi c at ory
ve rb s , i . e . , via s e gment s ( and thus as p art of s ynt ax ) or via features
( and thus a s part o f s emant i c s ) . In e ither c a s e , we w i l l b e ab l e t o
t ake r e c ou r s e t o e s s e n t i a l ly t h e s ame s olut ion , wh i c h has varying
name s , i . e . , s e gment s h i f t ing ( for the s e gment s ) f o l l owing Jacob s and
R o s e nb aum ( 1 9 6 8 : 6 6 f ) , or feat ure s preading ( for the feature s ) f o l low­
ing Givon 1 9 6 9 , 1 9 7 0 , Mould 1 9 7 1 and Voe l t z 1 9 7 1 . Thi s prob l em w i l l
a l s o mer i t add i t i onal d i s cu s s i on in the c onc l u s ion t o Chapt e r Four ,
where we w i l l d i s c u s s in d e t a i l the s t a t e o f Enga c la s s i fi c at ory
verb s .

0.3 VATA C O M P I LA T I ON

Thi s st udy i s b a s e d on data c omp i le d in the form o f a monol ingual

Enga di c t i onary , wh i c h re s emb l e s an Enga vers ion of Web s t er ' s Th ird ,
28
p lus ( t o s ome e x t e n t ) e nCYCl op edi a . The d i c t ionary c on t a i n s 5 , 4 4 5
16

entrie s , e a c h o f whi c h may c on t a in up t o t h i r t y - t hree d i f fe re n t kinds

o f ( mo s t ly ) l ingui s t i c informa t ion : s yntac t i c c at e gori e s , s emant i c
domain , s eman t i c feature s , an Eng l i s h gl o s s , whether the e n t r y i s a
l oan i t em or not , a t h e s aurus , c r o s s -referencing t o s ynonyms and near­
s ynonym s , i l lu s trat ive s e nt en c e s from t e xt s , c itat ions and r e fe r e n c e s
t o t h e entry in t h e p ub l i shed l i t e rature on Enga , various s ourc e s o f
a l l informat i on ( i . e . , re ferenc e s t o informant s , n o t e b o ok s , t ap e s ,
t e xt s , and tran s c r ib e d mat e r i al s ) , and t h e folk d e fi n i t ions u s e d t o
de fine t h e entry . The sort ing and arrangi ng o f t h i s in forma t ion was
c ar r i e d out u s ing t h e Austral ian Nat i onal Unive r s i t y I BM 360 c omput e r ,
u s ing d a t a p r o c e s s ing t e chnique s de s cribed in Lang , Mather and R o s e
( 19 7 3 ) .
The mono l ingual folk d e f i n i t ions c omp r i s e the c ore o f t h e d i c t ion­
ary , and d e t a i l s o f the e l i c i t at ion t e chnique s used to ob t ain t he s e
are p r e s e n t e d i n Append i x B , where t h e t e c hn ique s are c ompared and
c on t r a s t e d to a s im i l ar s t udy of P apago folk de finit ions b y C a s agrande
and Hale ( 1967 ) . A p ort i on of the mat e r i a l c ontained in the d i c t i on­
ary ( ba s i ca l l y an Enga word l i s t with Eng l i s h inde x ) has been pub­
9
l i s he d s e p arate ly ( Lang 1 9 7 3 ) . 2
Deta i l s on informant s are p r e s ent e d in App endix B .
 N O T E S

1. C f . C ap e l l 1 9 6 2 , 1 9 6 9 , and Wurm 1 9 6 4 .

2. C f . Bee 1 9 6 5 , Dut t on 1 9 6 9 , Frankl i n 1 9 7 1 , A . H e a l e y 1 9 6 4 ,

P . H e a l ey 1 9 6 5a and b , McE lhanon 1 9 7 0 , Lang 1 9 7 0 , Lay c o c k 1 9 6 5 , W i l s o n
1969 , et a l .

3. C f . Se c t i on 1 . 1 fo l l owing for more de t a i l s on Enga .

4. The c omparat ive chap t e r ( 5 . 0 ) s hows t hat the s e verb forms have
been n o t ed in Papua New Guinea l anguage s , but have not b e fore b een
ana l y z e d a s c la s s i fi c a t ory verb s . Paw l e y ( 1 9 6 6 : 1 9 6 ) s t at e s that Karam
noun b a s e s c o- o c c ur in verb phra s e s a s e i t her s ub j ec t s or ob j e c t s .
Rul e ( nd ) n o t e s t hat Hul i e x i s t e n t i a l verb s form noun c la s s e s ( c f .
Chap t e r Five ) ; Paw l e y ( 1 9 6 6 : 1 9 6 ) s t a t e s that Karam noun b a s e s c o- o c cur
in verb phra s e s a s e i ther sub j e c t s or ob j e c t s , and he writ e s that
Karam is a " verb c la s s i fy ing l anguage " 0969 : 30 ) .

5. The t erm ' p s eudo ' c l as s i fi c at ory verb i s from Landar ( 19 6 4 ) .

6 . The f o l l ow i ng l i s t o f p honeme s i s for the reade r ' s c onveni e n c e :

Ip , t , k , b , d , g , 5 , j , m , n , ny , I , Iy, w, y;
i , e, a, o, u; 'I
I t I q u i t e o f t e n has a v o i c e d a l v e o l ar t r i l l a l l ophone intervo c a l i c a l ly ;
I k l as a ru l e i s fri c at i v i z e d b e tween l ow and b ac k vowe l s ; I b , d , g l
are a l l prena s a l i ze d ; l s i word- in i t i a l l y i s [ t s ] , intervo c a l i c a l ly i t
f l u c t ua t e s b etween [ d z ] and [ z ] ; I j l i s phone t i c a l l y [ n d z ] o r e n d ! ] ;
I I I i s a v o i c e d r e t r o f l e x e d f l ap ; a l l s y l l ab le s are open and final
vowe l s are devo i c e d .
Tone i s c ontras t ive
Ip f l y o l [ ' p f l y o ] I s trike
I p i l y 61 [ l p f l y 6 ] I do (work)

17
18

7. Cf . Bar-Hi l l e l 1 9 6 7 , B o l inger 1 9 6 5 , Dixon 1 9 6 3 , 1 9 6 4 , E l l i s

1 9 6 4 , Lyons 1 9 6 6 , Staal 1 9 6 5 , Weinr e i c h 1 9 6 6 , and others ; a l s o
Postal 1966 .

8. Cf . Goodenough 1 9 5 6 , Lounsb ury 1 9 5 6 , Frake 1 9 6 0 , Wal l a c e and

A t k i n s 1 9 6 0 , and Rommey and D ' Andrade ( ed s . ) 1 9 6 4 . For c o l our
t e rmino logi e s , see Conk l i n 1 9 5 5 and Bulme r 1 9 6 8 ; for ethnobot any s e e
Ber l i n e t a L . 1 9 6 6 , and Conkl in 1 9 5 4 ; and f o r ethno z o o l o gy s e e
Bulme r 1 9 5 7 .

9. We inre i c h s ub s t an t i at e s h i s c laims , b ut due t o l imit at ions o f

s p ac e , the s e w i l l not b e p r e s e n t e d here ( c f . We inre i c h 1 9 6 6 : 4 0 2 - 5 ) .
Cf . Chomsky 1 9 6 5 : 88 , 1 1 0 , l 1 9 f .

10 . Cf . H a l l e 1 9 5 9 a and b , Chomsky and H a l l e 1 9 6 8 .

11. Lyons ' p o int i s we l l t aken , b ut d i s c u s s ion w i t h Ranier Lang and

Lyle S t e a dman on e t hno s c i e n c e c learly imp l ie s t hat the d i fference i s
s e x , i . e . , i n experiment s showing a man dre s s e d i n women ' s c lo t he s , a
man w i t h long hair , e t c . S imi larly , in que s t i oning a c h i l d a s t o t h e
d i ffe r e n c e b e tween me n a n d wome n , m y s ub j e c t rep l i e d " M e n have a
peni s " ( Craig S t e adman , p e r s onal c ommun i c at i on ) , wh i c h would s ee m t o
ind i c at e t hat s e x i s the pr ime marker , w i t h hair lengt h , c lo t h in g ,
e t c . a s s e c ondary c on s iderat ions . Al s o , the Enga p a t r i l ine c on s i s t s
o f men who ar e ' o f one p e n i s ' ( p o n g 6 me n d � i ) .

12 . Cf . Ty ler 1 9 6 9 : 3 4 3 - 4 3 2 .

13 . Weinr e i c h 's e xamp l e s have b e e n re-numbered for t h i s p r e s entat ion .

14 . Matt hews 1 9 6 7 : l 4 9 f . speaks o f " c o l lo c at i onal network s " ; Hays e x ­

t ended t h i s i d e a t o s emant i c n e t works ( pe r s onal n o t e s from l e c t ur e s ,
Summer 1 9 6 6 ) .

15 . We do not presupp o s e t hat feature s of per forman c e , s uc h a s

f e e b l e -minde dne s s , apha s i a , int o x i cat ion , i n s a n it y , e t c . would need
t o be dealt w i t h i n s u c h an a c c oun t .

16 . Th i s prob lem c ould b e regarded as an i n f i n i t e r e gre s s ion ( i . e . ,

e x ce p t i on s t o the e x c e p t ions t o the e x c e p t ions ) , unt i l s ome ( arb i ­
t rary ) c u t - o f f p o int i s reached .
 19

17 . John and Irma Harri s have provided t he Span i s h e xamp l e . They

point out , t h ough , that t h i s is true only for M e x i c an and C a s t i l ian
Span i s h , w h i l e in Peru l l a m a is re ferred to a s e l ( i . e . , is regarded
a s mas c u l ine ) .

18 . Profe s s or Geor ge Gra c e noted that the s w i t c h in pronomin a l r e f­

erence ( from e s t o s i e ) during c onve r s a t ion would b e a t op i c for ad­
d i t i on a l s t udy .

19 . Dixon 1 9 7 1 s t a t e s " Words o f s im i l ar meaning are now dire c t ly

r e l a t e d t hrough t h e i r s emant i c d e s c r i p t i o n s having one or more
featur e s in c ommo n " (p . 440 ) .

20 . We i nre i c h a l s o g i v e s the a c c ount o f an e xper iment in w h i c h

graduate s tuden t s a t t e mp t ed ( wi t h v e r y p o o r r e s u lt s ) t o d i s t ingu i s h
b e t we e n a s e t o f e ight s ynonyms ( 1 9 6 2 : 2 7 ) .

21. The c ompar i s o n b e t we en int e r s e c t i on and c r o s s - c l a s s i f i c at ion

( 0 . 2 . 2 above ) i s worthy of add i t i onal a t t ent i on .

22 . Human i nfant s present an int e r e s t ing c a s e for c r o s s - c u l t ur a l

st udy . C u l t ural l y , what marks t he chan ge o f s t a t e t hat r e s u l t s i n
the d i f fe rent referenc e s ? In Engl i s h , the p o s s ib i l it y mi ght b e
' c apab le o f s p e e c h ' . In Enga , i n fant s are marked ' in c apab l e o f
rat i onal t h ought ' .

23. Even i n t he c a s e o f p e t s , wh i c h gene r a l l y r e t a i n t h e original

pronominal r e ferenc e after ' al t erat i on ' , ' she ' i s not a c c ep t ab l e for
a ma le neutered pet . N o t e that modern s e x c hange opera t i ons (result­
i n g i n what would b e a ma l e .... fema l e change ) are n o t rec ogn i z ed b y
t h e Kammerger i c ht B e r l i n ( Dahl and H e i demann 1 9 7 3 ) , i . e . , legal l y a
man cannot ever b e c ome a woman .

24 . Prior t o Chomsky 1 9 6 5 , Hays had pre s en t e d h i s not i on of depend­

ency the ory ( 1 9 6 4 ) , in whi c h t he verb dominat e d every t h in g e l s e .

25. Mat hi a s 1 9 6 8 : 1 3 f . d i s c u s s e s var ious p o s s i b i l i t i e s in wh i c h the

verb may a s s i gn features t o c o - o c c urring noun s .

26 . Th i s is a vas t ly ove r s imp l i f ied view . C f . Chomsky 1 9 6 8 and 1 9 6 9 .

27. Th i s e xamp l e is from Ranier Lang .

20

28. The mon o l ingual d i c t i onary was i n t e nded t o b e encyc l o p e d i c .

29 . Lang ( 1 9 7 3 ) a l s o contains a c omp l e t e l i s t ing o f the s our c e s for

a l l the main it ems o f t he mono l ingual d i c t i onary . The original Enga
word l i s t inc orpor a t ed about 2 , 0 0 0 i t ems from word l i s t s and v o c ab u ­
l ar i e s m a d e avai lab l e t o the author b y c ourt e sy of var i o u s m i s s i on ­
ari e s worki n g i n the Enga area . O n e of t h e s e , t hat o f Rev . o . H i nt z e ,
inc luded the Enga i t em , t he Engl i s h glo s s , and the word c la s s o f the
Enga item, for approximat e l y one t hous and i t e ms . Th i s Enga word l i s t
( o f 2 , 0 0 0 i t ems ) formed the b a s e for t h e e l i c i t at i on o f the mon o l i n­
gua l f o l k d e f i n i t i on s and a l l the ot her mat e r i a l c o n t ained in the
p r e s ent mono l ingual d i c t i onary .
 N

LOCALITY MAP }

-- Road

o 10 20
100 200 M , ,
M i les
a
, ! !

MA P 1 : THE ENGA AREA

 CHAPTER ONE

1 .1 T H E ENGA

The Enga , who numb er more t h an 1 5 0 , 0 0 0 , l ive in mount a inous c oun­

try i n the Enga D i s t r i c t of Papua New Guinea . They o c c upy an area
wh i c h s t r e t c h e s from t he we s t ern s l o p e s o f Mt . Hagen w e s twards t o
P orgera ( s e e Map 1 ) . Thi s area i s drained b y t h e Minyamp , Amb urn ,
Lai , S au , and Upper Maramuni R ivers , wh i ch f l ow into t h e Sep i k ; t h e
Laga ip R i v e r ( t o b eyond the j un c t i on o f the Porgera R iver ) , wh i ch
f l ow s i n t o t h e S t r i c k l and , and the Tari R i ve r . The Kyaka Enga , who
l ive to t he north o f Mt . Hagen t owns h ip , o c c upy the area drained by
the Baiyer River .
The Enga are pr imar i l y s edent ary gardeners but a l s o keep p i gs and
fowl s . The s t ap l e c rop is sweet p o t a t o e s grown i n the e f f i c ient s y s ­
t em o f l o n g f a l l owing ( s e e Wadd e l l 1 9 7 2 ) ; t he s e are augmented b y
o t h e r r o o t a n d l e a f vege t ab l e s . A l imit e d amount of c o ffee ( among
the Central Enga ) and pyrethrum ( among the Lai agam Enga ) are grown as
c as h crops ; c at t l e h ave a l s o b een introduced by the A u s t r a l ian
Admi n i s t rat i on .
P i g s , pearl s h e l l s , axes and p lume s are t h e c onven t i on a l l y a c c e p t ­
e d i t ems o f w e a l t h wh i c h c i r c u l a t e fre e l y , a n d e x c hange s o f t he s e
va luab l e s mark a l l s ign i f i c ant s o c i a l o c c a s i on s . P igs form the maj or
l
i t em i n the t e e exchan ge . Unt i l the c orning of t h e Pax A u s t r a l i ana ,
Enga c l an s c ons t ant ly fought e a c h other over l and , and wome n and t o
avenge previous k i l l ings .
The p e o p l e b e l ong t o named l o c a l i z e d exogamous patri c lans ; t h e y
l i ve i n home s t e ads s c a t t ered throughout the c lan t errit ory , wh i c h has
a sharp l y de fined b oundary . Trad i t iona l ly men and w omen o c cu p i ed s ep ­
arat e hous e s , s in c e women were though t t o b e unc l e an a n d dangerous t o
men , w h o h a d t o u s e mag i c t o pro t e c t t hems e lves from fema l e p o l lut i on .
There are no here d i t ary c h i e f s or he adme n : i n s t e ad w e a l t hy men o f

23
24

influence and p ower , ( wh o have s ome o f t h e char a c t e ri s t i c s o f t h e

s e l f-made B i g M e n c ommonly found in Me l ane s i a ) c on t r o l the i n i t i at i on
and dire c t ion of t h e p o l i t i c a l and admi n i s trat ive a c t i vi t i e s o f e a c h
c lan . T h e E n g a a r e n o t ab l e among the High l anders f o r t h e i r p ragma t i c
c on c e r n wit h t h e manipulat i on o f we a l t h i n various forms ( t he t radi­
t i o n a l death payment s , t e e e x change , modern trade s t or e s , c a t t l e
ra i s i ng , and c o ffee and c a s h crop s ) and t h e e x t e n s i on o f a wealthy
2
man ' s i n f l u e n c e t hrough t h e s o c i a l s y s t e m .

1 .2 GRAMMA T I C A L S K ETCH

Pub l i c at i ons on the Enga l anguage in profe s s ional j ournal s are a

sh ort d i c t ionary ( Cr o t t y 1 9 5 1 ) , and an a c c ount of s ome s y nt a c t i c al
feature s of Enga as c on t r a s t e d t o the Greek syntax of t he G o s p e l o f
Mark ( Burce 1 9 6 5 ) . T h e mo s t d e t a i led s t udy o f any one a s p e c t o f
Enga , however , ha s b e en made b y Lang ( 1 9 7 0 ) , an a c c ount o f Enga
que s t ions and answer s ; he has a l s o produced a b r i e f grammat i c a l
s k e t c h wh i ch i s ava i l ab le in the Enga D i c t ionary ( Lang 1 9 7 3 ) . The
pres e nt s t udy w i l l not a t t e mp t to d up l i c ate the de s c ript ion of Enga
s y n t a x , but att emp t s to e luc idat e other a s p e c t s not previous ly de s ­
c r ib e d , i . e . , t h e s eman t i c s o f t h e c la s s i fi c at ory verb s . Th is would
b e d i f f i c u l t to do wit hout s ome general a c c ount o f t he s t ru c t ure of
Eng a , and so this i s provided in t h e f o l l owing s e c t ion .
Most of the work on the l anguage has b e en done b y the mi s s ions in
the Enga are a : the New Guinea Lutheran M i s s i on-Mi s s ouri Synod and
the Cath o l i c mi s s i ons work ing mainly on the Mae d i a l e c t , and the
A u s t r a l ian Bap t i s t M i s s i onary S o c i e t y work ing o n the Kyaka d i a l e c t .
The mi s s ions have produ c e d a s i z ab l e b ody of mat e r i a l on t h e l an­
3
guage , whi c h i s ava i l ab le to anyone intere s t e d in r e s earc h .

1 .2 . 1 The Noun

S i n c e t h e focus o f t h i s monograph i s o n the Enga verb s , t h i s s e c ­

t i on wi l l d e a l only b r i e f l y w i t h t he Enga noun s .
Enga nouns c o- o c cur with the d e t e rminers d 6 k o t h e and me n d e a ,
s ome , e l s e

e p e - l y - a - mo .
man the aome - PRE S - 3 S G-DEC
The man is aomi ng .

2. A k a l i me n d e e p e - l y - a - mo .
man a aome - PRES- 3SG-DEC
A man is aoming .
 25

Nouns may b e i n f l e c t e d for c a s e s , s u c h a s agentive ( 3 ) , i n s t rume n t a l

( 3 ) , po s s e s s iv e ( 3 ) , l o c at ive ( 4 , 5 , 6 ) , a n d t emp oral ( 7 ) :

3. A k a l i d o k o - me e mb a - n y a me n a d O k o u a a - me p- f-a .
man t h e - AG y o u - POSS pig the axe- INST h i t - F P - 3 S G
The m a n k i l l e d y o u r p i g wi t h an axe .

p e - I y - a - mo .
man the o v e r . t here - LO C g o - PRES - 3 S G-DEC
The man i s g o i n g o v e r t h e re (on the s ame l e ve l ) .
,
5. Aka I i dOko ee-sa t e n ge - s a p e - I y - a - mo .
man the garde n - LO C n e a r - LO C g o - PRES- 3 SG-DEC
The man is g o i n g n e ar t h e garde n .

6. Ak a l i dOko anda-ka p e - I y - a - mo .
man the h o u s e -LOC g o - PRES - 3 SG-DEC
The man is g o i n g home .

7. Aka I i dOko kotaka - s a pe - I y - a -mo .

man the n o o n - TEMP g o - PRE S - 3 SG-DEC
The man i s g o i n g a t n o on .

Noun c la s s e s have not b een s t ud i e d in det ail in Enga and w i l l b e

only b r i e fly d i s cu s s e d in t h e f o l l ow i n g s e c t ion . The c la s s e s have
b e en b as ed primarily on s y nt a c t i c feature s o f the Enga c a s e s as l i s t e d
4
ab ove ( 1- 7 ) . In addi t ion , o t h e r feature s are given for the c l a s s e s
o f mo s t int ere s t for t h i s w ork , i . e . t h o s e whi c h c o-oc c ur w i t h the
c l a s s i f i c at ory verb s . The c la s s e s t o b e d i s c u s s e d are : N An imat e s ,
l
N Pronoun s , N Body Part s , N Inanimat e s , N Locat iona l s , N Event s ,
2 3 4 5 6
N C o lours , N S Inner S t at e s , and N Minor C la s s e s . O f the s e c l a s s e s ,
7 9
only c e r t a i n nouns o f c la s s N may o c cur w i t h the t emp oral s uffi x ,
9
there fore t h i s s u f f i x w i l l b e i gnored for t he other c l a s s e s . The
c la s s e s and t h e i r c a s e d i s t r i b u t i on are pre s e n t ed in Chart 1 . 1 ;
o c c urren c e with t he c l as s i f i c at ory verb s is marked in the l a s t two
c o lumn s .
26

CHART 1 . 1 : NOUN C LAS SES

DET
P r ed i -
N oun C l a s s AG POSS INST LOC EV
c a t i ons
d 6ko mende

N +an imate x x x x x
l

N +animate
2 X X X
( Pronouns )

N - an imat e
3 X X x x x
( Body Part s )

N - an imate
4 x x x X x
+art i fa c t s ( ? )

N + l o c a t ion x x
5

N ( e vent s ) x x x
6

N ( c o l our ) x x x
7

N ( inner s t at e ) x x
8

N1 A n.<.ma..te.¢

N ouns of t h i s c las s are marked [ +animate ] , a l s o imp ly ing [ + c on­

cret e ] . The s ub c l a s s o f k i n s h ip t erms wh ich o c c urs in t h i s c l a s s i s
mark e d [ + i n a l i enab le J , and a s e c ond s ub c la s s , proper name s , i s marked
[ - c ommon J . Some memb e r s o f the k i n s h ip sub c l a s s are : t a k � n g e fa t h er,
5
and e n d a n g i mo t h e r . Some memb e r s o f t he proper name s s ub c l a s s are :
A l u a ( man ' s name ) , P a s 6n e ( woman ' s name ) , and P e p e ( b oy ' s name ) .
Other memb er s of t h i s c l as s are : me n a p i g , and n e n e A r t hrop oda . All
memb e r s o f t h i s c l a s s may oc cur w i t h t h e d e t e rminer i n a demo n s t r a t ive
s e n s e ( 8 ) and t he ind e f i n i t e d e t e rminer in an emphat i c s e n s e ( 9 ) , and
w i t h t h e agent ive ( 1 0 ) , and po s s e s s ive ( 1 1 ) c a s e s ; they are not u s e d
i n s t rume nt a l ly ( 1 2 ) o r l o c at ive ly ( 1 3 ) .

8. A l u a d 6ko e p e - l y - a - mo .
A l ua t h e come- PRE S - 3 SG-DEC
Th a t A l ua is coming .

e pe - l y - a -mo .
A l ua a c ome - PRE S - 3 SG-DEC
One o f the A l uas is comi n g .
 27

10 . A l u a - me me n a d 6 k o p-f-a.
A l u a - AG p i g the h i t -FP-3SG
A l ua k i l l e d t h e p i g .
,
ll . B a a - me A l u a - n y a me n a d 6 k o p-(-a.
he-AG A l ua-POSS pig the h i t -FP-3SG
H e k i H e d A l ua ' s p i g .

1 2 . * B a a me me n a d o k o A l u a -me p- i - a .
h e - AG pig the A l ua- INST hi t - FP- 3SG
He k i l l e d t h e p i g w i t h A l ua .

13 . * B a a A l u a - s a p e - l y - a - mo .
he A l ua - LO C g o - PRES- 3 SG-DEC
He i s g o i n g to A l u a .

NZ Plt O Yl O UYl-6

Th i s group is a s ma l l c l os e d s e t :

n a mb a I n a 1 f m b a we two n a i ma we ( p l )
e m b a you n y a l a m b o y o u two n y a k ama you (pl )
baa h e , she, it do l apo they two d u pa t h ey ( p l )

p lus the d i a l e c t a l var i a n t s o f t h e s e . Nouns o f t h i s c la s s are , l ike

N , marked [ +anima t e ] and , l ik e the s ub c l a s s of k i n s h i p t erms ,
l
[ + in a l ie nab le ] . Howeve r , memb e rs o f t h i s c la s s d i f fer from N , s in c e
l
t h e y may not oc c ur w i t h de t erminers ( 1 4 , 1 5 ) . They are s imi l ar t o N
l
in that they may o c c ur in the age n t ive ( 1 6 ) and p o s s e s s ive ( 1 7 ) c a s e s ,
b u t n o t i n t h e i n s t rume n t a l ( 1 8 ) or l o c at ive ( 1 9 ) .

14 . * Ba a d o k o p e - l y - a - mo .
he the g o - PRE S - 3 SG-DEC
The he is g o i n g .

15 . * B a a me n d e p e - l y - a - mo .
he a g o - PRES- 3 SG-DEC
Some he i s g o i n g .

16 . B a a - me me n a d 6 k o
he -AG p i g the h i t -FP-3SG
He k i l l e d t h e p i g .

17 . B a a - me n a m b a - n y a me n a d 6 k o p- r-a .
h e - AG I- POSS pig the h i t - F P - 3SG
He k i l l e d my p i g .

18 . * B a a - me me n a d o k o n a m b a - me p- i -a.
h e - AG p i g the I - INST h i t -FP-3SG
H e k i l l e d t h e p i g w i t h me .
28

19 . * Ba a n a mb a - s a pe - l y - a -mo .
he I - LOC g o - PRE S - 3 SG-DEC
He is g o i n g to me .

N 3 B o d if Pa���

Nouns of t h i s c la s s are [ + i n a l i e nab le ] l i ke the s ub c l a s s of k i n s h i p

t erms i n N ; they are , h oweve r , a l s o [ -animate ] . S ome nouns o f t h i s
l
c la s s are : k r n g i arm , p u n g r l i ve r , and y a n 6 n g r s k i n , b ody . T h i s
c la s s i s s im i l ar t o N
i n t h a t they may oc cur w i t h det ermin ers ( 2 0 ,
l
2 1 ) ; they d i ffer i n that they may b e i n fl e c t e d for the ins t rume n t a l
( 2 2 ) and l o c at i ve ( 2 3 ) , a n d t h a t t h e y may not b e u s e d w i t h the agent­
ive ( 2 4 ) or po s s e s s i ve ( 2 5 ) c a s e s .

p y - 6 -mu .
leg the pain do - PRES . 3SG - SENSE
(My ) leg i s p a i n in g .

p y - 6 -mu .
leg a pain do- PRES . 3SG- SENSE
One of my l e g s is p a i n in g .

22 . B a a - me m e n a d 6 k o mok 6 - me p - I -a .
h e - AG p i g the l e g - INST h i t - F P - 3SG
He hi t t h e p i g wi t h ( a ) leg.

py-6 -mu .
l e g - LO C pain do- PRES . 3 SG - SENSE
It is p a i n i n g in t h e l e g .

2 4 . * M o k o - me me n a d o k o p- i -a .
leg-AG pig the h i t-FP-3SG
*The leg ki l l ed the p i g .

25. * B a a - me m o k o - n y a y a n u n g i d o k o p- i -a .
h e - AG p i g - POSS skin the h i t -FP-3SG
He hit the leg ' s skin .

N4 I na nima�e�

Th i s c la s s i s marked [ + c on c r e t e ] and [ -animate ] . Some nouns o f

t h i s c l a s s are : u a a axe , a n d a hou s e , and I t a t r e e . Nouns of t h i s
c l a s s c an o c cur w i t h t h e d e t e rminers ( 2 6 , 2 7 ) and ins trumen t a l ( 2 8 ) ;
t h e y c ontra s t w i t h t he previous l y d i s c us s e d c l a s s e s , s in c e t h e y c an­
not o c cur with the age n t i ve ( 2 9 ) , p os s e s s ive ( 3 0 ) or l o cat ive ( 3 1 )
c a se s .
 29

,
26 . Emb a - me ( n a mb a ) u a a, d 6 k o d-(-(.
you- me axe t h e g i v e . INCL- IMM . IMP- 2 SG
G i v e me t h a t axe !
,
,
27. E m b a - me ( n a m b a ) u a a m e n d e d-(-(.
you-AG me axe a g i v e . INCL- IMM . IMP- 2SG
G i v e me an axe !

28. B a a - me me n a d 6 k o u a a - me,
h e - AG p i g t h e axe - INST h i t -FP- 3SG
He k i l l e d t h e pig wi t h (an ) axe .

29 . * U a a - me m e n a d o k o p- i -a .
axe - A G p i g the h i t - FP - 3 SG
( Th e /an ) axe k i l l e d t h e p i g .

30 . 1' E m b a - me ( n a m b a ) u a a - n y a e n d e d o k o d-i-i .
you-AG me axe - POSS e n d t h e g i v e . INCL- IMM . IMP-2SG
G i v e me t h e axe ' s end !

31 . * Baa u a a - s a p e - l y - a - mo .
he axe - LOC g o - PRES- 3 SG-DEC
He is g o i n g to ( w h e re ) t he axe (is ) .

N 5 P.ta c.e.�

Nouns of t h i s c l a s s are i n one o f t wo s ub c l as s e s , e i ther [ + c ommon ] ,

or [ - c ommon ] ; a l l are [ + l o c a t i on ] . Some nouns in t h i s c la s s are : ee
g arde n , k a k a s a b us h , W a p a k a Wabag ( a p l ac e ) , and L a k a i p a Lagaipa ( a
r iver ) . Th i s c la s s contra s t s w i t h a l l previous c la s s e s i n that i t c an
o c c ur only unmarked for the [ -c ommon ] s ub c la s s ( 3 2 a ) or in t h e l oc a­
t ive c a s e ( 3 2b ) for the [ + c ommon ] s ub c l as s ; it c annot o c c ur w i t h the
det erminers ( 3 3 , 3 4 ) , the agent ive ( 3 5 ) , the p os s e s s ive ( 3 6 ) nor the
i n s t rument a l ( 3 7 ) c a se s .

32a . Baa Wapaka p e - l y - a - mo .

he Wab ag g o - PRE S - 3 SG-DEC
He i s g o i n g t o Wab a g .
, , p e - l y - a - mo .
3 2b . Baa ee- s a
he garde n - LO C g o - PRE S - 3 SG-DEC
He i s g o i n g t o ( t he ) garde n .

33 . *Wa p a k a doko p e - l y - a - mo .
Wabag the g o - PRE S - 3SG-DEC
The Wabag is g o i n g .
30

34 . *Wap a k a men d e p e � l y - a - mo .
Wab ag a g o - PRE S - 3 SG-DEC
A Wabag is g o i ng .

35 . * Ee - me me n a d o k o p- i -a .
garde n - A G p i g the h i t -FP- 3 S G
Garden k i L L e d t h e p i g .

36 . �' B a a - me ee-nya me n a d o k o p- i -a .
h e - ag garde n - POSS p i g the hi t -FP- 3 SG
He k i L L e d t h e garde n ' s p i g .

37 . * B a a - me me n a d o k o ee -me p- i -a .
h e - AG p i g the garde n - INST h i t - FP - 3 S G
H e ki L L e d t h e p i g w i t h ( a ) garden .

N6 E v e nt:�

Nouns o f t h i s and the f o l l owing c l a s s e s d i f fer from a l l the pre c e d­

ing c la s s e s in that they c o- o c cur w i t h p art i c u l ar verb s in the s e c ond
type o f c la s s i f i c at ory verb s , the p re d i c at i on s d i s c u s s e d i n Chap t e r 4 .
Marked [ + oc curren c e ] , t h e s e are nouns and not verb s or verb part s ,
s in c e they c annot b e infle c t e d for p e r s on numb er or t e n s e ( 3 8 ) , b ut
i n s t ead mus t be e xpre s s ed w i t h a c o-oc c urring verb ( 3 9 ) .

38 . * P i pu l i - l y- a-mo .
magi c - PRE S - 3 SG-DEC
He is magi c ing .

39 . P ( pu l i
magi c u t t e r - PRE S - 3 S G-DEC
He is magi ci n g .

Some t y p i c a l nouns o f t h i s c l a s s are : b e t a comp e n s a t i on p aymen t , t e e

p i g e xchange/de a t h payme n t , p ( p u l i work magi c , and m a n a i n s t r u c t i o n .
Nouns of t hi s c l a s s c an o c c ur w i t h the det ermine rs , ( 4 0 , 4 1 ) and i n
the agent ive ( 4 2 ) ; they do not o c cur i n the p o s s e s s ive ( 4 3 ) , ins tru­
ment a l ( 4 4 ) or l o c at ive ( 4 5 ) c a s e s .

40 . B a a - me p ( p u l i d 6 k o l e - l y - a - mo .
h e - AG magic the u t te r - PRE S- 3SG-DEC
He is working t h e magi c .

41. B a a - me p ( p u 1 i me n d e l e - l y - a - mo .
h e - AG magi c a u t te r - PRES - 3S G-DEC
He is working s ome magi c .
 31

42 . P ( p u l i -me k u ma - s - ( - a .
mag i c - AG k i r r - CAUS-FP- 3 S G
Mag i c k i r r e d him .

43. * B a a - me p i p u l i - n y a y a n g i l e - l y - a - mo .
h e - AG magi c - PO S S some u t t e r- PRE S - 3 SG-DEC
He i s w o r k i ng s ome of ( t h e ) magi c .

44. * B a a - me me n a d o k o p i p u l i - m i p- i -a .6
h e - AG pig the magi c - INST h i t -FP- 3 S G
He k i r r e d t h e p i g wi th magi c .

45 . *Baa p i pu l i -s a p e - l y - a - mo .
he magi c - LOC g o - PRES- 3SG-DEC
He i s g o i n g to magi c .

N 7 C o l o u./t

Nouns o f t h i s c l a s s are [ - c on c re t e ] and c o - o c c ur w i t h the predi c a­

t i ons , u s u a l l y in the s t at ive form . The s e are more fully d i s c u s s e d
in Sect ion 4 . 1 . 3 . S ome nouns o f t h i s c la s s are w e n � p y a p a e b r u e .
p u rp r e , k y 60 l a p a e w h i t e , a n d t a i y 6 k o p ( p a e re d . They o c c ur w i t h t h e
d e t e rminers ( 4 6 , 4 7 ) , b ut do n o t o c c ur i n the other c a s e s ( 4 8 , 4 9 , 5 0 ,
51 ) .

46 . S a k a p a e d ok 6 d- ( - ( .
gre e n the g i v e . INCL-IMM- IMP- 2 S G
Gi ve me t h e g r e e n (on e ) .

d- (_( .7
green a gi ve . INCL- IMM- IMP- 2 S G
Give me a g r e e n ( o ne ) .

48 . * S a k a p a e - me me n a d o k o p- i -a .
g re e n - AG pig the h i t - FP - 3 SG
Gre e n k i r r e d the p i g .

49 . * B a a - me s a k a p a e - n y a me n a d o k o p- i -a .
h e - AG g re e n - POSS pig the h i t - F P- 3SG
He k i r re d gre e n ' s p i g .

5 0 . * B a a - me m e n a d o k o s a k a p a e - me p- i -a .
h e - AG p i g the gre e n - INST h i t - F P - 3SG
*He k i r re d t h e p i g w i t h gre e n .

51. *Baa s akapae - s a p- i -a .

he gre e n - LOC hi t - F P- 3 SG
He ' s g o i ng to gre e n .
32

N I n n e� State
g
Nouns o f this group are [ + inner s t at e ] and , unl i ke N ( Event s ) ,
6
may b e i n fl e c t e d for pers on-numb e r and t e n s e in at l e a s t one d i a l e c t
o f Enga ( 5 2 ) ; s e e a l s o S e c t ion 4 . 1 . 6 . In the other d i al e c t s o f Enga
t h e s e o c cur in the pre d i c a t i on s ( 5 3 ) .

52 . P a k e - l y - ' - mo . ( Ky aka Enga )

fear- PRES- 3 SG-DEC
He is afra i d .

53. Ba' p'k' k a e - l y - a - m6 . ( ot her Enga d i a l e c t s )

he fe a r fe e t - PRE S - 3 SG-DEC
He i s afrai d .

Some nouns o f t h i s c la s s are : ( m b u ange r , n a n u t h i rs t , t a n d a p a i n ,

and a u u t i k e , tove . Nouns of t h i s group may o c cur w i t h the ins tru­
men t a l c a s e ( 5 4 ) ; they are not used with the d e t e rminers ( 5 5 , 5 6 ) or
with t h e other c a s e s ( 5 7 , 5 8 , 5 9 ) .

54 . B a a p a k a - me k u m i - l y - a - mo .
he fe ar- INST di e - PRES- 3S G-DEC
He is dy ing of fear .

55 . *Baa paka doko k u m i - l y - a - mo .

he fe ar t h e di e - PRES- 3 SG-DEC
He i s dy ing of the fe ar .

56 . * B a a p a k a me n d e k u m i - l y - a - mo .
he fe ar a di e - PRES- 3 SG-DEC
He i s dy i n g of a fe a r .

57 . * P a k a - me me n a d o k o p- i -a .
fe ar-AG p i g the h i t -FP- 3SG
Fe ar k i t t e d t h e p i g .

58. * B a a - me p a k a - n y a me n a d ok o p- i -a .
h e - AG fe ar-POSS p i g the hi t - FP - 3 SG
*He k i t t e d fe ar ' s p i g .

59 . * B a a p a k a - s a p e - l y - a - mo .
he fe a r - LO C g o - PRE S - 3 SG-DEC
He ' s g o i n g to fe ar .

N Mi n o � Cla6 6 e6
9
Other c l as s e s , wh i c h w i l l not b e d i s c u s s e d further , inc lude the
fo l l owing :
 33

Qual i t y : k o o b a d , e p e g o o d , m � u s ho r t
Quant i t y : l on g o many , i k ( on l y , p i t a k a a l l
Locat i o n : t e n g e s a n e a r , l o n d e far , k i s a up
D i r e c t ion : a m a ne arby - l e ve l , a l y a ne ar-up , a n a n e a rb y - down
Time : w � mb � b e fore , i n d � p a t oday , t a l t a t omorrow , a l e m b a two
day s ago
Numb er : l a p e two , t e p e three , a k a l i t a me n d a i ten
Manner : moo l a o s l ow l y , y a p a q u i c k l y , p � p � l a o s trong l y ,
e l y a k a o s t e a l th i l y
Exc lamat i on s : k a n a u exc laim in s u rp r i s e , p o n g o k a e swear ( to man )
Int e rrogat ive s : a n J a w h e re , a p r wh o , a k i wha t

The p r e c e d ing c l a s s e s c o ns t itut e the nouns o f Enga ; i n t h e f o l l ow­

ing chap t e r s we w i l l concern ourselves only w i t h nouns of c la s s e s
one , t wo , three and four [ c on c r e t e ] , s i x [ event s ] , s even [ c o l our ]
and e i ght [ inner s t a t e ] .

1 .2.2 The Verb

Enga is a verb dominated l anguage and b e l ongs to what C ap e l l ( 1 9 6 9 )

8
c a l l s the B i i i l anguage s , v i z . , t h o s e that are event -dominat e d .
The s e language s are " . . . prob ab l y t h e most w i d e s pread t yp o l o g i c a l l y
9
homogene ous group i n New G u i n e a " ( Cap e l l 1 9 6 9 : 8 1 ) . Event -dominat e d
language s o f the B i i i t ype a r e s pe c i fi c a l l y marked b y the feature s
i c omp l i c at i on of the ve rb al s y s t e m in t erms of t e n s e s
and moods ,
i i p o s s e s s i on of s en t e n c e -medial and s en t e n c e - final forms ,
i i i ab s e n c e of i n c o rp orat e d pronoun ob j e c t s .
We w i l l deal w i t h t h e s e in reve r s e order .

1 .2.2. 1 I n c o �p o �ated P� o n o un O b j ect6

Enga d o e s not have i n c orp orat e d pronoun ob j e c t s ( e x c e p t for one

lO
ins t an c e ) :
34

60 . n amb a t an g e
I self
emba
you
baa
h e , she, i t
N a b a -me nya l ambo kande - l y-o
I-AG y o u two s e e - PRE S-ISG
I see .
do l apo
t h e y two
n y a k�ma
you a l l
d �pa
t hey p l u r a l

1 .2.2.2 S e n� e n e e - m e d�al and S e n� e n e e - 6 � nal F o �m�

For e a c h s en t e n c e there is one main verb and it always o c curs i n

final p o s i t i o n i n t h e s urface struc t ure o f that s e n t e nc e . In a normal
d e c larat ive s en t e nc e , the order is s ub j e c t - ob j e c t -verb :

61 . En d a d o k 6 - me b a a - n y a me n a d 6 k o p-f-a.
woman t h e - AG s h e - POSS p i g the h i t -F P - 3 S G
The woman hi t h e r p i g .

There are n o c onj unc t ion s i n Enga t o e xpre s s s en t e n c e s l i ke ( 6 2 )

and ( 6 3 )

62 . He w e n t and w o r k e d ( a t t h e s ame t ime ) .

63 . I w e n t and he work e d .

I n s t ead , Enga u s e s a s p e c i a l s e t o f verb a l s u f f i xe s , wh i c h are a t ­

t a ched t o a l l b u t t h e final verb in t he s enten c e . The s e s u f f i xe s
vary , depending on whether the s ub j e c t s of the two s e n t e n c e s are c o ­
re ferent i a l or not . C o-ordina t e and s ub ordinat e s e n t e nc e s w i t h c o­
re ferent i al s ub j e c t s are c al le d " s ame a c t or " s en t e nc e s in Enga
grammat i c a l s t udie s , and t h o s e w i t h non-c o-re ferent i a l s ub j e c t s are
c a l l e d " d i f fe rent act o r " s e n t e nc e s . The two c on s t ituent s e n t e n c e s
o f ( 6 2 ) above , i f u s e d s epara t e l y would b e ( 6 4 ) and ( 6 5 ) :

64 . Baa p-e - a .
he g o - FP - 3 SG
He w e n t .

65 . B a a - me k a l a i p -i -a .
he-AG work do -FP- 3 SG
He work e d .
 35

Conj oined t h e y a r e not

ll
66 . " B a a p - e - a - p i b a a - me k a l a i p _ i _ a .

b u t ins t e ad

p- i -� .
h e - AG g o - O work do - F P - 3SG
He went and w o r k e d ( a t the s ame t ime ) .

The t e n s e and pers on-numb er s u f f i x e s are c arried only b y t he s en t ence

final verb , ( 67 a ) and ( 6 7 b ) are ungrammat i c a l

6 7 a . * B a a - me p-e-a ka l a i pyo-o .
h e - AG g o - FP- 3 SG work do - O

6 7 b . " B a a - me p - e - a -o ka 1 a i p- i -a .
h e - AG go-FP - 3 SG-0 work d o - F P - 3 SG

The two c on s t i tu e nt s e n t e nc e s in ( 6 3 ) above would b e ( 6 5 ) and ( 6 8 ) :

68 . Namb � p-e-6.
I g o - FP - 1 SG
I wen t .

However , s in c e the s ub j e c t s o f ( 6 5 ) and ( 6 8 ) are not c o-re ferent i a l ,

they c annot b e c onj o ined , for e xamp l e , b y the -0 marker as in ( 6 7 ) ;
( 6 9 ) i s ungrammat i c a l

69 . * N a m b a p a - o b a a - me k a l a i p- i -a .
I g o - O h e -AG work do - F P- 3SG

( 6 5 ) and ( 6 8 ) can only b e c onj o ined b y pre s erving b ot h the tense and
p e r s on-numb er s u f f i xe s of b oth verb s . Thi s i s a c h ieved b y adding a
s e nt e n c e med i a l marker - p a t o the main verb o f t h e f i r s t o f the two
s en t e nc e s to be c onj Oined :
12
70. Namb� p-e-6-pa b a a - me k a l a i p_ i _a .
I g o - FP- 1SG- CONJ h e -AG work do - F P - 3SG
I went and he w o r k e d .
- p a i n s ent ence final p o s i t i on a s i n ( 7 1 ) w ould b e ungrammat i c a l :

71 . * Namba p-e-o b a a - me k a l a i p - i -a-pa .

I go-FP-O h e - AG w o r k do - F P - 3 SG-CONJ

There are a numb er o f s u f f i x e s ( s ome of wh i c h w i l l be i l lu s t ra t e d b e ­

l ow ) wh i ch c an mark s ent enc e -me d i a l verb s , dependi n g on t h e var i o u s
kinds o f c o - a n d s ub -ordinat i on . The s e w i l l be d i s c u s s e d in more
d e t a i l in the next s e c t ion .
36

1 .2 .2 . 3 T e. Yll> e.4 a. n d M o o d4

In the p re c e d ing s e c t i on we have b r i e fly sh own the general c h ar­

a c t er i s t i c s o f the s o - c a l l e d sent enc e -med i a l and s e n t e n c e - f inal verb
forms . Thu s , a l l ins t an c e s of c o - and sub- ordinat i on are expre s s e d
b y s e n t e n c e -me d i a l forms . There are , furthermore , no modal aux i l i ­
ar i e s , s u c h a s Engl i s h can , mu s t , ought , e t c . A l l o f t h e s e are e x ­
pre s s ed i n Enga b y s en t e n c e-me d i a l forms .
C o mp l e t i ve ( 7 2 ) , b e ne f a c t ive ( 7 3 ) , d e s i derat i ve ( 7 4 and 7 5 ) , pur­
p o s ive ( 7 6 and 7 7 ) and int errogat ive ( 7 8 ) are s ome o f the modal i t ie s
o f Enga :
,
72 . N a mb a - me k a l a i p y o - o eta-te- l y-o.
I-AG work do - O fin i s h - COMP-PRES-1SG
I am comp l e t e ly fi n i s h e d w i t h the work .

73 . N a m b a - me b a a - n y a k a l a i p y a - k a - ma f - l y - o .
I-AG he -POSS w o r k do - BEN-EXCL-PRES- 1SG
I am do ing his work for h i m .
, ,
74 . B a a - me n e e na-p-u l aka l a-o mas i - l y-am-o .
h e - AG fo od e a t - NP - 1 SG LAKA u t t e r - O t h i n k - PRES - 3 SG-DEC
He w a n t s t o e a t v e ry b a d l y .

B a a - me n a .l m a pu-m- I
' , I
75 . l a ka l a o m a s i - l y - a - mo .
h e - AG us g o - NP - 2 PL LA KA l a - O t h i n k - PRES - 3SG-DEC
He wan t s u s t o go .

76 . p i -n-a l a -o n a mb a - me y a t i me n d e s a mb e - l y - o .
h e - AG work do - IMP- 3 SG u t t e r - O I-AG s ho v e l a b u y - PRE S - 1 SG
I am b uy ing a s ho v e l s o t h a t he wi l l work .

yat i s a mbe - l y - a - mo .
h e - AG work a do - INF-GEN s h ove Z b u y - PRE S - 3S G-DEC
He i s b uy i n g a s h ove Z in o rde r t o work .

78 . L a i ma kak a - s a yuu ,
dok6 - n y a k a t e - n ge - p e 7 1 3
c a s s owary b u s h - LOC land t h e - LOC BE-HAB-QU
A re t h e r e ca s s owari e s i n t h e rain fo re s t ?

Enga a l s o has various moda l i t i e s d e a l i n g w it h event s w h i c h h ave not

b e e n ob s erved b y the s p e aker : s en s e d ( 7 9 ) , dedu c t ive ( 8 0 ) and h i s ­
t or i c a l ( 8 1 ) .

79 . Ka ( t ( t o k a l a- l - u-mu .
s ky s h o t u t t e r - PRES-3SG-SENSE
(I s e n s e ) it i s t hunde ring .
 37

80 . 0 6 k o m e n a, l a m o .
that pig DEDUC
( I de du a e ) t h a t is a p i g .

81 . B a a - m� k a k a - s a yu6 dok6-nya
h e - A G b u s h - LOC Land t h e - LO C go -FP- 3 SG-HIST
He went into t h e rain fore s t .
14
Enga is an e xc lu s ive ly s u ff i x ing language

82 . En d a d o k 6 - m� b a a k a n d a - l y a - s a - t a - k a ma i - y - a - p � 7
woman t h e - AG h e s e e - UP-CAUS-COMP-BEN-PAST- 3 SG-QU
Did t he woman aause him to L o o k up a L ready fo r h i s b e n e fi t ?
3 4
15
e x c ep t for the n e ga t i ve p r e f i x

n a - p -e - a .
man the NEG-go - F P - 3 S G
T h e m a n di dn ' t go .

There are five t e n s e s i n Enga ; t h e y are i l l u s t ra t e d ( wi t h the p e r s on­

numb er c a t e gori e s ) in Tab le 1 . 1 , u s ing t h e verb l a - u t t e r , say a s a
root .

TABLE 1 . 1 : VE RB PARADI GM

Far P a s t N e ar P a s t Past Present F u t ure

lsg 1 -�-6 l a-p-6 I a- l -o l � - l y-o l a-t-6
2sg l -� -� l a-p- i l a- l -�-no l e - l -�-no l a - t -�
3sg l -�-a l a-py-a l a - l - a - mo l e - l y - a -mo l a-t-a

ldu l - e - a mb a l a - p - 6mb a l a - l - a mb a - n o l e - l y - a mb a - n o l a - t - a mb a
2 du l - e - amb ( l a-p- (mb ( l a - l - a mb r - n o l e - l y - a mb ( - n o l a - t - amb f
3du l - e - a mb ( l a - p - fmb f l a - l - amb f - n o l e - l y - amb f - n o l a - t - amb f

lpl l - e - ama l a - p - 6 ma l a - l - ama - n o l e - l y - ama - n o l a - t - ama

2pl l -e-amf l a-p- (m f l a- l -amf -no l e - l y-am f -no l a-t -am f
3pl l -e-amf l a-p- fm f l a- l -amf -no l e - l y - am f -no l a-t -amf

The b as i c form i s verb stem + tense + person-number ( + mood marker , in this

instance DEC )
 N O T E S

1. T e e p i n g f refers t o the p ig e x change among the Central Enga ( i . e .

e a s t o f S irunk i , and refers t o a death p ayment among the We s t e rn
( La i agam and further we s t ) Enga .

2. S e c t i o n 1 . 1 i s a paraphra s e from Meggit t ( 1 9 7 1 ) .

3. The mat e r i a l s inc lude : language l earning a i d s Lars on ( 19 6 7 ) ,

Hint z e ( 1 9 6 3a and b ) , K e l l y ( n . d . ) and Cup i t ( 1 9 7 0 and 1 9 7 1 ) ; phono­
l o g i c a l s t at e ment s Bu s ( n . d . a and b ) , Burce ( 1 9 6 3 ) and Hint z e ( 1 9 6 3 a
and n . d . b ) ; word l i s t s and d i c t i onar i e s Budke ( 19 6 4 ) , Bus ( n . d . b ) ,
Finney e t a t . ( 1 9 6 4 ) , Draper ( 1 9 5 4 and n . d . a ) , F o o t e ( n . d . ) , and
Mechan ( 19 6 7 ) ; and grammat i c a l s t u d i e s Draper ( 19 5 4 and n . d . a ) ,
Hint z e ( 1 9 6 2 ) , Smythe ( n . d . ) , Burc e ( 1 9 6 3 ) , and Bu s ( n . d . a ) . One
c ont inuing prob lem has b e e n that of the t onal s y s tem : Lay c o c k ( n . d . ) ,
Hint z e ( 1 9 6 0 and n . d . b ) , and N i d a ( 1 9 6 8 ) have a l l worked on t h e
prob lem wh i c h i s furt her c omp l i c at e d b y d i a l e c t a l var iat i on .

4. The features given ( [ +animat e ] , [ + c oncret e ] , [ + in a l i e nab l e ] ,

e t c . ) are d e l ib erat e l y not spe c i f i e d a s s yn t ac t i c or s emant i c fea­
ture s ; the prob l em is not s o lveab l e at the present s t age .

5. Fran k l i n ( 1 9 7 1 ) has sugge s t ed that Prot o-Engan u s e d a -K/-NG +

vow e l s u f f i x t o denote inal ienab le p art s ( i . e . k in ship t erms and b ody
p art s ) . This appears in the e xamp l e s l i s ted for t h e k i n s h ip t erms
and b ody p art s .

6. The c orre c t form o f ( 4 4 ) would u s e t h e O - c omp lement i z er ( c f .

4.1.4)

38
 39

a. B a a - me me n a d 6 k o p f p u l i p - ( -a .
h e - AG p i g the magi c u t t e r - O h i t - FP - 3 S G
He k i l le d t h e p i g w i t h magi c .

The c orre c t form o f ( 4 5 ) l ikew i s e would u s e the purp o s ive form :

b. Baa p ( p U I i l a- ta- l a p e - l y - a - mo .
he magic u t t e r - COMP-INF go PRES 3SG-DE C
- -

He i s g o i ng to w o r k magi c .

See a l s o ( 7 6 and 7 7 ) i n the t e x t .

7. Th i s i s n o t s t r i c t ly t rue b e c au s e in ( 4 6 a n d 4 7 ) t he det erminer

mo s t l ik e l y refers to the ob j e c t o f the c o lo ur , rather than t o the
c o lour i t s e l f . Enga here d i ffers from Engl i s h in t hat in Engl i s h one
c an have e xamp l e s l ike The b l ue excited h e r imagi n a t i o n or The r e d
k i l l e d h i m ( b e c au s e i t c a u s e d the b u l l t o a t t a c k ) .

8. Cape l l a l s o c la s s i f i e s Enga a s Bi ( b ) on p age 1 5 5 , b ut t h i s i s

obvious l y a typographi cal mi s t ake , a s o n Map 1 6 , Enga i s c la s s i fi e d
a s B i i i ( w i t h the l anguage s o f the We s t e rn H i gh l ands ) . Cape l l ' s Nera
d ia l e c t o f Enga ( 1 9 6 9 : 1 4 2 ) i s not a d i a le c t but a c l o s e ly r e l a t e d
( b u t mut u a l ly unint e l l igib le ) l anguage , N e t e , on the northern fringe s
of the Enga- speak ing are a .

9. For s ome o f the wider gen e t i c c onne c t ions , s e e McElhannon and

Voorhoeve 1 9 7 1 .

10 . I n c orporat ed pronoun ob j e c t s appear in one Enga verb , g i v e :

c. N a m b a - me e m b a me n a me n d e d r - l y-o.
I - AG you pig a gi v e - PRES-ISG
I am g i v i n g y o u a p i g .

d. E mb a - me n a mb a men a me n d e d i - l - ( -no .
y ou - AG me pig a g i v e - PRE S - 2 SG-DEC
You a re g i v i ng me a p i g .

d i - l y - a - mo .
h e - AG me /y ou pig a g i v e - PRES - 3 S G-DEC
He i s g i v i n g me/y o u a p i g .

f.
,
N a m b a - me b a a me n a me n d e ma r - l y - o .
I - AG he pig a gi v e - PRES-ISG
I am g i v i n g h i m a p i g .
 40

g. E mb a - me b a � m e n � me n d e ma i - l - f - n o .
y o u - AG he pig a g i v e - PRES-2SG-DEC
You are g i v i n g him a p i g .

h. B a a - me b a � 4 me n � me n d e m a i - l y - � - mo .
3
he - A G he pig a g i v e - PRES- 3SG-DEC
3 4
He is g i v ing him a p i g .
3 4
1- '� B a a - me n a m b a / e mb a me n a me n d e m a i - l y - a - mo .
he - AG me /you pig a gi v e - PRES- 3SG-DEC

j . * N a m b a - me e m b a me n a me n d e ma i - l y - o .
I - AG you pig a g i v e - PRE S - 1 SG

k. * E m b a - me n a mb a me n a me n d e ma i - l - i - n o .
y o u - AG me pig a g i v e - P RES-2SG-DEC

l. * N a m b a - me b a a me n a me n d e d i - l y-o.
I-AG he pig a g i v e - PRES- 1SG

m. * E mb a - me b a a me n a me n d e d i - l - i -n o .
you-AG h e pig a g i v e - PRE S - 2 S G -DEC

11 . - p i c onj o i n s noun phrase s .

12 . - p a c an be u s e d in a numb er of s e n s e s , s uch as c on s e cut ive

a c t i o n , c ont emporaneous a c t i on , and c o n s e quen t i a l a c t i on .

13. - p e i s the que s t ion marker .

14. For a l i s t o f Enga s u f f i x e s s e e Lang ( 1 9 7 3 ) .

15 . The n e ga t i ve may a l s o b e formed v i a a full verb b a s e :

n. N a m b a - me m � s a - l a n � e - n ge .
I-AG know- INF NEG-RAB
I don ' t know ( i t ) .

In e quat i onal c l aus e s , the negat ive adverb d a a i s u s e d :

he man a not
H e i s n o t a man .
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 T H E E X I STENT I AL V E R B S

Th i s c hapt er w i l l d e a l w i t h the f i r s t o f the two t y p e s o f Enga

c la s s i fi c at ory ve rb s whi ch w i l l be pre s e nte d . The EV o c curs w i t h
nouns and h a s a me aning wh i ch c or r e s p onds t o t h a t o f the Engl i s h c op­
ula , be . As noted ab ove ( 0 . 1 ) , the EV o f Enga c orre sponds t o the
Navaho ' neuter ' f orm whi ch denot e s " . . . an ob j e c t o f a part i c u l ar t yp e
i n p os i t i on o r at r e s t . . . ' a mount ain l ie s ' " ( Ho i j er 1 9 4 5 : 2 2 ) ; Landar
n o t e s that informant s

often translate these verbs as ' it ' s lying there ' or ' it ' s setting
[ si c ] there ' . Hence one might translate tse s i ? as ' a rock ( as a
round obj ect ) has t aken a pos ition ' , or ' a rock is s itting there ' ,
or s imply ' there ' s a rock ' ( Landar 196 5 : 32 8 ) .

The c h apt er w i l l d e a l firs t l y w i t h the form of the EV ( it s s yn t a c ­

t i c properti e s ) , and s e c ondly w i t h t h e semant i c s o f the EV . We w i l l
c o n c lude w i t h a b r i e f d i s c u s s i on o f a few t heore t i c a l prob lems ar i s ­
i n g from a t t empt s t o a c c ount for t he EV i n a generat ive trans forma­
t i onal framework .

2.1 S YN T A C T I C PRO P E R T I ES

The EV ( w i t h a few e x c ep t i o n s ) o c curs w i t h a noun in a one-one

re l a t i on ; that i s , every noun c o - o c c urs with a s p e c i f i c EV , and each
of the EVs c o- o c curs only w i t h a certain s e t of nouns . There are
s even EV : k a t a - , p i t a - , s a - , p a l a - , i p a - , l y a - and m a n d a - . They
are exemp l i f i e d w i t h t y p i c a l re fere n t s in ( 1- 7 ) . Thus the noun p i g
l
may o c cur e x i s t e n t i a l ly only w i t h t h e EV k a t a - ; t h i s c o - o c c urrence
2
marks the noun c l a s s ( or gender ) memb e rship of t he noun :

1. M e n a d � p a k a t e - n ge .
pig the BE-HAB
P i g s e xi s t ; t h e re are p i g s .

41
42

2. En d a d � p a pe t e - n ge .
woman t h e BE-HAB
Women e x i s t .

3. Ka n o p h o d � p a s f - n g i .
rep ti L e the BE-HAB
Rep t i L e s e xi s t .

4. Map� dupa pa l e-nge .

swee t . potato the BE-HAB
Swe e t p o t a t o e s e x i s t .

5. E n d a k i d � p a e p e - n ge .
river the BE-HAB
R i v e r s e xi s t .

6. Am b � l y a d � p a l y i - n g ( .
bee the BE-HAB
Bees exis t .

7. P o n g 6 d � p a m a n d e - n ge .
p e n i s t he BE-HAB
Pe n i s e s e x i s t .

To comb ine any o f the EVs w i t h a noun d i fferent from the one i t c o­
o c c ur s w i t h would make the u t t erance ungrammat i c a l , as

1
'� p e t e - n g e

I
la o
*s i -ng i
Me n a d u p a *pa l e -nge
pig the *e p e - n g e
* l y i -ng i
*man d e - n ge

The EV for a noun c l a s s i s not usually u s e d in the s t at ive form

w i t h n ouns of that c l as s , s i n c e i t ( i . e . , the EV ) is t he h ab it ua l
3
e x i s t e nt i a l mode o f t h e noun :

8. " Saa p i t i - p ae doko . . .

p o s s um BE-STA the

9. * L a i ma k a t a - pa e d oko . . .
cas s owary BE-STA t he

The infle c t e d EV i s , howeve r , ob l i gat ory when the referent i s

l o c a t e d at s ome p l a c e b ut out - o f- s i gh t o f t h e speaker :

10 . ka - l y -a-pe7
red man the hous e - LOC b e - PRES-3SG-QU
Is t h e Euro p e an man at home ? or Is the Europe an man s tanding
in t h e hou s e ?
 43

( 1 0 ) i s amb i guous but the f ir s t mean ing o f it i s not e xpre s s e d b y ( 1 1 ) ,

only a mean ing ana l o gous t o the s e c ond me aning of ( 1 0 ) :

11 . Kone a k a l i d 6 k o anda-ka p r - l y-a-pe?

red man the hous e - LOC s i t - PRES- 3 SG-QU
Is the Europ e an man s i t t ing in t h e hou s e ? ( but not : Is the
Europ ean man a t home ? )

( 1 2 ) e xh ib i t s the s ame k ind of amb i gu i t y a s ( 1 0 ) :

12 . Ko n e e n d a d 6 k o a n d a - ka p r - l y - a - pe ?
red woman t h e hous e - LO C BE-PRES- 3 SG-QU
Is the Europ e an woman a t home ? or Is t h e European woman
s i t ti n g i n the hous e ?

And s im i l ar l y ( 1 3 ) i s unamb i guous in the s ame s en s e that ( 1 1 ) i s :

13. Ko n e e n d a d 6 k o anda-ka k a - l y - a - pe ?
r e d woman the hou s e - LO C s t and- PRES- 3 SG-QU
Is the European woman s t anding in the hous e ? ( b ut not : Is
the Europ ean woman a t home ? )

In ( 1 1 ) t h e speaker h a s s t rong r e a s o n s for p r e s up p o s ing that the man

4
i s in fact s i t t ing ( n o t s t anding , s leep ing , or l a y i n g , e t c . ) ; how-
ever i n ( 1 0 ) the speaker d o e s not want to know whether the man i s
s i t t ing , s le e p i n g , e t c . --and s o h e mus t u s e t h e E V wh i c h norma l l y c o­
o c c urs w i t h a k a l i man .

The EV mus t appear in the surfa c e forms of modal it i e s s uc h a s

d e s iderat ive ( 1 4 ) , a n d purp o s ive ( 1 5 ) .

14 . Wane d6ko aka l i k a - l ya-nya mas - r - a .

1
boy the man BE- INF-GEN t h i n k - F P - 3 SG
The b o y wan t e d to be a man .

Note that t h i s would b e ungrammat i c a l i f u s ed w i t h t h e wrong EV as i n

14a. *p f - l y a - n y a

I
*m a - n j a - n y a
Wane d6ko aka l i *sa- l a-nya ma s - f - a .
* l ya - l a - n y a
*fp-a-nya
*pa - l ya-nya

15 . B a a - me e n d a p f - l ya-nya l a-o maso-o QaQa m a n d e - l y - a - mo .

s h e - AG woman BE- INF-GEN u t t e r - O thi n k - O b a b y b e ar - PRES- 3 SG-DEC
In o rde r t o b e a w oman, she is having a b a b y .

1 5 a . * B a a - me e n d a k a - l y a - n y a l a - o m a s o - o Q a Q a m a n d e - l y - a - mo .
44

2.2 S E MA N T I C S

In t h i s s e c t i o n we w i l l d i s c u s s

2.2.1 the me an ing o f the EV

2.2.2 the feature s o f the EV
2.2.3 the s eman t i c redundancy rules
2.2.4 l oan i t ems
2.2.5 i n t e rs e c t i o n
2.2.6 change of c la s s

The gene ral re levance o f t h e prob l ems h a s b e e n d i s cu s s ed ab ove in

0 . 2 . 1- 0 . 2 . 3 . Here we w i l l addre s s ours e lves t o the s p e c i f i c prob lems
that Enga p o s e s in re lat i on to the s e t op i c s .

2.2.1 Mea n i ng of the E V

The EV has the mean ing o f t he Eng l i s h b e and have ; i t i s u s e d for

c on s t ru c t i on s o f e x i s t ence ( 1 6 and 1 7 ) , for l o c at ion ( 1 8 and 1 9 ) , for
p o s s e s s i on ( 2 0 and 2 1 ) and in c on s tru c t i ons s u c h a s r e l a t i ve c l au s e s
( 2 2 ) and i n modal i t i e s ( c f . 1 4 and 1 5 ab ove ) .
16 . L ftu d upa l y i -n g L
mus hro oms t h e BE-HAB
Mu s hrooms exi s t ; t h e re are mus hro oms .

1 6a . * L i t i d u p a k a t e - n g e .

r i v e r s the BE-HAB
R i v e r s exi s t ; t h e re are r i v e rs .

1 7 a . En d a k i k a t e - n g e .
18 . Saa
p o s sum t h e bus h - LOC BE-HAB
Po s s ums are in the b us h .

1 8a . * S a a d u p a k a k a - s a k a t e - n ge .
1 8b . * S a a d u p a k a k a - s a .

19 . rtf a y 6mb a k i s a k a t e - n g e .
hair h e ad top BE-HAB
Ha i r i s on he ads .

19a . * l t i ay omba k i s a pe t e - n ge .
1 9b . * l t i a y omb a k i s a .
 45

20 . N amb a aput (ng i p e t e - n ge .

I grandmo t h e r BE-HAB
My g randm o t h e r exi s t s / i s a l i v e .

20a . * Namb a a p u t i n g i k a t e - n ge .

2 0b . * N a m b a a p u t i n g i .

21 . A k a l i p i t a k a m6 n a p a l e - n g e .
men all heart BE-HAB
Men have h e a r t s .

2 1 a . * A k a l i p i t a k a mon a l y i - n g i .
2 1b . * A k a l i p i t a k a mo n a .
22 . Ak a l i n amb ( - s a k a - l y - a -mo d6ko . . .
man coas t - LOC BE-PRE S - 3 S G-DEC t h e
The man who i s on t h e coas t . . .

2 2 a . * A k a l i n a m b i - s a p i � l y - a - mo d o k o . . .

22b . *A k a l i n a mb i - s a doko . . .

In a l l o f the above e xamp l e s ( 1 6 - 2 2 ) the EV i s ob l i gat ory i n the

surface s t ru c t ure ; this is i n direct c ont ras t to other c on s t ru c t i ons
( o f s imi lar me an i n g ) in wh i ch the EV mu s t n o � appear i n the surface
( or is very awkward if i t does appear ) . The s e c on s t ruc t ions are
those involving a part i c ular i t em ( i . e . , as opposed to a ge ner i c
noun a s i n ( 1 8 ) above ) , and t h e ident i t y ( 2 3 ) , c la s s memb ers hip ( 2 4 )
or c l a s s i n c lu s i on o f the i t e m ( 2 5 ) ; and a l s o t h o s e c on s t r u c t i o n s
wh i ch a t t r i b u t e qua l i t i e s (26) .
23. Oake men a .
that pig
That i s a p i g .
7
2 3a . * O a k e m e n a k a t e - n ge .
24 . An g a
p an danus i t tree a
The p andanus i s a t re e .
7
24a . * A n g a b a a i t a me n d e k a t e - n g e .
25 . n e, n e .
fly the ins e c t
F l i e s are i n s e c t s .
7
25a. * Po n ge n a d u p a n e n e pe t e - n ge .
46

26. Baa enda nongo p ,l - p ae me n d e .

s he woman c Z umsy do - STA a
She is a c Z umsy woman .
5
2 6 a . 7 * B a a e n d a n o n g o p i - p a e me n d e p e t e - n ge .

Thus , we mus t not e t hat in c a s e s involving the p re d i c at ive u s e of

be , the EV is not ob l igat ory i n t h e s urface s t ru c t ure . Thi s w i l l be
d i s cu s s ed i n r e l a t i on to the p o s i t i on s for the presence or ab s e n c e o f
•
the E V a s B E i n the d e e p s t ruc t ure ( 2 . 3 ) . And , i t s hould a l s o b e
n o t e d that t h o s e c a s e s i n whi c h the E V i s ob l i ga t ory in the s ur fa c e
s t ru c t ure c orre s p ond t o the e x i s t ent i al , l o c at ive a n d p o s s e s s i ve c on­
s truc t i o n s a s d e s c r i b e d b y Lyons ( 1 9 6 7 , 1 9 6 8 ) . Lyons ' s hypothe s i s i s
that b ot h the e x i s t e nt i al and p os s e s s ive deri ve from l o c a t i v e s
( " . . . in many , a n d perhaps in all , language s e x i s tent i a l and p o s s e s s ive
c on s truc t i on s derive ( b ot h s ynchron i c a l ly and d iachron i c a l l y ) from
l o c a t i ve s " ( 1 9 6 8 : 3 9 0 ) ) . Lyons n ot e s two add i t i ona l p o i nt s , f i r s t l y
that

existential sentences typically have an indefinite, rather than a

definite, subject : thi s fact raises the possibility that they
should be treated, in a syntactic analysis of their deep structure,
as indefinite locatives (with ' locative ' , in this context, being
understood to include 'temporal ' . . . ( 1968 : 39 0 ) .

Lyons s e c ondly po int s o u t t hat t h i s c onne c t ion i s s upport e d

b y the employment o f what was originally a locative . . . adverb i n

the existent i al sentences of a number of European languages :
cf. Engli sh ' there ( in ' there i s / are . . . ) , . . . German ' da ' ( in ' ist
da ' , ' is there ' or ' exists ' : cf . ' das Dasein ' , ' existence ' , i. e .
' the being-there ' ) ( 1968 : 390 ) .

Addi t i onal s upport for Lyons ' f i r s t p o int has rec ent ly b e e n pre s en t e d
b y Het zron w i t h e v i d e n c e for Hungarian that the c op u l a i s ge nerated
for all d e f i n i t e nouns ( and not generated for inde f i n i t e nouns and
6
noun phras e s ) .
7
Regarding Lyons ' s e cond p o int ( t he l o cat ive adverb ' t here ' ) ,
Laiapo Enga offers two verb s o f i n t e re s t : a e - and d a e - . The forma­
t i on of a e - is most l ike ly from the l o c at ive adverb ae h e r e u s e d as
the verb b a s e plus the t en s e , and person-numb er s uf f i xe s :

27 . Men de a e - l y - a - mo .
a h e r e - PRE S - 3 SG-DEC
There i s s ome ( h e re ) .

and

28. Me n d e d ae - l y - a - mo .
a n o t - he r e - PRES- 3SG-DEC
There is n o t any (here ) .
 47

The d a e - i s m o s t l i k e ly from the negat ive adverb d a a n o t p l u s t h e

8
l o c at ive adverb a e h e re , p lu s the verb a l s u f f i x ( e s ) .
I t mus t b e
noted t h a t t he s e t w o verb s , a e n g e and d a e n g e are n o t EV , s i n c e t h e y
do n o t indi c at e e x i s t e n c e :

The philosophical importance of this distinction lies in the fact

that most modern philosophers would s ay that existence c annot be
predicated of obj ects in the same sense as their various attri­
butes , or properties , but is presupposed in the ident i fi c at i on of
obj ects or in any reference to them ( Lyons 1968 : 388 ) .

2.2.2 F e a t u re s

The EV c h o s en depends on the hab i t u a l ( i . e . e x i s t e n t i a l ) p o s ture

o r shape o f the re ferent a s perce ived b y t he Enga . I n f ormant s never
h e s i t a t e in a s s i gning a noun to a p art i c u lar EV c l as s , and nat ive
s pe aker s do not s eem t o h ave t o l e arn the c l a s s of e a c h noun individu­
a l l y ; i n s t ead , t h e y s e em to operat e with a certain s e t o f p r in c i p le s .
Th i s ab i l i t y i n d i c a t e s that the a s s i gnment of t he EV t o nouns i s non­
arb it rary and made i n a c c ordan c e w i t h s ome set of r u l e s whi c h e a c h
s p e aker of the language has a c qu i re d . Moreover , l oan i t ems a r e readi­
ly a s s i gned to t h e s ame EV c l a s s e s ( i . e . , + p u s ( i a a t i s a s s i gned to the
c l a s s o f nouns which c o - o c c ur with p e t e n g e ) b y d i fferent s p e akers w i t h
c ons i s t e n c y . I f qu e s t i oned , unsoph i s t i c at e d i nforman t s w i l l give the
9
f o l l ow i ng c r i t e r i a b y wh i ch t h e y a s s i gn EVs t o noun c la s se s :

1. Ka t e n g e w i l l be e l i c i t e d for referen t s j udged t o b e t al l , large ,

s t rong , powerful ( pot ent i a l l y harmfu l ) , s t anding or s upport ing ; s ome
t yp i c a 1 re f eren t s are : a k a' 1 ·I 1 0 men , a' n d a' h o u s e , 'I t a tre e , n 'l k ·I s u n ,
m6k 6 l e g .

2. P e t e n g e w i l l b e e l i c it ed for referent s j ud ge d t o b e sma l l , s quat ,

11
hori z o nt a l , weak ; s ome t yp i c a 1 referent s are : e' n d a woman , s a at
p o s s um, game mamma l , n e n e A r t hrop oda, i n s e a t s , p e t e p o n d .

3. L y i n g ( w i l l b e e l i c i t e d for r e fe rent s whi c h are hangi n g , or e x ­

c re s s ing out s id e ano ther ob j e c t ; s ome t y p i c a l referent s are : amb � l y a
wasp , b e e , k a m a l � m b i mo s s , l ( t i mus hroom , d i ( frui t , s e e ds , flowe r .

4. P a l e n g e w i l l b e e l i c it ed for re ferent s wh i c h are i n t e rnal or s u b -

t errane an ; s ome t yp i c a l re ferent s are : ( m � worm , m 6 n a h e a r t , p u n g (
l i ve r , m a p � swe e t p o t a t o .

5. E p e n g e w i l l b e e li c i t e d for referent s whi c"h are int ermi t t ent ,

c apab le of growth , or l iquid/ga s ; s ome t yp i ca l re feren t s are : endak i
ri v e r , a i y u u ra i n , I t I h a i r , fu r , fe a t he r8 , t a i y 6 k o b lo o d , k e n d e v i n e
u s e d f o r rop e .
48

6. S ( n g i wi l l b e u s e d for referent s whi c h are o r i fi c e s , l o c a t i on s ,

or mot i on le s s , craw l i n g or aquat i c ; s ome t y p i c a l referent s are :
w a p a k a e e l s , k a i t a do o r , p a t h , y u u ground, l and , y a t i s h o v e l , s p ade ,
n e n g e k a i t a mo u t h .

7. M a n d e n g e wi l l b e u s e d for re ferent s t hat are reprodu c t ive , s uch

as : p o n g 6 p e n i s , k a mb a ke vagin a , ( p i te s t i c l e s .
Thus i t seems t hat nat ive speakers a s s i gn EVs t o nouns a c c ord ing t o
c e r t a i n d i s t ingu i shing features o f the noun . Rul e s for t h e a s s i gnment
of the EVs c an be repre s e nt e d by p lu s and minus feat ures in the t r e e
d iagram ( 2 . 1 ) a n d t he s e a r e repre s ented m o r e forma l l y i n 2 . 2 . 3 .
In forma l ly , the feature s o f the EV a s s i gnment are l i s t ed b e l ow :

1. Ka t e n g e [ +heave n ly , + c o n s t ru c t i on , p art s , + l arge/p owerful ,

+harmful . . . ]

2. P e t e n g e [ + s t i l l water , + s o re s . . . ]

3. L y i n g ( [ + s e e d , fruit , +excre s cent , + swarm . . . ]

4. P a l e n g � [ + sub t erranean , + i n t e rnal . . . ]

5. E p e n g e [ + int ermit tent , + l iquid/ga s , +growing , +vine . . . ]

6. S ( n g i [ + orifi c e , + lo c at ion , +aquat i c , + c raw l ing . . . ]
7. M a n d e n g e [ + reprodu c t ive . . . ]
The mos t frequent ly u s ed feature is that o f p lace o f e x i s t e n c e ( or
hab i t a t ) : [ + s ub t erranean ] wi l l e l i c it only p a l e n g e , [ +heavenly ] w i l l
e l i c i t o n l y k a t e n g e , and [ +aquat i c ] wi l l e l i c it o n l y s ( n g i . Thus , we
do find at l e a s t one general feature whi c h is r e a l i z e d by mut u a l l y ex­
c lu s ive EV .

2.2.3 Redundancy Rul es

The rul e s p r e s e n t ed in Diagram 2 . 1 are here pre s ent e d as an ordered

set . The ordering i s such that b etween two rul e s the one w i t h b r oader
s c ope i s to have p r i or app l i c at ion ( in order to prevent individual
enume rat ion of features if it were ins t e ad app l i ed l a t er ) .

1. [ + concre t e ] 4 [ ±natural phenomena ]

2. [ +natural phenomena ] 4 [ ± s t i l l wat e r ]

3. [ +s t i l l wat er ] 4 petenge .
4. [ - s t i l l water ] 4 [ ± int ermi t t e nt / l iquid/ga s ]

5. [ + int ermit t e n t / l iquid/gas ] 4 e pe n g e .

6. [ - int ermit t e n t / l iquid/ga s ] 4 [ ±heaven ly ]
 49

V I AGRAM 2 . 1 : THE E X I STEN T I AL VERBS

1
concrete

1
2 3
- 4 5
,

�+ �+ 1+
natural � still � intermittent,=. heavenly -- s i n g i
phenomena water liquid , gas (stones)

}
-
petenge epenge, katenge
(takes) (rain) (sun)

+ 7
- 8 9 10
-

1+ 1+
parts of_ sores � growing , � internal --=' seeds � l y i ng r

1+ L
a whole liquid (seeds )

+
1
11
,
petenge epenge p a l enge reproductive mandenge

1-
(saliva) (heart) (penis)

13 14 15
,
12

+ ,

1-
+

1-
construction,=. S I n g i ngi

l+
arti fact s _ orifi c e , ori fi c e --- S I

l�
location ts (axe ) (mouth)

, .
S I ngl ka tenge katenge
(door) (house) (leg)

16 17
plant s ----=!:. pod
- 18
- 19 20
- katenge

l+ 1+ 1+ �+
• vine � SUbterranean::' round •

excrescence spherical (tree)

I
21
lyingr
(moss)

22
animates -.:!:. subterranean-=' swarm ,
epenge,

23
-
pa l en ge
(sweet
potatoes)

24
petenge
(aabbage)

25
aquati c -----=. large ,
- petenge

1+ 1+ 1+ 1+
� •

excrescence powerful (women)

p a l enge l y in g r s rn g i katenge
(worms) (bees) ( eels) (men)
50

7. [ +heavenly ] + k a t e n ge .
8. [ -heaven l y ] + s fn g i .

9. [ -natura l phenomena ] + [ ±par t s o f a whole ]

10 . [ +p art s o f a whole ] + [ ± s or e s ]

11 . [ + sore s ] + p e t e n ge .

12 . [ - s ore s ] + [ ± l i qui d/growing ]

13 . [ + l i quid/growing ] + e p e n ge .
14 . [ - liquid/growi ng ] + [ ± in t e rnal ]

15 . [ + int ernal ] + p a l e n ge .
16 . [ - in t ernal ] + [ ± s e eds /fru i t ]

17 . [ + s e e d s / fru i t ] + l y i ng ( .
18. [ - s ee d s / fruit ] + [ ±reproduc t ive ]

19 . [ +reproduc t ive ] + ma n d e n ge .
20 . [ -reproduc t ive ] + [ ± ori fi c e ]

21 . [ + or i f i c e ] + s (ng i .
22 . [ -orifice ] + k a t e n ge .

23 . [ -p art s of a whole ] + [ ±art i fa c t ]

24 . [ +art i fac t ] + [ ± or i fi c e / l o c a t ion ]

25 . [ +ori fi c e / l o c at i on ] + s (n g i .
26. [ -ori f i c e / lo c at ion ] + [ ± c on s t ru c t i on and part s ]

27 . [ + c o n s truc t ion and part s ] + k a t e n ge .

28. [ - c on s t ruc t ion and part s ] + s (ng i .

29 . [ - art i fact s ] + [ ±p lant ]

30 . [ +p l an t ] + [ ±pod/excre s c en c e ]

31 . [ +pod/excre s c en c e ] + l y i ng ( .
32 . [ -pod/excre s cence ] + [ ±v i ne ]

33 . [ +vine ] + e pe n ge .
34 . [ -v i n e ] + [ ± s ub t erranean ]

35 . [ + sub t erranean ] + p a l e n ge .
36 . [ - sub terrane an ] + [ ± spheri c a l ]

37. [ + spheri c al ] + s fn g i .
 51

38. [ - spheri c a l ] + k a t e n ge .
39 . [ -p l ant ] + [ +animat e ]

40 . [ +an imat e ] + [ ± subt erranean ]

41 . [ + sub t erranean ] + p a l enge .

42 . [ - s ub t erranean ] + [ ± e xcre s c en c e / swarm ]

43. [ +e x c r e s e n c e /swarm ] + l y i ng ( .
44. [ -e x c re s ence / swarm ] + [ ± aquat i c /craw l i n g ]

45 . [ + aquat i c / c rawl ing ] + 5

,
I n g .I .

46 . [ - aqua t i c / craw l ing ] + [ ± large /harmfu l ]

47 . [ + large /harmful ] + k a t e n ge .

48. [ - large /harmful ] + petenge .

I n the order ing o f the EV r u l e s ( Diagram 2 . 1 ) , fol l owing general

u s age , more spe c i fi c i t ems were ordered f i rs t , with more general
i t ems f o l l ow i ng . Th i s ac c ount s for the ordering o f the node s 3 , 7 ,
2 2 , and 1 7 ( mo s t others t oo ) , and the orde r i n g o f the mo s t freque n t l y
u s e d EV t o t he f a r b ranc h e s o f the d iagram : node s 5 , 1 2 , 1 5 , 2 0 , and
2 5 . S ome s pe c i f i c explanat i o n s for the ordering f o l l ow .
In the domain o f art i fac t s ( node 1 3 and f f . ) , s ( n g i app e ar s t w i c e .
The f i r s t nod e , 1 4 , mus t app l y b e fore 1 5 , or otherw i s e t h e var ious
h ou s e and c on s t r u c t i o n part s would b e given i n c orre c t ly . Likew i s e ,
the c on s t ruc t i on s o f 1 5 mus t b e app l i ed b e fore we c an t erminate w i t h
the ' everyt h i n g e l s e ' t ak ing s ( n g i .
In the d omain of part s , node 1 1 mus t b e app l i e d b e fore 1 2 , or t h e
k a m b a k e vagi n a , wh i ch i s in fact c on s idered t o b e [ +o r i f i c e ] a n d s a i d
b y informant s t o b e t he w a n e k a i t a ah i L d ' s doorway , w o u l d b e inc orre c t­
ly a s s i gned s ( n g i . I n formant s were d e f i n i t e in the r e j e c t ion of the
a s s i gnment o f k a mb a k e t o the s ( n g i c la s s : it must h ave m a n d e n g e .
A l s o in t he domain of part s , node 1 0 mu st preO€de node 1 1 , or d i (
frui t , s e e ds would b e a s s i gned m a n d e n g e . Th i s i s a p art i cularly
int ere s t in g c as e , s in c e d i ( , alth ough usually a s s i gned l y i n g ( , c an
also be used with m a n d e n ge . Th i s p art i c u l ar c as e , d i ( , i s further
discussed in 2 . 2 . 5 .
I n t h e doma in o f anima t e s , node 2 5 make s an arb it rary d e c i s i o n b e ­
tween k a t e n g e and p e t e n g e : b ot h are equally frequent , and a reversal
o f the feature s ( i . e . to c hange t he node to [ - l arge , -powe r ful ,
-harmful ] or t o [ + sma l l . . . ] ) c ould b e made .
52

2.2.4 Loan I tems

The c orre c t as s i gnment o f loan i t ems t o part i c u l ar c la s s e s i n any

c l a s s s y s t em can b e a c c ount e d for such that the as s ignment is b a s e d
o n t h e s imilarity o f the loan i t em t o other ( a lready c l as s e d ) i t ems
12
o f the s y s t em . The featur e s f o c u s e d upon in the a s s ignment are
c l e arly t h o s e c h o s e n by the c u l t ure , i . e . , t h o s e r e garded b y t h e
c u l t ure a s t rad i t i onally import ant . Wild raspberr i e s grow t hroughout
Enga- land and are re garded as c h i ldren ' s food ; t he introdu c t ion of
b l ac kb erry bushes and their e quat i o n with w i l d raspb err i e s r e s u l t s in
the c la s s i fi c at i on o f the b l ackberr i e s as c h i ldren ' s food .
Tab le 2 . 2 pre s en t s s ome of t h e l oan items .

13
TA B L E 2 . 2 : LOAN I TEMS

An imat e s : Gloss EV
b u l umakao cow katenge
pus ( i cat pe t e n ge
P l an t s :
samuu potato p a l e n ge
kat6sa carr o t s pal enge
kap us a cabbage s ( n g i /pe t e n ge
l e tesa l e t t u ce s (n g i /pe tenge
pa i n a p6 1 6 p i n e app l e s r n g i / k a t e n ge
ka l (pu p e an u t s k a t e n ge
kanapu corn k a t e n ge
b (n i b e an 1yin9(
Ar t i fac t s :
rnj a hinge k a t e n ge
1 6ko lock k a t e n ge
d6a do o r s ,l n g i
ko 1 6d c l o th e s s ,l n g i
b a ke s a buck e t s ,l n g i
g u m ,l .I rubber 5 rn9 i
,
l es a raz or 5 I n9 i

( all other introduced artifacts also take 5 (n g i )

Re ferring t o D iagram 2 . 1 , mo s t of the loan i t ems ' a s s i gnment i s

det ermined c orre c t l y b y the rules given t here . The c ow , [ + large . . . ]
i s a s s i gned k a t e n ge , the cat [ + s ma l l . . . ] i s a s s i gned p e t e n g e . The
 53

p lant s a l s o , w i t h the s ub t erranean one s b e ing a s s i gned p a \ e n g e , t h e

t a l l uprigh t one s b e i n g a s s i gned k a t e n g e , a n d the round/s pher i c a l
one s a s s i gned s f n g i . In t h e c a s e of the b ea n , the f o c u s is on the
d i f ( i . e . , pod , the edib l e p ort ion ) and \ y i n g f i s a s s i gned . The c a s e s
of l e t t uc e and p ineap p l e are d i s c u s s e d in 2 . 2 . 5 a s int e r s e c t ing i t ems .
E x c e p t for the h inge and l o c k , a l l t h e art i fa c t s are a s s i gned s f n g i .
It s e ems l ik e l y that t h e h inge and l o c k are re garded a s p art s of the
hous e , and this feature c au s e s t hem to be a s s igned k a t e n g e ( rather
t han s f n g i ) . Mos t of t he introduced loan items o c c ur i n the s emant i c
domain o f art i fa c t s .
Thus , a s we p o s t ul a t ed ab ove , t h e a s s i gnment o f l oan it ems t o t h e
c orre c t E V c l a s s e s i s b a s e d up on Enga-adj udged s imi l a r i t y o f feature s
of t h e l o an i t em in re lat ion t o i t ems already p r e s ent in t he Enga EV
c l a s s s y s t em .

2.2.5 I ntersecti on

I nt e r s e c t ion i s a feature o f c la s s i fi c at ion s y s t ems in general

( c f . 0 . 2 . 3 . 2 ) ; in the ent ire c orpus o f approxima t e l y 3 , 0 0 0 Enga noun s ,
fewer than one per c e nt are involved in c a s e s of EV inter s e c t ion . Two
p oint s must b e n o t e d :

i. The opt i o n s invo lved in int e r s e c t ion are not in free

vari at ion : in German , B u t t e r may use d i e in north
Germany , and d e r in the s outh , but d a s is exc luded .
ii . As Landar s ay s about Navaho gender , " ru l e s are broken
a c c ording to rule s for b reaking rule s " ( 19 6 5 : 3 2 9 ) .

In t h e c a s e s pre s e nt e d here involving EV int ers e c t i on , we w i l l s e e

t h a t t h e apparent inters e c t ion o f EVs i s u s u a l ly e x p lained in t e rms
o f fo c u s on di f ferent EV feature s o f i t ems wh i c h are in s ome way
amb i guou s . Tab l e 2 . 3 pre s ent s the p o s s ib i l it y o f t went y - s i x inter­
s e c t i ons in t he EV ( s i n c e there are s e ven EV ) ; o f t he s e p o s s ib i l i t ie s ,
only s even ( t he capit a l i z e d and underl ined one s ) a c t ua l l y o c c ur .
54

TAB L E 2 . 3 : I NTERSECT I ON I N THE EV

,
katenge petenge s fngi pa l enge l y i ng( mandenge epenge

katenge k k/pt S/K k/p l k/ l y K/MD k/e

petenge pt PT/S pt/pl p t/ l y pt /md pt/e

,
s l ng i s S/PL s/ly s /md S/E

p a l enge pI pl/ly p l /md p I le

l y i ng f ly LY/MD LYlE

mandenge md md/e

epenge e

The a c t u a l data wh i c h o c c ur in EV i nt e r s e c t ions are presented i n

Tab l e 2 . 4 b e l ow .

TAB L E 2 . 4 : I NT E RS EC T I ON - DATA

k/s a l y6ngo bean, pai nap6 1 6 pineappZe

k/md pong6 penis, kambake vagina
+ I , " ,
pt/s kapusa cabbage, nombe snai Z, yaka bana water birds, l e tesa Zettuce
s/pl i mu worm, arne fat
s /e endak ( river
l y/md d i r seed, fruit, /Zower
l yle kama l umb i moss

Of the seven o c c urring t wo-way interse c t ions ( w i t h thus a p o s s ib l e

fourteen o c c urrenc e s for any one EV ) , t h e mo s t fre quen t l y u s e d EV in
the i n t er s e c t ion is s f n g i , i nd i c at ing that s ( n g i is most l ik e ly the
m o s t neut er or s emant i ca l l y unmarked o f the seven EV . The other o c ­
c urr e n c e s a r e w i t h two e ac h , k a t e n g e , m a n d e n g e , l y i n g f and e p e n g e ;
wi th only one o c c urren c e , p a l e n g e and p e t e n g e . A l s o n o t ab l e i s that
t h o s e w i t h only one inter s e c t ion ( p a l e n g e and p e t e n g e ) int e r s e c t w i t h
the s emant i c a l l y m o s t neutra l , s f n g i . Thu s it would a l s o b e e xp e c t e d
t h a t p a l e n g e and p e t e n g e would b e t h e mo s t marked ( i . e . , in c omp ar i s on
with s f n 9 i ) .
F o l l owing i s a b r i e f d i s c u s s ion of the a c t ua l dat a i t ems involved
i n the i nt e r s e c t ions o f EV , with s ome thought s a s to what features
permit the inters e c t i o n s . K a m a l u mb i m O B S would b e a d i f f i c u l t i t em
 55

i n any c a s e , s in c e i t i s a l s o the o n l y examp l e o f a three-way inter­

sect ion : a few i nformant s s t a t ed that k a m a l u mb i c ould also be u s e d
. 14
w i t h k a t e n g e,
( i . e . , a s w e l l a s e p e n g e, and I Y l n g l ) .
'
C omparing t h e
fe ature s o f D iagram 2 . 1 , i t i s p o s s ib l e t h a t t h i s int e rs e c t ion c a n b e
e x p l ained i n t erms of focus on d i f ferent feature s o f t h e mo s s : in
the s e n s e t h a t i t i s a n e xc re s c e n c e on t h e tre e s , i t i s a s s i gned
l y i n g f ; i n the s en s e t hat i t has t endri l s and is entwined ( l ike a
v i ne ) , it i s a s s igned e p e n g e .
The i n t e r s e c t i on o f l y i n g ( and m a n d e n g e w i t h r e s p e c t t o d i ( a l lows
t h e a s s i gnment o f an add i t i onal feature to these two EV . In t h e c a s e
o f a l l p ar t s o f a who l e , m a n d e n g e c an b e u s ed for animat e s and p lant s
( as i n t h i s c a s e , d i ( ) , but l y i n g ( c annot b e u s e d for an imat e s . Thus
giving to l y i n g f the feature o f [ -animate ] .
In the c a s e o f e n d � k ( ri ve r , a c lue t o t h e i n t e rs e c t i on o f the two
EV ( s f n g i and e p e n g e ) o c curs at node s 3 and 4 o f 2 . 1 . There i t is
evident t hat flowing water , l iquid s , et c . are a s s i gned t o e p e n g e ,
w i t h s t i l l water ( l akes , pond s , pudd l e s , e t c . ) a s s i gned t o s ( n g i . In
t h e c a s e o f t h i s inters e c t ion , i t w o u l d t he r e fore b e p o s t u l a t e d t h a t
d i fferent s t a t e s o f t he w a t e r are re ferred t o b y the two d i fferent
15
EV .
I m u w o rm , and a me fa t a s i n t er s e c t ing with the EV s ( n g i and p a l e n g e
were explai ned b y an i nformant : when the re ferent i s int ernal ( and
no t v i s i b l e ) , the EV a s s i gned is p a l e n g e ; when the re ferent is ex­
t erna l ( a s t he worm uncovered i n c ompo s t ing , or the exposed fat at a
p i g fe a s t ) , t h e EV a s s i gned i s s ( n g i . S ( n g i i s o f c ou r s e a l s o the EV
for craw l i n g animat e s , wh i c h t he ext erna lly e xp o s e d worm would b e .
The inter s e c t i on o f p e t e n ge and s ( n g i i s of e s p e c i a l i n t e re s t ,
s i n c e i t i s t h e only c a s e o f p e t e n g e as the EV for a p l ant : kapusa
cabbage and l e t e s a Z e t t uce . The other t wo c as e s are qu i c k l y e x ­
p l ained : t h e water fow l s a r e [ +aquat i c ] a n d thus s ( n g i , but when
seen f l y ing , roo s t in g , e t c . , may p o s s ib l y b e j udged with all other
b irds , a s p e t e n g e . The s na i l i s a b order- l ine animat e , i n that per­
c e ived as c rawl ing i t would b e a s s igned s ( n g i , but p e r c e ived a s a
sma l l i n s e c t , e t c . , would give the a s s i gnment p e t e n g e . The c abb age
is o f i n t e r e s t , s i n c e a c on f l i c t must b e perce ived by the Enga : if
t h e c ab b age i s low , round , mainly s quat , i t should b e a s s i gned ( as
general l y it i s ) t o the p e t e n g e c la s s - - y e t p e t e n g e i s not u s e d for
any other p lant s . The c on f l i c t i s r e s o lved i n s t e ad by a s s igning i t
t o t h e s ( n g i c la s s ( i . e . the s emant i c a l ly mo s t n e u t e r o f the c la s s e s )
wh i ch i s a l s o the c la s s o f nat ive gre en l eafy c u l t igens .
56

The r e a s on for t h e i nt e r s e c t i on of m a n d e n g e and k a t e n g e , wh i c h o c ­

c u r s w i t h t w o it ems , p o n g 6 p e n i s and k a m b a k e vagina , i s d i f f i c u l t t o
det ermine . M a n d e n g e oc curs only a s a n EV w i t h reprodu c t ive part s
( s e e d s , sprout s , fruit s t ems , e t c . ) , wh i l e k a t e n g e i s u s e d for mo s t
e x t ernal b ody and p lant part s ( appendage s , l e ave s , et c . ) . The inter­
s e c t i on m i ght p o s s ib l y b e e x p l ained i f we c on s ider that the i t ems are
viewed f i r s t reproduc t ive l y , and t he n as ordinary e x t ernal b ody par t s
( i . e . , and thus a s s i gned k a t e n g e ) .
The f i n a l c as e o f i n t e r s e c t i o n b e tween k a t e n g e and s f n g i i s for
p ineapp l e . For t h i s we c an see that the i n i t i a l a s s ignment i s w i t h
l e afy c u l t igens a s s f n g i , and t h e int e r s e c t ion l a t e r w i t h t h e grown
p lant ( i f viewed as t a l l , uprigh t , e t c . ) a s s i gned k a t e n g e .
Thus i t may b e s e e n that in a l l c a s e s , i n t e r s e c t i o n of EV i s a t ­
t r i b u t ab l e t o focus on d i fferent E V feature s , e s p e c i a l l y w h e n t h e s e
refle c t a d i f ferent e x i s t en t i a l s t a t e ( a s s t i l l versus f l owing water ,
subt erranean and t erranean worms , e t c . ) . However , t h i s focus ing on a
var i e t y of d i fferent feature s t ake s p l a c e in only one per c ent o f a l l
nouns , und e r l i n i n g t h e overwhe lming regularity o f t h e rema ining 9 9
per c e nt .

2.2.6 Change of Cl asses

Any s y s t em o f noun c la s s i f i c at i on mus t b e prepared t o d e l imit t h e

c ond i t i on s under wh i c h the nouns may change c l a s s e s ( c f . 0.2.3. 3) .
16
In Enga , where t he b as i c features are p o s t ure and over - a l l shap e ,
i t would b e e xp e c t e d that a re ferent wh i ch c h anges p o s t ure o r s hap e
would t here fore change i t s c la s s and r e q u i re a d i fferent ( surfac e ) EV .
Furthermore , s ince the ( surfac e ) EV marks the h ab i tual s t a t e of e x i s t ­
e n c e f o r t h e re feren t , a d i fferent EV c ould b e e xp e c t e d t o s ignal a
b as i c change of e x i s t en c e , or p o s s i b l y an a l t e red s t a t e o f e x i s t en c e
for that re ferent . Th i s c an be s e e n from the f o l l owing e xamp l e :
The EV a s s i gned t o ( t a tree i s k a t e n g e , b as ed on the tree s ' fea­
t ur e s o f b e ing t a l l , upright , l arge , e t c . ( 29 ) . When t h e tree i s
fe l le d , the referent f t a i s r e a l i z e d w i t h the EV s f n g i ( 3 0 ) , and when
t h e fe l led tree i s further chopped i n t o l o gs and p i led i n a wood p i l e ,
t h e re ferent i s r e a l i z e d w i t h the EV p a l e n g e ( 31 ) .

29 . fta d � p a k a t e - n ge .
tree t h e BE-HAB
Tre e s e x i s t .

30 . f t a ( pok a - p ae ) s f - n g e .
tree c u t - STA BE-HAB
Fe l l e d w o o d/tre e s e x i s t .
 57

31. Ita ( t a m6 - p a e ) p a l e - n g e .
t r e e ro t t e n - STA BE-HAB
Ro t te n wood e xi s t s .

In each c a s e the s t at ive form ( in parenthe s e s ) s i gna l s that a d i f­

ferent re ferent f t a i s invo l ve d , and t h u s that a d i fferent EV i s re­
17
quire d . F o l l owing are non-permi t t e d e x amp l e s :

30a . * l t a poka - p a e k a t e - n ge .
tree cut - STA BE-HAB
Fe l l e d w o o d/tre e s e xi s t .

3la . * l t a t o k a - p a e k a t e - n ge .
t r e e chop - STA BE-HAB
Chop p e d w o o d e xi s t s .

I f the s t at ive form i s opt i on a l l y d e l e t e d , it i s rec overab le from the

EV p r e s ent i n the surfa c e s tructure :

32 . r t a' pa 1 e - n ge . 18
'

tree BE-HAB
Fe l l e d w o o d/t re e s e x i s t .

I n ( 3 0 ) the re ferent c an only b e f e l l e d t r e e s or wood ( f t a p o k a p a e ) ,

not chopped wood or a l iv i ng t r e e :

3 2 a . * l t a p o k a - p a e k a t e - n g e / s i - n g i / et c .
t r e e cut - STA BE-HAB /BE-HAB

Howeve r , if the EV is d e l e t ed , and no s t a t ive form is p r e s ent , the EV

wh i c h would b e r e c overab l e would only b e t hat for t h e gene r i c f t a

33 . fta k a t e - n ge .
tree BE-HAB
Tre e s e xi s t .

and not that for a fel led t r e e o r c hopped wood . ( 3 4 ) i s a further

e xamp l e for humans and c h ange o f e x i s t e n t i a l s t a t e , with a male ref­
erent

34 . Baa an j a kate-nge-pe7
he w h e re BE-HAB- QU
Where is he ?

In the s e quenc e ( 3 5 - 3 6 ) , ( 3 6 ) mus t s how the c hange of s t at e annou n c e d

in ( 3 5 )

35 . Mu 1 i taka yuu d o k 6 - n y a a k a 1 i me n d e kum-e - a .

Mu l i t a ka l a n d t h e - LOC man a di e - FP - 3 S G
A m a n has di e d a t Mu l i t a k a .
58

36 . Baa an j a s r �n g i � p i 7
he where BE-HAB-QU
Where is he ? (i . e . , the body )

The change of e x i s t ent ial s t a t e ( from l iv i n g t o dead ) i s c learly

r e f l e c t e d in t h e EV a s s i gnment and the c hange of c l a s s o f t h e noun ' s
re ferent . That i t i s the e x i s t e n t i a l s t a t e ( and not a mat t e r o f s i z e ,
e t c . ) i s exemp l i f i e d by ( 3 7 ) and ( 3 8 )

muu d u p a k a t e � n ge .
t r e e s h ort t h e BE-HAB
Short tre e s exi s t .

38 . Saa
p o s s um Z arge the BE-HAB
L a rge p o s s ums exi s t .

Thus indivi dual vari ab i l i t i e s , s uc h a s t a l l ne s s , l argene s s , s t up i di t y ,

e t c . , do not a ffe c t the EV a s s i gnment of the s e individua l s , who are
a s s i gned to the gene r i c EV ( a s c u l t urally re garded b y the Enga : i.e. ,
s a a game mamma Z s are b a s i c al l y s ma l l , but l arge individual s a a may
e x i s t s t i l l u s i ng the EV of the gene r i c ( smal l ) s a a ) . On t h e other
hand , change o f e x i s tent i a l s t at e s , s u c h a s l i v i n g , dy ing , b e in g
fe l le d , rot t i n g , e t c . , do a f f e c t the E V as s i gnment o f individual s ,
c aus ing the re ferent affe c t e d or e x p e r i e n c i n g the change t o change
i t s EV c l as s .
In a s y s tem l ike Enga , where the fe ature s are b a s e d on e x i s t enc e ,
i t would , of cour s e , be e xpe c t e d that a change of e x i s t e n c e would b e
s i gn a l l e d b y a c hange o f c las s ; i n muc h the s ame way a s Engl i s h pro­
nominal r e ference , b as e d on a natural gender s y s t em , c an use a
' ge ld i n g ' rule t o p re d i c t the a s s i gnment o f i t rather t han he t o a
s t eer .

2.3 C O N C L US I O N

T h e E n g a E V has b e e n de s cribed a b o v e ( 2 . 0 t o 2 . 2 ) ; we w i l l n o w at­

t empt to a c c ount for i t within the generat ive t rans format i onal frame ­
work . F i r s t ly , we w i l l b r i e fly d i s cu s s the trans forma t i ona l
introd uc t i on of BE ( the EV ) . The fac t that the EV i s unique ly re­
c overab le from its c o-oc curr ing noun ( c f . 2 . 1 , 2 . 2 , and e xamp l e s 2 9
t o 3 3 ) , a n d i s often omi t t e d in t h e s urface s t ru c t ure ( 2 . 2 . 1 above )
leads us t o a s s ume that the EV i s d e t e rmined b y the feature s o f the
noun . The feature s ( 2 . 2 . 2 ) and t h e rules a s s i gn i n g t h e EV t o nouns
( 2 . 2 . 3 ) have been d i s c u s s e d ab ove . F o l l owing Bach ( 1 9 6 7 ) we have a s ­
sumed t h a t the E V i s introduced trans format iona l l y , s i n c e t h i s
 59

a c c ount s w i t h more e l e gant s imp l i c it y for t h e fac t s ( t han p o s t ulat ing

the e x i s t en c e o f BE in the deep s t ruc t ure , and its sub s e quent d e l e t i o n
19
a s ne c e s s ary ) .
A non-nat ive sp eaker who d o e s n o t know the feat ure s wh i c h a s s ign EV
t o the noun c la s s e s c annot s uc c e s s fu l l y r e c over the d e l e t e d EV from
the surface s truc t ure . A fairly c ommon m i s t ake among Enga l e arners i s
the i n c orre c t a s s i gnment o f a d e l e t e d EV i n a s en t e n c e ( wh i c h o f
c ou r s e r e s u l t s in a n ungrammat i c a l s en t e n c e , and a c orre c t ion b y the
20
Enga s p e akers ) . A s s uming ( as we h ave ) , t hat the feat ure s of the
noun d e t e rmine wh i c h p art i cu l ar one o f the s even EV i s to c o-oc c ur
w i t h a given noun a l l ow s us t o ac c ount for c a s e s of inters e c t ion
( i . e . , overlapping of feature s ) , change of c l a s s ( i . e . , b y s ub s t i t u­
t io n o f f e ature s ) , and a s s i gnment o f loan i t ems t o the appropriate EV
c lass . The que s t ion then remain s , b y what me chan i sm ( s ) do the noun
feature s a l l ow for the int rodu c t ion of the EV?
We prop o s e that the EV is opt ionally i n t r oduc e d b y the noun ' s fea­
t ure s , u s ing a c onve nt ion o f ' fe at ure spreading ' . Feature s preading
has been propos e d b y G iv6n ( 1 9 6 9 , 1 9 7 0 ) , Mould ( 1 9 7 1 ) and Voe l t z ( 1 9 7 1
( 1 9 7 1 ) t o a c c ount for gender c on f l i c t r e s olut ion i n Bant u , Luganda ,
and Xho s a . Feature s preading in Enga would operate as f o l l ow s .
When the EV i s ne c e s s ary in the surface s t r u c t ure , it would b e trans-
21
format i ona l l y introduced at a d ummy V node . The featur e s o f the
noun det ermine which o f the seven EV wi l l appear in the s ur fac e ( in
d i agrams t o f o l l ow , t he s e fe a t ure s w i l l b e abbr e v i a t e d t o the f i r s t
l e t t er o f the c o - o c curring EV ) , a n d the feature s p reading r u l e d up l i ­
c a t e s t h e featur e s on t h e domi nat ing NP node . A rule o f grammat i c a l
agreement t h e n c op i e s the f e atures o f the dominat ing N P node o n t o t h e
p r e d i c ate node . Thu s we wou l d have

39 . Sa� d upa pete-ng� .

p o s s ums the BE-HAB
Po s s ums exi s t .

The feature s pread i ng surface r e a l i zat ion o f p e t e n g � i s a c c omp l i shed

22
in ( 3 9 a and b ) :

39 a . 3 9b . s
�V P
NP �I P

N
�D T V
I N
.A + PT J "",
DET V
J?

saa
I I
d upa �
I I
saa d uI p a �
I
[ + PT ] [ +PT ]
p o s s um the p o s s um the
60

I n ( 3 9 a ) w e have a c onvent i on ' feature s p read ing ' whi c h c o p i e s t h e EV

feature s t o t he dominat ing NP ( 3 9b ) . In ( 3 9 c ) an agreement r u l e
c op i e s the E V feat ure o f the dominating N P i n t o the p r e d i c a t ion , where
the l e x i c on p ermit s insert ion of the appropriate EV , in t he c a s e of
( 39 ) , p e t e n ge .

� �
39c . 39d .

P N P

�
[ +PT ] [ +PT ] [ + PT ]

N DET V
I � T J
sL I
dupa 1 I
saa
I
d uI p a p e t e n g e
[ +PT ] [ + PT ]
p o s s um the p o s s um the BE

I n Enga , a s i n Engl i s h , we may have s e n t en c e s l ike ( 4 0 - 4 2 )

40. Me n a d u p a k a t e - n g e .
pig the BE-HAB
Pi g s exi s t .

41 . Saa d u p a p e t e - n ge .
p o s s ums t h e BE-HAB
P o s sums e x i s t .

42 . Kanop a t o d u p a s i - n 9 i .
snakes the BE-HAB
Sna k e s exi s t .

In Engl i s h such sentenc e s may b e c onj o ined t o y i e ld ( 4 3 ) :

43. Pi g s , p o s s ums and snake s exi s t .

However , s i n c e in Enga the EV would b e manife s t e d in the thre e d i f fer­

e n t surface forms o f ( 4 0 - 4 2 ) , no surfa c e equivalent to Eng l i s h ( 4 3 )
23
exi s t s . ( 4 4 a-c ) wou ld b e ungrammat i c a l .

( a ) * k a t e - n ge .
44 . Me n a - p i saa-p i kanopa to-p i dupa (b ) *pe t e - n ge .
p i g - CONJ p o s s um- CONJ snake - CONJ the ( c ) *s i -n g i .
BE-HAB

Nor is a s en t e n c e l ike ( 4 5 ) p o s s ib l e .

45. * Me n a - p i saa- p i k a n o p a t o - p i d u p a k a t e - n ge - p i p e t e -n ge - p i
p i g - CONJ p o s s um- CONJ snake - CONJ the BE-HAB-CONJ BE-HAB-CONJ
s i -ngi -p i .
BE-HAB-CONJ
 61

I n s t e ad Enga at t ac h e s the c onj u n c t ive s u ff i x - p i t o t h e verb o f e a c h

o f ( 4 0 - 4 2 ) , thus prod�c ing ( 4 6 ) .
,
46 . Me n a d � p a k a t e - n g e - p ( s aa d � pa pete -n ge - p ( kanop a t o d � pa
pig the BE-HAB- CONJ p o s s um t h e BE-HAB-CONJ snake the
. . . 24
s l -n g l -p l .
BE-HAB-CONJ
Pigs , p o s s um s and snake s e xi s t .

I n c on c lu s ion , we have a c c ou n t e d for the a s s i gnment o f the c orre c t

c o - o c c urring EV t o i t s noun s , b a s e d o n the introdu c t ion o f a dummy V
node , t o wh i c h the noun s pread s the feat ure b undle , and a rule wh i c h
transfers the noun ' s feat ure comp l e x into the s urfac e E V p o s i t ion ,
where it wou l d be r e a l i z e d phon o l o g i c a l l y a s the approp r i a t e EV . In
the EV t h i s pro c e s s i s opt ional ; a s we w i l l s e e l a t e r ( 4 . 3 ) , feature
25
spreading is ob l i gat ory in the pre d i c at i ons .
 N O T E S

1. The phrase ' oc cur e x i s t en t i al l y ' i s i l l u s trated s y n t ac t i c a l l y in

the f o l l ow ing examp l e s ( 1 0 - 1 5 ) , and s emant i c a l l y in ( 1 6 - 2 6 ) .

2. The t erms ' gende r ' and ' noun c la s s ' b ot h refer t o the s ame phe­
nomena , i . e . " c la s s e s o f nouns which are r e f l e c t e d in the behaviour
o f a s s o c ia t e d word s " ( Ho c ke t t 1 9 5 8 : 2 3 1 ) . S i n c e in Indo-European the
' natural ' c onnotat ion of ' s e x ' i s t he only c r i t e r i on det ermining a
gender s y s t em , s ome have pre ferred t o u s e ' noun c l a s s e s ' ( Di x on 1 9 6 8 :
105 ) , ( Cap e l l 1 9 6 9 ) , e t a l . The Americ ans have t aken the other view ,
and inc lude any and a l l r e l evant f e at ur e s in their ' gender ' s y s t ems :
" s e x , anima t e ne s s , s i z e , shap e , degree of ab s t rac t ion , and the l i k e . . . "
( Ho c k e t t 1 9 5 8 : 2 3 1 ) .

3. The s t at ive form i s c omp o s e d o f the verb b a s e p lu s the c omp l e ­

t ive s u f fi x , p lu s t h e s t at ive marker ; t h u s the ' fu l l ' form f o r ( 8 )
would b e p i t f - p a - e . The s t at ive form i s o f intere s t ma i n l y b e c au s e
c e r t a i n noun c la s s e s oc cur only with a c o-oc curring s t at ive form o f a
pred i c at ion : c f . 1 . 2 . 1 , the c o l our words . There are two e x c ept i on s ,
i . e . , nouns which may c o- o c cur w i t h t h e ir EV in the s t at ive form :

a. Aka ! i k a t a -pae . . .
man b e -STA

b. En d a p i t f - pae . . .
woman BE-STA

Both o f the s e have the meaning of a p e r s on who remains in the c l an

t e rr i t ory : a man who d o e s not live w i t h h i s mother ' s or w i fe ' s r e l a­
t ive s , and a woman who d o e s not marry . I have only t h e s e two from my
data and am not e n t i r e l y s ure i f
?*Saa p i t f - pae . . .
c.
p o s s um BE-STA

62
 63

wou ld b e a c c e p t ab l e . In the c a s e o f a tree kangaroo kept as a p e t

( i . e . and c onfined t o a p art i c u l ar tre e ) , i t migh t we l l b e p o s s ib le .

4. ( 1 1 and ( 1 3 ) are , o f c ours e , non- c l a s s i f i c at ory verb s . See 0 . 1 .

O c curring para l l e l t o the EV i n Enga are c orre sponding non­
c l a s s i fi c at ory verb s :

d. Ba� k a t e - l y - � - mo .
he/s he/i t 8 t and- PRES - 3 SG-DEC
He /s h e / i t i8 s tanding .

e. Ba� p i - l y - � - mo .
he/s h e /i t 8 i t - PRES - 3 SG-DEC
He/8 he/i t is s i t t ing .

f. Ba� s i - l y - � - mo .
h e / 8 h e / i t L a y - PRES- 3SG-DEC
He/8 h e / i t i8 L a y i ng .

g. Ba � p a l e - l y - � - mo .
h e /s he/i t Lay . i n 8i de
He / s h e /i t i 8 L a y i n g i n s ide .

h. Ba� l y i - l y - � - mo .
h e / s h e / i t hang - P RE S - 3 SG-DEC
He/s he/i t is hangi ng .

1. Ba� m a n d e - l y - � - mo .
h e /s h e /i t carry - PRE S - 3S G-DEC
He/8 h e / i t i8 carry i n g ( i t ) .

j . Ba� e p e - l y - � - mo .
he/s h e /i t aome - P RES- 3 SG-DEC
He/s he/i t i8 coming .

However , i t must be s t r e s s e d that the EV have only the s ingle me aning

b e , with s even d i fferent s urface man i fe s t at i on s ; the deep s t ru c t ure
is the s ame . Th i s c orre sponds to t he pro-verb s of the pre d i c at i o n s ,
s e e Not e s 1 3 and 1 4 o f that chap t e r .

5. " K aram s e ems t o b e the s ame i n that the e x i s t en c e o f a t h i ng i s

i nd i c at e d b y u s e o f the verb m d - t o e xi s t , wh i l e e quat i o n s o r a s s e r ­
t i on s o f ident i t y (i8 a ) a r e made wi� h o u � a verb , e . g .

k. kaj ok
pig that
That i 8 a p i g .
64

vs .

1. kaj mdp
p i g i t . exi s t s
P i g s exi s t ; the re are p i g s ; p i gs are t h e re .

( A . P aw l ey , p e r s onal c ommun i cat i on . )

6. C f . H e t zron ( 1 9 7 0 ) f or add i t i onal i nformat i on .

7. A l s o i n c onne c t i on w i t h Lyons ' idea that e x i s t ent i a l s and p o s s e s ­

s iv e s may derive from inde f i n i t e l o c at ive s , c on s ider t h e E V o f l o c a­
t i on , s a - , from wh i c h der ive s m o s t l ik e l y the l o c at ive c a s e o f Enga :
e e - s a garden - LO C , t e n g e - s a n e a r - LO C , e t c . N o t e a l s o the p o s s ib l e
format i on o f the p o s s e s s ive ( - n y a ) from the non- c l a s s i f i c at ory verb
n y a - get, take .

8. S i n c e the s e two ( a e n g e and d a e n g e ) o c cur in the Laiapo d i a l e c t

o f Enga , i t was n o t p o s s ib le t o d o s ub st an t i a l work o n t he m wh i l e
l iving among t h e Kop e t e s a Enga . Nonethe l e s s , i t s e ems that t h e s e are
u s e d o n l y w i t h inanimate s ub j e c t s ; add i t i onal work is needed .

9. See Append i x C for add i t i onal data on the Enga EV . The ent ire
c orpus ( approxima t e l y 3 , 0 0 0 noun s ) is not pre s e n t e d , but i n s t e ad only
the gene r i c i t ems .

10 . Men ar e a s s igned k a t e n g e b e cause they are " a c t ive , u s u a l l y s t and­

ing , f i ght ing or chopping t re e s " ( in formant Frank I k i ' s s t at ement ) .

11 . Women are a s s i gned p e t e n g e b e c au s e they " l ike t o s i t , and are

u s u a l ly s i t t ing minding the chi l dren and i nfant s , c ooking , or p lant ­
i n g in the garden" ( in formant Frank I ki ) .

12 . The me ans whereby s imilarity and d i ffere nce b etween l oan i t ems
and native items are adj udged c on s t it u t e s the maj or prob lem here ;
i . e . , whi ch of a l l p o s s i b le featur e s are c h o s e n ? C f . Lyon s ' s t a t e ­
men t o n s eman t i c feature s , 0 . 2 . 1 ab ove .

13 . S i n c e a l l of the dat a p r e s e n t e d are l oan i t ems , the " + " markers

are omi t t ed in the Tab le .

14 . I am doub t fu l of i nforman t s ' s t atemen t s t hat k a t e n g e c an b e u s e d

w i t h mos s ; I s u s p e c t that t h e i n formant s wh o s o a s s i gned i t were
referring not t o the e x i s t en t i a l s t a t e of mos s , b ut i t s fun c t i o n as a
wi g adornment .

15 . A . Pawley ment i ons ( p e r s onal c ommuni ca t i o n ) that the EV are

" s omet ime s s emant i c al l y c ontra s t i ve , c ontrib u t i ng in format i o n about
the form or appe aran c e o f the s ub j e c t noun" . It mu s t b e p o i n t e d out
that this i s only true o f the s ur fac e , a s in the deep s t ruc t ure two
d i fferent c oncept s / s t a t e s e x i s t .

16 . P o s t ure and shap e are the mo s t general features f i l t e red from

the informal in formant s ' s ta t ement s , but do not appe ar overt ly in
Chart 2 . 1 .

17 . One prob lem whi c h m i gh t b e involve d here for the l e x i c o graphe r

i s t h a t o f homonymy v e r s u s p o l y s emy . I have o p t ed for homonymy .
Dr . C . L . Voorhoeve c omment s that a l l the ( t a i n e xamp l e s ( 3 0 - 3 1 ) are ,
in s ome s e ns e , wood i n a part i c u l ar s t a t e of e x i s t e nc e , whi c h i s
unique ly d e t e rminab l e from the EV i n the surface s truc t ure , and that
there i s thus no need t o p o s i t homonymy .

18 . R . Lang has po inted out t hat the c ruc i a l c a s e i s

m. * fta t o k a - p a e d u p a ,I s a p a l e - n ge .
t r e e ohop - STA the down BE-HAB
Chopped w o o d e xi 8 t 8 .

19 . S i n c e the EV i s not pres ent i n the surfa c e s truc t ure i n the ma­
j or i t y of c as e s , the transformat i onal int rodu c t ion is more e c onomi c al ;
t h e o t h e r p o s s ib i l i t y would b e t o p o s t ulate t h e p re s en c e o f B E i n t h e
d e e p s t ru c t ur e f or every [ + c o n c re t e ] noun w i t h ob l i gat ory d e l e t i o n i n
mo s t environment s .

20 . Luz b e t a k , for Midd l e Wahg i , has s t a t ed :

A non-native speaker often finds it diffi cult to decide whether he

should in a given case s ay mem , tern or pam. All three verbs mean
more or less the same , 80. , he, 8he, it i8 . However , the three
words may not be used indiscriminately ( Luzbetak 1954 : 159 ) .

21. We w i l l not go int o the c ond i t i o n s under wh i c h the trans forma­

t i onal introdu c t i on of the c op u l a would o c c ur here .

22 . In the e x amp l e s t o f o l l ow , the root i s int roduc e d w i t h the hab i t ­

u a l i n order t o s imp l i fy t h e d iagrams , s o that t he rul e s t o b e
66

i l l u s t r a t e d w i l l n o t b e ob s c ured b y comp l i c at i ons unne c e s s ary t o t h e i r

i l lus trat ion .

23. In Lang ( 1 9 7 1 ) , sent enc e s l ik e ( 4 4 a-c ) were b e l i eved t o b e gram­

mat i c a l . Addi t ional informant work has shown t h i s t o b e an erroneous
b e l ie f . From work with informant s , it seems that Enga i s s im i l ar in
this re spe c t t o German and t h o s e language s in whi ch gender c on f l i c t is
not re s o lved b y short c u t s a s in t he African language s ( s e e Givon and
Voelt z ) , but where i n s t ead each gender has to appear in the s urface
s t ruc t ure , i . e . in German we mus t say

g. L i e b e F r a u J o c h i m s , 1 1 e b e r He r r J o c h i m s

marking the d i f ferent gender s ; ( f ) and ( g ) are b ot h ungrammat i c a l

h. * L i e b e F r a u u n d He r r J o c h i m s

i. * L i e b e r F r a u u n d He r r J oc h i ms .

24 . Sent enc e s l ike ( 4 6 ) are , however , more l ike p o s s ib l e rather than

a c t ual ly o c c urring s e nt e nc e s , unl e s s the Enga f ind thems e l v e s in c on­
ver s a t i on with an ethnographe r-l ingu i s t s p e c i fi c a l ly intere s t e d in
exis tence .

25 . I very much appre c i at e d the c omment s and d i s c u s s ion from

Profe s s or George Gra c e ' s reading of a much earlier draft of t h i s
chap t e r ; they have sub s t an t i a l l y contributed t o t h e p r e s ent vers ion .
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 T H E AN I M AT E N O UN S

The maj or f o c u s o f t he p r e s e n t s t udy i s upon the Enga c la s s i fi c a­

tory verb s and t he featur e s of the c o - o c c urring nouns whi ch de t ermine
the surfa c e repre s e nt a t i on of the verb s . In the p r e c e ding c hap ter on
the EV we have de s cr ib e d s ome of the feat ure s of the re ferent s whi c h
det ermine t h e E V a s s i gnment . S i n c e the EV c o- o c c ur with c o n c r e t e
1
noun s , the p re s ent chap t e r w i l l d e s c r i b e the s eman t i c featur e s o f
2
one s Ub - s e t o f Enga nouns , the animat e s . The d e s c r i p t ion o f t h e
s emant i c featur e s o f t h e animate nouns a l s o a l l ow s u s t o c ompare and
contrast the featur e s o f t h i s s ub - s e t of c oncrete nouns and t ho s e
g iv e n for t h e EV in 2 . 2 . 2 ) .
In t h i s chap t e r we w i l l d i s c u s s

3.1 Semant i c Feature s

3.2 Semant i c Redundancy Rul e s
3.3 Loan I t ems
3.4 Change o f C l a s s
3.5 C ompar i s o n o f t he Semant i c Features o f Enga Animat e
Nouns w i t h t h o s e of the EV

The nouns c h o s e n are not a c omp l e t e l i s t ing o f t he Enga anima t e

3
noun s , but a r e c e r t a inly repre s entat ive o f the pr imary t axa o f t h i s
s emant i c doma i n . E s p e c i a l note should b e made t h a t a l l o f t h e i t ems
l i s t ed ( b ot h in Tab le 2 . 1 and D i agram 2 . 2 ) are c ons idered b y the Enga
to be anima t e , i . e . , ghos t s , demon s , f ire and water , the s un , moon ,
s t ars , and the sky p e o p l e are a l l [ +anima t e ] t o the Enga . The it ems
4
to be i nve s t i ga t e d are p r e s e n t e d i n Tab l e 3 . 1 b e low .

67
68

TAB L E 3 . 1

1 nik( s un
2 kana moon
3 b6i s t ars
4 y a l ya k a l i s ky p e op l e
5 i the fi re
6 enda k i water, r i v e r/s tream
7 fm6 w o rm, maggo t
8 nene i n s e c t s , A r t hropoda
9 wapaka eels
10 m6n g e frogs , toads
11 kanopato rep t i l e s
12 yaka bi rds
5
13 saa game mamma l s
14 y6i (dome s t i c ) rode n t s
15 me n a pig
16 yana dog
17 t i nd (o bats
6
18 l a i ma cas s owary
19 put6tu l i demons
20 y u u e n d a n g i p on d woman
21 t i ma n g o gh o s t s
22 endaka l i human s , p e op l e

3.1 S EM A N T I C F E A T U R ES

Seman t i c fe ature s o f the an imat e s are o f two t y p e s , overt and

c overt . The overt feat ure s are pre s e n t e d in Di agram 3 . 2 and form the
b a s i s o f the s eman t i c redundancy rules to b e d i s c u s s ed i n 3 . 2 f o l l ow­
ing . The overt features w i l l b e b r i e fly d i s c u s s e d in 3 . 1 . 1 and the
c overt features wi l l be d i s c u s sed in 3 . 1 . 2 .

3. 1 . 1 O v e rt F e a t ures

I n Enga w e find two maj or kinds o f overt feature s :

(i) morphologi c a l featur e s , and
(ii) hab i t a t feature s .
The morph o l o gi c a l feature s are l e afy , e y e d, bony , w i n g e d and e a r e d .
Featur e s o f hab i t at are h e a v e n l y , s t one dwe l l i n g , s u b t erran e an , fo re s t
7
dwe l l i n g , a q u a t i c and pond dwe l l i n g . There are a l s o various other
featur e s whi ch inc lude capab l e of dy i n g , v o l i t i o n , i n t e l l i g e n c e ,
h uman - l i k e , dome s t i c a t e d , carn i v o r e , and o r i g i n a t i ng p e op l e .
 V I AGRAM 3 . 2 : THE ENGA AN I MATE S
1

�+
animate ---.. artifacts

2 5

L+ �+ �+
� volition ----... fire , water
heavenly ---=--' leafy ---.

3 plant s 6

:
originating
Ple sun , moon
eyes ------... worms

�7+
T
•

l+
sky people bones � Arthropoda

8 9 10
• frog

L+ �+
hair • aquati c • tail

1+
11 12
fish reptiles
13 14
forest dwelling -=--. domesticated-=--. rats

�+ �+ �+
intelligence --=--. wings

l'
16
birds

17
game mammals 15

�+
carnivore --=.... pig

�+
human • ears � cas s owary dog

1+
18 19
bat
20

�+ �+ �+
stone-dwelling-=--' pond-dwelling-=-' subterranean----=-' humans

demons spirit woman ghosts

 8
CHART 3 . 3 : COVERT FEATURE S

I t em (Engl i sh g l o s s ) ' Br o th e r s ' ' P arent s '

1 y6i ( dome s t i c rode n t s ) p 6 k o (non - dome s t i c rode n ts ) ,
s a a ( game mamma l s )
2 s a a (game mamma l s ) y 6 i (rode n t s ) , t e k e a ( e chidna) ,
t i n d r o ( ba t s ) k o m a i p u ( t r e e kangaro o )
3 t i n d r o ( b at s ) s a a (game mamma l s ) d e k e ( v e ry l arge b a t )
4 y a n a ( do g ) p e n d e (wi l d do g )
5 men a ( p i g ) k a p u a (wi l d p i g s ) b u l u m a k a o ( cow )
9
6 e n d a k a 1 i ( h uman s ) k e w a (wi l d canniba l s ) n i k r ( s un ) , k a n a ( mo o n )
7 y a l y a k a l i ( s k y p e op l e ) n i k ( ( s un ) , k a n a (mo o n )
8 t i m a n g o ( g ho s t s ) p u t 6 t u l i (demons ) e n d a k a l i ( h umans )
9 y u 6 e n d a n g i (pond woman ) e n d a k i n ( n g i ( REAL wome n )
10
10 ( m 6 (worm, magg o t ) ko 1 i , i I i 0 1 i ( l arge w o rms )
11 wapaka (ee l s ) a ma n e ( l arge fi s h )
12 m6n g e ( frogs ) a k i w a n e ( l arge fro g )
13 k a n o p a t o (rep ti l e s ) mo t o p o i ( tr e e p y t h o n )
14 y a k a ( b i rds ) l a i m a ( ca s s owary ) ,
k a m b i ( h aw k )
15 n � n e ( A r t hropoda)
16 l a i m a ( c a s s owary )
17 p u t 6 t u l i ( demon s )
 71

3 . 1 . 2 Cove rt F e a t u re s

The d i s c overy o f the c overt feature s , p arenthood and brotherhood ,

oc curred sp ont ane o u s l y when i nforman t s would volunt e er that s ome p ar­
t i c ular t erminal t axa item was c on s idered to b e t h e fa t h e r of the en­
t ire group , or that two p rimary taxa were b r o t h e r s . The i t ems w i t h
c o vert featur e s are p re s e nt ed i n Chart 3 . 3 .
The c overt feature o f fatherh o o d i s b a s e d upon q ua l i t i e s o f s i z e
( and p o s s i b ly a l s o p ower and authority ) , b u t h ab i t at a l s o a ffe c t s t h e
c h o i c e o f the fa t h e r o f the taxon . In e a c h c a s e , the father named i s
the large s t o f a l l memb e r s o f the s e t . I n two c a s e s , two fathers are
given , each of wh i c h o c c up i e s a p art i c u l ar h ab i tat : t he fathers o f
the s a a game mamm a l s are t h e t err e s t r i a l t e k e a e c h i dn a a n d the ar­
boreal k o m a i p u tree kangaroo ; for the y a k a b i rds we h ave the terre s ­
t r i a l l � i ma c a s s owary and the k � m b i haw k , e ag l e .
Of a l l t h e p r i mary t axa only e n d a k � l i humans and y � l y a k a l i s ky
p e op le share parent s : t h e n i k ( sun a s father and the k a n � moon a s
ll
mother . A further fact w o r t h n o t i ng i s t hat the sky p e o p l e are
12
a l s o the only human- l i ke animat e s that are not c annib a l s ( e n d a k� l i
n a n e n g e ) ; t i m a n g o g h o s t s , y u u e n d a n g i p o n d woman and the p u t u t u l i
demon s , a l l k i l l and eat humans when p o s s ib le .
The s e c ond c overt c at e gory , b r o t h e rhood , i s d e fined on the b a s i s
o f a t l e a s t t w o c r i t e ri a , ( i ) dome s t i c ity , and ( i i ) morpho l o g i c a l
s imi lari t y . Dome s t i c an imat e s a r e g i v e n the w i l d c ount erpart a s
b r o t h e r s , a s w i l d dogs a n d b u s h p i gs a r e g i v e n for t ame/dome s t i c at ed
dogs and p i g s . The y u u e n d a n g i pond woman i s a s i s t e r o f e n d a k i n f n g i
re a l (i . e . human ) wome n . Human s ' brothers are t h e k e w a for e i g n e rs
who l ive at t h e fringe s o f t h e Enga area and are t hough t t o be c an n i ­
13
b a l s ( d u p a me n a i m a n e n g e t h e y e a t u s ) .
Morph o l o g i c a l l y s im i l ar i t e ms are a l s o c on s idered t o b e brothers :
y u i r a t s , t i n d ( o b a t s , and s a a game mamma l s are a l l b r o t he r s and
s hare the f e at ure s o f s imi lar fur , legs and ears . Bat s d i ffer from
14
the game mammal s i n having i nt e l l i genc e , having w i ngs , and a s ma l l
t a i l ( or no t ai l ) , wh i l e b ot h t h e s a � game mamma l s and y u i roden t s
are t a i led . Rodent s are a r e s t r i c t e d food i t em , e a t e n only by wome n
and p o s s ib l y young b oy s , but never by men ; game mammal s are unre­
stricted . Rodent s are de s cr i b e d as b e i ng s a � y � n g 6 of t h e s ame
p a tr i l ine as game mamma l s and a w � p � p e t e n g e l i ving t o g e t h e r ( i . e . as
15
fri ends ) . The a m f � n a t i v e mars up i a l cat is e x c ept i onal among the
game mamma l s , s in c e i t is c arnivorous and for t h i s reas on is s a i d t o
b e y a n a - i n j e p ae do g - l i k e o r even a brother o f t h e dog .
72

3.2 R E V U N V AN C Y R U L E S

The rul e s p r e s ented in Diagram 3 . 2 are here p r e s ent ed a s an

ordered s e t . The ordering is s u c h t hat , b e t we e n two rul e s , the one
w i t h b r oader s c o p e is to have prior app l i cat ion ( i . e . , in order t o
prevent individual enumerat i on o f features i f i t were i n s t ead app l i e d
l a t er ) . The r u l e s and i t ems wi l l be presented w i t h Engl i s h g l o s s e s
only .

1. [ + c apab l e o f dying ] � [ ±heavenly ]

2. [ +heavenly ] � [ ± originat i n g p eo p l e ]

3. [ +originat ing p e o p l e ] � s k y p e op l e

4. [ - originat ing p eo p l e ] � s u n , moon, s tars

5. [ -heavenly ] � [ ± l e afy ]

6. [ + leafy ] � p l an ts

7. [ - l e a fy ] � [ ± v o l i t ion ]

8. [ -v o l i t ion ] � fi re , wa t e r

9. [ +v o l i t ion ] � [ ± eyed ]

10 . [ - eyed ] � w o rms

11 . [ +eyed ] � [ ±b ony ]

12 . [ -b ony ] � insects

13 . [ +b ony ] � [ ±hair/fur ]

14 . [ -hair/fur ] � [ ±aquat i c ]

15 . [ +aquat i c ] � eels

16 . [ - aquat i c ] � [ ±tail ]

17 . [ -tail ] � frogs

18 . [ +t a i l ] � rep t i l e s

19 . [ +hair/fur ] � [ ± int e l l igenc e ]

20 . [ - int e l l i ge n c e ] � [ ±w ings ]

21 . [ +wings ] � b i rds

22 . [ -w i ngs ] � [ ± fore s t dwe l l ing ]

23. [ + fore s t dwe l l ing ] � game mamma l s

24 . [ - fore s t dwe l l ing ] � [ ±dome s t i c a t ed ]

25 . [ -dome s t i c at e d ] � rode n t s
 73

26 . [ +dome s t i ca t e d ] + [ ± c arnivore ]

27 . [ +c arnivor e ] + dogs

28. [ -c arnivore ] + pigs

29 . [ + int e l l igenc e ] + [ ±human- l i k e ]

30 . [ -human- l i ke ] + [ ± eared ]

31. [ +e ared ] + bats

32 . [ -e ared ] + cas s owari e s

33 . [ +human- l ik e ] + [ ± s t one dwe l l ing ]

34 . [ + s t one dwe l l ing ] + demo n s

35 . [ - s t one dwe l l ing ] + [ ±p ond dwe l l ing ]

36 . [ +pond dwe l l i ng ] + p o n d woman

37 . [ -p ond dwe l l i ng ] + ± sub t erranean

38 . [ + subt erran e an ] + ghosts

39 . [ - s ub t erranean ] + humans

I t should b e not e d t hat t h e b a s i c a s sump t ion h e re i s t ha t w e are

de aling w i t h a c l os ed s e t ( t he animat e s ) , and b o t h the fe ature s and
rul e s are det ermi ned in t e rms of c ontrast w i t h i n t hat ( c l o s e d ) s e t .
Furthe rmore it i s a s s umed that any t erminal i t em inc lud e s a l l d i re c t ly
p r e c e d i n g node s , s o t hat b i rds inc lude t he node s ( and feature s ) :

[ +w i ngs , - i nt e l l igenc e , +hair/fur , +bone s , +eye d , +vo l i t i on ,

- fe a fy , -he aven l y , + c ap ab l e o f dying , + c oncret e , . . . ]

However , t h e i n c l us i on of p r e c e d ing nodes d o e s not e x c lude t h e app l i ­

cat ion o f other featur e s a s we l l t o b i rds , i . e . , it make s n o c omment
a s to hab i tat , so that at a l ower l e v e l ( no t d i s c u s s e d h e re ) , var i ou s
b i rds may b e [ +arb ore a l ] , or [ +t e rre s t r i a l ] , or [ +aquat i c ] , o r [ + c ave
dwe l l i ng ] , or wh atever .
The main advantage o f t he redundancy r u l e s i s that they f i l t er out
pre d i c t ab le s emant i c feat ure s : the l e x i c a l entry for b i r d need in­
c lude only t h e s eman t i c f e at ure s [ +c ap ab l e of dying ] ( or [ +v o l i t ion ] )
and [ +wings ] . The redunda n c y rule s a l l ow for t he i n s e r t i o n o f the
pre d i c t ab l e fe atur e s whe never these are d e s ired . Furt hermore , add i ­
t i onal s imp l i f i c a t i on i s p o s s ib le when it i s c on s idered t h a t t h e
t erm b i rd i s the generic t erm f o r approximate ly 2 0 0 b ird t yp e s , s o
t hat e n t ri e s f o r t he s e c a n re fer dire c t l y t o the gen e r i c t erm .
Several p o i nt s of intere s t in the redundanc y rules remain t o b e
16
d i s cus s ed . One o f t he s e i s t hat t he i t ems fol l owing node 1 6
74

( [ +human- l ike ] ) form t h e unorde red p ort ion o f the rules : t he four
i t ems may be randomly ordered ( demon, p ond woman , g h o s t s , and h uman s ) ;
w i t h the e x c lu s ion o f t he rule for any o f the f i r s t thre e , e n d a k � l i
would b e marked [ +y u u a e k a t e n ge t e rre s tri a L ] . The r e a s on that the
random ordering is p o s s ib l e i s that t he s e four it ems are at the s ame
level of t h e t a x onomy and the d i s t ingu i shing feat ure , hab itat , c an b e
app l ie d randomly .

3.3 L O A N I T EMS

The loan it ems pre s en t e d b e l ow are from Tok P i s in or Engli s h and

denot e p henomena o f We st ern European origin with which the Enga were
not fami l iar in t he pre-c ontact period . The i t ems and the ir main
feature ( s ) are given b e l ow , f o l l owed b y the Enga a s s i gnment to
c la s se s .
+
l. s a t � ne Satan [ +sub t e rranean . . . ] ->- ghos ts
+
2. pu5 r i cat [ +forest dwe lling . . . ] ->- game mammaL
+
3. b u l u m a k � o cow [ - c arnivore . . . ] ->- pig
+
4. pau I i chicken [ +w inge d . . . ] ->- b i rd
+ ,
5. p i sa fi s h [ +aquat i c . . . ] ->- e e Ls

In a l l c a s e s the reason for a s s i gnment i s , on c omp ar i s o n w i t h the

, +
s emant i c rul e s , apparent . S a t a n e i s an intere s t ing c as e , s in c e here
t h e Enga a s s ign Satan t o the s ame c l a s s a s gho s t s ( rather t han demons ) .
Enga demons are in-human/un-human , wh i l e gho s t s are mere ly d e ad hu­
man s ; t hu s , the many human- l ike featur e s attributed to S a t an , p l u s the
subt erranean hab i t at , would c au s e the Enga t o e s t ab l i sh an equiva l e n c e
b e tween Satan and Enga gho st s .
Enga norma l ly do not keep c at s a s p et s , i n s t e ad c at s roam fre e ly in
+
the bush and fore st s , wh i c h a c c ount s for the a s s i gnment o f p u s ( i to
t h e g ame mamm a L c l as s . N o t ab le i s t h e fact t hat a l l game mammal s are
edib l e and are non-r e s t r i c t e d for c on sump t ion b y men ; c at s a l s o are
b ot h e d i b l e and non-re s t r i c t ed , j u s t l ike s a � .
The c h i c ken would b e a s s i gned b y the rul e s t o t he b i rds c l as s , and
t h i s is a l s o how it i s c la s s i fied b y the Enga . The introdu c e d c arp
are a s s i gned t o t he e e l s c la s s by t he rul e s , and a l s o by the Enga .
Cat t le are not only as s i gned t o t he p i gs c la s s , they are a l s o c on­
s idered to b e the fa t h e r o f t h i s c l as s ( c f . Chart 3 . 3 above ) . Pigs
have l o n g b e e n a s t aple i t em i n e x c hange s , marriage payment s , and
death and homi c ide r e s t i t u t i on s ( c f . 1 . 1 above ) . In 1 9 6 9 it was
reported t hat c a t t l e were s oon l ik e ly t o b e s im i l arly e xchanged in
 75

the t e e c e remon i e s featured b y t he Mae and Laiapo Enga . A n add i t i onal

t e s t was provided when we p r e s ented Enga in formant s with p h o t o graph s
of s ome more exot i c anima l s . Bears were imme d i at e ly ident i fied ( on
the b a s i s of morpho l o g i c a l feature s only , i . e . , the Enga d i d not
que s t ion a s to hab i t at , e t c . ) a s s a a game mamma l s . We c ould pre d i c t
that Enga would s oon c l as s i fy t h e s e a s the father o f t h e game mamma l s
o n t h e b as i s o f s i z e . Pho t o graphs o f other quadrup e d s ( gira f fe ,
ant e l op e , e t c . ) b rought forth quer i e s t o us as t o ' what kind o f t h in g s
a r e t ho s e ? ' , w i t h more soph i s t i c at e d E n g a w h o migh t have s e e n the Mt .
+
Hagen Show a s k ing i f they were 6 s a hors e s .
+
The final e xamp le in the c a s e o f l oan i t e ms i s that o f the ma n g ( i
monkey : the Enga had always e xh i b i t e d a s t rong intere s t in what k ind
o f animal t h i s migh t b e . We ob t ained a c ol oured p h o t o graph of a
chimpanzee dre s s ed in a v e s t , t ie , s t raw hat , and s moking a c i gar ;
t h e imme d i a t e r e s p o n s e was t e r r i fi c : " what k ind of a human i s t hat ? "
(en daka l i a i pa l epe 1 ) I n t h e d i s c u s s ion t hat f o l l owed among the Enga ,
the f o l l owing feat ure s were n o t e d : t hat t h i s ' human ' was wearing
c lothe s , that i t was wearing a hat (which led to t he a s s ump t i on that
i t was a man , a k a l i , rather t han a woman ) , and that it was smoking .
The s e are a l l c le arly human a c t ivit i e s , and a s final proo f , the Enga
que s t i oned us on o t h e r re levant p o i nt s : was he married and what d i d
h i s w i fe l o o k l i ke ? Did he b u i ld h o u s e s , a n d what k i n d ? Did he
p l ant gardens and eat c ooked food/sweet p o t a t o ? Thu s , it would s e em
that human s are a c t u a l l y c on t ra s t e d t o a l l other anima t e s on t he b as i s
o f s o c ia l and c u l t ural act ivi t i e s , rather t ha n gro s s morp h o l o gi c a l
17
f e ature s .

3.4 C H A N G E O F C L AS S

This phenomenon has been d i s c u s s ed in 0 . 2 . 3 . 3 above ; pre s e n t e d here

are s ome c a s e s from informant s in wh i c h anima t e nouns c hange c la s s .
The intere s t ing p o i n t is t hat the animat e s which do c hange c la s s gen­
erally c hange into ' brother s ' or the mo s t c lo s e ly relat ed anima t e ;
large j ump s from one level of the t axonomy t o anot her , i . e . , from in­
sect to b ird s s ay , are not made . For e xamp l e , the game mamma l s wh i c h
were alway s c l imb ing u p a n d down t r e e s t o re a c h t h e i r t r e e n e s t s g o t
t ired o f t h i s a c t ivi t y , s o t he y grew w ings a n d b e c ame b at s . ( The game
mammal s and the b at s are brothers , c f . Chart 3 . 3 ) . Sma l ler rat s may
grow up int o the l arger game mamma l s ( and t he s e two are a l s o b ro t h e r s ) .
Another c a s e i s that o f a part i cular kind o f green l i zard who was
drinking wat er near a s tream and the s t ones cut o f f its t ai l , c au s ing
it t o b e c ome a p ar t i cu l ar kind o f green frog ( c f . node 10 o f Di agram
76

lS
3.2) . One b e l i e f i s that water ' ma k e s t h ings grow ' , and may c au s e
met amorpho s i s : worms l iving in very wet s oi l or water are l i k e l y t o
b e c ome s nake s . Chi ldren are warned that they s houldn ' t l eave t h e i r
fe e t in w a t e r t o o long , as they may b e c ome frogs .
The few e x amp l e s sugge s t t hat c e rt ain i t ems are r e l a t e d t o one
another by ' change o f c la s s ' rul e s whi c h change s e gment s o f feat ure s
or add new feature s , e . g . , we c an propo s e the f o l l owing t o o c c ur

6. l i z ar d [ -t ai l ] = > frog

7. worms [ +wet , + l arger ] => s nake s

S. rat [ + larger ] -> game mammal

9. game mammal [ +wings ] = > b at

The s e ( 6 - 9 ) c on firm the v a l i d i t y o f s ome of the feature s and rul e s

p o s t u l a t e d ab ove .

3.5 C O M PA R I S O N O F F E A T U R E S

The feat ure s of the animat e nouns ( 3 . 1 ) c ontain two kinds o f fea­
tures c ompara b l e t o those given ( 2 . 2 . 2 ) for the EV ; t he s e two kinds
o f feat ure s are hab it at and s i z e . The o c c urren c e of cro s s ­
c l a s s i f i c at i on ( 0 . 2 . 2 ) among t h e i t ems ( i . e . animat e nouns and EV
fe ature s ) i s a l s o brie fly d i s c u s s ed .
H ab it a t s ( among t h e an imat e noun s ) are a l s o mut ually e x c l u s ive
among the EV , s i n c e p a l e n g e ( sub t erranean ) , k a t e n g e ( he avenly ) , and
s (ngi ( aquat i c ) denote mut ually e x c l u s ive p l ac e s of e x i s t e nc e . An
e xamp le o f t h i s i s pre s e n t e d i n the c a s e of t he b irds , wh i c h show a
t r i -part i t e d i vi s i on b as ed on p la c e of e x i s t e n c e ( o r h ab i t at ) :
f l i gh t e d b irds ( ar b ore a l ) u s e the EV p e t e n g e , aquat i c b irds u s e the
EV s ( n g i , and t erre s t r i a l c as s owar i e s u s e the EV k a t e n g e .
The s e c ond fe ature , s i z e ( or pot e n t i a l harmfulne s s ) i s exemp l i f i e d
among the anima t e s b y t h e c overt feat ure o f ' parenthood ' : the larg­
e s t animate o f the group i s de s i gnated the ' father ' , e . g . , the t r e e
python b e ing c o n s idered t h e ' father ' o f a l l the rept i l e s . Group s o f
animat e s whi c h h ave t w o o r more ' fathers ' d i fferent iat e t h e s e o n the
b a s i s o f hab i t at , again empha s i z ing the imp ort anc e o f hab i t at : b irds
have the eagle or hawk a s the arb oreal ' father ' , and the c a s s owary a s
the t erre s t r i a l ' father ' ; the s p iney ant eater ( t erre s t r i a l ) s hare s
the ' fatherhood ' of the game mammal s w i t h t he t re e kangaroo , the
l arge s t o f the arboreal game mamma l s ( c f . Chart 3 . 3 for add i t i onal
e xamp le s ) .
 77

One maj or p o int about s i ze i s that t h i s i s obvious ly r e l a t ive , and

the next que s t ion to be c on s i dered w ould b e , " t o the Enga , what s i z e
� 4 l arge , p o t e nt i a l l y harmful , e t c . ? " From t h e o b s ervat i on that the
p i g , do g , and c a s s owary are t he an imat e s sharing the EV c la s s k a t e n g e
( i . e . , large ) w i t h men , i t would s e em that anima l s o f d o g- s i z e or
l arger are p o t e n t i a l l y harmful and regarded b y the Enga a s s uc h .
When c alled upon t o c la s s i fy var i o u s e x o t i c ( i . e . , Taronga Park Z o o )
anima l s , one i n formant flat ly s ta t e d : ' Large anima l s w i l l t ake
k a t e n g e , s ma l l anima l s w i l l t ake p e t e n g e . '
Of the two feat ure s ( s i z e or hab it at ) u s e d i n b o t h anima t e and EV
c l a s s e s , it is e x t reme ly d i ff i c ult to det ermine wh i c h i s h i gher rank­
ing . F i r s t ly , a l l pot ent ial ly harmful animat e s among the Enga are
b o t h t erre s t r i a l and l arge ( in Enga t erms ) . The only c on c l u s i o n for
d e t e rmining t he importance o f s ome part i c u l ar s eman t i c feature i s
that t h o s e i t ems mo s t imp ort ant i n the c u l t ure may b e arb i t r ar i ly
c la s s e d int o what might b e regarded ( b y an out s ider ) as an ' inappro­
p r i at e ' c la s s . D i x on make s a s imi lar s t a t ement when formu l a t i n g r u l e s
f o r n o u n c l a s s memb e r s h ip i n D y i rb a l :

( 1 ) I f s ome noun has characteristic X ( on the basis o f which its

class membership would be expected to be decided ) but is, through
belief or myth, connected with characteristic Y , then generally
it will belong to the class corresponding to Y and not that cor­
responding to X.
( 2 ) I f a subset o f nouns has some parti cular important property
that the rest of the set do not have, then the members of the
sub s et may be ass i gned to a di fferent class from the rest of the
set , to ' mark ' this property ; the important property is most often
' harmfulness ' ( 1968 : 20 ) .

D i x on a pp l i e d the s e t w o r u l e s i n the e x p l anat i on o f t he noun

c l a s s e s in Dyirb a l , and not e s addit iona l ly

. . . that the s emanti c bas i s of class membership in Dyirbal can only

be explained in terms of an intimate knowledge of the beliefs,
myths and habits of the people, knowledge that is presumably not
normally available concerning the ancestor language ( 1968 : 12 3 )

and further that

it seems likely that some [ class memberships] are WITHOUT

EXPLANATION ( as would be the case in any natural l anguage ) :
some may have had an explanation in terms of an earlier stage
of the language, but the class assignment has been retained
and the explanat i on lost as the language has altered ( 1968 : 122 ) .

Another p oint o f intere s t in the c ompar i s on o f feat ure s of EV and

an imat e s , is t he o c c urrenc e of c r o s s - c las s i fi c at ion among the i t ems .
Among the anima t e nouns ( Di agram 3 . 2 ) , the quadrup eds form a sub ­
group [ -w inged ] , yet t he EV u s age d i v i de d t h i s group in t w o , wit h the
78

y u i rode n t s , and s a a game mamma t s u s i n g p e t e n g e , and the me n a p i g and

y a n a dog u s ing k a t e n g e . This a l s o oc curs among the p lant s , whi c h are
divided in the taxonomy int o two main group s , hol l ow and s o l i d - s t emmed
[ +ka i t a s fn g i ] . The t a n u gras s e s and s a mb a ( canes are in contrast t o
t he f t a tre e s , a k a ( p u Cordy t i n e , and a n g a p an danus : y e t a l l of these
are c l a s s e d b y EV u s age as t a l l , upright - - k a t e n g e . Th i s i s a l s o true
among the c u l t ivated p lant s , which form a group in the t ax onomy as
' gardened ' p l ant s , y e t use di fferent EV : ma p u swe e t p o ta t o u s e s
p a l e n ge , l y a a sugar cane u s e s k a t e n g e , and a wa t e afy gre e n c u t t i g e n
uses s f n g i . In the taxonomy the focus i s on t h e func t ion , or morph­
o lo gy of the p l ant s , and in the EV us age the f o c u s i s on the s hape/
p o s t ure o f the p lant . Thu s , the c on c l u s ion is t hat c learly i n d i f fer­
ing s i t ua t i on s ( i . e . taxonomy ver sus noun c la s s e s ) , the Enga focus on
d i fferent feat ur e s , wh i c h r e s ul t s in t h e c ro s s - c la s s i fi cat i o n s men­
19
t i oned above .
 N O T E S

1. I t i s a l s o t rue that [ +c on c re t e ] nouns are more readi ly r e s earch­

ab le than , for e x amp l e [ + inner s t a t e ] or a b s t r a c t nouns .

2. On r e t urn t o Canb erra , ident i f i cat ion of a l l t he pr imary taxa

( and many o f the t erminal taxa ) was made with the a s s i s t an c e o f
Dr . J . Hope , Department o f Pre h i s t ory , the ANU , us ing o n l y the f o l k
definit ions . Future work would inc lude add i t i onal re s earch in t h i s
are a , and c omp l e t e ident i f i c a t i o n ( preferab ly in t h e fie ld ) b y a
z oo l ogi s t .

3. The c on t r a s t here i s b e tween t h e pr imary t axa or gene r i c t erms ,

s u c h a s dog ( C anus s p . ) and t e rminal t a x a , s u c h as Labrador , Doberman,
p o odle , e t c . I nt erme d i a t e t axa are such a s t errier s , h ound s ,
retriever s , e t c .

4. See Appendix B for Ques t ions U s e d , e s p e c i a l l y S e c t i on 2 , e xamp l e

7.

5. S a a game mamma L s inc lud e s t r e e rat s ( wh i c h may b e e a t en ) ; y u i

rode n t s are the dome s t i c rats ( wh i ch are e a t en only b y women ) .

6. L a i m a aas s owary i s a member ( t he t a k a n g e fa t he r ) o f the b irds ,

l a i m a ) , but a l s o h o l d s a very s p e c i a l p l a c e
( c f . C ap e l l 1 9 4 8 : 3 6 8 y a k a
in the E n g a c u l t ure ( a long w i t h b a t s ) , s in c e t h e s e two a r e the only
anima t e s c on s idered to have int e l l i genc e . C f . Bulme r 1 9 6 7 on the
Karam b e l i e fs r e garding the c a s s owary . Other H i gh l anders a l s o have
s u c h b e l i e fs : Lyle S t e adman report s ( p ersonal c ommu n i c at ion ) that t h e
H e w a b e l i eve m a l e c a s s ow arie s t o b e female ( s in c e t h e mal e s s it o n t h e
eggs ) , a n d t he female c as s owar i e s t o b e male . C f . a l s o note 1 1 .

79
80

7. [ +Aquat i c ] and [ +pond dwe l l in g ] are in fact two d i f ferent fea­

ture s , s i n c e aquat i c in t h i s c a s e [ +e n d a k ( n y a s ( n g i ] is who l ly water
dwe l l in g ( i . e . , not at a l l c apab le of t erre s t r ial l ife ) , wh i l e p ond
dwe l l ing [ + e n d a k ( p e t e p e t e n g e ] in t h i s c a s e imp l i e s that the animate
is c apab le o f t erre s t r i a l l i f e , but l iv e s near wat er and perhaps re­
t urns t h ere periodi c al l y ; thus the c ontrast is b e tween an amphib ian­
type e x i s t enc e and a who l ly - aquat i c one .

8. The s emant i c ' gap s ' on Chart 3 . 3 ( it ems whi c h l a c k a ' b rother ' or
a ' father ' ) wou l d most l ikely b e f i l le d b y add it ional e l i c i t a t ion .
The s e may b e e ither ' o c curring ' or ' p o s s ib le b ut non - o c curring ' it ems
( a s contras ted t o ' impo s s ib le ' it ems ) . C f . 0 . 2 . 2 , and Chom s ky 1 9 6 5 : 1 7 0
o n ' ac c id e n t a l semant i c gap s ' .

9. Humans ' parent s are t h e sky p e o p l e ( d ir e c t ly ) and t h e s un and

moon ( indir e c t ly ) .

10 . The only e x ample given of ' motherhood ' i s ( p a /e n d a k ( wh i c h i s

given for t h e w a p a k a e e t s . The exp lana t i on given was t hat s i n c e
w a p a k a are c omp l et e l y aquat i c and t he i r only food i s wat e r , t hat
water was t h e ir m o t h e r .

11 . Meggi t t ( 1 9 6 5 ) r e l a t e s one v e r s i on o f the Enga origin myt h :

The Mae believe that long ago the land was uninhabited . The only
quasi-human beings then living were the sun and moon , ' the father
and mother of us all ' . Eventually they had many children , ' the
c ausal or originating people ' , who reside in the sky in conditions
similar to those on earth . These sky dwellers . . . in turn have had
many descendants , who , although pale-skinned , resemble Enga ; they
are organized into patrilineal des cent groups and they marry , feud ,
grow crops , raise pigs , pay death compensations and so on . After a
time the sky beings colonized the earth . . . . The terrestrial society
is thought to be isomorphic with the celestial society of the causal
people ( 107f . ) .

12 . Whi l e the sky people are c on s idered b y the Enga t o b e e i t her

d i s intere s t ed o r po s s ib l y b enevo l e nt , the gho s t s , demon s , and p ond
woman are all a c t ively malevolent .

13 . The s e k e w a are the Hewa , not the l anguage group known a s t he

Kewa .

14. Both b a t s and c a s s owar i e s o c cupy a s p e c ial p l ac e in t h e t a x onomy ;

b a t s are b e l ieved t o be harb ingers of deat h , and bring t h e ome n s o f
 81

imp end ing d i s a s t e r ( earthquake or land s l ide ) s e nt b y t h e t i m a n g o

ghos t s . S i n c e t he bat s hear and unders t and t h e gho s t s ' language/omen
and b r ing t h i s to the Enga , they are c ons idered t o be int e l l i gent .
C f . also note 6 .

15 . Would t h i s a w a p a p e t e n g e l i vi n g toge t h e r in f a c t imp ly a l s o t ha t

n e i t her eat s t h e other , s in c e t o do s o wou l d c on s t i t u t e game mammal
c a nnib a l i sm? C f . t hat the nat ive c at is c on s idered t o be a brother o f
t h e dog , s in c e it i s c arnivorous .

16 . Whe n ordering the rul e s ( b a s e d mainly upon c r i t e r i a o f forma l

s imp l i c i t y ) , one other maj or p o s s ib i l i t y of an ordering form d o e s
present i t s e l f . In Enga f o l k c la s s i fi c a t i o n t he feat ure [ ± t a i l e d ]
appears fre que n t l y as a d i s t ingui s h ing marker : t h e p re s ence or ab ­
s e n c e of a t ai l , the kind o f t a i l , whe ther it i s a l l s k i n , furry ,
t u ft e d , et c . , a l l are re levant . Cf. 3 . 4 , in wh i c h l i z ards l o s e the ir
t a i l s and b e c ome frogs ; i . e . , node 1 0 of D iagram 3 . 2 ) . ( Th i s i s in
c on t r a s t t o the nonch a l an c e w i t h wh i c h reproduc t ive methods of var ious
animat e s are re garde d : t h e y are not used for c la s s i fi c at i on s im i l ar
t o our e gg- l ay i ng , amphib ian , mar s up ial and p la c e n t a l mammal s ) . One
o f the que s t ions a s k e d o f the ch impanzee was ' do e s he h ave a t a i l ? '
Tai l s appear in t he r u l e s once ( node 1 0 : l i z ards and frogs ) . Th i s
c ou l d l e a d t o s ome s p e cu l a t i o n a s t o t he p o s s ib i l it y o f ordering t h e
feature [ ± t ai l e d ] i n t o a h igher n o d e o f t h e tree .
Emb arking b r i e fly on t h i s t r a in o f t hought , we c ould p o s t u late
introduc ing t h e f e ature [ ± t a i l e d ] at node 8 . Under these c ondi t ions ,
t h e f o l l owing revi s ed t r e e would r e s u l t :

8 9 10

1
+ +
t a i le d __ --0__ hairy ------ aquat ic- e e l s

+ �-
frog
11
int e l l i ge nt-=-' ( s ame a s o l d note 1 3 f . )

�+
b at
12
hairy --- -=-. rept i l e s

� +

13
+
winged ---- - b irds

�-
14
human- l ik e -=-' c a s s owary
� +
( s ame as o l d node 1 8 f . )
82

There are at l e a s t t h r e e d if f i c u l t i e s in t h i s ordering . The f i r s t i s

t h a t [ ±ha iry ] c le arly i 4 app l i e d t w i c e giving more t han a s u s p i c ion o f
c r o s s - c l a s s i f i cat ion ( c f . 0 . 2 . 2 ) or inc orre ct ordering o f t h e fea­
t ur e s /rul e s ; this i s c on t r a s t e d to t he prior ordering , i n whi c h the
' t ailed ' feature s di ffered in [ ±hairy ] ( c f . Diagram 2 . 2 , node s 1 0 and
15 ) . The s e c ond d i f f i c u l t y is that not only is [ ±hairy ] app l i e d
t w i c e , t he d i s t inc t i on w h i c h t he previous orde ring o f t hat r u l e made ,
( i . e . , that of t he s k inned or non-hairy animat e s as a s ub - s e t o f t h e
anima t e group ) , has b e e n c omp l e t e ly ob l iterat ed . The final di fficulty
i s t h a t the n e w ordering has a l s o l o s t t he d i s t in c t ion made b y t h e
Enga i n re gard t o the c a s s owar i e s a n d b at s , i . e . , t hat t h e s e animat e s
are c o n s i d e re d t o b e [ + int e l l i gent ] wh i l e a l l other animat e s are not
s o c o n s idered . In view of t he s e d i f f i c u l t ie s , the previous orde ring
was pre ferred ( i . e . , t hat o f D i a gram 3 . 2 ) .
Th i s prob l e m i s t hat of t he s e le c t ion o f feature s from the p o s s ib l e
unive r s e o f fe ature s . One o f t h e maj or a s s ump t ions in e t hno s c i e n c e i s
t hat o f t h e c ontrast s e t : " a c l a s s of mut u a l l y e x c l u s ive s e gr e gat e s
wh i c h o c c ur i n the s ame c ultura l l y rel evant envi ronment . . . the s e s e g­
regat e s ' share at l e a s t one d e f in i n g feature ' . . . i . e . , that wh i c h
c hara c t e r i z e s t he e nvi ronment i n whi c h t hey o c cur . . . . T h e domain o f
the s e t i s the t ot a l range o f me anings o f i t s s egregat e s " ( St ur t evant
196 4 : 107 ) . Thi s l e a d s o n c e again t o the prob lem of d i s c overy , a s t o
h o w one det ermin e s t h e c u l t ura l l y s i gn i f i c ant s e t s and t h e i r inc luded
unit s . I n t h e Enga c ompari s on o f two t e rmina l i t ems , t h e feature
n o t e d 4 h o utd be the h i gh e s t mutual node : i . e . , in t h e c ontra s t b e ­
tween b irds and ee l s , t he n o t e d fe ature should b e t hat e e l s a r e hair­
l e s s ; a s far a s I can dete rmine , it is j us t a s l ike l y t o b e that the
informant report s that b irds have wings , that e e l s are aquat i c , e t c .

17 . Pro f . Andrew St rathern ( p ers onal c ommuni c at i on ) report s that the

Me lpa o f Mt . Hagen c la s s i fy monke y s as game mamma l s ; i t i s probab l e
that Enga , on s e e ing sma l l arb oreal monkeys in a zoo , might we l l , t o o .

18 . Change of c la s s and ' t rans format i ons ' as det a i l e d in t h i s s e c t i on

( 3 . 4 ) are b as e d upon trad i t i on a l Enga b e l i e fs --the t a i l l e s s gre en
l i z ard whi c h b e c ame a part i c ul ar gre e n frog i s from one o f t he Enga
fab l e s ( i . e . and thus not re garded as a fact ) ; however , the game mam­
ma l s whi c h were a lways c l imb ing tre e s , and s o grew w ings and b e c ame
b a t s are r e garded as fact .

19 . A po int of int e r e s t i s the c ompar i s on of t he animate noun s ' fea­

tures with t h o s e of another l anguage . Mat h i o t ( 1 9 6 2 ) d ivided Papago
 83

f o l k t axonomy into p lant s and l iving t h i ngs , w i t h a furt her s u b ­

d i v i s ion o f l iving t h ings i n t o peop l e , b irds a n d anima l s . P i l cher
( 1 9 6 7 ) a l s o worked with Papago and his work is c ompara b l e to t he one
pre s ent ed here f or Enga on yet another p o int , s in c e it was b a s e d on
the folk d e finit ion t e c hn i que fir s t u s e d b y C a s agrande and Hale
( 1 9 67 ) in Papago . " My own r e s e a r c h was orient ed t oward t he e xamina­
t ion of t he folk t a x onomy of the Papago by means o f s eman t i c c ompo ­
n e n t s derived from ' fo lk d e fi n i t i o n s ' . . . . Th i s approach was much
influenced b y C onkl in ' s c a l l f or l e x i c ograp h i c a l t r e atment s of folk
t ax onomie s ( 1 9 6 2 ) , and b y t he work of C a s agrande and H a l e ( 1 9 6 7 ) "
( Pi l cher 1 9 6 7 : 2 0 4 ) . P i l c her e x t ra c t e d t he features from t h e d e f i n i ­
t i ons t hat had b e en o b t a ined for t h e named t axa , a n d t h e s e are :

l. . . . ( w h i c h t h ink )
2. . . . ( wh i c h a r e afraid of p e o p l e , fearful t hings )
3. . . . ( w h i c h a r e dome s t i c anima l s )
4. . . . (which fly )
5. . . . ( w h i c h a r e t horny )

The s e f e at ure s ( or s eman t i c c omponent s ) a l s o o c cur in Enga , where we

have such feat ure s a s [ ± in t e l l i gent ] , [ +winged ] , t h e c overt feature
of b r ot herho od , b a s e d on t he d i s t inc t i on b e tween w i l d and dome s t i c
anima l s , and the feat ure [ +thorny ] ( w h i c h app l i e s i n b o t h Enga and
Papago t o p lant s , a l t h ough the s p iney ant e a t er is s a i d to have t horny
fur ( f t f n e n g e n e n g e k a t a p a e s p i n e s ) . Thu s , o f t h e five fe ature s
P i l c h e r u s e s in Papago , a l l f ive are f ound in Enga .
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 P R E D I CAT I O N S

We have now d i s cu s s ed one t y p e o f c la s s i f i c at ory verb i n Enga , t h e

E V ( 2 . 0 ) wh i c h c o - o c curs w i t h the [ + c oncret e ] nouns , a n d a s ub - s e t o f
nouns ( t he animat e s ) wh i c h c o - o c cur w i t h t hem ( 3 . 0 ) . Th i s chap t e r
w i l l d e a l w i t h t he s e c ond t y p e of Enga c l a s s i f i c at ory verb , t h e pro­
verb o f pre d i c at ions .
The form o f t h e pred i c at i ons is an ad j unc t wh i c h c o- o c curs w i t h a
pro-verb . With very few e x c e p t i o n s , t he pro-verb s o f t he p re d i c a t i o n s
a r e i n c ompleme n t ary d i s t r ibut i on with t h e E V in relat ion t o t h e t y p e s
o f c o - o c c urring noun s , v i z . , the pro-verb s of the pre d i c at ions c o ­
l
o c cur only w i t h [ - c o n c r e t e ] noun s . Thi s chap t e r w i l l d e a l firs t ly
wit h the form and synt ac t i c propert i e s o f predi c at ions , and s e c ondly
with their s emant i c s . A b r i e f d i s c u s s ion of the prob lems a r i s ing
from att emp t s to a c c ount for the pred i cat ions in a gener at ive t rans ­
forma t ional framework w i l l c o n c lude the chap t e r .

4.1 F O RM A N D S Y N TA C T I C PRO P E RT I E S

In t h i s s e c t ion we w i l l d i s c u s s the form o f t he pred i c a t ions , why

they c annot b e re garded as o b j e c t s , two s ub - s e t s of the pre d i c at ions
wh i c h norma l l y o c c ur in spe c i f i c grammat i c a l forms , and another s ub ­
s e t whi c h may b e verb a l i z ed in t h e e a s t ern d i a le c t s o f Enga .

4.1 .1 F o rm

The form of the pre d ic at ions i s an a d j u n c t ( n orma l l y a noun ) , wh i c h

c o - o c c ur s w i t h a pro-verb whi ch has a . general meaning . The adj unct
fun c t i o n s to mod ify the genera l meaning o f the p ro-verb i n t o a s p e c i ­
f i c a c t ion . Some examp l e s o f p r e d i c a t ions are :

85
86

1. Yoko d�pa apu l e - l y - am i - n o .

l e af they dry u t t e r - PRES - 3 PL-DEC
The l e a v e 8 are dryi n g .

2. N a i ma k � ma n d a p i -ng f .
we de a t h p ayme n t do- HAB
We a l w a y s make de a t h p ayme n t 8 .

3. B a a - me u a a me n d e n a n g a p i - l y - a - mo .
h e - AG axe a 8 harp h i t - PRE S - 3 SG-DEC
He i8 8 h arpening an axe .

4. B a a - n y a m o k o d 6 k o p a ke l y o s i - l y - a - mo . 2
he - POSS l e g t h e 8 car h e a r - PRES - 3 SG-DEC
Hi8 l e g is 8 carr e d .

5. B a a - me u a a d 6 k o waa n y i - l y - a -mo .
h e - AG axe t h e 8 t e a l t a ke - PRE S - 3 SG-DEC
He i s 8 t e a l in g the axe .

Whi l e n orma l l y any noun may o c c ur w i t h many d i fferent verb s , e . g .

aUl i
p i - l y - a - mo .

{ }
man
h i t - PRES- 3SG-DEC
6. B a a - me anda me n d e
he- hou8e a
k a n d e - l y - a - mo .
8 e e - PRE S - 3 SG -DEC
j rp i
jeep
He i 8 h i t t ing/8 e e i n g a man/ho u 8 e /j e e p .

t h i s i s not the c a s e w i t h the pre d i c at i on s , in whi c h the adj unct c an

norma l l y co-oc cur w i t h only one s p e c i f i c pro-verb . ( Adj unc t s w i t h
m o r e t han o n e pro-verb a r e d i s c u s sed i n det a i l in 4 . 2 . 3 f o l l ow i n g . )
,
7. B a a - me y a me p i - l y - a - mo .
h e - A G cover h i t - PRES- 3 S G -DEC
He i 8 covering ( i t ) .

* l e - l y - a - mo .
u t t e r - PRES- 3 SG-DEC
,
7a. B a a - me y a me * k a n d e - l y - a - mo .
h e - AG c o v e r 8 e e -PRE S - 3SG-DEC
* p i - l y - a - mo .
do - PRES- 3 SG-DEC

The general me aning of the pre d i c at i on is c arri e d by the main verb ,

here p y a - hi t ; the a d j u n c t y a me mus t logi c ally produce the modi f i c a­
t i o n of t h i s general meaning t o cove r , y e t y a me d o e s not o c c ur e l s e­
where , indep endent l y as in the s e nt e nc e ( 8 ) or ( 9 ) .
 87

8 . * O n g o y ame p e n g e me n de .
that aover jar a
Tha t ' s a a o v e r e d j a r .

8 a . * O n g o y a me me n d e .
that aover a
Tha t ' s a ao v e r .

The corr e c t form of ( 8 ) would b e ( 8a ) :

8b . 6 n go p e n ge y ame p y a - p a e men d e .
that jar a o V e r h i t - STA a
That ' s a a o v e re d j a r .

Thi s part i cular form o f t h e pred i c a t i on s , t h e s t at ive , wi l l b e di s ­

c u s s e d i n more de t a i l i n 4 . 1 . 3 . E xamp l e s ( 7 , 7 a , 8 , 8b ) and ( 9 )
e xe mp l i fy that the adj unc t mus t c o - o c c ur with i t s appropr i a t e pro­
verb .
Furthermore , it i s n o t norma l l y p os s ib l e t o verb a l i z e the adj unc t :
,
9. B a a - me p e n g e d 6 k o * y a me - l y - a - mo .
he -AG jar the a o v e r - PRES- 3 SG-DE C
He i s a o v e r i n g t h e jar .

The c orre c t form o f ( 9 ) i s ( 9 a ) w i t h the p re d i c a t i on :

9a . B a a - m e p e n g e d 6 k o y a me p i - l y - a-mo .
h e - AG jar the a o v e r h i t - PRE S - 3 S G-DEC
He is a o v e r i n g the j a r .

When pre d i c a t i on s are u s e d i n mod a l i t i e s , t h e approp r i a t e c o - o c c ur­

o c c urring verb ( and n o other ) mus t a l s o appe ar ; i n the c a s e of t f s a
p i n g f a u t , b r e a k , we c annot have t f s a * l e n g e ( or any other ve rb ) .
10 . B a a - me f t a t fs a pya-a pe - l y - a -mo .
h e - AG wood aut do - INF g o - PRE S - 3S G-DEC
He is g o i n g to aut the wood.

10 a . * B a a - me i t a t i s a p y a - l a p e - l y - a - mo .
aut h i t - INF

1 0 b . * B a a - me i t a t i s a p e - l y - a - mo .
aut g o - PRES- 3 S G-DEC

11. B a a - me f t a t f s a pya-a-nya mas l - l y - a -mo .

h e - AG w o o d a u t do - INF- GEN t hi n k - PRES- 3 SG-DEC
He wan t s t o aut the woo d .

l l a . * B a a - me i t a t l s a p y a - l a - n y a m a s i - l y - a - mo .
aut h i t - INF- GEN
88

l lb . * B a a - me i t a t i s a m a s i - l y - a - mo .

The s ame h o l d s true for other c a s e s o f c omp lement at i on :

12 . B a a - me ( t a t (s a py6-o eta-pa- l a i pa-t -a .

h e - AG w o o d aut d o - O fin i s h - COMP- INF aome - FUT- 3 S G
When h e ' s fin i s h e d a u t t i n g t h e wood, he wi l l re turn .

1 2 a . * B a a - me i t a t i s a p y a - o e t a - p a - l a i p a - t - a .
hit - O

1 2 b . * B a a - me i t a t i s a e t a - p a - l a i p a - t - a .

13. B a a - me ( t a t (s a py6-o anda-ka k a - l y - a - mo .

h e - AG wood a u t do - O hous e - LO C BE-PRES-3 SG-DEC
He ' s a t home a u t t i n g t h e w o o d .

1 3a . * B a a - me i t a t i s a p y a - o a n d a - k a k a - l y - a - mo .
hit-O

1 3b . * B a a - me i t a t i s a a n d a - k a k a - l y - a - mo .

4.1 .2 Obj ects

I n any c on s iderat i on o f the p o s s i b l e re lat ionships b e tween a noun

and c o- o c c urring verb , the que s t ion imme d i at e ly aris e s , regard i n g s u c h
a comb i na t i on a s w e f i n d i n t he predi c at i ons , i f the ad j un c t s a r e a c ­
t ua l l y obj e ct s . In t h i s s e c t ion I w i l l d i s c u s s the normal ob j e c t s o f
Enga and c on c lude with the e xamp l e s o f the s t r i c t synt a c t i c r e s t r i c ­
t i ons applying t o t h e pred i c at i on s wh i c h prec lude our c on s idering
them a s obj e c t s .
A s pre s e n t e d ab ove in ( 6 ) , in Enga norma l l y any noun may o c c ur a s
ob j e c t w i t h a numb er o f d i f ferent verb s ; i n t h e s e cas e s , the s ub j e c t
i s marked w i t h t h e agentive , and t he ob j e c t i s unmarked ; t here may
a l s o be a numb er of modi f i c a t ions t o the ob j e c t , s uc h a s det erminers ,
adverb s , adj e c t ive s , and l o c a t i ve s . Some e xamp l e s o f t h e s e t y p e s o f
modi f i c a t ion ar e pre s e n t ed b e l ow :

p i taka
all
e l yakao
14 . B a a - me nuu s n e ak i l y p i - l y - a - m6 .
s h e -AG ne t b ag me n d e do - PRES- 3SG-DEC
a
, ,
auu pyo-o
we l l do - O
She is making a/a l l n e t b ag/s w e l l / s n e a k i l y .
 89

anda-ka p i tu-u
house-LOC BE-O
(etet E O (epe ) mende
,
15. Baa-me nuu e l yakao p i - l y-a-m6 .
she-AG netbag very good a sneakUy do-PRES-3SG-DEC
auu py6-0
weU do-O
She i s making a ( v e ry ) ( g o o d ) n e tbag a t home/w e l l/sne ak i l y .

{
The pred i c at i o n s d i ffer i n t h i s i n t hat t h e y d o n o t norma l ly permit
3
mod i f i c a t i on b e t ween the adj un c t and the pro-verb :

I
*e l yakao
16 . B a a - me p e n g e y a me s n e a k i ly p i - l y - a - mo .
h e - AG jar cover *auu p y o -o h i t - PRE S - 3SG-DEC
we Z Z do-O

He ' s c o v e r i n g t h e j a r s n e a k i l y /we l l .

{ }
4
I n s t e ad , mod i f i c at ion p r e c e d e s the pred i c at i on :

e l y akao
17 . B a a - me pe n g e s n e a k i ly y a me p i - l y - a - mo .
h e - AG jar auu py6-0 c o v e r h i t - PRES - 3 S G-DEC
we Z Z do - O
He ' s co v e ri n g the jar s n e a k i l y/we l l .

As nouns are modi fi e d p os tn ominal ly i n Enga and verb s preverb a l l y ,

t h i s i s further evidence t hat i t i s the p red i cat i on t h at i s mod i fi e d
as a v e r b a l unit , rather t h a n the n o u n i n a verb phras e .
There i s a sma l l s e t of adj unc t s wh i c h appe ar in the p re d i c a t i o n s
wh i c h a r e e x c ept i on s t o t h e above . The se are five [ + c oncret e ] ad­
j un c t s : two b ody part s ( y a n u s k i n and l a n g a l u fo r e h e ad ) , two p lant s
( y o k 6 l e af and t a n u g r a s s ) , and one art i fa c t ( y a n d a s p e ar ) . A s i de
from b e i n g marked [ + c o n c re t e ] ( and , b y the way , t h e s e i t ems a l s o o c ­
c ur w i t h the E V approp r i a t e t o t h e i r feature s ) , the s e are t h e only
adj unc t s wh i ch may o c c ur i nd epende n t l y e l s ewhere i n the s en t e nc e .
Thu s , we may have e x amp l e s s uch a s

18 . Ongo tanu me n d e .
that grass a
Tha t ' s a ( k i n d of) gras s .

19 . 6 n g o n a mb a - n y a y a n d a .
tha t I- POSS spear
Tha t ' s my s p e a r .

20. N a i m a - me y o k o d a ke n e n ge - me .
we-AG l e a f t h i s e a t - ASSOC
We eat this l e af; this l ea f is e di b l e .
go

21. Varna nye-pa- l a baa-nya yanu i tate p i - l y - a - m6 .

s i ck take - COMP- INF h e - POSS s k i n fi re do - PRES - 3 SG-DEC
B e i n g s i c k , he has fe v e r .

When o c c urring i n t h e p re d i c at i o n s , e a c h adj unct c o - o c curs w i t h

o n l y one pro-verb and h a s one spe c i f i c me aning :

22 . N a i m a - me d u p a y a n d a p i - l y- am i -n6 .
w e - AG t h e m s p e a r do- PRES-3SG-DEC
We ' r e fi g h t i n g them w i t h weapons/sp e ars ; we ' r e waging war w i t h
them .

23. B a a - me t a n u p i - l y - a - mo .
h e - AG grass h i t - PRES- 3 S G-DEC
He ' s c u t t i n g gras s .

24 . Maa d6ko yok6 p i - l y - a - m6 .

t aro t h e l e af do - PRES- 3 SG-DEC
The t aro is g rowing l e a v e s .

25. B a a -me mapu yanu p i - l y - a -mo .

h e - A G s w e e t . p o ta t o s ki n h i t - PRES - 3SG-DEC
He ' s p e e l i ng t h e swe e t p o t a t o .

m i n i - l y - a - mo .
h e - AG for e h e a d h o l d - PRES-3SG-DEC
He ' s swearing (an oat h ) .
4
Thus , th i s s e t i s anomalous i n two way s and c omp l e t e ly d i fferent
from all other adj unct s : firs t ly t he adj unc t s have an independent
mean ing , whi c h is that o f a [ + c on c re t e ] noun , and s e c ond l y , the s e ad­
j un c t s may o c cur e l s ewhere independent l y in the sentenc e ; they are
not r e s t r i c t ed t o c o - o c c urrence o n l y with the pre d i c at ions . However ,
whe n the s e adj unc t s o c c ur in t h e i r normal form in the pre d i c at i o n s ,
it i s only w i t h the appropr iate pro-verb : ( 2 2 a - 2 6 a ) , are a l l ungram­
mat i c a l .

2 2 a . * N a i m a - me d u p a y a n d a p i - l y- am i -no .
we - AG them s p e a r h i t - PRES - 3 S G-DEC
We are fi g h t ing t hem .

2 3 a . * B a a - me t a n u p i - l y - a -m6 .
h e - AG g r a s s do - PRES - 3 SG-DEC
He ' s c u t t ing the gras s .

24a. *Maa doko yoko p i - l y - a - mo .

taro t h e l e a f h i t - PRES- 3 SG-DEC
 91

25a . * M a p u yanu p i - l y - a - mo .
swe e t - p o ta t o s ki n do - PRES - 3 SG-DEC

2 6 a . * Ba a - me l a n g a l u p i - l y - a - mo .
h e - AG fore h e a d do- PRES- 3 S G-DEC

Further evidence o f the pre d i c a t i o n s ' s pe c ia l d i f fe re n c e s from

ordinary verb phra s e s w i l l b e h ighl i gh t e d b y a b r i e f c on s iderat i on of
s everal ' c ompound ' verb s i n Enga . The s e verb s s ee m to be c a s e s in
whi c h t he adj unct has b e c ome very c l o s e l y l inked with the c o- o c c ur­
ring pro-verb , s o far t hat they have in fact b e c ome one word . A few
e xamp l e s o f pred i c at i on s w i t h the compound verb s appearing s ide by
s ide are presented i n the t ab le b e l ow .

TAB L E 4 . 1

P r ed i c a t i on Mean i ng C ompound V e rb
w� i l y ( n g i cre a t e was i n g (5
s ak� tenge ari s e , ge t up s a k a t e n ge
auu s i n g ! carry on s h o u Lde r s a6s i n g i

As we l l a s the s e c a s e s o f b o t h the p re d i c at ion and the c ompound

verb oc c urring , Enga a l s o c on t a i n s a numb er of verb s , p o s s ib ly derived
from e ar l i e r pred i c at i on s ( ad j un c t p l u s pr o-verb ) , i n whi c h t oday only
the mu lt i - s y l l a b l e verb survive s : '

27a. s a n d a � c L imb fr om one t r e e t o the n e x t

2 7b . y a� e Lect

2 7 c . m a n d e ny ( n g i s h i v e r
2 7d . y a m b i � b e n d i n a n arc
re L e a s e w a t e r t h rough a dam ( { � } a l t ernat e in cer­
6
2 7 e . k a l u m b e nge
m
t ai n environment s i n Enga a s i n p u m b 6 t ( and p u p 6 t ( b L a c k ) .

4 . 1 . 3 P r e d i c a t i o n s i n t h e S t a t i v e F o rm

The s t a t ive form in Enga fun c t i on s as an adj e c t ival s u ff i x , wh i ch

enab le s verb forms t o modi fy noun s . Thus , from the verb k u m a - di e ,
the s t a t iv e form i s u s e d t o produ c e the mod i f i c at i on to be dead :

Aka l i k um�-pae d6ko .

man di e - STA t h e
The de ad man .
92

Pre d i c at ion s may a l s o b e u s e d i n t h i s form , and i n fact a part i c u l ar

sub - s e t , t h o s e denot ing c o l our ( 2 8 , 2 9 . 3 0 ) m o s t freque n t l y appear i n
th i s form :

28 . Aka ( p u t a i y 6 k o p ( - p a e me n d e .
cordy Z ine red do - STA a
A r e d c o rdy Z ine .

29 . 6 ngo ky60 l a - pae .

tha t wh i t e u t t e r - STA
Tha t ' s whi t e .

30 . 6 n g o we n e p y a - p a e .
t h a t b Z ue h i t - STA
Tha t ' s b Z ue .

Th i s p art i c u l ar s ub - s e t d o e s not appe ar in the usual c onj ugat i on a s

normal p re d i c at i on s w i t h pers on-numb e r a n d t e n s e markers :

3 1 . *Aka i pu t a i yoko p i - l y - a - mo .
co rdy Z i n e red do- PRES-3SG-DEC

32 . *Yuu kyoo l e - l y - a - mo .
e a r t h whi te u t t e r - PRE S - 3 SG-DEC

4.1 .4 T h e O - C o m p 1 e me n t i z e r

The O-c omp leme n t i z e r fun c t i ons a s a t emp oral s u f f i x wh i c h den o t e s

s imul t aneous a c t i on . The f o l l owing e xamp le s i l lus trate t h i s :

33 . B a a -me k a l a i py6-o k a - l y - a - mo .
h e - AG work do - O BE-PRE S - 3 SG-DEC
He is working ( L iteral ly : He is e x i s ting working ) .

The predi c at i ons may a l s o b e u s e d i n t h i s form

34 . B a a - me e e p i - l y - a - mo .
h e - AG cry u t t e r - O s i t - PRES - 3 SG -DEC
He is crying s i t t ing .

The s e pre d i cat i ons are a l s o u s e d w i t h p e r s o n-number and t e n s e marke r s :

35 . B a a - me e e l e - l y - a - mo .
h e - AG cry u t t e r - PRES - 3 SG-DEC
He is cry i n g .

However , a part i c ular sma l l s ub - s e t o f t h e pre d i c at i ons s eem t o o c c ur

only in the O-c omp lement i z ed form , rather l ike the p r e c e d i ng s ub - s e t
whi ch o c cur o n l y i n t h e s t at ive form . Thu s , we have ( 3 6 ) but not
( 36 a ) :
 93

36 . Baa a l o pya -o p e - l y - a - mo .
h e run h i t - O go - PRE S - 3SG-DEC
He is runni n g ( Li t e ra l ly : He is running g o i ng ) .

36a . * B a a a l o p i - l y - a - mo .
he run h i t - PRES- 3SG-DEC

Another e xamp le i n t h i s s ub - s e t s eems t o have an adve rb i al func t ion :

37 . B a a mo6 l a-o p e - l y - a - mo .
h e s l ow u t t e r - O g o - PRES - 3 SG-DEC
He is going s l ow l y .

3 7a . * B a a moo l e - l y - a - mo .
he s l ow u t t e r - PRES - 3 S G-DEC

We have so far i s o l a t e d t wo sub - s e t s of adj unct s in the pre d i c a­

t i ons , t h o s e wh i c h u s e only the s t at ive form ( k y 6o l a p a e w h i t e , w e n �
p y a p a e b l ue ) and tho s e u s ing only the O - c omp leme n t i z e d form ( ol I o p y a o
run , m o 6 l a o s l o w l y ) ; i n addit i o n , w e have a further s ub - s e t o f ad­
j un c t s whi ch may o c cur in b ot h of the s e forms . A s e r i e s of e x amp l e s
are pre s en t e d b e l ow t o i l lu s trate t h i s phenomenon .

38 . a u u,
he man g o o d do - STA a
He ' s a g o o d man .

39 . * Ba a a k a l i a uu me n d e .
he man good a

40 . B a a - m� k a l a i a u u py6-o p i - l y - a - m6 .
h e - AG work good do-O do - PRES - 3 SG-DEC
He is working we l l .

a u u, p i - l y - a - m6 .
h e - AG work good do - PRES - 3 SG-DEC
He is w o r k i ng we l l .

42 . p i - l y - a - m6 .
h e - A G work g o o d do - STA a do - PRES- 3S G-DEC
He is do i n g a g o o d j ob .

43 . * B a a - me a u u p i - l y - a - mo .
h e - A G g o o d do - PRE S - 3SG-DEC
He i s doing g o o d .
,
44. B a a - m� a u u py6-o p i - l y - a - m6 .
h e - AG g o o d do - O do - PRE S - 3 SG-DEC
He is do i n g w e l l - g o o d .
94

4.1 .5 Verbs

Tab le 4 . 2 pre s en t s a l i s t o f the maj or verb s whi c h c o- o c c ur i n the

pre d i c a t i o n s with adj unct s . As ment i oned above ( 4 . 0 ) only a l im i t e d
numb er o f verb s c o- o c c ur i n the pre d i c at i ons , and t h r e e o f the s e
( l e n g e u t t e r , p i n g f do , and p f n g i h i t , s tr i k e ) a c c ount for 6 3 per c e nt
of a l l verb s rec orded in the pre d i c at i o n s . The p re di c a t i on s t hem­
s e lv e s a c c ount for 6 6 per c ent of a l l Enga verb forms , whi l e the re­
maining verb forms c over 3 4 per c ent . Thu s , we have twice a s many
pred i c a t i o n s as o t her verb forms in the c orpus , and of t he s e ( i . e . the
pre d i c a t i on s ) , roughly two-th irds are l im i t e d t o c o- o c currence w i t h
o n e o f the t hre e pro-verb s l i s t ed ab ove .

TAB L E 4 . 2

Verb Gloss No . Eer c e n t

l enge utter 334 32
pin9f do , make 247 23
p fn g i h i t , s tr i k e 80 8
5 fn 9 i h e ar 45 4
n y fn g i get, take 40 4
m i n fn g i hold 29 3
k a e n ge be 30 3
pa l e n ge tie ( i n s i de ) 24 2
katenge s tand 21 2
p e n ge go 15 1
nenge eat, consume 16 1
t e n ge b urn 15 1
mi s c e l laneous 172 16

1068 100
The total corpus was 5 , 545 items ; of these , the verbal
forms totalled 1 ,607 :
1 ,068 Predications
539 Other Verbs
1 ,607

4 . 1 .6 A P rob l em

Kyaka , the e a s t ernmo s t Enga d i a l e c t ( and the are a s b ordering i t )

p ermit s verb a l i z at i on ( i . e . , infle c t i o n for pers on , numb er and t e n s e )
of c e r t a i n t y p e s of adj unc t s ( [ + inner s t at e ] , [ + c o l our ] and
[ +qua l i t y ] ) , wh i ch i n a l l other Enga d i a l e c t s oc cur only as adj unc t s
i n the pred i c at i ons ( i . e . , c annot b e infle c t e d for p e r s on , numb er and
 95

7
t en s e ) . F o l l owing are s ome e xamp l e s t o i l lu s trate t h i s phenomenon
and a b r i e f d i s c u s s i on o f i t .

1. [ + inner s t at e ] I n the e a s t ern d i a le c t s the fol lowing are

permi s s ib le :

45. Baa t a n da - l - u -mu .

he p a i n - PRES - 3 S G-SENSE
He is p a i n i n g ( i . e . , h e is in p a in ) .

46 . Baa maka- l - u-mu .

he fe d . up - PRES- 3 S G - SENSE
He is fe d up (wi t h s omeone or s ome t h i n g ) .

47 . Baa kon d a - l - u - m u .
he p i t y - PRES- 3 SG-SENSE
He is p i t y i n g ( s omeone ) .

I n other d i a le c t s t he s ame e xamp l e s would b e expre s s ed v i a pred i c a ­

t i ons u s ing t h e verb k a e n g e .

k a ya - l - u - m u .
he p ai n fe e l - PRES - 3 SG-SENSE
He is fe e l i ng p ain .

kaya - l - u -mu .
he fe d . up fe e l - PRES- 3SG-SENSE
He i s fe d up .

47a. Baa k6n d6 kaya - l - u-mu .

he p i t y fe e l - PRE S - 3 SG-SENSE
He is fe e l i ng p i t y , he has p i ty .

2. [ + c o l our ] I n t h e e a s t we have

48 . fd d6ko s a k a - l - u - mu .
tree the g r e e n - PRES- 3SG-SENSE
8
The t r e e i s green ( 1 . e . , h e a H hy , l i vi n g ) .

In other d i a l e c t s , ( 4 8 ) would be e xpre s s e d by

p y - � -mu .
tree the g re e n do - PRES . 3SG-SENSE
The t r e e is gre e n ( i . e . , h e a l t h y , l i v i ng ) .

3. [ +qual i t y ] I n the e a s t w e have

49 . Aka l i d6ko ke n d a - l - u-mu .

man the heavy - PRES- 3 SG - SENSE
The man is he avy .
96

50 . A k a 1 i d 6 ko mu i y a - I - u - mu .
man the s h o r t - PRES-3SG-SENSE
The man is s h ort .

In the other Enga d i al e c t s , t h e s e would b e

49a. Aka 1 i d 6 k o k e n d a p l, - p ae .
man the h e a vy do - STA
The man i s h e av y .
I
50a. Aka 1 i d 6ko muu p ( - pae .
man the s ho r t do - STA
The man i s s h o r t .

The p re s enc e o f the verbal i z ed adj unct ( with no c o - o c c urring

' c o gnat e obj e c t ' adj unc t ) in the e a s t e rn d i a le c t s of Enga l e ad s u s t o
a s k what e x a c t l y i s p r e s ent i n the deep s t ru c t ure o f the pred i c at i ons
( in the we s t e rn d i a l e c t s ) and what is present in the deep s t ru c t ure
o f the verb a l i z e d adj unc t s ? Thi s que s t ion will b e d i s cus s e d in
S e c t ion 4 . 3 .
We w i l l c on c lude t h i s s e c t ion b y drawing s p e c i a l at t e n t i o n t o s ome
negative e xamp l e s wh i c h i l lu s trate s everal p o int s :
i . that the verb a l i z e d adj unc t s mus t o c c ur only in the
pre d i c at i on s ( 4 5 a , 4 6 a , 4 7a ) ;
i i . that s ome o f the s e may o c c ur only in a s p e c i fi c form
of predi cat ions ( i . e . the s t at ive form) ( e xamp l e s 4 9 a ,
5 0 a ) ; and
i i i . t ha t the verb a l i z e d adj unc t s are a set wh i c h is mut u­
a l l y e x c l u s ive w i t h t h o s e [ + concre t e ] nouns wh i c h c o ­
o c c ur w i t h E V ( 2 . 0 ) ; e x amp le s ( 5 1-5 3 ) w i l l i l lus trate
this :

5 1 . *Aka 1 i dupa aka 1 i - I y-ami -n o .

man the man - PRE S - 3 PL-DEC
*The men man .

52 . * 0 i i dupa d i i - I y a - am i -n o .
frui t t h e fru i t - PRES-3 PL-DEC
*The frui t s frui t .

53. *Ta i yoko t a i y o ke - I y - a - mo .

b lood b l ood- PRES- 3 S G-DEC
* B l o o d b l oods .

The s e [ + c oncre t e ] nouns cannot o c c ur as i n f l e c t e d verb a l s , b ut i n s t e ad

c o- o c cur w i th the e x i s t en t i a l verb s :
 97

51a. Aka 1 i d 6 p a k a te - n ge .
man the BE-HAB
Me n exi s t .

52a. Di ( d6pa l y (-ng i .

fru i t t h e BE-HAB
Frui t s e xi s t .

5 3 a . Ta i y6ko d6ko pa l e - n g e .
b Zood the BE-HAB
B Z o o d e xi s t s .

Th i s i s , o f c o ur s e , s t i l l further evidence for c l as s i fi cat ory verb s

in Enga : b ot h the e x i s t e n t i a l c la s s i f i c at ory verb s and the pro-verb s
as c l as s i fi c at ory verbs ( or verb a l s ) , s in c e they o c c ur i n c omp l emen­
t ary d i s t r i b ut i on i n r e l at i on to the [ +c oncret e ] nouns .

4.2 S EM A N T I C S

4.2.1 Ru l es

In the p r e c e ding s e c t i on we have d i s cu s s ed the pre d i c at i on , i t s

form , and one part i c u l ar prob lem ( 4 . 1 . 6 ) . We w i l l now t urn t o the
maj or que s t i on , i . e . , to what e x t ent i s it po s s ib l e to formu l a t e a
s e t o f rule s wh i c h w i l l operat e on the s emant i c fe atur e s o f the ad­
j un c t s u s ed . i n the pre d i c at i on s and wh i c h w i l l t hu s enab le us t o
det erm i ne t h e c orre c t a s s i gnment o f t h e adj unct s t o t h e i r c o- o c c urring
verb i n the pre d i c at i on ?
In att emp t ing t o formu l at e the s e rule s , w e w i l l limit our s e lves t o
the fir s t t hr e e o f the c o-oc curring verb s (i.e. , l e n g e , p i n g ( , and
p ( n g i ) for t wo r e a s on s , f i r s t ly , t h e s e three verb s a c c ount for 65 per
c e nt o f a l l t he c o - o c c urr ing verb s , and s e c ondly , s in c e a l im i t e d
numb e r w i l l a v o i d unne c e s s ary c omp l i cat ion of the rule s .
A t r e e d i agram i s p r e s e n t e d i n D i a gram 4 . 3 and w i l l be d i s c u s s e d
i n t h e f o l l owing s ec t i on .
The rul e s pre s e nt e d i n D i a gr am 4 . 3 are ordered t hrough only the
f i r s t s even node s . The f i r s t node p r e s ent s the choice o f l o an word
or not , s i n c e ( a s we w i l l d i s c u s s in 4 . 2 . 2 b e l ow ) the a s s i gnment o f
loan words i s h i gh l y predi c t ab le . The s e c ond node i s t entat ive , but
i t s e ems very p re d i c t ab l e t hat [ +c on c re t e ] l oan i t ems are a s s i gned
p ( n g i hi t , with all others t ak i n g l e n g e u t t e r . Two e xamp l e s for t h i s
node w o u l d b e :
+
54. Ht i l e -n ge9
read u t te r - HA B
to read
 V I AGRAM 4 . 3

2
+ . p rngi
word ] -------. [ c oncre t e ] ----��

L
hit
-
l e n ge
utter
3
[ c on c r e t e ] ------------•
• t o EV t re e ( Di agram 2 . 1 )
�-
r�
4
[ chara c t er i s t i c ]
+
nd • l e n ge
utter

5
[ make , do , unt ie ] � p i n g r

�6
do
_

+
[ h i t , s t rike , pee 1 ] _ p l n g .l
,

l-
hit

7
+
[ i nner s t at e ] ------�-+. k a e n ge . p i n g r . l e n g e

�8
be do utter
_

[ p ayment ] --------�+�. p i n g r . p r n g i
do hit
�9 -
+
[ c ut , break ] --------�. p rn g i . l en ge

�
hit utter
_

10
[ p lay ] --------�+�. l e n ge . p i n g r . p r n 9 i

11
� _
utter do hit

[ mo t i on ] --------�+�. [ in p l ac e ]
+
. l e n ge

L
utter
- p i n g r . p rn g i
do hit

+ ,
55 . pepa p ( -n 9 i
p a p e r h i t - RAB
t o wri t e

T h e r u l e s w o u l d n o t permi t :
+
54a . * l i t i p i -n g i
r e a d do - RAB

or
 99

+
55a . * p e p a 1 e -n ge
p ap e r u t t e r - HAB

The t hird node would remove a l l ot her [ + c oncre t e ] nouns and s end t hem
to the EV s emant i c redundan c y rul e s ( c f . Diagram 2 . 1 ) . Of ne c e s s it y ,
t h i s node mus t f o l low the loan words ( i . e . t o a l l ow the [ + c on c r e t e ]
l o an words t o b e c orre c t ly a s s i gned t o pro-verb s ) , y e t we want i t as
near the t o p o f the tree a s p o s s ib l e ( in order t o remove the
[ + concre t e ] nouns wh i c h c o-oc cur with EV a s s oo n a s p o s s i b l e ) . An
e xamp l e for node t hree would b e ( 5 6 ) , with ( 5 6 a-b ) showing un gram­
mat i c a l i t i e s ar i s in g from i n c orre c t app l i c a t i o n of the rule s :

56 . ak� 1 i k a t e - n ge
man BE-HAB
men exi s t

5 6a . * a k a l i p i -ngi
man do - HAB

5 6b . * i mb u k a t e - n ge
ang e r BE-HAB

Nodes ( 5- 7 ) in D iagram 4 . 3 remove adj unc t s whi c h f a l l into the ' ma i n '
seman t i c domain/fe at ure s of the t hree m o s t fre quent ly u s ed pro-verb s :
l e n g e u t t e r , p i n g ( do , and p ( n g i hi t . The s e are ordered b y fr equency
o f the pro-verb in the pred i cat ions , b as e d upon the dat a pre s en t e d in
Tab l e 4 . 2 . Examp l e s for each o f these nodes would be

57 . Wee 1 e -n ge
s ong u t t e r - HAB
t o sing ( a s ong )

57a . * k a l a i l e -nge
work u t t e r - HAB

57b . *wee p i -ng i

s ong do - HAB

58 . ka l � i p i -n g (
work do - HAB
t o work

58a. *ka l a i p i -n g i
w o rk h i t - HA B

59 . dnu p (-ng i
grass h i t - HAB
to mow ( g ra s s )
100

59a . * t a n u p i -n g (
gras s do - HA B

5 9b . * t a n u l e - n ge
gra s s u t te r - HAB

Node s even i s the l a s t o f the ordered node s ; it is ordered after

t h e ' ma i n ' d omain of the mai n pro-verb s , and i s the f i r s t node wh i c h
a l lows int e r s e c t ion ( c f . 4 . 2 . 3 ) f o r the [ + inner s t at e ] adj unct s . Thi s
group o f adj unc t s has b e e n d i s c u s s e d in 4 . 1 . 6 , and w i l l b e furt her
d i s c u s s e d in 4 . 2 . 3 ( on the inter s e c t i on of k a e n ge and p i n g ( and t h e i r
a s s i gnment t o inner s t a t e adj unct s ) . S ome e x amp l e s for t h i s node
would b e

60 . (mbu kae - n ge
anger b e - HA B
t o b e angry

6 0a . * i m b u p i -ng i
a n g e r h i t - HAB

6 0b . * t e e kae - n ge
res ti tution b e - HA B

The rema ining node s are ordered b y frequenc y , and , l i k e t h e inner

s t at e ( node seven ) a l s o a l low the int e r s e c t i on of pro-verb s . The
point to be noted is that the a s s i gnment o f pro-verb s over node s
e i ght t hr ough e l even , even though a l l owing inters e c t i o n , d o e s not al­
low the pro-ver b s to be a s s i gned i n random order ; t he pro-verb s are
not in fre e variat ion : even t hough two pro-verb s may b e permi t ted ,
the others are e x c luded . Some e xamp l e s t o i l lu s t rat e t h i s point are :

61. w a t a p ae p i - n g ( OA p(-ngi
marriage d o - HA B O A h i t - HAB
to make marriage payme n t

6 1a . *wa t a p ae l e - n ge
6 1b . * w a t a p a e k a e - n g e
62 . nanga p f - n g i OA l e -nge
s h a rp hi t - HAB O A u t t e r - HAB
t o s harp en

62a . * n a n g a p i - n g i
s ha rp do - HAB

Node e i ght ( paymen t s ) i s puz z l i ng , s in c e s ome payment s may o c cur

only with p i n g ( do , wh i l e others o c c ur only with p ( n g i hit ( and y e t
 101

others , a s i n ( 8 ) may o c cur w i t h b ot h p i n g f and p f n g i ) . I t would

lO
s e em j u s t a s l ik e l y that payment s should c o-o c c ur with l e n ge u t t e r .
Three a l t ernat i ve s o ffer them s e l v e s t o ac c ount for the s e prob lem
c a s e s ; i t is e i ther such t hat
(i) A s s i gnment o f verb s to pred i cat i o n s i s i n fact c om­
p l e t e ly arb i t r ary , there fore a mul t i p l e - c h o i c e node for c e s
a n arb i t r ary c h o i c e ; o r
(ii) Add i t i ona l very s pe c i fi c s emant i c i nve s t i ga t i on o n
only t h e mul t i p l e c h o i c e node s , in a var i e t y o f c on t e x t s
and w i t h a l arge group o f i n forman t s , might provide addi­
t i onal dat a wh ich would enab le addi t i onal s e mant i c fe at u r e s
t o b e p o s t u l at ed , provi d i ng addit i onal b r a n c h e s a n d u n i qu e
a s s i gnment o f verb s i n pre d i c a t i o n s ; o r
( iii) A s s i gnment o f verb s t o pre d i cat i o n s ( or t h e adj unc t ­
verb c o-oc currenc e ) i s governed b y s emant i c feature s , but
t here is a s i z eab le r e s i due o f c a s e s where the c o- o c curren c e
r e s t ri c t i on i s semant i c a l l y arb i t rary .
( i ) pre s e n t s t he p o s s i b i l i t y t hat the prob lem i s e s s en t i a l l y un­
s o lvab le at the p r e s ent s t age of s emant i c deve l opment ( or perhap s un­
s o lvab le at any t ime ) ; ( i i ) and ( i i i ) pre s e nt the p o s s i b i l it y that the
prob lem is i n fac t s o lvab l e , but not w i t h the pres ent dat a ; add i t i onal
data and work would b e ne c e s s ary .

4.2.2 Loan I t ems

The a s s i gnme nt o f l oan i t ems o f t e n prov i d e s addi t ional evidence for

s emant i c feature s . Adj un c t s wh i c h are loan i t ems from Tok P i s in are
pre s e n t e d i n Tab l e 4 . 4 . Of the t went y - e i ght c a s e s , only four i nvolve
a verb o t her t han l e n ge u t t e r ; t he s e are s i x c a s e s u s i n g the verb
p f n g i hit . It i s intere s t ing t o n o t e that s everal of the adj unc t s
s e em , t o t h e nat ive speaker o f Engl i s h , t o b e [ + c on c ret e ] ( l o c k ,
paper , b a l l , t ax , card s , change ) . However , it appears t hat t he s e
i t ems , when u s e d i n Enga are v iewed a s [ - c oncret e ] . The contrast here
is b e tween v o t e ( noun ) and t o v o t e ( ve rb ) , l i kewi s e , Z o c k and t o Z o a k ,
p a p e r and to p ap e r , b a Z Z and p Z ay b a Z Z , t ax and pay t ax e s , cards and
p Z ay cards , and change and to chang e .
Mos t of the loan adj unc t s wh i c h t ake l e n g e are [ +event /a c t ivi t y ] .
I n th i s c o n t e x t it i s n o t ab l e that even when l oan i t ems b orrowed are
verb s i n Tok P i s in ( and s ome are b orrowed w i t h the Tok P i s in verb
marker - i m ) , the i t ems are not b orrowed as verb s , but u s ed a s adj un c t s
i n pred i c at i ons . Thi s would s eem t o i nd i c a t e t hat , wh i l e Enga may
b orrow nouns from Tok P i s in ( c f . Se c t i o n 3 . 3 ) , Enga d o e s not b orrow
102

ll
verb s a s s u c h . Some o f the T o k P i s in verb s a s s i gned t o pred i c a t ions
in Enga i n c lude : d a u n i m i ove rcome , m a k i m i mark , p o s i m i b O B S , and
s a k i m i s a c k /j o s t L e .

TA B L E 4 . 4 : LOAN I TEMS I N THE P RE D I CAT I ON S

Ad j unc t s a s s i g ned t o p l n g i h i t :
,

to Lock l oko p f n 9 i l oko Lock

t o wri t e pepa pepa paper
t o p Lay b a H kosa kos� baH
t o p ay taxes tak f s a tak fsa t ax
t o p L ay b a H pus � pusa baH ?
t o have an i n j e c t i on nf1 i nf1 i nai L , inj e c t i on
,
to wash w a s aw a s a wa s a wash ?

Adj unc t s a s s i gned t o l e n g e u t t e r :

t o r u i n , de s troy b a k a t a p � l e n ge b a k a t a p � ruin
to v o t e b6ta/b6sa vote
to boi L bo 1 6 boH
to as s emb L e b U l) a a s s emb L y
t o ove rcome daun i m ( down
to arri v e kamapu come up
to g amb L e , p L ay cards k � s a cards
to gamb L e , p L ay Lucky l a k f i L u c ky
to b e cro o k e d k u t un g � s a cro o k e d
to read 1 ft i read
to h a v e e Le c ti on les fsa/ l etesa race
to Lose l �s a Lose
to mark mak i m f mark
to p a tro L pasat61e p a tro L
to s u p e rvi s e p6s i m i /p � s a boss
to b e fu L L pul ap� fu L L up
to j ump/hop s ak i m f sack, jos t L e
to change money s a n ,l s a change
to di s L i k e s �k �
to a t t e n d s choo L s uk� l u school
to swim s u p rm r swim
to win, t ri umph w i n r /w i n f m i win
to L i t i g a t e , to have k6sa court
a court
 103

4.2.3 I ntersect i on

The t o t a l numb er of pre d i c at i o n s ( c f . Tab l e 4 . 2 , S e c t i o n 4 . 1 . 5 ) i s

1 1 8 2 ; o f t h i s t o t a l we have n i n e t e e n cas e s
( 1 . 7 % ) i n w h i c h more than
12
one verb c an app e ar i n t he verb s l ot o f t h e pred i c at i on . We wi l l
d i s c u s s t he s e n i n e t e e n c a s e s i n t h i s s e c t ion , s i n c e a l l t h e o t h e r s are
unint ere s t i n g by virtue of t he i r very regular i t y . Howeve r , i t mus t b e
s t re s s ed t ha t t h e a l t ernate verb s are not in fre e var i at i on ; t h e only
two pro-verb s to int e r s e c t w i t h r e s p e c t t o p a ke s t e a l are n y r n g i t a k e
13
and n e n g e e a t , as i n ( 6 3 ) and ( 6 4 ) ; any o t h e r pro-verb s i n c o­
o c c urrence w i t h p a k e would make t h e u t t erance ungrammat i c a l as in ( 6 5 )

63. pake
s t e a l t a k e - HAB
t o s te a l

n e - n g e,
s te a l e a t - HA B
to s t e a l

r
*p i -n g (
do - HAB
65. p a ke * l e - n ge

1
s teal u t t e l' - HAB
* t e - n ge
b Ul'n - HAB
etc .

Aga in , we mu s t l oo k at b ot h p ar t s o f the pre d i c at i on :

( i ) the a d j u n c t : what k inds o f adj unct s o c c ur in t he c a s e s

of inters ect ion?

( i i ) t he verb : what verb s o c cur i n t h e s e c a s e s ; a n d a r e t he s e

t h e m o s t frequent o f t he verb s o c c urring i n t h e pre d i c a­
t ions , or ins t e ad s ome e n t i r e l y d i fferent group of ve rb s ?

Tab l e 4 . 5 pre s ent s a mat r i x o f t he 1 9 c a s e s o f i n t e r s e c t ion i n t h e

pred i cat i ons .

4.2.3.1 T h e A d j u nct� in I nt e�� e cti o n

The adj un c t s pre s ented i n Tab l e 4 . 5 are group ed b y s eman t i c fea­

t ure s into r ough l y four group s , [ + inner s t at e ] with twelve of t he
t wenty-one c a s e s ; [ + qual i t y ] w i t h f ive c a s e s ; [ -c oncre t e ] w i t h three
c as e s ; and one mi s c e l laneous i t em , po6 wind, whi c h may we l l b e a
memb er of [ - c oncret e ] , t o o .
104

TAB L E 4 . 4 : I NTERSECT ION I N THE PRE D I CAT IONS

" " - " � VI � " 3 3 ... VI

-. III (1) � -< -, (1) III III -. (1) _.
� (1) � � - � � - � � � �
to � tO tO � to to (1) 0- - to to
Adjunc t Type : - to (1) -. to -. (I).. � (1) � (1) -,

I:! ;so ;SO (\) (1)

_. to � to
P-
(1)

<i- ",. � (\) � I:! �

_. 0'

C '-+,
to ()

(\) <i- <i- (\) � <i- N ;so ".! ".!

(1),

(\) (\) <i- ".! ",. 0' C ;:$ ".!

N ".! (\) (\) N
� P-
«:
l. [ + inner s t ate ] ".!
,
a u u l i k e , z. o v e x x x

e l y a / y a l a shame x x x

I mb u ange r x x

e n a p 6 t i hot x x

ke n d � heavy x x

k6n d o p i t y x x x

k e ke n a fed up x x

k l p a z. i ke x x

l e mo n g o t l s z.e epy x x

m y o k u nausea x x

p a k a fear x x

t a n d a p ain x x x

2. [ - concre t e ]

ya r n � il. 1. , siak x x

m � n a manner, way x X
+
t o m b 6 / m�k i boundary x x x x

3. [ + event] (?)
n a n g a sharp x x

w a a / p a ke s te a l. x x

a n g a m a e y awn x x

t o p 6 buy/s e z. z. x x

wa i p a add on x x

pyangatu n angatu
hi aaough x x

4. [ - conc r e t e ] (?)
p o6 wind x x
 105

The mos t import ant p o int t o n o t e from t h e adj unc t s appearing i n Tab l e
4 . 5 i s t h e high fre quency o f [ + inner s t at e ] adj unc t s ( i . e . more than
5 0 % of all the c a s e s ) . Th i s would i n d i c a t e that a s u i t ab le prob lem
for further inve s t i gat ion would b e the po s s ib le i n t er s e c t i o n s o f a l l
other [ + inner s t at e ] adj unct s .

The verb s pre s e n t e d i n Tab l e 4 . 4 are group ed i n order o f frequenc y .

The read i l y o b s ervab l e maj or p o int among the verb s i s the ext reme ly
h igh degree of int e r s e c t i on b e tween two o f the verb s , p i n g ( do and
k a e n g e b e ( o f e m o t i on ) .
Ka e n g e oc c urs e leven t ime s , and i n a l l o f
the s e i t inter s e c t s w i t h p i n g r do ; furthermore , the s tr i king f a c t i s
that t h e s e o c curre nc e s are a l l w i t h i n the [ + inner s t a t e ] group o f
adjunct s . We w i l l regard k a e n g e a s an e s s ent i a lly me aningl e s s verb ,
wh i ch func t i o n s only as the c arrier of pers on-number and t e n s e w i t h
[ + inner s t at e ] adj unc t s i n t h o s e Enga d i a l e c t s wh ich d o not verb a l i z e
14
the s e . Addi t i onal evidence i n favour o f t h i s view i s pre s ented b y
Draper ( n . d . a : 4 4 ) :

p i - l y a - m6 .
I fe d . up do - PRES-3SG -DEC
I am fe d up ( l it : weari n e s s i8 happe n i n g in me ) .

66a. Namba maka - l y - o .

I fe d . up PRE S - 1SG
-

I am fe d up/w e a ry .

p i - l y - a - m6 .
I fe a r do - PRES - 3 S G-DEC
I am a fr a i d ( l it . : fe a r is happ e n i ng in m e ) .

67a. Namba paka- l y-o .

I fe ar- PRES-1SG
I am afrai d .

Drap er c a l l s a l l of our [ + inner s t a t e ] pred i c a t i ons ' Compound

Impersonal Verb s ' ( n . d . a : 4 4 ) , Impers onal Verb s b e ing t h o s e in whi c h
s ome t h i n g happ ens t o a person vo luntar i l y . The Kyaka Imp e r s onal Verb s
are o ft e n e xpre s s e d by p i n g ( do ( a lthough as in Enga proper , other
verb s are also u s ed , i . e . , l e n g e , p ( n g i hi t , et c . ) . S in c e we are not
ab le t o inve s t i gate Kyaka , we w i l l in fact re gard k a e n g e a s a vir­
tually me aningle s s verb used i n pred i c at i o n s w i t h [ + inner s t a t e ] ad­
j un c t s ( and no others ) .
106

4.3 CO N C L US I O N

I n t h e pre ceding s e c t ions w e have des cribed t h e p red i c at ions o f

Enga . The que s t ion now ari s e s , how can t h e s e b e a c c ount ed for w i t h i n
a generat ive trans forma t i onal framework . W e have p o i n t e d o u t ab ove
( 4 . 0 ) that the EV c l a s s i fy [ + concre te ] nouns and the pro-verb s of the
pre d i c at i ons [ - c oncre t e ] nouns , and that they are in c omp lement ary
d i s t r i b ut i on in t h i s r e s p e c t . Th i s s ugge s t s that we mi ght be ab le t o
u s e t h e s ame me chan i s m t o a c c ount for b oth kind s of c l as s i f i c at ory
verb s in Enga . The only formal di fference b e tween the two kinds of
verb would then b e that the EV is introduced only in c e r t a in environ­
ment s , wh i le the pro-verb of the predicat ion is o b l igatory in all en­
vi ronment s .
I n S e c t ion 2 . 3 we have acc ounted for the insert ion o f t h e EV b y
means o f a c onven t i on o f feat ure spreading and an agreement r u l e which
t rans ferred the feature s of the noun ont o the pre d i c at e node . A re­
verse feature spreading c onve n t i o n moved t h e s e features down t o t h e
dummy n o d e where they w o u l d b e reali zed phon o l o g i c a l l y a s the c orre c t
surface form of t h e c o-oc curring EV . We w i l l here p o s i t the s ame
mechan i sm for the pred i c at ions , e x c e pt that in the c a s e of the pre d i ­
c at i ons , feature spreading a n d the insert ion of t h e appropriate pro­
verb is ob l igatory . We c an a l s o use feat ure spreading to a c c ount for
the sma l l sub - s e t s of adj un c t s wh i ch o c c ur only in s p e c i a l grammat i c a l
forms ( e . g . s t at ive and o-c omplement i z er ) .
Th is can b e a c c omp l i shed
15
s imply b y s p e c i a l l y marking the adj un ct s of these s e t s with the ap­
propr iate grammat i c a l form :

[-O-COMP
:�f; J
68a. wene

6 8b .
[+ ]
mo6
1a
+O-COMP
-STA

68c . auu
[:��A/+O-COMPJ
Examp l e s are presented in ( 6 9 and 7 0 ) :

69 . Tee p i -n g (
re s t i t u t i o n do - HAB
To p ay re s t i t u t i o n
 107

69a . 'l 69b .

N ~
L
[ +p i ]

t
I
tee
I
pin9i
[ +p i ] [ +p i ]
re s ti t u t i o n re s t i tu t i o n do

70. wee l e -nge

s o n g u t t e r- HAB
to s i ng ( a song )

�v
70a. 70b .

~
I I
[+1 a ]

wee 6 wee
I I
l en ge
[+1a] [+1a]

s on g s ong utter

For the Enga pred i c at i o n s , the f o l l owing s t e p s are ne c e s s ary :

( i ) Ob l i gat ory i n s e rt i on o f a dummy V node for the pred i c a-
t i on ' s pro-verb at the VP node .
( i i ) The c onvent i on of feature spreading , whi c h dup l i cat e s
the noun ' s feat ure s ont o the dominat ing N P node .
( i i i ) A rule of agreement , whi c h c op i e s the fe at ure s of the
domi nat ing NP node ont o the dominat ing VP node .
( iv ) The c onven t i on of revers e feature spreading , whi c h
dup l i c a t e s the noun ' s feat ure from t h e dominat ing VP
node ont o the dummy V nod e .
( v ) The phono l o g i c a l real i z at i on o f the feature s at the
16 17
dummy V node a s the approp riate pro-verb .
 N O T E S

1. The prob lems of giving a truly adequat e d e f i n i t ion of pre d i c a­

t i on s i s formidab le : what feat ure s are ne c e s s ary t o d i s t ingu i sh
predi c a t i on s from o t her o c c urrenc e s of noun ( phra se ) p lus verb , in
s uc h re l at i o n s as obj e c t , i n s trument al , adverb i a l and so fort h . The
que s t i on is why do t he maj ority of l ingui s t s s e em to fe e l that t he s e
N + V s e quenc e s i n NAN l anguage s a r e s omehow s p e c i a l ( s ee 5 . 2 . 2 . 1 ,
Chart 5 . 2 , and the c omp arative data in Append i x E ) ? Pawley has
s t at e d "in Karam my reasons are ( 1 ) that c e rt ai n nouns always o c c ur
a c c ompan i ed by a verb , and by one and only one verb ( in s ome c a s e s
w i t h a very few verb s ) ; ( 2 ) t h a t t h e expre s s i ons t ran s l ate int o a
s i ngle Engl i s h verb " ( pers onal communi c at i on ) .

2. Alt hough i t ems l ike s ca r , s � e d , cards , s c ho o � and change are

[ + c oncre t e ] in Engl i s h , they are [ - concrete ] in Enga : e . g . one cannot
s ay see a s choo � , hit a s ch o o � or chop down a s c h o o � u s ing 5 u k G l u ; i t
mus t b e modi fied and made [ + concre t e ] b y t h e add i t i on of a n d a t o o c c ur
in such s ent enc e s ; s e e a l s o 4 . 2 . 2 .

3. The mod i fi cat ions t o f o l low have a l s o b e e n p erformed on a number

of pred i c at i o n s involving d i f fe rent pro-verb s . However , t he s e modi­
f i c i at i ons d i ffered only t r i v i al ly from t he ones given here and t hey
have , there fore , b e en omit t ed .

4. C omp l e x l e x i cal entri e s ( id i oms ) have not b e e n d i s cu s sed , however

there is a s up e r f i c i a l surfa c e s t ru c t ure re semb l an c e b e t we e n s ome Enga
i d i oms and the pred i c a t i ons . After add i t i onal work , t h i s w i l l b e
pre s ented i n a forth c oming art i c le dealing w i t h s everal o f t he unre­
s o lved problems o f the pred i c at i ons .

5. Note that - l y - t o - 5 - i s a regular c hange i n t he far we s t ern Enga

diale ct s .

108
 109

6. { � b } a l t ernat e in c e r t a in environment s i n Enga , a s i n p u m b � t r

and p u p � t r b l a c k .

7. I t i s s t r i king that t he s e adj unc t s verb a l i ze d i n t h e e a s t ern Enga

d i a le c t s appear e x c l u s i ve l y i n t he e x amp l e s ( 4 5- 5 0 ) i n the s en s ed
form , imp ly ing i n ( 4 5 ) e . g . I s e n s e he i 8 in pain or I s e n 8 e he i s
p a i n in g . T h i s problem needs furt her inve s t i gat i o n , a s the form w i t h
per s on numb er and t e n s e s e ems , at b e s t , que s t i onab le :

a. 7 * N a mb a t a n de � l y - o .
I p ai n - PRES - 1 S G
I am i n p a i n , I a m p a i n i n g .

b. 7 * Namba ken de - l y - o .
I heavy - PRES- 1 SG
I am heavy .

8. S a k a has a w i d e range of meaning , inc luding gre e n , h e a l t hy ,

l i v i ng , mature and ( o f human s ) midd le-aged . S a k a may b e u n i que , s in c e
we have

c. T a l y e - l y - a - mo .
y e l low- PRES- 3 SG-AUG
I t is y e l l o w .

but n o t * t a l y a p lus a pro-verb , i . e . , y e l l ow + pro-verb .

+
9. It w i l l b e r e c a l l e d t hat marks l oan i t ems and * ungrammat i c a l
i t ems . Thus , (5 9� and (6 0� are grammat i c a l u t t eranc e s c on t a ining
l oan i t ems , wh i le ( 5 4 a ) and ( 5 5 a ) are ungrammat i c a l .

10 . When one c ons iders the amount o f verb a l nego t i at ion and e lab orat e
s p e e ch -making ( o ft en in h i gh l y me t aphor i c l anguage ) whi c h a c c ompani e s
almos t a l l o f t h e var i o u s payment s made b y one group of Enga t o
ano t h e r , i t s e ems a l l t h e more l ik e ly that l e n ge u t t e r should ,
rat i on a l ly , b e a p ro-verb for t h e p ayment adj un c t s .

11. Paw l e y ( pe r s onal c ommun i c a t i o n ) has noted : " Karam has never
b orrowed a verb " .

12 . Pawley has n o t e d a s im i l ar phenome non in Karam :

It should be noted even though it is the adjunct which carries the

more specifi c meaning , the verb stem is not empty of meaning . There
are many adjuncts which can occur with several di fferent verb s , and
llO

the verb stem i s what distingui shes them. For example the adjunct
sy , which means illegal (ly) , occurs with s everal verb stems :
to steal sy d-
il legally obtain
to trespass sy md­
(by remaining) illegally remain
to steal food, sy n l)
eat food iZ ZegaZZy consume
iZ ZegaZZy
to corrmit wal) sy d al)
fornication penis obtain copulate
(of woman)
(of a man) mgn sy d al)
vagina obtain copulate ( 1969 : 30 ) .

13 . N o t e that ( 6 3 and 6 4 ) have the s ame me aning , to s te a l , and that

i t is the adj unct p a k e which c arrie s the meaning of the pred i c at i o n ;
we c ou ld p erhap s p o s t u l a t e that t h e pro-verb s oc curr ing in t h e pre d i ­
c at i ons a r e e s sent i a l ly me an ingle s s c arr iers o f the pers on numb er and
t e n s e ( or othe r ) markers . See a l s o not e 1 4 f o l l owing .
N o t e a l s o the p arral l e l i sm b e tween the pro-verb s o f the pred i ca­
t i ons ( i . e . virtually meaningle s s when o c c urring in the pre d i c at ions ,
y e t oc curring independe n t l y as meaningful verb s ) and the EV ( wh i c h are
only shape/p o s t ure markers as EV , yet a l s o oc cur independen t l y a s
me an ingful verb s ) .

14. We are here regarding k a e n g e as meaning l e s s , s i n c e it doe s not

oc c ur independent ly ( d ) a s do all other pro-verb s o f the pre d i c at i ons
to ( g ) .

d. * B a a - me k a e - l y - a - mo .
h e - AG fe e l - PRES- 3SG-DEC
He ' s fe e l ing .

e. Ba a - me l e - l y - a - mo .
h e - AG u t t e r - PRE S - 3 S G-DEC
He ' s u t t e ring .

f. B a a - me p r - l y - a - mo .
h e - AG h i t - PRES- 3SG-DEC
He ' s h i t t i n g .

g. B a a - me p i - l y - a - mo .
h e - AG do- PRES- 3SG-DEC
He ' s doi n g .

Anot her s o lut i on ( i . e . , rather than regarding k a e n g e as ' me aningle s s ' )

would b e t o p o s tulate t hat k a e n g e i s t he EV for a l l [ + inner s t at e ]
 111

noun s . Thi s h a s s e r i ou s c on s e quence s , and d o e s n o t c orr e s p ond t o the

dat a , s in c e the EV c la s s i fy a l l the [ + c oncre t e ] noun s , ( and the
[ + inner s t at e ] are a s s umed t o b e [ - concrete ] ) . A l s o , s ince the inner
s t at e adj unc t s may b e verb al i zed in the e a s t e rn Enga d i a l e c t s ( c f .
4 . 1 . 6 ) , we would have t o p o s t ul a t e that the [ + inner s t at e ] adj unc t s
were verb s i n t w o o f t h e Enga d i a l e c t s , and nouns u s i n g t h e EV i n
the other d i a l e c t s .

15 . Further work o n the s ub- s e t s o f adj unc t s whi ch appear i n the two
forms ( s t at ive and o-c omplemen t i zer ) w i l l appear i n a p l anned art i c l e
o n t h e s e and t h e c ompound verb s in c ontrast t o t h e p red i c at ions o f
Enga .

16 . As an a l ternat ive t o the s o lut i on prop o s e d in the c on c l u s ion , we

could a s s ume that b oth t he N and V are pre s en t in the deep s truc t ure ;
the f o l l owing ( s imp l i f ie d ) t r e e would r e s u l t :

�
h.

I
tee
I
t e e - n ge
[...] [ ...]
re s t i t u t i o n re s t i t u t e

( We w i l l a s s ume here a n d fol l owing that the feat ure s o f the l e x i c a l

i t em a r e c on t ai n e d in t h e bracke t s b e n e at h b ot h t h e N a n d the V ) .
The p r e s en t at ion of ( g ) i s t y p i c a l of c ognate ob j e c t verb s , t h o s e in
whi c h there i s a " h i gh s e le c t ivity between a s p e c i fi c V and an
' ob j e c t ' N , and i n wh i c h the V + N c omb i nat ion in one l anguage migh t
we l l b e mat ched b y a V a lone in anot her" ( Fi l lmore 1 9 6 8 : 8 5 ) . Prob ab l y
t h e b e s t known Engl i sh c o gnate ob j e c t verb i s dream a dream . F i l lmore
has analysed t h i s such that dre am may appear a s a V al one in i t s own
r i ght ( I dream of Jenny w i t h t h e t i g h t br own h a i r ) , as a c ognat e ob­
j e c t verb ( 1 ) ( Jo hn dre amed a dream a b o ut Mary ) , or ( 2 ) with dream
a s its repre s e nt at ive o b j e ct and have a s a p ro-verb ( I had a dre am ) .
It i s the l at t e r c a s e wh ich mos t c l o s e ly c orre sponds t o the Enga
pred i c at i ons ( s in c e there are no a c t u a l o c c urrence s of c ogna t e ob j e c t
verb s as pred i c a t ions i n Enga , a lt hough t h e s e d o o c cur in A smat and
Kamoro , c f . 5.2) . I n t h i s l a s t c a s e ( wi t h the a s s o c i at e d pro-verb ) ,
the a s s o c i a t e d N i s c op i e d into a d ummy F ( " fa c t i t ive " , F i l lmore 1 9 6 8 :
8 5 ) , and the a s s o c i at ed pro-verb rep l ac e s the V . Th i s s e r i e s o f s t e p s
is out l ined here f o r the Enga pred i c at ion , t e e p i n g ( pay re s t i tu t i o n
for homi cide :
112

�v �v
1. j.

I
rJ teenge
I 1
tee
I
t e e n ge

k. P

�V
tee I .1 .
plngl

The c a s e t hat b ot h the N and V are pre s ent in the deep s t ru c t ure ,
s e ems h i ghly un l i ke ly in Enga , s ince there are no c ognat e ob j e c t

s ame V
verb s or pre d i c at ions , i . e . , i n none o f t h e data d o b o t h the N and the
appe ar i n the s urfa c e s truc t ure t ogether . We d o not have

1. *tee tee - n ge
r e s ti t u t i on re s t i t u te - RA B

Supp leme n t ary eviden c e f o r t h i s s t at ement c an b e adduced from the

[ + inner s t at e ] group of adj unc t s , wh i ch as s t ated above may be verb a l ­
i z e d in t w o of t h e Enga d i a l e c t s . In the Kyaka and Laiapo d i a l e c t s
( 1 ) i s p ermi s s ib l e , b ut must b e expre s sed w i t h t h e c o-oc c urring pro­
verb in the other d i a l e c t s as ( n ) ( i . e . , n o � with a c o gnat e ob j e c t
verb )

m. T a n d e - l y - a - mo .
p ai n - PRES- 3 SG-AUG
It is p a i n i ng (me ) or I am in p ai n .

n. k a e - l y - a - m6 .
pain b e - PRES-3SG-AUG
It is paining (me ) or I am in p ai n .

I t i s not permi s s ib le i n Enga t o h ave s en t e n c e s such a s ( 0 )

o. * t an d a t a n d e - l y - a - mo .
pain p a i n - PRE S- 3 SG-AUG

Th i s fa c t , t ogether with the comp l e t e lack of any c ognate obj e c t verb s

in the pred i c at i ons , i nd i ca t e s that the chan c e s are remote that the
deep s t ruc t ure of Enga cont a i n s b o th the N and the
t i ons .
V in the pred i c a­

Ins t e ad , a s we have s e en ab ove ( j ) , the verb s o f the pre d i cat i on s

c orre s p ond c l o s e ly t o pro-verb s .
 113

A s s umpt i on o f t h e verb only i n t h e d e e p s t ru c t ure introduc e s unne c ­

e s s ary c omp le x i t y i n t o t h e format ion o f pre d i c at i o n s . The s t ep s n e c ­
e s s ary t o derive the c omp l e t e ( surfac e ) pre d i c at ion from a V-only d e e p
s t ru c t ure would para l l e l t he s ub s t i t ut i on f o r t h e pr o-verb h a v e i n
have a dream , i . e . , e xamp l e s ( h ) t hrough ( j ) . Indeed , t h e s imp l e s t
and mo s t e l egant s ol u t i o n i s t h e o n e sugge s t ed i n t h e c onc l u s i on
ab ove .

17 . I would l ike t o thank Dr . J ohn Lynch and Dr . C . L . Voorhoeve for

t h e i r c omment s on t h i s chapter .
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 C O M P A R AT I V E P E R S P E CT I V E

Enga is a non-Aus trone s ian ( or NAN ) language of New Guinea . Of

t h i s group , C ap e l l h a s s ai d

To class two languages as ' Papuan ' ( to use the older terminology ,
or as NAN to us e the pres ent nomenclature ) does not imply that
the two are in any way related to each other . . . there is no NAN
family and there was no one NAN mother tongue . So far no geneti c
classificat i on of NAN languages is possible . . . ( 1969 : 6 5 ) .

The work o f McElhanon and Voorhoeve ( 1 9 7 0 ) pre s en t s evidence for p o s ­

s ib l e genet i c r e l at io n s h i p s b e tween the w i d e l y - s eparat e d Central and
South New Guine a Phy lum ( wh i c h would be repre s en t ed o n Map 2 b y
Kamoro , Asma t , Awj u and Marind ) and t h e Fini s t erre-Huon Phylum ( wh i c h
would b e repre s e n t ed o n Map 2 b y Kate ) . The E a s t New Guinea H i gh l ands
Phy lum ( o f whi c h Enga i s a memb e r ) wi l l b e seen t o lie d i re c t ly b e ­
tween t he s e two areas .
Having e xamined the evidence presented ab ove ( 2 . 0 and 4 . 0 ) for
c l as s i f i c at ory verb s i n Enga , the next s t ep is c learly t o det ermine
if t h e s e are pres ent in other New Guinea language s . A l l o f the ava i l ­
ab l e s ource mat e r i a l s ( me n t i oned in 0 . 0 ) d e a l w i t h o t h e r t op i c s o f t h e
N e w Guinea l anguage s ( i . e . , s u c h a s pre s ent ing a d e s crip t i ve grammar ) ,
w i t h t he t op i c s we are intere s t ed in b e ing ment ioned only in pas s ing .
The l anguage s u s e d in t h i s chap t e r were s e l e c t ed on the b a s i s of t h e
avai lab i l i t y of mat eria l s , s o that addit ional languages a s w e l l a s
add i t ional mat e r i a l s from mo s t o f the l anguage s t r e a t e d h e r e c ou l d b e
adde d , a s ava i l ab l e .
The prop o s e d c omp arat i ve p e r s p e c t ive suffers from the l a c k of in­
depth work or analy s i s on the t op i c of the verb s b y the authors c i t e d
b e low , a l th ough s ome d e s cript ive s y nt a c t i c work h a s b e e n done . In
regards t o b o t h t h e EV and t h e Pre d i c at ions , t he s e s uf fer fr om t he

115
116

l a c k of s eman t i c des c r i p t i on or a b s trac t i on i n t h e d e s c r ip t i on s . In

s ome c a s e s ( and e sp e c i a l l y with the EV ) , the pauc i t y o f the dat a , the
lack o f referent s and e xamp l e s a l l c omb i ne t o make only the mo s t e l e ­
ment ary s t a t emen t s p o s s ib l e ( i . e . , s u c h that ' There are EV pre s e nt i n
language X , but t h a t i s a l l t hat i s known ' ) . T h e chapter i s d iv i d e d
i n t o two s e c t ions , p r e s e n t i n g the c ompara t ive mat e r i a l s on the E V i n
( 4 . 1 ) , t h e n tho s e f o r the Predi c at i o n s i n ( 4 . 2 ) .

5.1 THE E V

A s d e s c r i b e d i n d e t a i l ab ove ( 2 . 0 ) , the EV i n Enga c l a s s i fy the

[ + c on c re t e ] nouns int o c l as s e s , u s ua l l y b as ed upon featur e s o f s i z e ,
shape and p o s t ure . In de s cr i b i n g the c omp arat ive mat eri a l s , two
p oint s should b e kept i n mind ,
( 1 ) What are the t y p i c a l re ferent s of the EV in t h e s e lan­
guage s , are they al s o the [ + c oncre t e ] nouns ? and
( 2 ) Upon what kinds o f feat ure s are the nouns d i v i ded i n t o
c la s s e s ?
In t h e maj ority of cas e s , the EV are given only a pas s ing ment ion
in the l i t erature , usually b y mi s s i onary- l ingu i s t s c oncerned w i t h the
t r an s l at i on o f the Eng l i s h c opu l a ; otherw i s e t he EV are me nt ioned a s
' ve rb s o f s t at e ' or ' p o s it i onal verb s ' . T h e language s p re s en t e d h e r e
a r e arranged in a we s t t o e a s t order , beginning i n the w e s t ern h a l f o f
We s t - Ir i an and proceeding t o t he Huon Penin s u la i n Papua New Guinea .
For e a ch ( a s avai l ab l e ) , we w i l l give a b r i e f verb a l de s c rip t ion o f
t h e EV , the EVs for t hat language , s ome t yp i c a l referents o f t h e EV ,
and , when p os s ib le , the c ognate Enga EV .
For Kamoro , Drabb e rep ort s in h i s d e s cript ion of the language that
l
i n the case of ' p o s i t i onal ' verb s ,

The problem . . . is which one to choose in any given case . The choice
can depend on the [ t emporary ] position of the verbal subj ect at the
time the act i on takes place , or it can depend on the [ positional ]
properties ascribed to the verbal subj ect . In most cases the choi ce
depends on what , in the opinion of the Kamoro people , is the habitual
position of the verbal subj ect . For the Kamoro , all beings fall into
[ positional ] classes , so to s ay : the sitting , the standing , the
floating class , etc . ( 1953 : 39 ) .

The EV o f Kamoro and s ome t y p i c a l re ferent s are :

a rne s t and ( c f . Enga k a t a � )

peop l e , hous e s , tre e s ( a lone , s ingular ) , vert i c a l ,
h i gh and t a l l or s l ende r t hings .
 117

e pe s i t ( c f . Enga p i t a - )
p ot s , d i s he s , pan s , b oa t s on land , p l ant s ,
mount a i n s , c louds and c e l e s t ial b od i e s .

ka i L i e ( c f . Enga s a - )
l and , rivers , lakes , f a l l e n t r e e s or wood .

mar i k i fLoat
f i s h , p e o p l e in c anoe s , any t h ing float ing o n wat er .

naa b e t h e re , b e a b o v e
hanging ob j e c t s , sma l l t h ings , b i g mas s e s s uc h a s a
heap of r i c e or a p i l e of s a go , t h ings l y i n g on t op
o f s ome thing e l s e .

To the e a s t of the Kamoro p e o p l e l ive t h e Asmat . C . L . Voorhoeve

rep ort s that t h e y " d ivide a l l e x i s t ing things into . . . five ' p o s i t i on '
c l as s e s " ( 1 9 6 5 : 4 8 ) . The EV of A smat and s ome t y p i c a l re ferent s are :

em s t and ( c f . Kamoro a rne above )

men , tre e s , upright p o le s , any t hing that i s t a l l
and s le nde r .

ap s i t ( c f . Kamoro e p e above )
women , house s , c arrying b ags , anything that i s about
as h i gh a s it i s broad .

a rn i s Lie
sma l l an imal s , rep t i l e s , f a l l e n t re e s , t he j us t ­
r i s e n sun o r moo n , any t h i ng that i s muc h b ro ader
t han i t is h i gh , or i s low to the ground .

se b e i n the water
f i s he s , c anoe s , rivers , anything in o r o n the water .

tep be above
fly ing anima l s , hanging ob j e c t s , ob j e c t s s t ored
away on the rafters o f the hous e , anything that is
ab ove e y e -leve l .

S t i l l further t o the e a s t are t h e Kiwai . I n h i s Kiwai gr ammar ,

S . H . Ray p re s e n t s t h e fol lowing EV w i t h t y p i c a l referent s :

otoi s tand
t r ee s , mountain s , food p lant s

e re a remai n , Lie
ob j e c t s in fixed p o s i t i o n s whi c h do not move , " I t
carr i e s t h e idea o f permanence . . . " ( Ray 1 9 3 8 : 6 0 ) .
ll8

o rou lie
p e r s o n s o r things l y i n g down

om i } s t ay
.

o r owom I " t o b e in a p l a c e , of pers ons " ( Ray 1 9 3 8 : 6 1 ) .

Kamor o , Asmat , and Kiwai are a l l a long the South C o a s t of Papua New
Guinea . A s one move s north from the K iwai int o the Southern
H i gh l and s , one encounters the Hu l i ( Sl i ght ly t o the west o f Me nd i on
2
Map 2 ) . The Hu l i EV have b e en d e s c r ib e d by Rule who give s , f i r s t ly ,
more data on the EV than one usual ly enc ount e r s , and , s e c ondly , a
pre l i m i nary anal y s i s of the EV as c l a s s marke r s . Rule po int s out t hat

. . . the three verbs ka , b i ra and nge l a constitute the nearest

equivalent of the verb "to be" in English . All nouns t ake one
of these three verbs , and it is therefore necessary to divide
all nouns into three classes according to which part i cular
verb they take . . . ( 1954 : 32 ) .

The three EV and t y p i c a l r e ferent s are :

ka s t and ( c o gnat e t o Enga k a t a - )

men , b oy s , male re lat ive s , p igs , dogs , and o t her
large anima l s , t r e e s and a l l kinds o f p l ant s ,
hou s e s and a l l things whi c h have t h e ir roo t s i n
the groun d , p art s o f the b ody .

beda s i t ( c ognat e t o Enga p i t a - )

women , girl s , fema le relat ive s , b i rd s , s t i l l
3
water , s quirre l s , insect s .

nga put ( ? c ognate t o Enga s a - )

a l l inanimat e obj e c t s wh i c h have s imp ly b e e n
p l a c e d o n t h e ground , s nake s , rept i l e s a n d a l l
creep ing t h ings whi ch crawl along t h e ground .

The s e referent s wh ich Rul e pre s ent s for H u l i are s t rikingly s im i l ar

t o t h o s e p r e s e n t e d for Enga i n ( 2 . 0 ) . A furt her c orre sponde n c e i s
me nt i oned by Rule :

It should be noted that if a man is known to be seated , then beda

is used , and similarly , i f a woman i s known to be actually stand­
ing , then ka is used . It is only when they are not known to be
either standing or sitting , that the above distinctions are made
( 1954 : 33 ) .
( C f . t h i s s t at ement w i t h ( 2 . 1 ) , e xamp l e s ( 1 0 ) through ( 1 3 ) .

To the e a s t of the Enga b ut s t i l l in the We s t ern H igh lands are t he

Melpa . Strau s s report s that there i s no e qu i va l e nt t o the European
' be ' verb s in M e lpa . I n s t e ad , Me lpa u s e s " c onstru c t i o n s with verb s
t hat take the p la c e of European b e verb s " ( 1955 : 9 ) . The EV u s e d are :
 119

mog l a l i v e , b e t h e re
a l) k e l a s t and
pea lie ( animat e
4
tea lie ( inanimat e )

Strauss give s two e xamp l e s o f change - o f - s t a t e ( c f . 2 . 2 . 6 above ) in­

volving water and sweet p o t a t oe s . The Hageners re gard wat er as an i ­
mat e ( c f . 3 . 0 above ) , s o t h a t the s t at e ment T h e re i s a w a t e r p a i l
t h e r e may b e e xpre s s ed by e xamp le ( 1 ) or ( 2 ) :

l. No pake t I t e e t e m . ( us e s t e a l i e ( o f inan imat e s ) )

2 • N o p a k e t i mo r o m . ( u s e s mo g l a b e t h e re ( o f animat e s ) )

In the c a s e o f ( l ) , the imp l i c a t i on i s that the water p a i l i s empty ,

and in ( 2 ) , it i s full ( 1 . e . w i t h the anima t e water ) . The e xamp l e s
for sweet p o t a t o e s are s imilar :

3. O k a t e e t e m ( u s e s t e a l i e ( of inanimat e s ) )
4. O k a p e e t e m ( u s e s p e a l i e ( of an imat e s ) )
The me aning o f b oth ( 3 ) and ( 4 ) i s There are swe e t p o ta t o e s t h e r e ,
but ( 3 ) imp l i e s t hat the sweet p o t at oe s have b e e n t aken from the
ground and are ly ing re ady to b e c o oked and eat en , whi l e ( 4 ) imp l i e s
t hat the sweet pot a t o e s are s t i l l ' animat e ' , i . e . , a l ive in t h e gar­
den .
The Banz and Sinas ina l anguage s t o the e a s t of Melpa a l s o have EV .
L . J . Lu z b e t a k not e s t hat in the Banz language a

non-native speaker often finds it difficult to decide whether he

should in a given case say mem , tem or pam. All three verbs
mean more or less the same , se. , he, she, it is . However , the
three words may not be used indis criminately ( 1954 : 159 ) .

The EV o f Banz with Lu z b e t ak ' s d e f i n i t ions are :

mem is ( in the s e n s e o f app o s i t ion or ident i t y , and

in the s e n s e of is p re s e n t ) .

tem put ( C onnot e s p o s s e s s i on , and refers t o a

t emporary pre s ence o f impers onal obj e c t s ) .

pam exi s t s , r e s t s ( C onno t e s a permanent s t a t e o f

being) .

Some of the t yp i c al referent s ( as e x t ra c t ed from Lu z b e t a k ' s t e x t ) are :

mem ( b ird , s t omach , b ot t l e , c as s owary , tree , dog , p i g

fence , l i zard , c oc kat o o , p a t r o l o f f i c er )

tem ( b ook , rive r , axe , rat hole , e ggs , p lac e s , road )

120

pam ( fire , wor k , earth , sun , name , nos e , mout h , word ,

c ar ) . 5

The EV of Sinas ina are pre s e n t e d in a s imi l ar manner b y McVinney

and Lu z b e t ak , with the s ame int roduct ory s t a t ement that the EV may
not be u s ed " indi s criminat e l y " 0 9 5 4 : 1 5 3 ) . The four EV of Sinas ina
are

mOl)w a is ( c f . Melpa m o g l a L i ve )
( us e d w i t h animat e b e ings and t he word for wat e r ;
in the s e n s e o f app o s i t ion or ident i t y , and in the
s en s e o f is p re s e n t ) .

y O l) w a put
( Conno t e s p o s s e s s ion and refe r s t o a t emporary
pre s e n c e of i nanimate ob j e c t s ) .

e xi s t s , re s t s
( C onnot e s a permanent s t a t e of b e i ng ) .

says
( inanimate ob j e c t s a n d u s e d t o s t a t e a fact ) .

A s one moves from the E a s t ern High l ands t o the North C o a s t o f New
Guinea , one enc ount ers the K&t e . Schneuker , in his s hort handb ook of
Kat e , mak e s the s t at ement whi c h we have c ome to e x p e c t for the EV :

. . . there are constructions with verbs that t ake the place of the
European be verbs The verbs used are j u , fo , I)e and doma .
• . .

The native concept of whether the person or art icle under con­
siderat ion is living , lying , s itting , or standing determines
which of the four verbs is to be used in a given situation ( 1962 :
10 ) .

The Kate EV and s ome o f their referent s ( drawn b o t h from S chneuker

( 1 9 6 2 ) and Pi lhofer ( 1 9 5 3 ) ) are :

ju L i v i ng
( man , b oy )

fo L y i ng , s L e e p ing
( r ive r , c o c onut s , wine , p e n , b ananas , swe e t p o t at o ,
knife , wire , b o ard s )

e s i t ting
( v i l lage , p lac e s , b ird , c ar , b o t t l e , hous e , woman ,
mountain ; s a id of short , wide obj e c t s )

doma s t and
( c oc onut p alm , lamp ; s ai d of long ob j e c t s )
 121

Thus , it c an b e s hown that EV c an b e found in NAN l anguage s from

a l l part s of the mai nl and of New Guinea .

5.1 .2 D i s c u s s i o n o f t h e Compara t i v e E V

The data p r e s e n t ed i n 5 . 1 . 1 are s ummar i z e d and pre s en t ed in Chart

5.1. The l anguage s are again l i s t ed from w e s t to e as t , inc luding
Enga . At the onset of the c omp arat ive de s c r ipt ion , two main que s t ions
were l i s t e d for n ot e , and the r e s u l t s are p r e s e n t e d here . Firs t ly ,
that , in al l c a s e s in wh i c h re ferent s were ava i l ab l e for the EV given ,
n o n e o f the s e were [ - c oncret e ] noun s . S i n c e we have shown that in
Enga the EV c o - o c c ur only w i t h [ + c oncre t e ] nouns , the p o s s ib i l it y
s t rongly sugge s t s i t s e l f t hat the EV o f t h e s e language s may a l s o a c t
as c l a s s i f i c a t ory verb s , in t erms o f the [ +c o n c r et e ] noun s , at leas t .
Needed t o make t h i s a t enab l e hypothe s i s is much addit i onal dat a on
the EV of other NAN language s , as the pre s e nt pau c ity o f data is the
maj or limit ing fac t or of s uch a s tudy .
Se c ondly , we were intere s t ed in the t y p e s o f feature s wh i c h would
b e used to divide the noun c la s s e s . In the EV dat a as p r e s e n t e d
ab ove , featur e s o f s hape ( ' long ob j e c t s ' , ' short , b road o b j e c t s ' ) and
p o s t ure ( ' s t anding ' , ' ly ing ' ) are r e c urrent , j u s t a s t h e s e are the
main feat ure s of t he Enga EV . Kamoro and A smat a l s o c orre s p ond w i t h
Enga in two o f the EV , each having an E V f o r ' aquat i c , float ing ' , and
an EV for ' hanging , l y i n g ab ove ' . The one spot of Chart 5 . 1 wh i c h is
mo s t n o t ab l y d i f fe rent i s that for the EV o f the Me lpa-Ban z - S in a s i n a
group o f l anguage s : t h i s group o f l anguage s a l l share E V w h i c h are
di f ferent from the other l anguage s in the re s p e c t t hat , wh i l e the EV
o f other l anguage s are b a s e d on features o f shape and p o s ture , t he s e
s eem i n s t ead t o b e b a s e d upon feature s o f animate ve r s u s inanima t e
and p ermanent ver s u s impermanent . The mat e r i a l s ava i lab l e c l early
ind i c a t e t h at t he s e are EV ; the p o s s i b le h i s t or i c a l c a u s e s for t h i s
d i f fere nce in t y p e o f features o f t h e EV would b e an intere s t ing c on­
j e c t ure , but the pres ent l a c k o f data and analy s i s prevent u s from
exploring t h i s as a prob lem .
In c on c l u s i o n , we have det ermined that EV do e x i s t in other NAN
6
language s , and that the EV feature s mo s t frequent ly are b as ed ( as in
Enga ) on shape and p o s t ure . Furthermore , the l i k e l ihood s e ems good
t hat the EV found in other l anguage s c o- o c c ur w i t h [ +c o n c r et e ] nouns ,
pos s ib ly a s c las s i fi c at ory verb s l i ke the Enga EV .
 I-'
I\.l
I\.l

C H A RT 5. 1 : THE COMPARAT IVE EV

Kamoro Asmat K iw a i Hu l i Enga Me lpa Banz S in a s i n a K�te Gloss

ma r i k i se e r e a , om i nga sa- tea t e rn Y O l) w a s tay

a rn e em otoi ka kata- a l) ke l a d oma s tand

ka i am i s o rou pa l a- pea pam p a l) w a fo He

epe ap beda p i ta- I) e sit

naa tep I ya- hang

eri i pa- aome

mog l a mem m O l) w a ju Hve

d U l) w a s tate a
faa t
 123

5.2 THE PREVI CATI 0NS

As d e s c r i b e d ab ove ( 4 . 0 ) in d e t ai l , the Enga pre d i c at i o n s are

forme d of an adj un c t c o- o c curring w i t h a pro-verb . In c on t r a s t t o
the c ompara t i ve mat e r i a l s o n t h e EV , t h e pred i c at ions have b e e n men­
t i oned in more d e t ai l in the l i t e rat ure ( Be e 1 9 7 3 , P . He a ley 1 9 6 5 and
Pawley 1 9 6 9 ) ; they are given a var i e t y of name s : p r imary verb s , peri­
phras t i c verb s , aux i l i ary verb s , c omp l e x verb s , verb phra s e s , verb
c ompa c t , and n u c l e ar verb s , t o ment ion a few .
In the f o l l owing s e c t ions we wi l l firs t ly give a br i e f verb a l d e ­
s c rip t i on o f the phenomena , then a c ompar i s on o f the verb s u s e d in t h e
pre d i c at i on s , a n d finally , s ome s p e c i f i c e xamp l e s o f t y p e s o f p r e d i c a ­
t i ons . The b ody of d a t a u s ed in t h i s s e c t ion on the c omparat ive pred­
i c at i on s was too l arge for i n c l u s i o n in the mai n t e xt as it was felt
t o b e o f minor int ere s t to many reader s , and so i t i s pre s e n t e d in
fu l l i n Appendix E .

5.2.1 T h e P h e nome non

The f o l l owing mat e r i a l w i l l b e p r e s e n t e d i n roughly t h e order o f

ne arne s s o f r e l at ionship t o Enga . To the south o f Enga , Frankl i n has
s t a t e d that Kewa has at least two types o f verb phrase whi ch might b e
t e rmed per iphras t i c verb s , a n d he a l s o n o t e s " n one o f the verb phra s e s
are e x ac t ly para l l e l le d ( e x c ept i n t h e � ema nti c o � t o tal m eaning � e n� e)
w i t h t h o s e of e i ther Young or H e a l e y " ( 1 9 6 9 : 1 6 7 empha s i s mine ) . East
o f Enga , in t h e M e l p a language n e a r Mt . Hagen Ros s has n o t ed that o n e
verb , h i t , s t ri k e , affe c t , w h e n u s e d in c omb inat i on w i t h noun s , adj e c ­
t i ve s , a n d verb s , has over a hundred d i fferent meanings ; he a l s o pre­
sent s s i x o t her verb s which are u s e d in Enga-type pred i c at ions ( Ro s s
1946 : 4 1f . ) . I n the Banz l anguage o f the Wahgi Val ley , Luzb e t ak men­
t i ons the pauc i t y o f indep endent verb s and the " great abundanc e of
i d i omat i c verb a l e xpre s s ions c omp o s ed o f a frequent ly oc c urring verb
j o ined t o another verb , a noun , adj e c t ive , or another p art of s p e e c h
W e f i n d a s m a l l number o f ve rb s . . . w h i c h o c c ur a g a i n a n d aga i n ,
each t ime w i t h a di fferent meaning , depending on the c omb in a t i o n we
7
find them i n " ( 1 9 5 4 : 1 3 6 ) . N i l l e s ( 1 9 6 9 ) for Kuman , and McVinney and
Lu z b e t ak ( 1 9 5 4 ) for Sinas ina make s im i l ar s t at emen t s for t h e i r re­
s p e c t ive language s . For Benab ena , Young ( 1 9 6 4 ) s t a t e s that the p e r i ­
phra s t i c verb c omp l e x ac c o u n t s f o r more t h a n 5 0 . p e r cent o f a l l verb
c on s truc t i ons in t e x t ; t h i s is de fined a s a " v e rb c omp l e x c ons i s t ing
o f a free- form word of s pe c i f i c verb a l imp l i c at ion in c l o s e knit s e ­
que n c e w i t h a ful ly i n f l e c t e d nuc l e ar verb , wh i c h t ogether have a
unique s eman t i c content " ( 19 6 4 : 7 8 ) .
124

B e e ( 1 9 7 3 ) d i s c u s s e s i d i om- type verb phra s e s for Usaru fa , wh i c h

have " r e s t r i c t ed c o- o c currence pot ent i a l o f c on s t ituent words and a
l imi t e d degree o f produ c t ivi t y . " ( 2 8 7 ) " . . . only a few verb s are po­
tential fil l e r s o f the verb s lo t . . . The more c ommon one s . . . ac c ount
for about two-thirds of t he verb a l i d i oms " ( 19 7 3 : 291 ) . Pawley s t at e s
that " Karam has only a s ma l l numb er o f ve rb s t ems ( ab out 1 0 0 i n a l l )
I n s p i t e of t h i s very r e s tr i c t e d range of verb s , w i t h ve ry gen­
eral meanings , the Karam manage to t a l k ab out much the s ame range of
quite s p e c i f i c eve n t s a s Engl i s h s p eakers . They do t h i s by a t t ach­
ing t o each verb an adj unc t or adj unct s which c ontain s p e c i f i c in­
format i on not in the verb s t em" ( 1969 : 28 ) .
I n the Binandere language s , W i l son s t ate s t hat Binandere i t s e l f
forms ' c ompound verb s ' with t h e auxil iary verb a r i t o do ; h e adds
that Mai l ander set up five verb c l a s s e s in Z i a , four of t hem b a s e d o n
the fact t h a t they t o ok d i fferent auxi l i ary verb s , a n d t hat t h i s c ould
a l s o b e done for Suena ( Wi l s on 1 9 6 9 : 1 0 4 ) . For Kapau , Oat e s and Oat e s
de s cribe the noun-verb verb phrase a s a very c ommon one wh i c h i s not
c lo se-knit s truc t ura l l y s ince the noun may b e s ep arat ed from the verb
b y obj e c t , adverb and other things , b ut as one whi c h is c lo s e-knit
s e mant i c a l l y ( 1 9 6 8 : 3 6 f . ) .
P i lhofer ( 1 9 3 3 ) de s c rib e s the ' pr imary verb s ' of Kat e , o f wh i c h k e
d o i s again the mos t fre quent . P . Hea l e y i n her art i c l e o n T e l e f o l
Verb Phras e s ( 1 9 6 5 ) d e s cr i b e s the auxi l iary verb s , a sma l l group wh i c h
c ommonly o c c ur w i t h v e r b a l adj unct s . Mo s t o f the adj unct s o c cur w i t h
o n l y o n e o f t h e s e auxil iary verb s ; although the v e r b s normal ly have
d i s t in c t ive meanings when they o c c ur a l one , when u s e d in t h e s e c omp le x
verb s t hey may have " virtually no s emant i c s igni fi c an c e when they o c ­
c ur w i t h an Adj unc t . . . The ir fun c t ion i s as c arrier o f a s p e c t , t e n s e ,
s ub j e ct p e r s on-numb e r , and other s u ffi x e s " ( 1965 : 30 ) .
In b ot h the F l amingo Bay ( Vo orhoeve 1 9 6 5 ) and Aj am ( Drab b e 1 9 59 )
d i al e c t s of A smat , "verb a l e xpre s s ions of wh ich the f i r s t part i s
nominal and the s e c ond verb a l " ( Drab b e 1 9 5 9 : 2 5 ) e xpre s s many a c t ions
and s ituat ions not e xpre s s ed b y a verb ; in " s ome c a s e s b ot h p ar t s are
e n t i r e l y a l i ke or s imi l ar to each other . . . " ( Drab b e 1 9 5 9 : 2 5 ) . It is
Asmat wh ich h a s ' c ognate-ob j e c t ' c onstruc t ions wh i c h mus t expre s s
c e r t a i n predicat ions w i t h a s pe c i f i c V and s p e c i f i c ' ob j e c t ' :

5. mbe t s j mbe t s j -
weep weep
t o c r y ( l it . t o w e e p a weep )
 125

6. mb u i mb u i -
bath bathe
to bathe ( l it . to b a t h e a b a t h )

Finally , i n Kapauku ( Ekagi ) we find aux i l i ary verb s , o f wh i c h

Drab b e give s a s the m a i n o n e t a i d o ( 1 9 5 2 : 4 3 ) . T h e f o l l owing s e c t ion
pre s ent s an overview of b ot h the l anguage s and the maj or verb s used in
these phenomena .

5.2.2 Compa ri s o n

Chart 5 . 2 pres ent s a mat r i x d iagram . Languages u s e d are given in

the c o l umns and group ed geograp h i c a l l y from west to e as t . The rows
pre s ent the verb s u s ed in the predi cat ions in the var i ou s language s .
In a l l c a s e s t h i s informat ion ( i . e . , a s t o whi c h verb s are u s e d ) i s
b a s e d upon t h e original s ourc e s for that l anguage ; t h e s ub s e quent
ordering of t he mos t frequent ly o c c urring r ow/verb t o t h e t op i s b a s e d
on t h i s i nformat ion . Whi le in mos t c a s e s t h e aut hors give the mo s t
fre quen t l y o c c urring verb a s do , whi c h c ompar e s favourab ly w i t h t h e
mat r i x o f Chart 5 . 2 , t h e one e x c e p t ion i s Ro s s for M e lp a , w h o give s
h i t as t h e mo s t frequent ( in b ot h t e xt and e xamp le s ) . The p o int i s
that Chart 5 . 2 pre sent s t h e order of fr equency b a s e d up on t h e o c c ur­
ren c e o f that verb ( do ) in all the l anguage s , not t he 6 � e q u e n c y of
o c c urre n c e s o f that verb , whi c h in s ome c a s e s i s d i fferent . (Cf.
Tab le 4 . 1 . 3 , on t he frequency o f t h e verb s in pre d i c a t i on s , i n wh i c h
u t t e r i s m o s t frequent ) .
The Chart s p e ak s for i t s e lf , b ut a few p o i n t s wi l l b e not ed . The
f i r s t is s imp ly the o c currenc e s of the two mos t u s e d of the verb s , do
and u t t e r , wh i c h are pre sent in a l l b ut two ( do ) and all b ut four
( u t t e r ) of the language s . A l s o , the h i gh frequency of h i t wi l l mer i t
later c o n s i deration in c ompar i s o n t o Engl i sh . The s e c ond p o int o f
int ere s t i s the oc c urrence in Enga o f k a e n g e b e ( o f inner s t ate s )
wh i c h has b e e n d i s c us sed above in vari ous s e c t i on s ( 4 . 1 . 4 and 4 . 2 . 3 )
as a problem c a s e ; in all the other l an guages e x amined , no s imi l ar
verb ( e i t h er as be or a s be of i n n e r s t a t e ) was d i s c overe d .

5.2.3 Examp l es

In the fol lowing s e c t ion we w i l l pre sent s ome e x amp l e s drawn from
the c omparat ive mat e r i a l s o n pre d i c at i ons . Three t o p i c s w i l l be d i s ­
cussed :
( i ) b od i l y pro c e s s e s , c h o s e n s i n c e they would o c c ur in mos t o f
t h e dat a , and thu s , a s a t yp i c a l s emant i c doma in o f t h e
pre d i c at i ons ;
 CHART 5 . 2 (Part I )

3: o-J 0 ?<: I;I:! ?<:

Cl
0
...... G;- ,.. . (1) �
�
� ?<:
P> if
§
P>
�
en
,.. .
�.;:l
'" ...... '" OQ C ...... '"I ;:l
P> (1)
r+
P>
H1 (1) P>
'" OQ "d N
]
P> P>
� §
0
'" '"
;:l
...... ,.. .
;:l P>
...... ,.. .

l. do, make e- kem i n keemi n hapaat pa- pi- te e- e re g- ele el

2. utter ji- gal i n akan ' -ka l i n a r i paat , l a- l a- ne- I)e ag- di di
porpaat
3. hit af- ta- pya- to ro- ro/to pk- 5 i 5 i
4. get, take mea- ( ? ) nya- tse/ke 1 1 e d- i /yo i

5. eat an - unan g ' -ka l i n na- na- no- no nl)- ne ne

6. see por- kanda- de/kan de

7. go at- unemi n pu- po- am- 0-

8. know mas a- pi l e n l)- pr i pi 1

9· come i pa- 0- ap- u

10 . put seta- teye yo ye

11 . die kuma- ko l 0 go l 1 0 gog l gol

12 . give ma i - /d i - nj- t i /to te

13. others
 C H A RT 5 . 2 (Part I I )

.§
Z
G'l t;d .., Cfl
�
§
G'l c::: :::;;: �
<f> � � Ill> (1) [q �

�
"-'
0 0 f-'. t-t, rt "-' � '1 '1
<f>
<f> �
(1)
�t-t, '1
0
'1
t-t,
�
(1)
'8
(1)
� �
f-'.
\:1'
�
0
�
�
t-t,
(1)
� � rt
� f-'.
'd
�

l. do, make ve l ekava ( 7 ) i 0- k i aa / i i k i a ke oap , tuhhap mi ya i ta , vata wa i ari

2. utter te- ti kia mu yap ku i- ya sai sar i

3. hit nepe l ekave (? ) ho ari t - /t i - yam i l)k

4. get, take Ii maya- 10 gi-

5. eat yen na

6. see taa hone ek n- ga i

7. go zekave ( 7 ) wo- kua/p i k i aa ga yes

8. know u-

9. aome h i zekave ( 7 ) ng i a mt i - ema ma i

10 . put

1l . die

12 . give mi

13. others v i zekave is (?) man a

hear
128

( i i ) t h e domain o f i nner s t at e , s in c e we found n o oc c urrence

o f a verb s i m i l ar to the Enga k a e n g e in any o f the other
data on pre d i c at i o n s , and this doma i n has been ment ioned
ab ove i n conne c t ion with var i o us prob l ems ( 4 . 1 . 4 and
4.2.3) ;
( i i i ) anoma l ie s , whi ch we would e xpe c t t o f ind in any s emant i c
de s cr ip t i on , and wh i ch are of intere s t here i n c onne c t i on
with the gene ral t o p i c of e x c e p t i on s .

(i) Bodily Proces s

Th i s d omain was s e l e c t e d as one l ikely t o be pre s ent in a l l l an­

guage s . Examp l e s of one proc e s s are pre s en t e d b e low ; the Engl i s h
8
glo s s f o r a l l would b e t o urinat e .

7. puu t e - n ge . ( Enga )
urine burn- HAB

8. pu ro- n u m . ( Me l p a )
urine hit

9. p o1 1 to- ( Ban z )
urine h i t

10 . aw i ma t e - ( Us arufa )
urine say

ll. ss ky- ( Karam )

urine excre t e

12 . ( Asmat )
i ap i -
urine urinate

13. jiti ti- ( Awj u )

urine urinate

The var i at i on i n verb s u s e d i n the pre d i c at i on i s notab l e : burn, h i t ,

s a y , fa Z Z , and urina t e .

(ii) Inner State

Thi s area was c h o s e n for c omp ar i s on b e c au s e of Enga k a e n g e be of

i n n e r s ta te s , wh i c h we did not find pre s ent i n any of the other lan­
guage s . Ins t e ad , many of the [ + inner s t a t e ] items/ad j u n c t s are e x ­
pre s s e d v i a t he verb do . Thi s would c orre spond we l l t o t h e f a c t noted
i n 4 . 2 . 3 that k a e n g e inter s e c t s m o s t frequently w i t h p i n g f do i n the
Enga [ + inner s t at e ] adj unct s . Other verb s a l s o used w i t h s u c h ad­
j unct s inc lude h i t and say , r e c a l l ing 4 . 2 . 1 and the d i s cus s i on of the
di fferent verb s permi t t e d b y the s emant i c rules to c o-oc cur w i t h
 129

[ + inner s t at e ] in Enga , i . e . , k a e n g e , p i n g l , p l n g i hi t , l en ge utter ,

and s i n g i h e a r . C l e arly , the [ + inner s t a t e ] adj unc t s are a problem
case and need further inve s t i gat i on . Some e xamp l e s from t h i s doma i n
are :

14 . kae enem ( Me lpa )

good do
i t is good

15 . p i p i 1 enem ( Me lpa )
s hame do
b e /fe e Z a s h amed

16 . i mb i 1 e r e ( Banz )
pain do
have pain

17 . 9 i u1 5 i ( S in a s i na )
pain hit
h a v e p ai n

18 . n a b !) g- ( Karam )
s hame do
be a s hame d/s hy

19 . oma r e - ( Asmat --Aj am d i a le c t )

do
be afraid

20 . man am af- ( A smat - -Flamingo Bay d i a l e c t )

hi t
li ke/Zove

21. ura di ( Sinas ina )

s oft s ay
be s oft

(iii) Anomal i e s

The anoma l i e s are of int ere s t a s e x c ep t i o n s t o the p o s t ul a t e d s em­

ant i c redunda n c y rule s . The c a s e i s such that if Enga has a predi c a­
t i on of the form ' adj unc t X p lus c o- o c c urring verb u t t e r ' and we
a s s ume t hat u t t e r has a s im i l ar s eman t i c content i n the other NAN lan­
guage s d i s c u s s e d ab ove , then we would a s s ume that adj unct X of that
language would a l s o c o- o c cur i n the pre d i c at i on with u t t e r . I f it
i n s t e ad c o - o c c ur s w i t h d o ( i . e . , i s anoma lous ) , t h e n i t i s o f i n t e re s t
t o u s for i t s c ontent , the s emant i c feature s o f the adj unct X , and the
two verb s u t t e r and the anomalous verb .
130

A few e x amp l e s o f anoma l i e s i n the pred i c at ions i n re gard t o u t t e r

are p re se n t e d from t h e s our c e d at a . In U s arufa w e have :

22 . i b i ga yara�
a cry t o weep
to cry

23 . akuga i ta­
odour t o hear
t o sme 'l 'l

( 2 2 ) c ontra s t s with Ban z ' s

24 . t ow ' 1 1 e r e
'l a u g h do
t o 'l a u g h

whi c h contra s t s with Enga ' s

. ,
25 . g' I 1 e - n ge
'l augh u t te r - HAB

I t would s eem that ( 2 2 ) and ( 2 3 ) would u s e u t t e r ( as Enga d o e s ) ; ( but

Enga a l s o has

25a. gi ( kaenge
'l augh fe e 'l - HAB
t o 'laugh ) .

I n Ban z we a l s o find

26. wi i ro

caH hit
t o ca H

when we would a l s o e x p e c t u t t e r . Another anomaly from Enga i s

27 . yanda p i -ng(
bow do - HAB
t o fi g h t

This was expected to be

28. *yanda p f-ng i

bow h i t - HAB

5.3 C O N C L US I O N

We have noted that the c omp arat ive p e r s p e c t ive for other NAN l an ­
guage s i nd i c at e s the pre s e n c e o f b ot h E V a n d pred i c at i ons . The EV
( from the re fere nt s give n ) c o- o c c ur w i t h [ + c oncre t e ] nouns , and the
 131

maj ority have the s ame type o f feature s , shape and p o s t ure , w i t h the
Melpa-Ban z-Sinas ina group d i ffering i n feature t yp e s in the EV . The
pre d i c at i ons have rec e ived more a t t ent i on in the l i t erature and muc h
more dat a are avai l ab l e on t h e m ( c f . Appendix E ) ; again , the l anguage s
inve s t iga t e d show s t r iking s im i l ar i t ie s . It would thus s eem t hat c ov­
ert c la s s i fi cat ory verb s are p r e s ent in many of the NAN l anguage s . Of
t h e t o t a l n i ne l anguages w i t h EV , s even o f t h e s e al s o have pre d i c a­
t i ons ( Enga , A smat , Kamoro , Melpa , Banz , Sinas ina , and Kat e ) . Of the
twent y-five languages with predi c at ions ( s even with EV ) , we know that
only one ( Karam) doe s n o t have EV . C l early the next step i s to more
9
thoroughly inve s t igate t h e s e l anguage s for EV .
 N O T E S

1. With thanks t o Dr . C . L . Voorhoeve for the Eng l i sh trans lat ion ;

the a c t ua l Dut ch t e xt i s :

Bij het gebruiken van deze hulpwerkwoorden komt de kwestie , welk

werkwoord uit de reeks men in een gegeven geval moet nemen . De
keuze kan afhangen van de houding waarin het onderwerp zich op
het ogenblik der hande1ing bevindt of van de toegeschreven
toestand , eigens chap enz . van het onderwerp . Vee1al hangt ze
af van de houding waarin het onderwerp zich gewoon1ijk , vo1gens
de Kamorose opvatting , bevindt . De Kamorose verbee1ding veerdee1t
a . h . w . a11e wezens in klas sen : de zittende , de staande , de
dri jvende , enz . , zie de vo1gende numme rs ( Drabbe 1953 : 39 ) .

2. I am indeb ted t o Profe s s or S . A . Wurm for making ava i l ab le the

unpub l i shed mat e r i a l s o f M . Ru le on Hu l i .

3. I t s eems likely that the c l a s s re ferred t o here i s a c t u a l l y

s ome thing l ike t he Enga game mamma l s .

4. Some add i t ional re ferent s for Me lpa EV have b e e n provided b y

Profe s s or A . J . St rathern , w h o give s the f o l l owing :

mo- c a s s owary , b irds , p e n i s , t e s t i c l e s , vagina , breas t s ,

s k i n , arms , fire , water , lake , s tream , sun , frogs ,
b e ard , hair , wasp , b e e , hou s e , tre e , fence , f i s h ( ? ) ,
furniture ( ? ) .

an- mount ains ( ? ) , hou s e s ( ? ) .

pe- fruit , s e e d s , p l ant s , mu shrooms , h e art , any animat e

that i s in a p la c e , hab i t at , l iver ( ? ) , n ai l s ( ? ) .

te- l i zard s , snake s , cars , c ut wood , b ooks , b u c ke t ,

c e nt ipede s , crawling animat e s , dead animat e s , harve s t ed
sweet pot a t oe s .

132
 133

5. S ome addit i onal re ferent s for Ban z EV have b e e n provided b y Dr .

Marie Reay , who give s the fol l owi n g :

mem men , women , p igs , water , fire , l ake , s tream , nut s ,

fruit s , flower s , de ad p e op l e ( ? ) .

pam used for durat ion o f b e i n g .

tim b u c ke t s , c ar s , fr ogs , h o us e , moun t a ins , t r e e s ( ? ) ,

s nake s , c e n t ipede s .

baim ( b e t h e re /p r e s e n t ) ; hous e , fenc e , firewood , any

improvemen t s made by human e f fort .

6. Some other languages i n wh i ch EV have b e e n noted inc lude :

Va.n.i , wh i c h has " a numb er of verb s , a l l of them denot ing s ome

k ind of b e i n g . . . " ( Van der S t ap 1 9 6 6 : 1 2 6 f . ) . The s e inc lude
me n a s i n to s t and , we l a s i n t o l i e , b e l a s i n t o fa l l , a k a s i n t o b e ,
and we l a k a s i n to s t a y , to e xi s t .

Kaug e! , a language l o c a t e d t o the w e s t o f Mt . Hagen t ownship

( i . e . , b etween Enga and Me lpa ) : mo l o - be , a g i I i s tand , p e ­
l ay , and l e - p l ace ( Bl owers 1 9 7 0 : 3 9 ) .

K o .ia�.i , wh i c h d o e s not have EV , has a s y s t em of s p e c i fi e r s

( c f . Dut ton 1 9 6 9 : 2 2 3- 2 4 1 ) , whi ch might w e l l b e remnan t s o f
EV . The s e s p e c i fiers group t h e nouns int o c la s s e s and i t i s
p o s s ib le that t h e y derive h i s t or i c a l l y from EV . They must
b e i n s e r t e d transformat ionally and unde r c ondi t i on s s imi lar
to those where the EV in Enga i s introduc ed .

Frank l i n ( 19 7 1 ) a l s o s ta t e s :

The verb expounding the Predi cate tagmeme in complementive clauses

can often be recognised as a form of the verb to be whi ch is based ,
e . g . upon such verbs as : p ( ra to sit , s a to put , aa to stand
ya to affirm.

Irw i n , in h i s d i s c u s s ion o f to be in Sa.!� - Yu.i , not e s that a l l ani­

mat e and i nanimat e nouns t ake the s i ngle form mo l ( 19 7 1 : 69 ) . Vin c e nt
give s e xamp l e s o f Ta.i� o�a. v a t a p u t , h a v e , wh i c h s e ems t o a c t as an EV
o f i n a l ienab le p o s s e s s ion , in e xamp l e s s u c h a s :

a. taaka vuka i mar i vata-a- ra .

casuarina l o n g l e a v e s has a re lator
- -

A casuarina has long l e a ve s .

b. te t ave vata-#-uka .
I hat have a r e l a t or
- -

I am a c h i e f .
134

and c ompare ( b ) with ( c )

c. t e t ave vata-u ra- uka .

I hat hav e - I- pa s t - fo c u s /re l at or
I had a hat . (Vincent 1 9 7 3 ) .

7. A . Pawley ( p ers onal c ommun i c a t ion ) has pointed out t hat b ot h Ro s s

and Luz b e tak " fa l l into the l inguo c e n t r i c error o f a s c ri b i n g d i f ferent
me anings t o a verb when it o c curs in d i f ferent predi cat ions , whe n in
fact the verb i s c on s t ant in meaning and it i s t he adj unc t s wh i c h are
the variab l e s . "

8. This part i c ular examp le wa s s e l e c t ed s i n c e i t was a c t ua l ly pre s ­

e n t i n t h e s ource dat a ; c f . Appendix E .

9. I t would s eem very l ikely ( c on s idering the ne arne s s o f re l a t ion­

ship with Enga ) t hat Huli has b ot h EV and predicat ion s .
S ome addit i onal language s w i t h predi cat i on s are : Awj u and Marind
from b r i e f e xamp l e s given in Boe laars ( 19 5 0 : 1 5 f . and 7 5 f . ) .
 CHAPTER SIX

6.0 CONCLUS I ON

In t h i s monograph t he s eman t i c s of a port i o n o f the verb s y s t em o f

a New Guine an language h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d a n d e xp l ored . Focus was
upon t wo kinds o f c l as s i fi c at ory verb s , the e x i s t en t i a l verb s and t h e
pro-verb s o f the pre d i c at i on s , wh i c h w e r e shown t o b e mut u a l l y exc l u s ­
i v e i n re gard s t o c o-oc curring noun s . A s ub - s et o f n o u n s wh i ch c o ­
o c c ur w i t h the EV , the animat e s , was a l s o analy z ed . T h e s emant i c
feature s and s eman t i c redundan c y r u l e s for t h e EV , t h e animat e nouns ,
and t h e pre d i cat i ons were d e s c r i b e d . C on s ide rab l e empha s i s has b een
given to the ana ly s i s o f e x c ept i on s and s e man t i c i rregular i t i e s t o
d e t e rmine whether t here were s y s t emat i c r e gulari t i e s and where p o s s ­
i b le , t o formu l a t e rul e s t o ac c ount f o r the s e .
Several po int s of general intere s t were d i s cu s s ed : po s s ib le s up­
port for Lyon s ' hypothe s i s o f the derivat i o n o f all e x i s t ent i a l and
po s s e s s ive s e nt e n c e s ( in Enga , s en t e n c e s with the EV ) from i nde f i n i t e
l o c at ive s w a s pre s e n t e d i n 2 . 2 . 1 . C overt fe ature s a s s eman t i c markers
were pre s en t e d i n 3 . 1 . 2 for the an imat e s . ' Feature spread i n g ' was
presented a s a s o lu t i o n to the prob lem o f p re d i c a t e nouns and EV c on­
f l i c t r e s olut i on in 2 . 3 . P o s s ib l e support for the priori t y of s eman­
t i c s over s y n t a x was b r i e f ly p r e s e n t e d i n 3 . 4 , in the d i s c u s s i o n o f
the nat ure o f the d e e p struc t ure o f Enga pre d i c at i o n s . The verb s o f
t he Enga pre d i c at ions were d i s c u s s e d a s c ognat e ob j ec t verb s , and a s
pro-verb s , s imi lar t o var i ous Eng l i s h ' auxi l iary ' verb s , s u c h a s h a v e ,
do , g e t , et c . Wider imp l i cat i on s here are that the EV are b as ed upon
feat ur e s o f s h ap e and p o s t ure , s uc h a s t h o s e me nt ioned b y Fri e d r i c h
( 1 9 7 0 ) a n d Be r l i n ( 1 9 6 8 ) a s h aving world-wide s i gn i f i c an c e i n t e rms o f
s eman t i c univers a l s .
In relat i on t o Papua New Guinea l ingui s t i c s , chap t e r five pre s en t e d
the c omparat i ve mat e r i a l s from other language s f o r t h e EV a n d t h e

135
136

pre d i c a t ions . I t was shown that b ot h the EV and the predi cat i ons
could b e u s e d a s a d iagno s t i c c r i t e rion for a large numb er o f NAN l an­
guage s and t he import anc e for que s t ions of c ommon origin and s ub gr oup­
in g .
Thus , a lt hough a pre l iminary s eman t i c inve s t igat ion , t h i s s t udy has
provided s ome mat e r i a l s of int e re s t to not only Papua New Guinea l in­
gui s t i c s , b ut a l s o of general intere s t as w e l l .
 A PPENV I X A : SEMANT I C CLASSES O F VERBS

The seman t i c c la s s i f i c at i o n pres ent ed b e low is b as e d upon i nform­

ant s ' s t a t emen t s of s imi larity ( pr imari l y via s ynonym- t yp e d e f i n i ­
t ions ) , wh i ch provided o n e means o f d e t e rmining s emant i c c l a s s e s .
Further s upport for the c l a s s i fic at ion derives from the mat ched c o ­
o c c urren c e s o f nouns and verb s produced and d i s p l ayed i n mat r i x form
by the c omputer d i s c u s s e d in A - S . The s eman t i c c l a s s e s of ve rb s are

A-I Verb s of E f f e c t
(a) Ac t iv i t y
(b ) Cutt ing/Bre aking
(c) H o lding
A-2 Verb s of Mot i on
A-3 Verb s of Po s i t ion
A-4 Verb s denot ing Inner S t a t e s
A-5 Verb s o f Bod i l y A c t iv i t i e s/Pro c e s s e s
A-6 Verb s o f Payme n t s
A-7 Verb s o f Exi s t ence

A- I VERBS O F EFFECT

(a) Activity

Verb s o f e f fe c t are t h o s e wh ich deno t e act ivi t y , e s p e c i a l ly act iv­

ity wh i ch re s u l t s in a change of s t at e . The s e verb s are [ +a c t iv it y ] ,
and the c l a s s i s c omp os ed a lmo s t ent ire ly o f ' ordinary ' verb s . S ome
memb ers o f t h i s c l a s s are y a n g e n g e a o o k i n as h e s /on s to v e ; y a we n g e
s t e am in e ar t h o ven ; p ok e n g e p L an t a garde n ; w a s i n g ( make , a re a t e ,
fi x, repair ; e t e n ge aomp L e t e , fin i s h ; l u mb i n g ( o p e n ; t � mb e n g e s he L L
(nuts, a o ffe e , e t a . ) ; and t a m u n g ( r o t . A l l memb e r s o f t h i s c l as s ,
who s e act i vi t y r e s u l t s i n a change o f s t a t e , may b e e xpre s se d via t h e
Enga s t at ive form :

137
138

1. Mapu y a n g e - l y - a - mo .
s we e t . p o t a t o coo k - PRES- 3 SG-AUG
He is c o o k i ng s we e t p o t at o .

la o Mapu y a n g a - p ae doko
swe e t . p o t a t o coo k- s t a t he
The c o o k e d swe e t p o t a t o

2. Ee d6ko p o k e - l y - a - mo .
garden t h e p l an t - PRES - 3 SG-AUG
He i s p l an t ing t h e garden .

2a. Ee p ok a - pae d6ko

garden p l an t - STA t h e
The p l a n t e d garden

( b ) Cutting and Breaking

Verb s of c ut t ing and breaking have the c harac t e r i s t i c s of verb s o f

e ff e c t ( i . e . , deno t e a c t ivIty whi c h result s i n a change o f s t at e and
may be e xpre s s ed v ia the s t at ive form ) ; the r e a s on they are pres ent ed
here a s a s ub - c l a s s is b e cause of the Enga spec i fi c at ion of c u t t ing
( i . e . , a s t o t he dire c t ion of the cut t i n g i n relat i on t o the gra i n ,
( le ngthwi s e and c r o s swi s e ) and t o t he i n s t rument u s ed for t he c ut t ing
( a xe , k n i fe , e t c . ) ) and b reaking ( i . e . , a s t o the original s i z e o f t he
ob j e c t b roken ( l arge , sma l l , et c . ) and t he amount broken in r e l at i on
to t h i s ) . Some memb e r s o f t h i s c l a s s are : k o n j ( n g i to c u t a c r o s s t h e
g r a i n , e sp . wi t h a knife ; t o k e n g e t o cut t o a p o i n t , s harp e n ; w a ( n g i
t o c u t l e n g t h wi s e , u s ua l l y wi t h an axe ; k e p e n ge to cut agai n s t t h e
gra i n , e s p . wi t h a knife ; t u k f n g i to b r e a k off ( a med ium s i z e d obj e c t );
l o l e n g e to break in two ; p o n g e n g e to break off a part ( o f a l arg e r
who l e ) . Examp l e s of t h i s sub - c l a s s are :

3. Mapu kon j a - p ae d6ko

swe e t . p o t a t o a u t - STA t he
The cut swe e t p o t a t o

4. Wa i n g i p o n g a - p a e d 6 k o
branch b r e a k - STA t h e
T h e b r o k e n b ranch

(c) Holding

Verb s of holding a l s o have t he char a c t eri s t i c s of verb s of e ff e c t

i n denot ing a n a c t iv i t y whi c h r e s u l t s i n a change of s t at e and may b e
expre s s e d v i a t h e stat ive f orm ; they a l s o are presented here b e c a u s e
of the Enga s p e c i f i c at i on s regarding the var i ous way s o f h o lding ( in
 139

the hand , i n t he arms , o n the shoulders , " over t he shoulder , in a n e t ­

bag, etc . ) . Some memb e r s o f t h i s sub - c l a s s are : m i n f n g i t o ho L d i n
the hands ; k u p i n y ( n g i t o h o L d in the arms ; k a p u s ( n g i t o h o L d b e tween
the teeth ; a u s i n g i to aarry on the s hou L de r s ( o f a a h i L d ) ; m a n d e n ge
to aarry in a n e t - bag ; s i n g f to aarry on s h o u L de rs . Examp l e s of t h e s e
are :

5. Mapu m a n d ( - p ae d 6 k o
swee t . p o t a t o aarr y - STA the
The aarr i e d swe e t p o t a t o

6. Mapu m i n a - pae d6ko

swe e t . p o t a t o ho Zd- STA the
The he Ld sw e e t p o t a t o

A- 2 VERBS OF MOTION

Th i s c la s s c on t a i n s memb ers marked [ +mot ion ] ; t he memb e r s of t h i s

c la s s may b e u s ed in the s t a t i ve form , b u t t h i s very rare ly oc curs .

7 . ? Ak a l i p u - p a e d6ko
man go - s t a the
? The gone man

Some i t ems are : p e n g e go ; e p e n g e aome ; w a t e n g e t o fo L L ow, ahas e ;

k i s ( n g i to a L imb . Various dire c t ion s u f f i x e s may b e added t o b a s e s
o f t h i s group t o ind i c at e t h e d ire c t ion o f t h e mot i on : - a - n e arby ;
-0- fur t h e r away ; - n - down ; - m- l e v e L ; - l y - up e t c . A base such as
k o l o n d e n g e to e n t e r may thus b e mod i f i e d t o k o l a n d e n g e t o e n t e r ne arby.

A- 3 VERBS OF POSIT ION

Memb e r s of t h i s c la s s are [ -mot ion ] . Memb e r s of t h i s c l as s , in

contrast to t ho s e marked [ +mot ion ] , may o ft e n o c c ur in t he s t at ive
form . Some memb ers of t h i s c la s s are k a t e n g e s t and ; p e t e n g e s i t ;
p a l e n ge L i e ( i n s i de ) .
8. Mapu p a l ( - p ae d 6 k o
swe e t . p o t a t o L i e - STA t h e
T h e L y i n g swe e t p o t a t o ( or T h e swe e t p o t a t o i n s ide )

9. Aka l i p i d - p ae d6ko
man s i t - STA t h e
T h e s i t t i ng man
140

A- 4 VERBS O F INNER STATES

The maj or c h arac t e r i s t i c of verb s of t h i s c l a s s is t he feat ure

[ + internal ] . [ + interna l ] imp l i e s t o t he Enga t hat memb er s o f t h i s
s e t are n o t ava i lab le for veri f i c at ion v i s ually/ext erna l l y

10 . B a a ( mb u kay a - l - u -mu .
he anger b e - PRES-3 SG- SENSE
He is angry .

Th i s s t at ement c ould b e made only a ft e r t h e s ub j e c t had perhap s b e at en

his w i fe ( wh i c h t hus showed his anger ext ernally ) . Verb s o f this set
o f t e n app e ar i n the s en s e d and deduced forms

11. rmb u py- u-mu .

anger do- PRES- 3SG-SENSE
He s e e m s to b e angry .

12 . rmb u k a e - l y - a - me l a mo .
ang e r b e PRES- 3 SG-AU G DEDUC
-

He is e v i den t l y angry .

but may appear i n t h e non- s e n s e d form only in the f i r s t pers on s , a

further ind i c a t i on t hat t h e speaker mus t b e report ing on h i s int ernal
s t at e .
Memb ers o f t h i s s e t almo st always appear i n t he form of a pr e d i c a­
t i on ( c f . Chap t er Four in the main b ody of the monograph ) ; t he pro­
verb i s frequen t ly k a e n g e b e ( o f inner s t a t e s ) . ( The Kyaka and Laiapo
d i a l e c t s verb a l i z e the adj unct dire c t ly and do not used k a e n g e . )
Some memb e r s o f t h i s s e t are ( m b u k a e n g e be angry ; m a k a k a e n g e b e
t i r e d o f s om e o n e /s ome t h i ng ; p a k a k a e n g e be afrai d ; k 6 n d 6 k a e n g e h a v e
pi ty ( o n s om e o n e ) ; a u u k a e n g e l i k e / Z o v e
t a l c k a e n g e b e hungry nanu
k a e n g e be t h i rs t y k e n d a k a e n g e be sad and g i ( k a e n g e laugh .
13. Naba paka kae - l y-6 .
I fe ar b e - PRES-1SG
I am afrai d .

14 . N a b a p a k ae - l y - o .
I fe ar- PRES 1 S G -

I a m afrai d . ( Laiapo d i a l e c t )

A- 5 VERBS OF BODILY ACT IVITIES/PROCES SES

Verb s o f this c la s s are [ +ext ernal ] , and t y p i c a l memb e r s are e e

l e n g e cry ; s a m b 6 l e n g e l i e / t e l l fa l s e h o o d ; p u u t e n g e urin a t e ; t 6 k 6
l e n g e e xp l o de/t hunde r .
 141

,
15 . N a mb a � (me ) e e l e� l y-o.
I- ( AG ) ary u t t e r - PRES- 1SG
I am ary i ng .
, ,
16 . N am b a - me w a n e me n d e m a n de - l y - o .
I - AG ahi Zd a b e a r - PRES-1SG
I am g i v i n g birth t o a a h i Z d .

A- 6 VERBS OF PAYMENTS

Birth , death and marri age p ayment s play a l arge p art in Enga c U l ­
t ure , a s do gift s of var i ous kinds . The verb g i v e i s marked for pro­
nominal reference
,
17 . N a m b a - me e m b a me n a me n d e d ( - l y -o .
I-AG you pig a g i v e - PRES-1SG
I am g i v i ng y o u a p i g .
,
18 . N a m b a - me b a a me n a me n d e ma ( - l y -o .
I-AG him p i g a g i v e - PRES-1SG
I am g i v i ng him a p i g .

Some t y p i c a l memb ers o f t h i s c l a s s are t e e p i n g i de a t h p ayme n t

( among w e s t ern Enga ) , p i g exahange ( among e a s t ern Enga ) ; l a i ta p i ng (
p ayme n t for i nj ury ; k e e l e n g e bride payment b e t a p f n g i p a y r e s ti tu­
t i on/aomp e n s a t i on ; k e p a s ( n g i r e s t i t u t i o n p a i d for k i Z Z i n g ( made in
p i g quart e r s ) ; p a n d e t a p i n g ( payme n t a t de a t h of ahi Zd made t o wife ' s
p a tr i Z i n e b y fa t h e r ' s ; t a a d ( n g i / m a ( n g i payme n t made a s re s t i t u t i o n
for t h e ft ; w a t a p i n g ( marriage payme n t o f b r i de ' s fam i Z y t o groom ' s ;
s a a n d i p ( n g i to g i v e wi th e xp e a t a t i on of re turn wi t h i n t e re s t .
19 . ( p a n e d u p a - me beta p i - l y -am ( - no .
Ip ane t h e -AG re s t i t u t i on h i t - PRE S - 3 PL-AUG
The Ipan e s are p a y i n g r e s t i t u t i o n .

A-7 VERBS OF EXI STENCE

The s e have b e e n d i s c u s s e d in d e t a i l in Chapt er Two .

A- B THE MATRIX

C o - o c currence re lat ions b e tween approx imat e ly 2 5 0 ( gener i c ) nouns

of all c la s s e s and 40 verb s ( exc luding pred i c at i on s ) were e l i c i t e d
during t h e s e c ond f i e l d trip . The s e were c oded d i re c t ly o n t o dat a
proc e s s ing f orms for the comput er , wh i c h t hen produ c e d and d i s p layed
i n a mat r i x form the r e l at i ons b e tween ( 1 ) the nouns and verb s , (2)
the 2 5 0 nouns aga i n s t each other ( i . e . , a mat r i x 2 5 0 b y 2 5 0 i t ems ) ,
142

and ( 3 ) t h e 4 0 verb s agai n s t e a c h other ( i . e . , a mat rix 4 0 b y 4 0 ) .

The informat i on o b t ained from t h i s s t udy , a s w e l l as the original
mat e r i a l s o f e l i c it a t i on , have not been ful l y anal y z ed at pre s ent be­
c au s e o f t ime l im i t at ions , but promise further ver i f i ca t ion o f t he
work on c la s s ifi c a t ory verb s and noun c las se s , with p re s e nt evidenc e
t hat the c on c r e t e nouns of the mat r i c e s group t hems e l v e s t ogether ( in
c o- o c c urre n c e re lat i on s w i t h the verb s ) and even , p o s s ib ly , s ub ­
group ing t hems e lves int o t he s eman t i c d oma ins ( i . e . , art i fa c t s t end
to c o- o c cur wi t h c e rt a in verb s , wh i l e anima t e s c o-oc c ur w i t h others ,
et c . ) .
The ideal for t h i s s t udy would b e t o c ompo s e a mat r i x o f a l l
nouns ( 3 , 0 0 0 ) c r o s s e d with a l l verb s ( 1 , 7 2 1 ) , b ut the mat r i x r e s u l t ­
i ng w o u l d b e s o formi dab le ( as we l l a s having such l ow c orre lat ions
i n many p art s ) , that t h e ab ove s ma l ler s t udy was undertaken ins t e ad
t o d i s c over i f s u c h a larger matr i x would be worthwh i l e ( a l s o , i f
p o s s ib le t o pro c e s s b y c omput er , a s 3 , 0 0 0 i t ems c r o s s e d would require
a large amount o f c omputer s t orage s p a c e ) .
 APPENvrx B : DATA COMP I LAT I ON

B-1 INFORMANTS

A l l informant s u s e d in the s t udy were nat ive speakers o f t h e

Kope t e s a ( Torename ) d i a l e c t o f Enga , a w e s t ern Enga d i a l e c t s p o k e n
about t w e n t y m i l e s from Laiagam ( s ee Map , page 2 1 ) . A l l w e r e mono­
l in gual i n Enga ( e xc ept as not ed b e l ow ) , and a l l e l i c it at i on was c on­
d u c t e d i n Enga .
My f i r s t princ ipal i nformant , C oun c i l lor A lu a Waly i s a was an i l l it ­
erat e man o f ab out twent y - f i ve years , and w a s b i l ingual i n ( Ne o ­
Me lane s i a n ) P i d g i n . M y s e c ond p r i n c i p al i nformant was Pe s at u s a
Wae l i s a , a n i l l it era t e man o f ab out t wenty- three years . O t h e r inform­
ant s inc luded Pas one , a young ( i l l i t e rat e ) woman of ab out s ixt een
years ; P i s in i , a s em i - l i t erate woman of about twenty years ( and one o f
Alua ' s wive s ) ; Yoane , a s emi- l i t erate man o f about twent y - f ive y e ars ;
J one , a s em i - l i t era t e and b i l i ngual ( in P i d gi n ) twent y-two y ear o ld
man ; and Kane , a l it erate and b i l ingual ( in Pidgin ) twenty year old
man . Older i n forman t s , informa l l y c on s u lt e d , inc luded L e s ep ina
( Alua ' s mot her ) , an i l l i t erate woman of ab out forty y e ars ; and Lapa le ,
an i l l it erate man of about fort y - fi ve year s . Non- s y s t emat i c i nform­
ant work and che c king was done w i t h whomever happ ened to b e s it t ing
around t h e fire i n our h ous e when a prob lem aros e . Tumu Popeoko and
Ngangane Yae t u s a of Aipusa ( ne ar Wab ag ) , wh i l e not emp l oyed as my
in formant s but as my husb and ' s , often helped in my early work and
during l anguage l earning .

B-2 QUESTIONS USED IN ELICITATION

"One m i ght as s ume . . . that t h e s p eakers of any l anguage would q u i t e

naturally and spontane ous ly thems e lves frame que s t i o n s t o e l i c i t . . .
semant i c in format ion" ( We inre i c h 1 9 6 2 : 1 9 0 ) . I att emp t e d t o e l i c i t
s u c h que s t i o n s v i a t h e original que s t i on

143
144

l. E m b a - me p i t me d e - n y a t e n ge d 6 k o m a s a - l a n a y a - t -e - n o
y o u - AG word a- POSS root the know- INF NEG-FUT - 2 SG-AUG
, ,
k a n d a - 6 d 6 k o e m b a - me a l p a l a-o t i pa p i - p e - n g e - p e ?
see-O the y o u-AG how ut ter-O ask do COMP-HAB- QU
-

If y o u didn ' t know the meaning of a word, how wou l d y o u a s k i t ?

Other introduct ory que s t i on s whi c h I u s e d were

2. Ak i t e n g e p a l e - n ge - p e ?
what root BE-HAB-QU
Wha t i s t h e meaning ?

name/word o t h e r a u t t e r - HAB-QU
Is t here an o t he r name/word?

At t h e t ime I u s e d the que s t ions b e l ow , Cas agrande and Hale ( 1 9 6 7 )

was not avai l ab l e in the field , and upon my re t urn t o C anberra , I
n o t i c e d a c l os e c orre sponden c e b etween the que s t i on s wh i c h I had u s e d
and t h o s e u s e d b y Casagrande a n d H a l e i n the i r work o n Papago s emant i c
relat i o n s h i p s a n d f o l k d e f init ions . For c ompar i s on with t h e i r work , I
inc lude t h e i r t h irt e en t ypes of s emant i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s iden t i fi e d in
Pap ago in bracke t s [ J . The que s t ions are l i s t ed i n the order i n wh i ch
I e l i c i t ed w i t h them ; I a t t emp t e d t o apply t hem s y s t emat i c a l ly t o
every l e x i c a l entry .

[ Synonymy ]

4. Ke n 9 e / p i l l ap6 1 e - n 9e - p e ?
name/word s e aond u t t e r - HAB-QU
Is t here a s e aond name ?

5. Ke n g e / p i I w a k a me n d e l e - n ge - pe ?
n ame/word o t h e r a u t t e r - HAB-QU
Is there a n o t h e r name/word?

6. Tenge waka me n d e p a l e - l y - a - pe ?
root other a BE- 3SG-PRE S -QU
Is t h e re a n o t h er meani n g ?

[ C lass Inclusion]

7. Baa dd ap i - n l - p l ?
he/it l i n e w h o - POSS-QU
Wh a t i s h i s a l an ?
 145

[Attributive ]

8. Baa a i pa- l e -pe?

it w h a t - C ONF-QU
Wha t is it l i ke ?

9. Baa a ( pa p ( - pa e - p e ?
it h ow do- STA-QU
Wha t is it l i ke ?

10 . Baa e mb a - n y a a k ( - n g i - p i ?
h e / s h e y ou - POSS w h a t -NGV-QU
Wha t re l a t i o n is he/s he to y o u ?

[ Operat iona l ]

11. E n d a k a l i d u p a me X - me
p e op l e t h e - AG X- INST w ha t work do- HAB-PL- QU
What do p e op l e do w i t h X ?

12 . X - me a ( p a p i - pe - n g e - p e ?
X - A C w h a t do - COMP-HAB-QU
Wh a t s h o u l d one do w i t h X ?

13 . E n d a k a l i d u p a - me X - me
p e op l e the -AG X- INST w h a t d o - HAB-PL- QU
What do p e op l e do wi t h X ?

[Function a l )

14 . B a a me a k i ka l a i p i -ng ( - p ( ?
i t - AG w h a t work do - HAB-QU
What work does it do ?

[ Spat i a l ]

15 . Baa a n j a s ( - n g i - p i / k a t e - n g e - pe / pe te - n g e - pe / p a l e - n g e - p e ?
it w h e re BE-HAB-QU
Whe re is it l o c a t e d ?

[ Contingency]

16 . A r pa l a-o m a s o - o e n d a k a l i me n d e a s e m a n g a p y a - p e - n g e - p e ?
what u t t e r - O t h i n k - O p e op l e a s n e e z e h i t - COMP-HAB- QU
How do p e o p l e sne e z e ?
146

[ Compari son ]

it Y- l i ke a - QU
Is i t l i ke Y ?

[Provenience ]

18 . x - d 6ko a j e t ae e p e - n g e - p e ?
X-the whence come - HAB-QU
From whence doe s X come /ori ginat e ?

( T ime )

19 . An d u k u � p a
w h i ch - TEMP p e op l e t h e - A G X do - HAB-PL-QU
When do p e op l e do X ?

( Expli cativ e )

how utter-O think-O p e op l e the - AG X do - HAB-PL- QU

Why d o p e op l e d o X ?

( O s tensive )

The l a s t t hree of the definit i o n type s ( Time , Exp l i c ative ,

O s t e n s i ve ) are not me n t i oned by Cas agrande and Hale , but were u s ed
in work w i t h Enga . Casagrande and Hale have p o s t ua l t e d s everal other
type s w h i c h I d id not u s e in Enga .

[ Exemp l i f i cation]

"X is d e f ined b y c it ing an appropriate c o-oc current , Y " ( Cas agrande

and Hale 1 9 6 7 : 1 6 8 ) . I was unab le to f ind a s ui t ab le que s t i on-answer
s e quence for t h i s d e f i n i t i on t ype in Enga .

[Grading ]

" X i s d e fined w i t h r e s p e c t t o i t s placeme nt in a s e r i e s or s p e c t rum

t hat a l s o inc lude s Y " ( Ca sagrande and Ha le 1 9 6 7 : 1 6 8 ) .

21. Ak i k 6 t e s a t a n d ( i o n g 6 - n y a w a mb a 6 e pe - n g e - p e ?
w h a t day Sunday t h e - POSS b e fore come - HAB- QU
What day come s b e fore Sunday ?

Thi s d e f i n i t i on t ype e x i s t s in Enga as a po s s ib l e que s t i on but as one

that is re levant i n only s ome c a s e s , i . e . , mont h s , day s of t he wee k ,
etc . I d i d not u s e i t much .
 147

[Antonyrny]

"X is d e f ined as the negat i on of Y , i t s oppo s i t e " ( Ca s agrande and

Hale 1 9 6 7 : 1 6 8 ) .

[ C i rcul arity ]

" X i s de fined a s Y " ( Ca s a grande and Hale 1 9 6 7 : 1 6 8 ) . In b ot h of t h e s e

d e f i n i t i o n type s , Enga answers e x i s t
,

22 . Enda dupa a ka l i d a a .
woman the man not
Women are n o t me n .

23. Yana d6ko , baa y a n a me n d e .

dog the h e /i t dog
The dog i s a do g .

but I my s e l f was una b l e t o formu l a t e a re a s onab l e que s t ion ( c f . c om­

men t s b e l ow on c ompar i s on w i t h R . Lang ' s que s t i on sequenc e s ) .

[ Constituen t ]

"X is de fined a s b e i ng a c on s t i t uent or p art o f Y " ( C a s agrande and

Hale 1 9 6 7 : 1 9 1 ) . Thi s s eman t i c re l a t i o n s h ip and folk d e f in i t i on t y p e
was n o t u s e d by Casagrande a n d Hale i n t h e i r Papago d a t a a n d I d id n o t
u s e i t i n Enga e i ther . Proveni e n c e i s a reas onab le que s t ion i n Enga
only i n re lat ion to c e r t a i n c l a s s e s of noun s , s u c h as rivers , rai n ,
hai l , s t re ams , e t c . ( any noun t hat i s o f the gender c la s s of e p e n g e 7 )
and o f humans i n the s en s e o f where d o e s s ome p e r s o n c ome from , i . e . ,
h i s home v i l l age or ' p l a c e ' (cf. in Engl i sh : He ' s a New Yo r k e r , He ' s
a Que e n s l ande r ) .
I t i s a l s o i n t e re s t ing t o note t hat i n Enga one c an u s e t he s ame
kinds of que s t i on s for d i fferent r e l at i o n s h i p s ( c ompare C ont ingency
and E xp l i c a t ive , Fun c t ion and Operat i onal , Attribut ive and C l a s s
I n c l u s i on ) . In t h e s e c a s e s , even t hough the que s t ions are e s s e n t i a l l y
o f the s ame kind , t he r e s p o n s e s /answers a l l ow u s t o c la s s i fy the re la­
t i onsh i p s involved . Cas agrande and Hale n o t e t he s ame in Papago . In
Exemp li f i c at i on , the att ribut e i t s e l f i s b e ing d e f i ned rather t h a n the
p o s s e s sor of the at tr ibut e ; wh i l e i n the a t t ribut i ve , the p o s s e s s or o f
t h e a t t r i b u t e i s b e i n g d e fined b y t he a t t r i b ut e . Exemp l i f i c at i on i s
the i nve r s e o f t he re lat i onship u s e d i n the A t t r ibut ive . Furt hermore ,
Cas agrande and Hale n o t e t hat c l a s s i n c l u s i on i s often imp l i ed in at ­
tribut i ve d e f in i t ions , s in c e certain chara c t eri s t i c s of behav i our and
appearance are shared b y a l l memb e r s of a l arge c l a s s ( C a sagrande and
Hale 1 9 6 7 : 1 8 ) . Thi s d i f f i c u l t y ( i . e . , non-mut ua l l y e x c lu s ive
148

que s t ion s ) i s only prob lemat i c i n t h o s e c a s e s i n wh i c h t he answer doe s

not indi c ate the focus of the d e fi n i t i o n ( as it in fact d o e s ind i c a t e
in e xemp l i fi c a t ion a n d a t t r ibut ive ) .
The que s t ions u s e d in my dat a e l i c it at i on were verified when fur­
ther c h e c ke d via the p a t t e rned frame for que s t ions used by R . Lang
( 1 9 7 0 : 6 ) ; us ing R . Lang ' s trained informant , I pre s ent e d him w i t h
s e l e c t ed it ems /en t r i e s ( mainly c oncre t e , animat e noun s ) a n d e l i c i t ed
from him the que s t i on s he would u s e in que s t i oning about that i t e m .
T h e r e s ult s were ext reme ly enc ouraging i n verifying t he a c c uracy o f
t h e que s t ions u s e d .
In the ir c on c l u s i on s Casagrande and Hale ment ion t op i c s for addi­
t ional work on s emant i c r e l a t i o n s h ip s ; t h e s e inc lude

l } What additional types of semant ic relationships are employed

in folk-definitions made by speakers of other languages ?
( 1967 : 192 ) .

As we have seen above , Enga d o e s provide s ome add i t i onal t yp e s for

c ompar i s o n w i t h their work on Papago .

2 } To what extent are various types of s emantic relationships

employed by speakers of all languages ; are these universals of
language behavior? { 192 } .

Aga i n , the c ompar i s on with Enga i s o f intere s t .

3 } Are part icular types of s emantic relationships consistently

associ ated , across languages and across cultures , with definitions
of words falling into various form classes { e . g . , antonymy with
adj ectives ; contingency with verbs } or belonging to different
lexical domains { e . g . , attribut ive and clas s inclusion with plant
and animal terms ; function with instruments and body parts } ? { 192 } .

I t was with t h i s t op i c in mind that var ious s t at i s t i c a l programs were

run on t he d i c t i onary file to d e t e rmine what percent age o f each form
c la s s was defined b y what p art i c ular type of folk definit ion ( or s em­
ant i c re lat ionship ) . The se r e s ul t s were m o s t enc ouraging , and would
a l low addi t ional ( s t at i s t i c a l ) evidence t o b e pre s ented . At present
the re sult s are primit ive ( i . e . , a l l owing only s u c h s t a t ement s a s " O f
3 , 0 0 0 nouns , 8 5 % u s e d c l as s i n c l u s ive f o l k defini t i ons " ) . The next
s t age is t o produce more s ophi s t i c ated re s u l t s wh i c h are l inked : "Of
t h e 5 0 0 animat e noun s , 9 5 % are defined f i r s t by a c l a s s i n c l u s ive
d e f i ni t i o n , then 9 0 % of t h o s e are furt her de fined b y an at t r ib u t i v e
de finit ion , 8 0 % of t h o s e s t i l l further de fined b y a funct ional d e f i ­
ni t ion , e t c . "
 APPENVIX C : THE E X I STENT IAL VERBS

The f o l lowing data are primarily the pr imary t axa e x t r a c t e d from

the t o t a l c orpu s of approximat e l y 3 , 0 0 0 nouns and noun phra s e s . The
dat a are p r e s e n t e d by t he e x i s t e n t i a l verb u s e d , then s ub -group e d by
semant i c domain . It ems wh i c h permit inters e c t i on ( c f . 2 . 2 . 5 ) are
ind i c a t e d w i t h the s e c ond e x i s t en t i a l verb fol lowing . The l e a s t fre ­
quent e x i s t e n t i a l verbs a r e p r e s e n t e d firs t .

1 . Man d e n ge

Part s o f a Who le :
a l i f , te l e c l i t o ri s
k amb a ke vagina katenge
pong6 penis k a t e n ge
di r , d i ng( frui t , seed, nut 1yin9(
d u n g ( , l un g i fru i t s t em
wa i n g i sprout
pupuku dry l e ave s

2. Ly i n g r
Par t s o f a Whole :
di r , dingr fru i t mandenge
P l ant s :
1 r ta mush rooms
ke n a p f t i , k a ma l u m b i mos s e pe n ge
+
b (n i b e an

Animat e s :
amb u l ya wasp, bee

149
150

3. Pa 1 enge
Part s o f a Whole :
p rn g i roots
ame , a me n g e fa t 5 (n 9 i
makonamb r gourds ' i n s i de
k u 1 r , k6 1 r bones
m6n a , k r p i he art
i ng r , 1 i dd i n t e s t in e s
1 e n ge joints
mama n d a k i dn e y
p6 1 ya , pa 1 ya b l adde r
pungr liver
k on d e n g e , k u t a p a p u womb
i t a ka 1 an ga sma l l i n t e s tine
m6n a yok6 lungs
a n d a t 6m b a s tomach, womb
kon g a p u vein, t e ndon
1 akapo testicles
m l s a , m l n J. u
+ , ,
musc l e , meat
t un d u i n g i s p i na l c o rd, marrow

P l ant s :
ma p u , a i n a
kon j a
+
s a m u, u
+
kat6sa

Animat e s :
" ,
I mu , man g a worm , grub 5 (n9 i
pomb a t a te rmi t e ( ?)
nene anda maggot

4. Petenge
Natural Phenomena :
endak ( pete l ake , pond

P l ant s :
+
1 etesa l e t tuce 5 (n9i

Animat e s :
enda , wanaku wome n , g i r l s
yaka fow l s , b i rds
5 aa game an ima l s
m6n g e frogs
 151

, .
yu I r o de n t s
+
pus r i cat
,
nene insects
n6mbe snai l s fng i
,
yuu endang i s p i ri t woman
inding( woman demon
rna n o n - human fema l e s

5 . Epenge
Nat ural Phenomena :
a i yuu rain
endak i , rpa water, river s fng i
ki nduta hai l , fr o s t
t a n d a ke ha i l
po6 wind
pop6 vapour
1 1 nj i , 1 r n d i c l ay
nongeane c l ay
wa k a i t r e e o i l , re s i n

Par t s o f a Who l e :
mamb a tree oi l
apos6t 6 , apupu sa tiva
1 i n r , mau p u s , p l asma
man j o mucus
t a i y6ko b lo o d
rpange fluid
rtf hail'
andu milk
angaet i b e ard
k i ndupa nai l s

P lant s :
kuta reed
kambe fe rn
kende v i n e , rope

6. Ka t e n g e
Natural Phenomena :
nikf s un
kana moon
bu i s t a rs
152

Part s o f a Who l e :
l yaa nose
ma r t a b ack
p ae n ge thigh
p i nye te temp L e of h e ad
k(ngi arm, hand
m6k6 L e g , fo o t
yok6 Leaves
paka t r e e fork
angapu j aw
a l y6ko ka i t a armp i t
yana s kin
konde nut
a y6mb a head
ayokon de s h ou Lder
e n 6mb a fo r e h e ad
Ups
ka le e ars
kad i fa t
papa fi n , wing
k e ke tongue
ke n ge but t o c k s
l en ge eyes
l uma knee
mumb i s cab
mumb i te n g e umbi U c a L cord

Art i fac t s :
anda house
k a me fe nce
t6ko tab L e
spark s hi e L d
an da ma u wa L L s tuds
+
r nj a h i nge
+
1 6ko Lock
ka l umba gate
k ( 1 ya purLins
kemb6 s ti Le
k6pa , konamb i waH
ma l u s a p orch
kanange L adde r , rungs
yok6 p age , L e af, mon ey
 153

P l ant s :
fd tre e s
a l a m6 , ( d m a r ginger
tupa i t a bean
I
maa taro
map� ang f swe e t p o t a t o p L an t
tanu gras s e s , w e e ds
e l y6 k o s t ring - s hrub
k i n ap f t i moss
aka fpu Cordy L i n e
s amba f p i tp i t cane
+
ka I rpu peanuts
+
kanapa corn, mai z e
l yaa sugar cane
am� yam
sae b an ana
k u f ma bamboo
a n ga p an danus
l epa cen tury/kenaf p L ant
l e pe , s an g a i swe e t fLat

An imat e s :
ak� l i , w�ne men, boys
y� l yaka l i , t�aka l i s kypeop L e
me n � pigs
y �n a dogs
l a i ma c a s s ow ary
t i n d (o bat
put�tul i fore s t demon
t i ma n g o , t a l e p o gho s t
i mamb u s p i ri t
f p i , ma f p a n o n - h uman ma L e s
+
y dL k a p a u I I I .
c h i c ke n
+
b u l umakao cow

7. S (n g i

N atural Phenomena :
mo l e c L ouds , fog
kartf s ky , h e a v e n
kana s tones
yuu , yana i e ar t h , p L ace , groun d
en dak ( kea grav e L
154

pete p ond, depre s s i on

endak ( pete pond
,
ee garden
l an ga aoaZs
kakasa b u s h , rai nfore s t
k a ma n d a o u t s i de
l e mb a edge
k u n g uma tra s h
man d a u mars h
yu I r hoZe
i t a te fi re
moun tains

Part s of a Whole :
panga mars up i a Z p o u a h
ir fa e a e s
m u mb i nave Z
i n gyanda womb
ka l e ka i ta e arho Ze
l en ge k a p a eyebaH
n e n ge k a i t a mouth
i f ka i ta anus
l y a ka i t a n o s tri Z
anga tuu s i n g Z e p an danus nut
s rta hoZe in t r e e
m a mb a tree o i Z

Plant s :
a l y6 n go b e an
pa i nap6 1 6 p i n e app Ze
kapusa aabbage p e t e n ge
Art i fa c t s :
de nge aorner
+
d6a door
k� i t a , k a r t l n ( do o r , path, road
r ma ri dg e p o Z e
k a i namb u are a i n s i de door
l ukuna i nn e r room
palo room, p i g s ta H
panda s p a c e , p Zaae
pepe l y6 fi rep Zaae
dpi b a a k of house
 155

+ . , ,
w l n d o a , w i n i n d oa window
+
ko l os a c lothing
t om a s t op p e r , lid
+
bakesa bucket
+
1 �ma l amp
+
b os 6 1 0 bott le
l a rne drum
+
g u m ,l .I rub b e r , p l as t i c
+. ,
J a t ama drum
+
k o s ii ball
+ ,
s us a s h o t , inj e c t i o n
+
np i car, jeep
+
k�t6 car
+
kfi key
ka l e t a di s k money
k a n ii s h i l l in g , money
+
k i 1 6k o c l ock
kapa bu l l e t
+
k�po cup
+
ka t a s r n i keros ene
kem� k n i fe
ken d � i w a l king s ti c k
uaa axe
+
lesa razor
+
1 i t i 60 radio
1 rd b o undary
mam� arrow
m ii n d i , n u u bas k e t , ne tbag
+ , .

man l money
+
mas r s a matches
me n � p u n g i p i g rope
+
mat asene medicine
m i m� bow
 A P PENV I X v : THE P RE D I CAT I ON S O F ENGA

The data pre sented here on Enga pred i c a t i ons is grouped by t he c o­

o c c urring verb , in order o f frequency . Wit h i n the verb group s , the
a d j un c t s have b e e n sub - grouped a s t o s e mant i c doma i n s . Upon rev i s i on
of t h i s work , s ome i t ems thought t o be p red i ca t i on s in Lang ( 1 9 7 1 )
have been found t o b e i d i oms and have thus b een d e l e t ed .

Page number
D-l l e n ge utter 156
,
D-2 p i ng l do 164
D-3 p (ng i hit 170
D-4 s (n g i h e ar 17 3
D 5 - ny rng l g e t , take 174
D-6 m i n rn g i h o l d in hands ; c o n t ro l 175
D 7 - k a e n ge be ( o f inner s t a t e s ) 176
D-8 p a l e n ge lie ( i n s i de ) 176
D- 9 k a te n ge s t and 177
D- I 0 p e n ge go 178
D- l l n e n ge eat 178
D-12 tenge burn 178

D-l l e n g e utter
I Ba s i c Me aning :
aa 8ay ' ah ' in s urp ri 8 e
,
ae s que a l , 8 cream/cry
,
an ga open m o u t h wide (a8 in y awn )
a i ya ca l l o u t n ame to come and ge t s om e t h i n g
. ,
aI I e x c l aim
aU exp re 8 8 comfo r t
a 1 6w a k i e xp r e s s happ i n e s 8

156
 l e n ge 157

apa expr e s s o n e s e Z f
apu say a p u to chi Z d
I
aso ca Z Z dog t o come
b rs� e xp re s s di s Z i k e b y s a y i n g t s k
boto fZatuZate
bu l u s o und of hum/roar
d i 1 i ndao noise of be Z Z
dul u/duu sp Lash into water
ee cry
ga� grunt
gat� k n o c k , s o u n d o f s ome t h i n g s t r i k i n g (wood/i ron )
gee ca Z Z p i g or dog
grtl s h ow t e e t h in p Z e as ure
g eS e swa Z Zow
goo g a � p an t
gu l anga l u s t omach grow L s
rsu exc Z aim i s h
Ha s ound of crac k/cre a k
Hlo jalo kno c k
kaa s ound of p i gs /s q u e a Z
kaakaa women/g i r L s Zaugh t oge t h e r
kae p i gs s que a L
ka i pya/ka f d
thunde rs
t 6ka
kakate whisper
kauu dogs bark
kea p ig s s q ue a Z
keau sound o f t app in g/kno cking
kee ca Z Z o u t
keke s o un d o f dry rus t L i ng
k i i y� kauu s t omach rumb L e s
k i i i t u l eS grind/c L i c k t e e th toge t h e r
k Tpu t hunde r
kee ka� pant
k T d U t eS grind teeth
koe / k o l a a wh i s t L e through t e e t h
kope t a speak badLy
kosee cough
k eS t o cough
ku f i guLp n oi s i l y
kul u s ound of fi re/wa t e r/ri v e r
ku l u mundu s n o re
158 l enge

k u u l ao snort, snuff
kuu s n o re
kyaa p i g s s c ream
kyuku /kyuu sound of cra s h/thud
l am b a argue/quarre l
l a fya argue/q uarre l
l et6 s p e a k c l e ar l y
l eke teH a lie
I i f suck back sa liva
I i p� wai l/mo urn
IY ir mouth waters
l u mb u l u m b u ta l k toge t h e r a t s ame time
maku boast
m�ma exc l aim in ama z emen t
m�na t e ac h
+
mi s r i preach go spe l
moka l f p i curse
mo l 6 sound of b u z z /roar
mu I r mauw� swear for t r u t h of i t
mu l u hum/roar
mu l u ma l u s t omach grow l s
m u u, sound o f hum
naka fo u l t a l k
nal u t a l k o f o t he r l i n e wi t h h o l ding p i g s
I) a a cry - i n fan t s
I) a, ,l b l ow n o s e
,
I) a l) a moan
,
I) a u s ound of engin e/hum
I) e e, groan
I) e, e I) a, a pant
I) i r engine whines
I) i I r I) a I r s tomach grow l s ; quarre l
1) 0 6 i n fant cri e s
I) u l a I) a l u exp re s s di s p l e as ure
I) U U grun t
I) y e e agre e
I) y e e I) a a pant
I) y f i I) a a rave , cry out
I) y i I r I) a I r rav e , cry o u t
I) y u u p i g s r oar/grun t
n on g 6 speak poorly
 l e n ge 159

, ,
n un u kiss
,0 0
s ound o f w i n d/wa t e r/tree fa Z Z ing
pale wave a rm t o go away
pee Z augh and p Z ay Z o ud Zy
pi t speak
p06 b Z ow
p u l u p6 1 e p Z ay bamboo f Z u t e
putai speak/y e Z Z Z o u d Z y
s amb6 Z i e / t e Z Z fa Z s e hood
sond6 c Z am up - n o t taZk from anger
suku di s Z i k e
suI u whi s t Z e
s u, u say p s s t to ge t someone ' s a t te n t i on
t �mbo c hew/swa H o w
de b i rds c h i rp
t a me t a me s tu t t e r
t ee ! t i pa a s k for
tI ( s q ue a k /make s hri Z Z s o un d
dtio wh i s t Z e t hrough t e e t h
tond6 be u n c o - o p e r a t i v e
t ok a sound of cracking - rifZ e , wood, s to n e s
t6k6 exp Zode , b Z i s t e r, exp e Z g a s
t om b a n o i s e of s t oma c h
t u mb ( p i gossip
t umbu s p e a k sarcas t i ca Z Zy
u, a a dog s bark
,
US I s ound made when dancing
usu e xc Z aim t o chi Z d t o make it s Ze e p
,
uu w i n d/fi re s o unds of u u
wa r s e n d me s s age
wana whisper
wee s i n g a s ong
wi r ca Z Z out
w06 re p Z y w i t h woo
yaa taZk Z o u d Z y
yanda r d boas t
y�e answer with y a e
yaka pi I i n6 give thanks
y a k6 cry / s h o u t o u t
yao answer with y a o
yasu ca Z Z for dog
160 l en ge

y 6 pe w h i s t Z e wi t h Z i p s
yua s hout in u n i s o n when happy
y u6 Z ame n t

II Inner S t a t e :
a, p u be dry
auu Zike, Z ove
b rsa di s Z i k e
du 1 i make s t rong
koo l � me desp i s e /t r e a t wi t h contempt
k o t o p <i l u wrin k Z e ( o f inanimat e s )
ku r i b e humb Z e
ky60 b e whi te
l <i m b o be weak
l e mbe die
l e mo n g o t i r be t i r e d/s Z e epy
l eo�mbe be di z z y/fa i n t
1 i k ( ma 1 i k r be de cided
l umb� be s hady
l y <i a make/be r e a dy
l y aa pyaku a /
p y a t oe turn up n o s e a t

l yuu s how whi t e s of e y e s ( i n di s p Z e as u re )

l y uu have p e a c e
l yaka b e dry
I) e e sigh
,
I) e n a a rememb e r
I) y e l) e s i g h de e p Z y
n �we / n awee be s t i ngy/s e Z fi s h
I) u l a l) a l u expre s s di s p Z e as u re
papa be c Z umsy
papaya/k6nd6 have pi ty/mercy
pupu be s trong
s a <i / t a a b e emp ty/fi n i s h e d
sri be d i s g u s t e d
suku di s Z i k e
dmbo be tame/weak/p Z ac i d
de / d i b e w i Z d/s t rong/cra z y
ta i yu b e humb Z e /we a k
t a l apu b e s trong/we Z Z -made (?)
dmbo b e weak
tanda di sapprove
 l e nge 161

t an g � b e s t u b b o rn/hard/s t rong
tan g� t ang� b e proud
tai pu do we l l
tal� awaken
di pain s e aring ly
t i ok 6 b e s t raig h t
t 6mbe be wet
tond6 b e u n c o - o p e ra t i v e , s ho w di sappro v a l
tu r i b e t e n s e /firm
,
uu be s hady
, ,
wee s hame by s h owing b a c k s ide
yaka w a k e up
yatu fin i s h (of pain, s i c kne s s , sound)

I I I Mot ion :
a e me hide
a k e m� counci l
a l em� l e twi t c h , j e r k
amr c o v e r (up )
auma mark wi t h e y e , se lect
aw� l r e n circ l e /c i rc l e
da 1 6 injure
depa t o p r e p are , make ready (arm one s e l f )
di r di s t r i b u t e - i n c l u s i v e ly (?)
d 0 6 d 06 h o l d and s ha k e ( s p e a r ) ready t o t hrow
dopa drip
du 1 i dri v e s t a k e s i n s o l i d l y , make s trong
go 1 6 to b o i l ( of w a t e r)
kand ayok6 ignore purp o s e ly by l o o k i n g around e l s e w h e re
ka r p our o u t , s p i l l
ka i pya make way, g i v e room
U i yu rub
Upya make way , give room
k e ke k � k i swing l e g s
ki I f carry away ( o f b i rds )
k6po fa l l down , d e s c e n d
kund i s a crifi ce , o ffer
ku r i b en d s i deways
l �n g a sprout
l a ono ci rcum s c r i b e
l ya � swing arms - as w i t h a x e t o h i t s ome one
1 y � a / 1 y60 pull
162 I e n g e

l yanda s hake ( o ff)

l yaka l yak� w i gg l e , s h a k e
l y o6 s arape swe e t p o t a t o a o o k e d in a o a l s
l yuu t o s ki n off bark
ma l o appear
oi I i arumb l e di r t , ro l l gras s
pa Up i r a l o s e - g a t e , door
paa l e wave arm to go
papa shake, shiver
pee fly
pe l e s hu t t l e s t ring for net b ag
p i I r pya l e throw o u t
pok6 grow ( o f p l an t s )
p u n g u ma n g a araaks o p e n ( o f e a r t h )
pyakua t urn a s i de , mi s s
pya l e t h row (awa y )
pyato( a a t a h , t hrow
pyuku s h a k e , s ti r , move
s aw a n d e s ua a e e d , t riumph
t a ka bend (of kne e , e lb o w )
dIe fre e , un t i e
dmb6 a h e w , swa l l ow
dmbu s t i ak fas t , adhere
do re l e a s e water from dam
dd untie
tea l e saatter
t i nd ru s tre t a h
dd s tr e t a h
t i t i apu s w i n g b a a k a n d fo r t h from a fixe d p o i n t
t umb i t umb ( grow, i n arease
t u lS push, p re s s , shove
u u, grow in group s /profu s i o n
wan gay6 look over
wa l u s ha k e , b e ama z e d; h a v e m a l aria
yanda sink, dri ve into
V a n de s ha k e head up and down
y ame grow l arge ( o f fo l i age )
y o6 pu l l , s tr e t a h
yanda s tre tah
 l e n ge 1 6 3

IV Cut /Break :
kakua sp r i t agai n s t grain
ko l e di vide
l e po c u t in two
1t� t 6 cut in two
1 00 cut/break o ff (as s h e r r i n g corn )
t o cut p art on purp o s e
p i 1 ( pya l e c u t and di v i de
popo break

V Pidgin Loans :
+
bakatapu rui n , de s troy
+
bo 1 6 boH
+
b6sa/b6ta vote
+ ,
b U f) a a s s e mb r e
+
daun i m ( down , b e a t
+ ,
kamapu arr i v e
+
kasa p r ay cards
+
kosa/kos i m i court
+ ,
kutungusa cro o k e d
+
l ak ( i gamb r e
+
l es (sa/l etesa e r e c t i o n , race
+
l e te s a r e ce s s
+
1 (t i r e ad
+
l usa rose, be r o s t
+
mak i m ( mark
+ . , .
ml sI I preach, worship
+
pasatOl e go on p a tro r
+ , .
pos l m I boss, supervise
+
pu l apu b e fu H
+ ,
pus a boss
+
p u s ,I I .
ca r r c a t to come
+
sak i m ( hop, j ump
+
s a n ,l s a change - money
+
s i s o t O f) o b e s t u b b o rn/s trong
+
sukU l u attend schoor
+
s u p "l m l swim
+ . ,
wlnl win, tr iumph
+ ,
wasa wai t

VI P l ay :
kana s f l i p r ay jacks
+
kasa p r ay cards
1 6 4 l e n ge ; p i n g !

kup f di ( p l ay w i t h a top
+1 aU i gamb l e , p l ay cards
ma l e p lay
,
suu p l ay - s l edding
tomb ae p ( p l ay

V I I M i s c e l laneou s :
b i p e mb a p a flap ( o f wings )
buu fly
d6k6 fly
kak ( group of p e op l e
raw fo o d ( ? )
kayo s h ow b ut t o c k s t o s hame
kee pay b r i de p ri ce
ko l a p a n a l i s h r i n k from dry ing
k6po fa l l down, de s cend
l embe die
1 i n� catch
l o ma / l u m a b e s hady
p a l �n d i watch c lo s e ly ( ? )
p�ta p�ta h o l d carefu Z Zy
p�te ring t r e e to ki l l i t
pee fly
p (pu 1 i make magic
te l e h o l d firm l y
t e pe se lect
y u u l ya n d a s ha k e /knock di r t from ro o t s

D-2 p i n g , do , make
I Bas i c Meani ng :
ka l � i d o work
ki r mend
koya fin i s h
taput i p r o t e c t , defend, a s s i s t
t6ko mak e/b ui l d a p l a tform
wa l e ro l l s tring on t h i gh
yanda fi ght wi t h weap ons
yat f de corate
yok6 make/p ro duce leaves ( o f p l an t s )

I I Inner St at e :
amb o i b e in e s trus
,
auu do we Z l
 p i n 9 ( 165

a y e, n e be h o t , sweaty
bako b e w e a k/ l o o s e
e l va b e a s h amed
e n a p6t i be hot, sweat
endo dry
kaa/kau t a s t e b i t t e r/bad/hot
k a i ma l a b e dir t y
ka l ya handsome ( o f me n )
k a me a do we l l
kapa b e ab l e
kato b e b i t t e r/ s t ing
kenda b e he avy
k ( pa like (of i nanima t e s /fo o d )
kombea dream
k6ndo be heavy/di ffi a u l t
k06 s i n , d o wrong
kupa be a o l d
1 06 b e b ar re n ( o f p l an t s )
maka b e t i r e d o f someone o r s ome t h i n g
ma l ya a t traa t i v e ( o f wom e n )
m i n d i man d r b e naug h t y
m i n d i nane g e t angry fo r n o t hing
moko d t i b e as l e ep/numb (of a l imb )
my u k u s ti n k , naus e at e
nanga g i v e u p a n d di e
nene mak e a fa ae in di s g u s t
n i k i n rk i be angry/i rri t a t e d
nuu swe l l
paka s aare
papato be ao l d
pop 6 / t a n d a b e in pain
pungu s t ink
,
5 aa sme l l
s 6k 6 b e t i re d
t a t ake fo rge t, n o t know
tende tas t e s g o o d/swe e t
t i ak a b e s a t i s fi e d a ft e r e a t ing
tri be l i g h t , s h ine
t6mba b e du l l
t u mb i t u mb i b e s tu b b o rn
t un d uma sme l l good/p l e as a n t
 . ,
166 p l n g l

tuu b e dry i n s ide

tuu b e s t ubborn/o b s t i n a t e
u mb i be baZd
wamb u b e fi Z Z e d out ( ? )
wa m b u be s k i Z fu Z
w� i n g i good
w�mu use Z e s s
wa t i w a t i Z o s e app e ti t e
ya l a be s hamed
yama dk6 b e s ti n g y ; curse
yu r i i tc h , s cr a t c h
yuku yuku t i ck "l e

I I I Payment s :
laid p ay Z i v e p ig s at dea th
k uman d a re turn c o o k e d p i g a t de a t h
p a n de t a d e a t h payment
tee de a t h p ayme n t - Zive p i gs
,
py amona exchange cut meat
maku p r e s e n t p i g s a t t e e ; p ayme n t t o m a t e rna Z
Zine at chi Zd ' s dea t h
tee ka l t a p ayme n t t o ki Z Z s ome one e Z s e
y a e, pe rform p i g ki Z Z i n g ceremony
I uu pay for magic

IV Play :
k y a n g a uw a l e p Z ay c a t ' s cra d Z e
kau fi g h t wi t h m u d for fun
ma l e p Z ay
n e, n e p Z ay

V T i e /Unt i e :
a p aa t i e /wrap in a s Z ing
l angapu p Z ai t a wre a t h
l an g6 / l a n d f tie/bind
map6 ro Z Z/win d ( a s s t ri n g )
monge unrav e Z ( o f s tring/rop e )
y a k ( /ya n j ( t i e /b i nd
yaku yaku unrav e Z

V I M i s c e l laneou s :
l a i t � k a / l a k r t a s how
l a t6/ l atu s h ow
wamu hide
 p i n 9 r 167

ya l 6 h i de
go l e h i de
ema have m o t i o n
goya wigg Z e
m i n a k6 turn/s t i r hand
tale dispe rse/sca t t e r ( o f p e op Z e )
a mb f s c a t ter/spread
a n d T k T /anj T k r fZa t t e r ; bribe
alo Zose
a l 6/a l 6o e xchang e ; s u b s t i t u t e
ambe ramb Z e
a mb e p e e Z o ff, hus k /s he Z Z
cover, put a Zid o n
oppose
bata/
fZap ( o f wings )
b i t a mb a t au
e l yambu gather
ge l en ge l e d i s e a s e of swe e t p o t a t o ( ? )
fmbu sprout ( o f p Z an t s )
, ,
Iml mou Z d
,
I nu set on
kamba pupu mark arm w i t h s p i t fo r coun t i n g
kand6 p i Z e up
kae rub on ( a s oi Z )
k a n j on g e l e procras t i n a t e a t work
kanj u s e arch for
k a ke s h ap e w i t h h ands
kak ( fo Z d (of rop e )
ka l o s tep acros s /ov e r
k a poma s hape w i t h hands
k a t e ke t a s Up
keano fi Z Z up from ano t h e r c o n t a i n e r
ke e / k i f bre ak/sp Z i t wi t h grain w i t h knife
ke n d a group/g a t h e r ( o f i nanima te s ) ( 7)
ke l 6 peeZ ( o f v e ge t ab Z e )
k e l y a ke l y a s Up
ke d cook/s t e am in groun d o v e n
kewa n a fi Z Z u p wi t h Z i qui d
k fango b e ck o n to come w i t h han d
k i mb u d t l fa Z Z as Z e e p ( o f a Z imb )
k i ndu s cra tch to ge t a t t en t i on s e c re t Zy
k i l yomba g e s t ure of c o n t e mp t
168 p i n g r

koe fi n i s h
kok6t6 s trip l e a v e s o ff tree
koya fi n i s h
k6nda gather
kumbu seal ground oven
k y o6 tri c k l e (of w a t e r )
l a i taka s h ow
l a i yaka h o l d in tru s t for o rphan
l a mb 6 s tomp
1 an da di s app ear
l angat a l e t r e s p a s s in garden ( ? )
l aka s cab i e s of p i g
l ama mature (of pigs )
1 09 6 o p e n up
l emba s n e a k away from s ome one l o o k ing fo r y o u
1 rd swe e t t a l k/fl a t t e r
1 6k 6 e xp o s e one s e l f ( i n a n g e r ( ? ) )
l ongo s hape w i t h hands
1 �ku/ 1 6ngu s crap e out ( i n s i de o f gourd t o ma k e w a t e r
container
1 6n g 6 1 6n g 6 g i r l ' s mag i c
1 66 fi n i s h - t a l k/ s i n g s i n g
l y an d i g e t a l l we t
l yeke b e come large in s i z e (of p i gs )
l ya n g6 1 e g i v e examp l e
l yu6 l a y e r ground o v e n for c o o k i n g
l yu6 g e t fib ers fo r t hread m a k i n g
makande t r y , t emp t
mak i s tand s i de by s i de
mak6 1 e make one ' s round
ma l u/y 6 1 f bury
ma u gat h e r , p i l e up
m i n ako t urn/s t i r hand
mo n d o a dop t/care for ( human s/dogs/p i g s )
mu l ao e a t s sp o t s i n t o p o d v e g e tab l e s
mu t t c o o k o n top of fir e
n a mb 6 n am b 6 s l ander
n a l oa speak v u lgar ly
,
n a m u, n a e speak angri l y
,
nee do magi c ; s acrifi c e t o gho s t s
ne l ene l e di s e a s e o f swe e t p o t a t o
n e m a,
,
b i rd fe eds b a b y b i rd
 p i n g ( 169

nepo p l ay a t fi g h t ing
nen�ta t e s t to s e e i f e e l is in trap/hook
n e, n e, hum, b u z z
niki niki b i t e o n hard o b j e a t
,
n u, n u kiss
p am b � r e h e a t fo o d
p �k6 p e e l o ff h u s k /s h e l l ( n o t s k i n )
palo dam u p ( o f w a t e r )
p�ina dry s e a s o n , fai r w e a t he r
p �n d a s e t l e a f on h e a d a s a b a s e for fe a t h e r
de a o r a t i o n
pan j u s aa r
papu miss, dodge
pa t6ko pee l/skin
pau s arape a s h e s o ff a o o k e d s we e t p o t a t o
pee s tuff i n t e s t i n e t o m a k e s a u s a ge
pendu liak
p i ma p fma work b la a k magi a
p rpu I i work magi a
po6 b l ow fi re
put rt r s hake i n a n t i a i p a t i o n ; aramp
puu fi Z Z up
sa l e/ta l e di v o ra e ; s a a t t e r/di s p e r s e
siki r i s e to h e i gh t (of smoke )
ta I rp i distribute
t a ma p ra i s e /honour, t h a n k
tan d i l i ak
tanga ( s p l i t b ark
t a pa prepare
t e mb �/ t e m b 6 heat up fo o d
di ahange i n t o a gho s t
t i ki Iya aut l e n g t h w i s e
t i pa ask
t i patapu au t/bre ak l e n g t hw i s e
dpu dpu gossip
t fsa aut/break
t 6m a fas t en with l i d
t 6m 6 s h ake/vibrate
tone fi l l up ne tbag
t 6n go do ub l e up fi s t s
ton f ton f throw/h i t s trai g h t
t o t 6 ma make fo rke d for h o u s e b ui l ding
170 p i ng (

uat f p rai s e (?)

umb i b e b a "l d
wa i p a add on/j o i n t o ge t h e r
wambu b e s k il- fu "l
wad wad knock
yand6 dry (by fi re )
y6n ge pee wear manufa c t ured a "l o t he s

D- 3 p l n g i h i t , s tr i k e

I Ba s i c Meaning :
an 9 f have a "l ands "l i de
ai Ii after- e ffe c t s of "l i ghtning s tri ke
al6 make fi re b y fri c t i o n w i th b amboo
kanda beat wi t h a b amboo p o "l e
kau fi g h t wi t h mud
k i mb u t i a kick
k i nduta h a i l-
k o n j ame whip
l anga make fi re g "l ow
l ate cu t/s "l a s h (of w e e ds /gra s s )
m i nj f l f have a "l an ds "l i de
mumba scar
nanga s h a rp e n
n e n ge s ha rp e n ( n e n ge = tooth, horn, tus k )
pata s p "l i t p andanus nut
pep6 t o s "la s h down v e ge t a t i on
t an u mow grass
y ae ki "l "l p i g s - s e q ue "l t o t e e
yuu wapaka "l i g h t n i ng s tri k e s

I I Pee l :
kaka s k i n p e d s off
ke l 6 p e e "l (of v e ge tab "l e s )
komb a shed skin
1 6 mb a shed skin
p ak6na p e e "l off h u s k /s h e "l "l
dka p e e "l
yanu p e e "l /s t ri p ( o f b ark/s k i n )

I I I Cut :
l am b a aut/b r e ak w i t h grain
l anga cu t/b reak with grain
 p l n g ( 171

l ee s ho r t e n by b r e a k i n g
l yo6 cut in pieces
mun d u s l i c e , c u t up
tuu sp l i t (as p i t p i t )
pa te/pad s p l .i t w o o d , n u t

IV Payment s :
be d p ay re s ti t u t i on
k ( mb u pay b a c k , r e v e n g e
nyok6 t o repay
saand i g i v e l o a n w i t h exp e c t at i on o f re turn wi t h
i n t e re s t
w a t a p ae pay marri age p ayme n t
yan o/yan u repay

V Loan I t ems :
+
kos a p l ay ba z.z.
+
1 6ko lock
+
nTlI i nj e c t ; n a i l
+
pepa wri t e
+
pusa p l ay s o c c e r
+
tak(sa pay taxe s
+
w a s aw a s a wash

V I M i s c e l l aneous :
sangatsanga cover up
y a mb e / y a m b ( cover up
y a me / y a m r c o v e r up
y a n u /y a n o answer
(t i n9i answer
wan g a t a t 6 wrigg l e
w a n g 6 w a' n g o, turn a round
ma l a p l ay gue s s which hand
ar s tink
alo run
ambe do b y acciden t/un knowi n g l y
anga(na have a cold
asemanga/
sneeze
as i manga
a t 6me r e count n e w s
aud o p e n , r e m o v e con t e n t s
bee have s ore mat t e d e y e s
e l yambo gather
e, n g e me b r i b e t o ki l l/injure
172 p ( n g i

e teke Z i ke / 'l o v e
i dk f re ad/aount
ka i rub on ( o f p a i n t /oi 'l )
kol o/koto magi a
k o me sprout
k u mb u s t art a s i n g s i n g
k un d r miss
l ama tame (of pigs )
l ee naughty a h i Z d
Ii( fa U down
I (d mark off ( b o undary )
l o m b e l 6m b e be i n aapab 'l e
l un g u b e angry wi t h i n
ma� appear
m�mbo prai s e /worship
h i a aough
b 'l aak magi a with aorp s e
nong6 be a 'lumsy/in aapab 'l e
paa aro s s arms on a he s t
pak� braae ( o f b anana t re e s )
pi d a 'l o s e
pon gema b 'l aa k e n w i t h s oo t /aharaoa'l
p 6 n go t i e kno t
p6k6 aro s s
poo w o r k b 'l a a k mag i a
p60 miss
p u mb u b e mus a u 'l ar/fi Z Z e d o u t
pupu p i erae
p y o n go s o o t h say ; fort un e - t e Z Z
py�n g� beZah
t a n go b e s t rong/hard
tee begin
tepe p u t a b arri e r s o s om e t hing won ' t fa Z Z down
tau s hape/p re s s wi t h hands
to l e be wi t h
t om b o m a r k o f f ( b o undary )
t6moka b r i b e to i nj u re/ki Z Z
top6 buy ( also topo n y ( n g i seZZ )
tungi fi r e ; be in aut hori t y
t u mb i b e s tu b b o rn/o b s t i n a t e
t u mb u b e s t unte d
 p (n g i ; s fn g i 173

t umu wrap/b i n d
,
yae mourn, weep
ya rna b e s i ck
,
yau shout out

D- 4 s ( n g l hear

aT sme l L , s n i ff
bana kapa be b a l d
e l ya b e a s h amed
e n de ( M ) /
warm one s e l f
end6 (T)
kaka (T) /
loosen, untie
kaka (L)
kakana b e l e ft o v e r/undone
k a me forge t
kepa re s t i t u t i o n for a k i l l in g (paid i n p i g
quart e rs )
kI ( a v o i d te rri t o ry o f s l a i n enemy
kI ( b e abando n e d ( o f h o u s e )
k (mbu s i n g a t courting party
k I sa accuse
l aman g a toge t h e r w i t h ( ? )
l an ga l u s how ange r/di sappoin tme n t
Iati Iad speculate
1 6ma p ray ; de di cate/sacrifi ce t o t h e s p i ri t s
1 6po famine
l ya k T l ay fa l l ow (short time with o n l y gras s e s
growing
mak i mark
mapu p l ague come s and many di e
mapu lay fa l lo w ( s hort t ime )
mon d 6 mound up
muku fe r t i l e ( o f land)
n anga s h arp e n (wi t h fi l e o r s t one )
p a ke l y 6 s c ar
p a l e pa l e b e ove rgrown/fa l lo w
pandu trap
pate w a s h o u t ( b ri dge )
pi r obey, l i s ten/hear
pya I r s ummon/b e g
s an d a b r e ak off
ti dki s t re tch
174 ny (ng i

tomba be b ounded, b e fe n a e d
t o mb a u l i fa l l down on faa e , a o v e r fa ae wi t h hands
t om b 6 mark
t u k u me rub n o s e s
t u n d u ma sme l l g o o d
tup( b e s ti ff/un a o n s a i o u s , fai n t
yambo y ambo b e l i g h t ( n o t he avy )
yan a i apaka/ s tr i k e ( o f l i g h tning )
ya n a i t aman g a l i
yapr 9 i v e t o g i v e t o s omeone e l s e
yuu apaka s tr i k e ( o f l i g h t n i n g )

0- 5 n y ( n g i g e t , take

ang ( break down (moun tains )

ate tatoo
d e n ge repa y , p a y baak
enda aopulate
enote s h a v e s i de b urns
i mambu take a h o l i day, r e s t
rpa s t ro ke p i g b e fore k i l l i ng (women o n l y )
fpa be bap t i z e d
kae 1 30 magi a-rub p i gs b e fore ki l l i ng
ka rmb u r e a e i v e b ap t i sm
k a k6 remove s k i n from drum
kaya a omp o s t mounds in garden
ki r take and l e a d by hand
k fpu mis b e have
k i tutu wrap around
kumbu s hade
l ee be s t unted
I uu p ay ( e s p e a i a l l y for s or a e r e r )
man a l earn, a a t e a humen
,
man g a jump down
m6ka l o o s e /fre e
,
momo rip/tear ( p ap e r )
m6ya i n heri t
n anga l a dig a di t ah
n yok6 t a k e /p u n b a a k
p 3 ke s te a l
pindr aut/sp l i t aaro s s grain
pututu get s t ring used on wigs
 m i n fn g i j ny fn g i 175

s an a /s ya n a di g a d i t c h/boundary
dma re l e a s e from t rap
dnda a ffl i c t
tli s t r o k e p i g fo r s acri fi ce
t l l ya t l l ya persecute ( ?)
top6 sen
t�u rip open
waa s te a l
yafna b e c ome s i c k
yapa6 c h o o s e /e l e c t
y61e b e p a i d s a lary /wa g e s

0-6 m i n ( n g i h o l d in h ands ; con tro l

a n g a m ae y awn
buu fa l l down and b r e a k , be drunk
ra cop u l a t e
kai ta b e friend
kenange cro c h e t ( i n t e s t i n e s fo r c o o k i n g )
kepo bui l d a fi re by fri c t i on
k i t i Ut i c l o s e door w i t h a b arri e r o f wood and rope
to l o ck i t
k un r l e v e l mound for p l a n t i n g
l an ga l u s w e a r ( o a t h/v o w )
l e l yo b e i n c omp e t e n t
maa s t and guard/w a t chman
h o l d e v ery one
make fi re by fri c t ion
mak i mf mark ( b o undary )
ma s i guard
ma t r p u que s t i o n i n court
m rm r do corre c t ly
m i n j uku crumb l e wi t h fi ngers
, ,
o p on e s how h o s p i t a l i ty
panga panga have s k i n di s e a s e - s c ab i e s ( ?)
pepe do magic w i t h arrow
t i mina flood
t i m(na braid ( o f men )
t f t ow a l i quake ( o f ear t h )
t um� h o l d and e l e v a t e , ca tegori z e
wa ima apporti on/di v i de
1 7 6 k a e n ge

D- 7 k a e n g� b e ( o f inner s t a te s )
I
ayene be h o t , heated; to sweat
auu t i ke , tove
e l va be a s h ame d, s h ame
en ap6t l swe a t
e teke tike, tove
9i ( t augh
(mb u be angry
k a i yo exp o s e b u t t o c k s to someone
kekena be fe d up ; tired o f s omeone/some t h i ng
ken da be h e a vy
Upa t i ke / t o v e ( o f i nanima t e s ? )
k6nd6 have me rcy/p i ty
k6 I i b e s tubborn
l e mo n g o t ( be t i r e d/s t e e p y
1 6ko b e t i re d o f s o me one/s ome t h i n g
1 6p o be h ungry
ma i d l e be t i r e d of s ome one/s ome t h i ng
maka be tired of s ome o n e /s ome t h i ng
my u k u b e s i ck of s omeone ; naus e a t e d
I I
nanu b e t h i rs t y
neVa think ( ? )
n i k i n (k l be angry a t s omeone
p a a /p a k a be a fraid/fear
pomb a t a be b o r e d/angry
p6p6 be hot and dry
pudt i s h a k e i n a n t i c i p a t i o n , be greedy
dlo be hungry
t i aka b e s a t i s fi e d (from foo d )
ya l a b e as hamed

D-8 p a l e n g e tie ( i n s i de )
I Bas i c Meaning :
ang6 fa t t down (when h i t b y arr ow )
balo lay fa l t ow
. ,
I ng I have fo o d i n s t omach, be fu t t
I uu s teep
ly(ta swe l t ( up )
maa e ave s drop , appear s e cre t t y
+
mak i mark
I I
mau cover/s ea t (of earth o v e n )
 p a l e n g e ; k a t e n ge 177

pant
offer h o s p i ta Z i ty

II Disease :
gen�nge have diarr h o e a
f mu have a p aras i t e ( o f swe e t p o t a t o )
i n g i nya have diarrhoea
k i tu s ca b i e s (of p ig s )
kul fng i have dy s e n t e ry
m�ng� have a fun gu s ( o f s we e t p o t a t o )
me k e s ca b i e s (of pigs)

}
m6n d a di e a t roo t s (of t re e s )
mu l u di s e a s e o f swe e t p o t ato/b e an s

I I I Men s truat e
and�ka n�o
i k f n �o
yang upae mens truate
k a m� k a n � o
yo6 n a o

D- 9 k a t e n g e s t and
b e marri e d ( o f wome n )
do e s n ' t t h i n k ; doe s n ' t wan t t o d o s ome t h i n g
�ng6 be app o i n t e d b y G o v e r n m e n t Offi cer; fo rbi ddi ng
fig h t i n g during s e t t Z e m e n t
kart r t hunder ( s k y )
be furti ve /s t e a Z t h y
kapu s t ab , p o k e
k.h r t hunde r
kot6 take a break
k u a a / k ue t a be abandon e d ( o f hous e )
lEha b e a Zive
ma k i b e a b oundary s i g n ; m a r k a boundary
pama take a break
pupu impa Z e /p i e r c e (onto)
saka be a Zive
ti tr Zine ( i n rows )
t6 1 e Zive together
t6o/toy� s tand up r i g h t
tun� r i s e t o h e i g h t ( smoke )
w�a b e s k i Z fu Z , a v o i d decep t i o n
 ,
1 7 8 p e n g e ; n e n g e ; t e n ge

D- 10 p e n g e go

� mbe ramb l e
angu s tep a c r o s s
an j u go s l ow l y
bar bar ro l l
k6ko b e d e e p , go i n s i de
l e te be come we l l
mak6 1 e make a round trip
m�n g � m� n g � hop/s k i p/jump ; b o i l/bounce (wa t e r )
p i mb i p � p u fl ap (wings ) , fly
p i t i m a p i t i ma craw l
pong6 g o s t e a l t hi l y ; b e s n e a ky
puki mfna s n a t c h and go
s aka b e come we l l
wak t wak f limp (?)
yok6p f hide

D- l 1 n e n ge eat
i ng f grow l ( s tomach ) , cramp ( ? )
k�mb u t an g o b i te l i p s ; s e em to do s om e t hing wrong t og e t he r
ki f b e co ld
k fpongel swa l low, g u l p
k i pongo l
m6mo rot
mu d s m o k e tobac co/cigare t t e
p � ke s te a l
popo be di ffi cu l t
taa i k f b e s t ingy
t S n da affl i c t
tau cros s/ford r i v e r
t6mba be di sagre e ab l e , be angry
t6mb6 be be H i g e r e n t
yarna b e s i ck
,
yuuml con s ume ( o f ground)

D-12 t e n g e burn
i r (ku 1 n be c o n s t i p a t e d
fmbokoi flatu late
kok6 swe l l u p ( from a l l e rgy/bump )
l e ke l e k e suffe r ( from aff l i c t i on/di ffi c u l t y )
l e n ge be anima t e /a l i v e ; be a w i t (figura t i v e l y )
 t e n ge 1 7 9

1 in( fe s t e r
l on g o f "l ame
manda b e a o "ld ( o b j e a t s ) , b e dead
mau fe s t e r
nembe think, he s i ta t e
po6 dry up, s h ri v e "l up ( o f "l ea v e s )
pun d r b e underde v e "l op e d/s t u n t e d
puo urina t e
sokos6ko b e s tu n t e d
yo 1 i b "l a z e ( o f fi re )
 A PPEND I X E : PRE D I CAT I ON S FOR COMPARI SON

Thi s append i x c ont ains the raw dat a used for Chap t e r Five . The
languag e s and page numb ers are p r e s e n t ed b e low . Where pos s i b l e , ad­
j un c t s i n the pred i c at i on s are given with Eng l i sh g l o s s e s .

Page numb er
A A smat - Aj am d i a l e c t 181
B A smat - F l am ingo Bay d ia l e c t 182
C Miamin 184
D T e l e fo l 185
E Oks apmin 186
F Kewa 188
G Kauge l 188
H Melpa 189
I Banz/Wahgi 191
J Karam 196
K Kuman 200
L S inas ina 201
M Gahuku 205
N Benabena 207
o Us arufa 208
P Tairora 211
Q Waf fa 211
R K�t e 212
S Selepet 212
T Nabak 213
U Kapau 214
V We ri 2 15
W Kunimaipa 217
X Suena 2 17
Y Korafe 218

180
 A smat -A 1 8 1

A Asmat - Aj am dialect

As in most Papuan langu�es , many actions and s ituations are

expres sed not by a verb , but by a verbal expression of which the
first part is nominal and the s econd verbal . In some cases both
parts are entirely alike or similar to each other ( Drabbe 1959 : 25 ) .

The c o gnat e ob j e c t verb s are :

1. invite mben mbe n ­
2. weep mbe t s j mbe t s j ­
a w e e p to weep
3. bathe m b u i mb u i -
a bath to bathe
4. danae ndi ndi -
a danae to dana e
5. wrap in a p a Lm L e a f wu wu-
a b u n d L e t o b und L e
6. vio late o k o re oko r -
a rape t o rape
7. adorn o ne s e l f t s j os o u a s o u ­
8. laugh u t s j ot s j -
a Laugh t o L augh

do e - ( a l s o means say )
9. work b l a a k magi a a rau e -
10 . s tep at e-
11 . p L ay a tou e - ( c r . Enga p i n g ( and l e n g e )
12 . rot of e-
13 . di s tr i b u t e se i e -
14 . b e afr a i d oma r e -
15 . steal o s om e - ( c r . Enga n y ( n g i )
16. deny fa l s e l y p i r e-
17 . be in need of to e -
18. undu l a t e wa e-
19 . make fi gure s wou e -

say j i ( al s o means do )
20 . h e ar jan j i ­
21. ary and whine jen j i ­
22. L e ave b e hi nd mbakan j i ­
23. spi t mbe s e j i ­
24. be fon d of n d a mos j i ­
25 . padd l e po j i -
26 . rot of j i - ( c r . ( 1 2 ) ab ove )
1 8 2 A smat -A ; A smat-FB

hit a f
27. sneeze j ak i a f
28 . di e ndami r af-
29 . beat omop a f -
30 . b e i n l ove (said o f a woman ) m b a n am a f -

B Asmat - F lamingo Bay dialect

do e ( a l s o means say )
1. work up t h e inner part of t h e a n a m
t h e p i t h of the sago p a l m inner p art o f sago
2. b e known a j p ama
known
3. p l ay a t ow
p l ay
4. i n t e n d, t hi nk o f caj
p lan
5. h a v e s exua l i n t e rcourse caj
s e x u a l in tercourse
6. h e ar j an
s ound/ear
7. carry a h e a vy l o a d jec
8. b e v e ry busy w i t h j i mamu c
engro s s e d
9. d a r t t o and fro ( o f fi s h ) jipis
darting to and fro
10 . s urround j i wa
11 . s h ou t , y e l l yu
y e l l , r a i s e a war cry
12 . cause someone t o b e qui e t ka rem
13. l e ave b e hind makan
14 . s cr e e c h (of g h o s t s ) n j on j on j o
15 . de v o ur ( o f maggo t s ) n j e rn j e r
16 . make a g i ft i n re turn t o s ow
gi ve made in re t urn
17 . rus t l e ( o f l e a v e s ) wu
rus t l e

say j i ( al s o means do )
18 . s q ue e z e out sago p u lp ap l m
19. hear, l i s ten jen
20 . l e ave b e h ind makan
21 . row po
rowing
22 . s i ng di r g e s pu rumuc
di rge, lame n t
 A smat-FB 1 8 3

h i t , s tr i k e a f
23. "l i k e , love manam
24. throw "lime mi
"lime
25 . die n am i r
dead
26. beat omop
a b l ow
27. abuse cemew
28. move on (of wa l ki n g , rowing ) ja
29 . w a t c h care fu H y mas i n
30 . h a v e a s a w i fe pe r
3l. work up w i t h a chopp ing knife s e j p a

do , work e m
32 . p l ay fo o t b a l l m a r a t ow
33. c a t ch arabs me r
34 . fi s h w i t h a ne t jim
c hop , s coop up, s t rip off a l ong a curv e d s u rfa ce a k
35 . chop growth off a t r e e anuk
36 . make a canoe ci
37 . shave okon f i n
38. catch cra b s pe
c h o p am
39 . fas t en t h e he adband t o a com
carry ing b a g
40 . waste nan i i n
41. c o v e r ( a h o us e ) w i t h t h a t c h o n ow
eat an
42. h a v e s e xua l i n t ercourse (of
a woma n ) c e me n ( [ of a man ] cen )
43. dri n k mu
44 . take a re s t 5i5

see, l o o k a t , hear, sme l l , know ( p e rc e i v e ) p � r

45. p l an a murde r , m a s s acre 50 porj l t
46 . p l an t o k i l l , bring
di s a s t e r upon po r j u r s u m
47. prac t i s e ma gic again s t a r uw p o r o m
The c o gnat e ob j e c t verb s are :
48. s leep i s es­
s leep s leep
49 . weep moe moc - ( c f . A-2 )
w e e p weep
I B 4 A smat -FB ; Miamin

50 . bathe mu m u - ( c f . A- 3 )
bath bathe
5l. dan ce nI n1 - ( c f . A- 4 )
dance dance
52 . vio late o k o re o k o r ( s ame a s A - 6 )
rape rape
53. wrap in a p a lm l e a f wu w u - ( s ame a s A-5 )
b u n d l e b un d l e
54 . a do rn o n e s e l f t s j o s o u a s o u - ( same a s A- 7 )
55 . laugh uc oc- ( c f . A-B )
l augh l augh

Examp le s ( 1 - 4 7 ) are from Voorhoeve 1 9 6 5 ; ( 4 B -5 5 ) are from p e r s onal

c ommun i c at i on b y C . L . Voorhoeve .

C Mi anmin

M i anmi n has a sma l l c las s of verb s wh ich oc c ur in what we h ave

d i s cu s s ed as pre d i c at i on s ; t h e s e are g a l l n say , u n e m l n go , k e m l n do ,
and l a b o n l n ( ha s no meaning a lone , and i s u s ed w i t h emot i o n words ) .
Some e xamp l e s o f t h e s e from Smi t h and We s t on 1 9 7 1 are :

do k e m l n
l. m l k l k kem l n prepare
2. l on g keml n s i t qui e t ly
3. y a n g k em l n answe r

go u n e m l n
4. f l ou f l ou uneml n fly
5. t e ke l n u n e m l n unde rs tand
6. 5 k I I a unem l n run away
7. 1 0 1 u unem l n jump (wi t h fri g h t )

s ay g a I I n
B. b ing ga I In tighten
9. fu ga I I n breath
10 . me n g g a I I n s t i ffe n
11 . ge t a n g ga I I n c lear ( o f weather)
12 . me t e k g a I I n smack lips

* I abon l n
13 . g a l l abon l n be tired
14 . g i l l abon l n be cold ( 1971 : 4 Bf . )

*rf l abon l n is the equivalent of Enga kaenge , then Enga would not be unique in this
respect , also Mianmin might well have other EV. Additional data is needed on thi s
question .
 Te l e f o l 1 8 5

o Telefol

P . H e a l e y ' s art i c l e on T e l e f o l Verb Phra s e s ( 19 6 5 ) c on t a i n s much

mat e r i al on what she t erms auxi l i ary verb s ( us ed w i t h an adj unct )
( pp . 30 - 4 2 ) and verb periphr a s e s ( pp . 4 2 - 7 ) . Thi s b e ing the c a s e , we
w i l l deal here only w i t h a port i on of t he Te l e f o l d a t a and refer t h e
reader t o her art i c le for t he c omp l e t e de s c r i p t i on . Healey origina l l y
state s :

There is a small group of Verbs whi ch commonly occur with verbal

Adjuncts . These Verbs may have virtually no s emanti c s ignificance
when they occur with an Adjunct , though they normally have distinctive
meanings when they occur alone in a Verb Phrase . Their functi on i s as
carrier of aspect , tens e , subj ect person-number , and other suffixes .
Most Adjuncts occur with only one of these Auxiliary Verbs . When
these Verbs occur along as Simple Verbs , they belong to various
syntactic classes (Trans itive , Intransitive , Motion , Complementary ,
Quotative ) . The Complex Verbs in which they occur as Auxil i ary may
be Trans itive , Intransitive , or Mot i on , depending on the Adjunct , not
on the syntact i c class of the Auxiliary . A Complex Verb involving an
inseparable Adjunct is made benefactive by modific at ion of the
Auxiliary Verb ( 1965 : 30 ) .

A wide vari e t y o f d i fferent forms o c cur a s Adj un c t b e fore the Verb

k e e m i n do , be to form C omp l e x Verb s ( 3 4 ) . In Te l e f o l k e e m i n do can b e
u s ed t o form C omp l e x Ve rb s i n var i ou s way s :

The Verb keem i n provides a mechanism whereby a Complex Verb may be

formed from a Noun Phrase Nucleus , from the classes manifesting such
Noun Phrase Lat erals as Pre-Directi on ( D ) , Post-Direct ion ( D ) , and
l 2
Person ( Pr ) , from an Adverb , from an Adjunct , from a loan woru , and
from a Verb ( 35 ) .

In t he c a s e o f Loan Word s , the " forms b orrowed , u s u a l l y from Neo­

Me l an e s i an or Engl i s h , may b e e ither Nouns or Verb s i n the s ourc e
l anguage . "

Loan Word s :
1- s e t t l e a de b t b e e k k i m kee m i n
2. (wa t e r ) b o i Z s b 66 1 b o l keem i n
3. n o t l e t him go f a a s i m kee m i n
4. w e i g h , measure s e ke I k e e m i n
5. be sick s ( k s i k kee m i n
6. a t t e n d s c hoo l s Uk u l kee m i n

do k e e m i n

I Bas i c Me aning :
7. b e di s ap p o i n t e d
8. b e unat t e nded, a b andoned f a a n ke e m i n
9. be lost m a a k a l o ke e m l n
1 8 6 Te l e f o l ; Oks apmin

10 . be thankfu l m i s am kee m l n , s u k u u l keem i n

11. b e k i n d, fri e n d l y b a l b a l ke e m i n

I I Moti on/Ac t iv i t y :
12 . p a r t (gra s s to l o o k or go
through ) b l k e k b i ke k k e e m i n
13 . k i c k aro und ( o f l e g s of b i te n g b r te n g kee m i n , als o :
dy ing p i g ) b i t i n g b r t e n g keem i n
14 . mix, s tir it f a k a H k f a k a l a a k ke e m i n
15 . s tagger, wa l k e r ra t i ca l ly kab i kab i keem i n
16 . f l ap wings , f l u t t e r , h o v e r k a f i k a f I kee m i n
17 . t i c k l e , s p ri n k l e down ka l l ka l l keem i n
18 . shiver m u k m u k ke e m i n

I I I Mi s c e l laneous :
19 . make b ooming s ound, c l a t t e r
(of tin ) k a l l n g k a l un g kee m i n
20. g row l n l l i l i i n i l 1 1 i l keem i n
21 . hiss s e e k s ee k keem l n
22 . ri ng , c l ang ( e . g . be l l ) t angaang t a n ga a n g keem i n
s ay , s e e t h a t , want t o a k a n ' k a l i n

I Bas i c Me aning :
23. ring the b e l l b�� 1 0 akan ' ka l i n , t an gaang
akan ' ka l i n
I I Inner St ate :
24. be t au t , t i g h ten b i i ng akan ' ka l i n
25 . b e s e l f - di s cip l i n e d d i t a n g akan ' ka l i n
26. ( w e a t he r ) be come s dark m i t i k a k a n ' ka l i n
27 . b e s ti ff n i i l (kub ) akan ' ka l i n
28. re lax, be s a t i s fi e d b i l i I i akan ' ka l i n
I I I M i s c e l laneous :
29 . b l ow away ( du s t , a s h e s ,
inse c t ) fuu akan ' ka l i n

E Oks apmin

Lawren c e ( 1 9 7 1 ) ment ions ' verb a l adj unct s ' in O k s apmin , and giv e s
e xamp l e s o f d o and say ; he ment ions a s we l l loan i t ems a n d no i s e t y pe s .

do, make h a p a a t
1. thinks daa hapaat
thought do e s
2. gets big i s i p hapaat
big do e s
 O k s apmin 1 8 7

3. i s happy daa yah had

t h o u g h t g o o d di d
4. got a hole in t e rn t a - h ah
ho l e intran s i t ive-di d
5. wri t e s ba raak ta-h apaat
wri t i ng int rans i t ive-do e s
6. unde rs t ands s om e t hi n g am h ah
kno w l e dge di d
7. i s angry at me at or nahapaat
a n g e r do e s - t o -me
8. looks at i t waa da i paat
look puts-in
9. l o o k s around waa t ah ap a a t
l o o k intrans i t ive-do e s

s ay a r i p a a t or p o r p a a t
10 . arri v e s kong a r i paat
arrive says
1l. dies hapus a r i paat
die says
12 . do e s h a s po r p a a t
do says
13 . sp l i t s kwe s p o r p a a t
sp l i t s a y s ( 19 7 1 : 11 )

Loan Hord s :
14 . goe s t o s ch o o l suku l hapaat
s c hoo l do e s
15 . t e ache s me s uku l nahapaat
s c hoo l doe s - t o -me
16 . worships w a r a t u h apaat
wors h ip does
17 . ma k e s wok i m da i p a a t
make puts-in

No i s e Type s :
18 . make s a r a t t l i n g s o und hes hes a r i paat
ra t t l e ra t t l e say s
19 . mak e s a t ap p i ng s o und kaang kaang a r i paat
tap t ap says
20. ma ke s a s tamp i n g s o und gw i gw i a r i p a a t
s tamp s t amp s a y s ( 1 9 7 1 : 6 ff . )

N o t e in Oks apmin , that the maj o r i t y of l o an i t ems o c c u r w i t h the verb

do ( c f . T e l e f o l ) , t hat the one [ + inner s t at e ] e xamp l e given ( 7 ) t a k e s
the verb do , a n d t h a t a l l the noi s e s type s t ake s a y .
1 8 8 Kewa ; Kauge l

F Kewa

In other cases , the verb expounding the Predi cate in a complement

claus e co-occurs according to the exponent of the Complement tagmeme .
The following give an indication of the range of such paired exponents

speak l a
1. court kunana l a
2. argue a pe 1 a
3. � augh k(ri 1a
4. s t re t c h ddu l a

bring m e a
5. sme H
6. ask

eat n a
7. suck � e adu n a
8. comm i t s u i c i de
9. s te a �

emit ra
10 . defe c a t e ra
11 . spit s 6pe ra
12 . wi l t n a a re r a
13 . f�ood rpa ra

hit d
14 . snee z e g i ra d
15 . dan ce ma t a a t a
16 . t hunder aa r i d

make p a
17 . fi l e naga pa
18 . i t ch k i ru pa
19 . de corate p e pe n a p a
20 . be s t rong puri pa ( Frankl i n 1 9 7 1 : 7 4 )

G Kaugel

° Kauge l has only about one hundred verb s . Mo s t o f the verb a l c on­
c e p t s are expre s s ed b y the u s e o f a word + verb , in wh i ch we c annot
presume t hat t h e verb w i l l maintain i t s usual meaning . o ( Head and
Head 1 9 7 2 : 2 1 ) . The Heads give four e xamp l e s :
 Kauge l ; Me lpa 1 8 9

1- wrap a parce L ku I up i to
p arce L h i t
2. do work k o n g on o t e
work do
3. b e suffe ring from h u n g e r e n ge l e (n e ) ko l o
hunger ( a c t ) di e
4. b e s i c k of ( 1 . e . c o l loquial s i ye ko l o
Engl i sh ) Laziness die

H Me lpa

hit r o n urn
The verb ' RONUM ' is perhaps the most used of all the Mogei [ Melpa]
verb forms . In comb ination with nouns , adj ectives , and verbs , there
are over a hundred different meanings (Ross 1946 : 41 ) .

1- sp i t o I r o n urn
2. urin a t e p u ronum
3. mi s s a s h o t keda ronum
4. ro t t en k i g i l r on u m
5. c o i tu s n o i mp r o n u m
6. s tring b e ads wi I y a ronum
7. make fri e n ds w i t h a gir L a m p o g a kw i me r o n u m
8. b Leed mem ronum
9. ford a r i v e r n u r ump r o n u m
10 . tired e n i mp r o n u m
11 - w i n d round moe g u p r o n u m
12 . a c t a s h e Lp e r reb ronum
13 . s L ack 0 1' bend s ome t h i ng e g ronum

Examp l e s are :
14 . It i s rain ing hard. Ko n a k i t s r o n u m .
15 . Why don ' t y o u wri t e ne a t L y ? N i m nabae l i n ga pepe r rogun ka i
mon d i n a mo n d u n t 7
16 . I am hungry . N a k u n d ron u m .
17 . Wh i ch b o y i s a Lway s bre a k i ng Kan g n a m d a i l y e re g r e g t e r o n u m ?
wind here ? ( Ro s s 1 9 4 6 : 4 2 )
Furt her e x amp l e s o f predi c at i o n s w i t h r o n u m are given b y Strau s s
(n . d . : 82 ) :
18 . I am g e t t i n g s i c k . T e n e n e m p r o n om .
me s i c k n e s s is b e a t i n g
19 . W e w e re hungry . Te n k u n rom .
us hunger i t h i t
1 9 0 Me1pa

do e n e m
20 . I t turn e d b ad . Ki t t e m .
2l. I t i s s h or t . Punt enem.
22 . It i s g o o d . Kae e n e m .
23. I t i s t a s ty . T e l)e n e n e m . ( Straus s n . d . : 8 2 )
24. He was mak ing a ne tbag when
U a l e t i b a mo r u m k l n n a r om .
he s truck me .
25. A s he fi n i s h e d h i s t a s k t h e Kon g e n e t l b a k e n i mk l n b a l u s
p L an e came . om . ( Ro s s 1 9 4 6 : 3 9 )
26 . I fe e L p i ty . N a kaemp e n em .
me i t m a k e s L i v e r
27 . We fe e L ashame d . Ten p l p i l e n e m .
we s h ame i t makes
28. I Like/Love i t . Na n uman e n e m .
( St raus s n . d . : 8 3 )

s ay n e n e m ( Strau s s n . d . : 8 7 )
29 . The e n g i ne i s making a noi s e M a s i i i k n e ne m .
- i s runn i n g . machine i k say
30 . I fo rgo t . N a a p ra n e m .
m e forge t fu L i t s ai d
31 . I a m t a L k ing . I k nent .
w o rd I am s a y i n g
32 . I t r a n o v e r ( sp i L L e d ) . 01 nem .
33 . I t com e s to L i g h t ( i . e . , i s
r e v e a L e d ) ( s aid o f s t on e s Mot nenem .
in r i ver , s t ar s in s ky ) .

e a t n o n om ( Strau s s n . d . : 8 2 )
34 . You are p o o r . N i m k o r o p a n on o m .
i t is eating you poor
35 . You are emac i a t e d . N i m m o k a n o n om .
i t i s e a ti ng y o u L e a n
36 . I h a v e a h e adache N a ma i n onom .
me for e h e ad i t i s e a t i n g
37 . We have too thache . N e n g u n o n om .
us t e e t h i t i s e a t in g

come o n om
38. The boy has diarrh o e a . Ka l) e o g l o m p a on om .
boy him abdomen c oming i t g o e s
39 . We are fe e L ing naus e a t e d . Te n m i k o n om .
us v om i t i n g i s coming

go p on om
40. I t i s hard R o n t o g l p o n om .
hard i t g o e s
41. It is L o ng Rog l ponom .
L ong i t i s going
 Me 1 p a ; Ban z /Wahgi 1 9 1

give n g un um (Ros s 1946 : 4 4 )

42 . aid, he l p e t i ba n g u n um
43 . s co l d, t a l k angri l y i g moe r a n g u n u m
44. adv i s e , admo n i s h i g kun ngunum
45 . s e t fo od to c a t c h a p i g k u n g h u b n gu n um
46 . s e t a fi s h t rap a uma p a g a n g u n u m
47 . be deaf k um n g un um

I Banz/Wahgi

A very important characteri st i c of the Banz language ( shared , of

course , by other non-Melanesian languages of New Guinea) i s the
relative paucity of independent verbs and the great abundance of
idiomat i c verbal expressions composed of a frequently occurring
verb j o ined to another verb , a noun , adj ective , or another part of
speech . . . . we find a small number of verbs in the Banz language
which occur again and again , each t ime with a different meaning ,
depending on the combination we find them in . These verbs are
referred to as ' so-called auxiliary verbs . ' They are not auxiliary
verbs in the true sense of the word because they are not always
' auxil i ary ' t o another verb but often , i f not most of the time . . .
they are the main and only verb in the sentenc e . Moreover , these
so-called auxiliary verbs do not occur only with verbs which they
help but with nouns , adj ectives , adverbs , etc . They are , therefore ,
only quasi-auxiliary verbs . . . The most important of them are :
to strike , he speak , ke l l e throw, send, p i l e hear , tse take , teye
put , gol l o die , no eat , and , finally , the verb do , which has no
English equivalent ( Luzbetak 1954 : 136 ) .

s tr i k e t o
I Bas i c Meaning :
1. T h e re are wav e s on t h e w a te r . N o l l mo n g t o n o m .
w a t e r a - di s t urbance i t - s tri k e s
2. I c u t my fi ng e r . N a a n g e I I mo n g om d z e r on t .
I a rm ' s app endage k n i fe I - s t ru c k
3. Take a b i te . Ko g ' l e k a l t o .
b i ting a - b r e a k y o u - s tr i k e
4. The s un i s n ' t s h ining . A n t s n a r o n om .
s un n o t - i t s t ri k e s
5. I took a shot. N a ma s k e t t o n t o
I gun I - s truck
6. I nai l e d . N i l ton t .
nai l I - s truck
7. The axe wi t h w h i c h I ki l l e d Dze n a k o n g to g � n t t e m e .
t he p i g i s here . axe I p i g s t ri king I - d i e i t - i s t h i s

I I Cut /Bre a k :
8. He has on l y one e y e . D u n go l l y e m t o k a l tom .
e y e part a -b r e a k i t - s truck
9. The saucepan o u t of w h i ch I S ' s p e n mo g ' � e n o n t k a l t om .
was e a t i n g i s b ro k e n . s a u c e p an foo d I - a t e a -b r e a k i t -
s truck
1 9 2 Ban z/Wahgi

I I I C over :
10 . I fi l l the ra t h o l e . Ko i k a r p a m , u s i n 9 a I t e rn , n a
p i p i l tont o
rat ' s h o l e t h e re - i s , a -road t h e re ­
i s , a - cove ring I- s t r i k e
1l. I c o v e r t h e foo d . Na m o g ' l'I e b o k i r � n t .
I fo od a - c o ve ring I - s t r i k e

IV Bod i ly Fun c t i ons :

12 . I have a h e adac h e . N a p e n g t o n om .
I (my ) head i t - s tr i k e s
13 . I am v e ry hungry . N a k o l'l e k e s t om .
I hunger b a d ly i t - s tri k e s
14 . I am hungry N a k o l'l e r o n o m .
I hunger i t - s tr i k e s
15 . I am angry/sad N a e l'l t s m u n t k e t r o m ( k e s t om ) .
I b owe l s lungs bad i t - s tr i k e s
16 . A t t e n t i on ! Ka n e b o I I t o .
loo king w i t h s tr i k e
17 . spi t k u l'l d z i p t o
18 . urinate pol l to
He wan t s t o urina t e . E I p o l l t on a l l'l e p i s e m .
h e urine I- s ha l l - s tr i k e s a y i n g
he hears

19 . be intel ligent n u m a n k a rom

He i s r e a l l y a n i n t e l l i g e n t Wa l l k a n ' m y e n u m a n k a r o m .
a n d c l e v e r p e rs on . t h i n g he - knows man t ho u g h t we l l
i t - s t ruck
20 . be fri g h t e n e d , exci te d mon g t o
21 . be s t ubborn p i I e w i k ro
You are s tubborn . N i m p i l e w i k ronom .
y o u ( s . ) hearing s tubbornn e s s
y o u - s tri ke
22. be bre a t h l e s s mun t to
I am breath l e s s . N a m u n t t on om .
I lung i t - s tr i k e s
23 . I flatu l a t e . E r'lt s ro n t .
wind h i t
24 . b e b le e ding mayam t o
V Inner S t at e :
25. be red bang to
26 . b e fu l l p i k ro
27. have fe v e r ku r ro
VI B ind/Ti e :
28. b i nd, tie kan to
 Banz/Wahgi 1 9 3

V I I M i s c e l l aneous :
29 . I warm up ( t he fo o d ) . Na mu l l t on t o
I a - he at i n g I - s tr i k e
30 . put into to
3l . make b l ack magic k um t o
32. chase t s l ke r o
33 . mak e an a l l i ance tap r o l
34 . p l ay b a Z Z k or'l t s r o
35. adorn mon t o
36 . p l ay Jew ' s harp t amba l l t o
37 . b e foggy k o m p k u m b o n t o n om
38 . hear p l l p o l l to
39 . ca Z Z w i ro ( why not s p e ak ? )
40 . b i te to ( why not e a t ? )

do/mak e/affe c t e r e ( pp . 1 4 1- 4 )

I Ba s i c Mean i n g :
4l. work k o n g a n e re
II Inner S t at e :
42. be thirsty n u m u r'l k a p ' l e re
43 . b e fi t/s trai g h t k a b 1 1 e ' re
44. b e happy e r'l t s m u n t kae e r e
45 . have p a i n r'I I mb l I e r e
46 . be v e ry good k a k l r'l e e r e
47 . do wrong l y , fe e l bad kes e r e
48 . b e s t rong/be the winner o m b l l om e r e
49. mak e bad, ruin e re k e s mo g ' l e
50 . make troub l e p u n t e re
5l . do g o o d t o k a e re
52 . b e s o ft kos l l e re
53 . b e co l d b I e re
54 . b e b e a u t i fu l , b e ni c e , g o o d ka e re
55. be du Z Z
This axe i s d u l l . D z e r u mb a ' n e m .
axe du l l i t -ma k e s
56 . b e s hame d
H e h a d s exua l r e l a t i on s w i t h E k l s a l -enem-wa l l ambe l l b o l l e r l m .
the gir l . he s hame - i t -mak e s - t h i n g g i r l w i t h
he -made
57 . ridi c u l e a l e m e re
58 . bre a t h e
I s h e s t i l l b r e a t hing ? E d o s a e l n g i n e r l m mo?
h e y e t a - b re a t hing - s o un d h e -ma k e s ,
is-it-8o
1 9 4 Ban z/Wahgi

59 . cry g a e re ( Why aren ' t ( 5 8 - 6 0 ) u s ed

with speak ? )
60 . snore i n s � e e p w u r e l l l'l i n e r o
6l. excre te e i\ t s e re
62 . b e angry Na popo l l enem.
I am angry .
63 . be s �eepy N a d u n g o l omb u � e n e m .
my e y e h e a vy i t -make s
I a m s � eepy .

I I I P lay :
64. p � a y . j o ke u rma I e re
65 . p � ay c ards k a s u r ma l e r e
IV Mi s c e l laneous :
66 . make b � ack magic k u m e re
67 . ce � e b r a t e a pig fe s t i v a � k on g - g o l e r e
68 . make noise o l l up e re
69 . � augh t ow ' 1 1 e re ( Why not s p e a k a
laugh? )
70. forb i d m a p i 1 e re
71 . hide o g u l e re
72 . wash w a s i m e r e ( c f . Enga w a s w a, s a p ( n g i
= hit )
73. b uy top e re ( c f . Enga t o p 6 n y r n g i =

t a k e/ge t )
74 . be da rk D u n go l l em i I e n e m .
e y e darkn e s s i t -ma k e s
H e has p o o r e y e s i gh t .

s p e a k �e ( pp . 1 4 7- 9 )

I Bas i c Meaning :
75. s p e a k tru t h ku� �e
76 . s p e a k (word. � anguage ) yu �e
77. make n o i s e k i l l ko i �e
78 . �ie. speak lies ge n t � e
79 . ask p i l e �e
80 . knock gewg i w �e
8l. joke oku �e
I I Inner State :
82 . b e angry E l e m e�ts munt � i ng � i m .
he bowe � s � ung h o t i t - s p o k e
He w a s v e ry angry .
83 . b e s t rong 9 i �e
 Banz/Wahgi 1 9 5

I I I Break :
84 . break t u n d u p r'l e
85 . break b u g ' r'l e
86 . b re a k/open N a m a m a t s b i l i n g r'l i n t .
I p a s s i on - frui t a - b r e a k I - s p o k e
I b r o k e o p e n a p a s s i o n - frui t .

IV A c t ivit y/Mo t i on :
87 . p u l l down me r'l e r'l e
88. j ump d u s r'l e
89 . fa l l down b e r r'l e

t h row, send ke l l e ( p p . 1 4 9- 5 0 )

90 . wash n o l l ke l l e
91. fi s hi n g wuk ke 1 1 e

take t s e ( pp . 1 5 3- 5 )

92 . ask k i tse
93. dodge ok tse
94 . b e marri e d ( o f man ) amp tse
95. b e marri e d ( o f woman ) ye t se

h e a r , fe e l p i I e (pp . 150- 1 ; 197 )

96 . n o t aware , don ' t know ne p i 1 e

not
97 . b e i n pain, s uffer r'I i mb i 1 p i 1 e
pain
98 . sme l l d ake l p i l e
stink
99 . know/unde r s tand l an guage yu we p i 1e
word t rue
100 . be Z i e ve ka i m p i I e
t rue
101 . be t h i r s t y nol l p i Ie
wate r
102 . b e hun gry mog ' r'l e p i I e
fo o d

show, indiaate d o ( pp . 1 5 1- 3 )

103 . be burned dop do

fi r e
10 4 . be heavy na d o m
10 5 . be h o t r'l i n g d o
hot
106 . be fu l l ts i 1 d o
107 . be dry aga do
108 . o v e rfl ow omb l a k d o
196 Karam

J Karam

do, mak e , fun c t i on * g -

I Bas i c Meaning :
1. w o r k , garden wog g ­
garde n , work
2. give bridewe a L t h 5 me n g ­
b r i dewe a H h
3. pay comp e n s a t i o n 5 aj g­
comp e n s a t i o n
4. dis t r i b u t e foo d or va Luab L e s p a s b g-

I I Inner State :
5. b e hori z o n t a L d l am g­
hori z o n t a L
6. be s trong, t i g h t , firm k l s g­
s t rong
7. b e b i t te r , s o ur km g -
bitter
8. be di s e a s e d, e sp e ci a L Ly o f koty g­
p L an t s ma Lforma t i o n
9. b e ro t t e n , s tink kwy g ­
odour, r o t
10 . be unco n t aminated, fre e mo n mo n g ­
fre e
II . b e fre e from r e s tri c t i o n yem g -
12 . fe e L s h ame , s hy n a b r) g ­
s hame
13 . fe e L up s e t , s orry , sb g­
jea Lous , e t c . intes tines
14 . fe e L i t c h y , b i t t e r , e t c . s l k g-
15 . g e t s i ck tap g­
s i ckne s s
16 . be s w e a t i ng wsb g-
swe a t
17 . be swe e t y d k g-
swe e t
18 . fe e L warm p b o r) g -
19 . fe e L c o L d y ge n g -
c o L d, wind
20 . b e s tr a i g h t ypd g­
s trai g h t , true
21 . fe e L L e t h argic, Lazy, etc. y tw k g -
22 . b e hungr y , thirsty ywan g -
hung e r
23. fe e L p a i n ywt g -
pain
 Karam 1 9 7

I I I Mot ion/Ac t ivit y :

24. fe i n t , s ham a t t ac k i ng
amneb g -
movement
25 . j o k e , pre t e n d, de c e i v e
esek g-
(by a c t i o n )
26. pump, p u s h in and o u t o f
j I g-
a n opening
27 . wince , s hudder ( o n hearing
kaj knm g -
harsh g r a t i ng noi s e ) •

28. smack t h e L i p s l k g-
29 . s h o o t , of p L an t s app e a ring
1 m g-
above the ground
30 . open s ome t h ing hinged, a s
mka l g -
a book
31. d u c k , cro uch nk g­
32 . L e ave fo o t p r i n t s tob g-
33 . cro s s t h e L e g s t ob mogm g -
34 . s crew i b m oy t i b t i k g ­
fi t t ing
35 . t u rn around and around
twg c c k o y g -
b y hand
36 . o p e n s om e t h i n g h i n g e d twg mka l g -

IV Mi s c e l l aneous :
37 . w h i ne , pu L L a s a d face j o !) b t me y g ­
38. have a head c o L d j l ke n g ­
39 . spit kwn k g -
40 . rec Line leb g-
41. s how o ff, b o a s t m l w k b e !) b e !) g -
42 . s t op s u L ki n g , abate (of
m l wk s ayn g -
ang e r )
43. whisper, bribe mmw g g ­
44. hi ccough neknek g­
45. comb, make a c omb nwtam g­
46 . die ( r i tua L L anguage ) p l am g ­
47 . eas e , abate s ayn g-
48 . weep ( ri tu a L L anguag e ) sm g- ( Why not u t t e r ? )
49. tie tom g- .
( Why not u t t er ? )
mn g t o m g -

b e co m e , turn i n t o , come i n t o b e i n g , s e t , p u t , p Lace a y -

I Bod i l y Pro c e s s (?) :

50. have an infe c t e d sore/pimp L e b ok a y -
5l. have a b i r t h -mark k n ow !) a y -
52 . have dandruff j w n b ob o m a y -
1 9 8 Karam

53. have a s cr a t c h , b l, ood

l kan ay-
b Hs ter
54 . have warts mab l ep ay-
55 . have a s car magy wt ay-
56 . have a s cab s I an a y -
57 . have tinea s l k ay-
58. have boi Z s s l) l a y -
59 . have s or e s s oy a y -
60 . have wax in the e ars t mw d s b a y -
6l . re g a i n good h e a L t h s w I) a y -

I I M i s c e l laneou s :
62 . draw bre a t h , r e c o v e r wind a n I) a y -
63 . s w a l, l, ow ka l ay-
64 . a v o i d by dodging kan ay-
65 . j ump o n t o p t e l) d a y -
66 . be/be come cra z y , deaf s aky ay-
67 . to be mu t e , s t up i d toptop ay-
p e r c e i v e * n l) -

I Bas i c Meaning :
68 . s tudy , read b w k n l) ­
69 . t h i n g , b e t ame/ci vi l, i z e d g o s n l) ­
70 . sme U kwy n l) -
71 . know a l, anguage m n m n 1) ­
72. b e l, e arn ed, educated s kw l n l) -
73. worry g o s k O l) a y n l) ­
74. di s H k e , h a t e g o s t e p n l) -
mind good p e r c e i v e
75. k n o w magi c kwj n l) -
76. fe e l, s ymp a t h y m a p n n l) ­
Hver
77 . g l, are a t , fe e l, angry m l w k n l) ­
n o s e , face
78. l, i s t e n t o a w h i s p e r , t h i n k mmw g n l) ­
o v e r a bribe bri b e
79 . s p y o n , watch from hiding p e g n l) -
80 . fe e l, s orry for s b n l) ­
i n t e s t in e s

ut ter * a g -

81. cadg e , a s k for g i ft s asb ag­

cadging
82 . exp l,ode bw a g ­
exp l, o s i o n
 Karam 1 9 9

83. l i e , b e u n t ru t hfu l esek ag�

de c e i v i n g
84 . knock g y gw a g �
s harp s ound
85 . s n o re , rumb le g w gw l m a g ­
rumb l i n g
86 . re s o und, a s b e l l ringing, gw a g �
p l ane roaring r e s o unding
87. sque a k , a s a rat o r a b i rd jwp ag­
squeak
88. c o ugh J l ke n a g ­
cough
89 . mimi c k 1 ag�
mimi c k i n g
90 . cry out , e s p e ci a l l y of women kwk a g ­
ca l ling warn i n g o r a larm ca l l
91 . s h o u t or y o de l to someone kwb ag-
at a di s tan c e big
92 . s in g kmap a g - o r k me p a g ­
s o n g , s i nging
93. make a noise which breaks ml a g -
s i l en ce s udde n n o i s e
94 . s p e a k , t a l k , make t h e s ound
mnm a g -
chara c te ri s t i c of animal
s p e e c h , u t t e rance
o r t h i ng
95 . talk a lot mnm k O l) a y a g ­
spe e ch many
96 . b e l ongwi nde d, t a l k a l o t mnm pwg a g ­
s p e e c h many
97 . t a l k non s e n s e , t a l k fre e l y monmon a g -
98. be lch mw k b e 1 a g -
be lch
99. t e l l the truth n l) d a g -
truth
100 . gli tter nnako l ag­
g l i t t e ring
101 . chorus nw g 1 n a g 1 a g ­
e v e n ing b u s h chorus
102 . s ing and dan ce s a l) a g -
wome n ' s fe s t i v a l
10 3 . weep sy ag-
weeping
104 . l au g h , s hout swk a g -
l au g h , s h o u t
105 . s hout o r laugh in deri s i o n swk swk a g ­
laugh, shout
106 . smi l e , chu c k l e swk tep a g �
laugh good
107 . t h under t mw k a g -
thunde r
 2 0 0 Kar a m ; Kuman

108 . cry o u t in ama z eme n t , p ai n , wa I ag-

fe ar, to s q ue a l o f p i g s ca l l o f ama z ement
109 . chant wo l a g-
chant

K Kuman

The Kuman language does not have an abundance or variety of verbs

with di fferent shades of meaning . Instead of thi s the di fferent
shades of meaning are expressed with idiomat ic verbal expres sions
in whi ch verbs , nouns , adverbs or other parts of speech are used
with the auxiliary verb . The active verb is as a rule given in
the stem or participial form , and the auxiliary verb or adverb is
used to bring out the specific shade of meaning ( Nilles 1969 : 264 ) .

The mo s t import an t o f t h e s e verb s are given b e low i n the third per­

s o n s ingular :

d O l) g w a affe c t , i n di c a t e , b urn
d U l) gw a s ta t e , s ay
e r u kw a make , do, affe c t
go l kwa di e
i U l) g w a take , h o l d
n O l) gw a e a t , take
p r ukwa h e ar
s U l) gw a s t ri k e , h i t
t O l) gw a give
YO l) gw a put, lie
a g u l) gw a ho l d, touch
k a n u l) gw a see (Nilles 1969 : 26 5 )

Some e xamp l e s o f Kuman p red i c a t i ons gleaned from the Tre fr y s '
( 1 9 6 7 ) word l i s t are presented b e l ow .

utter d i -

l. rep e a t ag l e d i -
2. fe e l ba la di -
3. be broken bigIe di -
4. sweep b i rum d i -
5. Zose ebe d i -
6. b e s trong gigle di-
7. b e h a l f fu Z Z 9 i r i b e ga i d i -
8. s p e a k a Z anguage ka i yoko d i -
l anguage
9. lie k i be d i -
fa l s e
10 . j ump pug l o d i -
 Kuman ; S inas ina 2 0 1

do , make e r i -

1l . p l ay daragl er i -
12 . cry ka i e r i - ( why not u t t e r ? )
13 . be angry kuda e r i -
14 . b e warm p i rag l e d i e r i -
15 . b e s t rong y ob u g l 0 e r i -

die g o g l -

16 . b e hungry k i d a n g og l -
17 . b e afr a i d kod u g l gog l -
18 . b e t h i r s ty n i 9 1 gog l -
g i ve t e -

19. he lp a ke s u n a d e t o -

L S inas ina

hit, s t ri ke s i ( McVinney and Lu z b e t ak 1 9 5 4 : 1 4 4 - 8 )

I Bas i c Meanin g :
l. cut di 5i
2. shine ( o f s un ) a re 5 i
3. k i 1.1. 5 i gol
4. kick kie 5i
5. p un i s h , b e a t kuba 5 i
s tick
6. c r u c i fy k ruse 5 I
cross
7. shoot k i mi 1 5 i
bow
8. bite 5 i
9. tatoo 9 1 1 -mi 1 5 i
I I Inner St at e :
10 . think, be inte l ligent n o m a me 5 i
thoughts
1l. b e s t ub b o rn kule 5 i
s tubbornn e s s
12 . be breat h l e s s , pant mi 1 na 5 i
breath
2 0 2 S in a s ina

13. be b L ind 5 1 b o l mua

b locks
14 . b e care fu l /s o ft mone d t 5 1
e a s y b e i ng
15 . be red ma l a m g o l 5 1 ( c f . b leed ma l a m 5 1 )
b l o o d red
16 . p ai n gI uI 5I
17 . be b a d PrI I 5 I
bad

I I I T i e , Hide :
18 . t i e up kan 5 1
rope
19 . c o v e r up tu 5 I
20 . h i de /b e s e cre t kuI 5 I
h i dden

IV Mi s c e l l aneous :
2l. fi Z Z up 5 I pe l e d I ( c f . Ban z ( 2 6 ) )
b lo c k e d i t - i s
22. wa rm up ( o f fo o d ) kwa m i n 5 1
foo d g o o d
23. h a v e i n tercourse ( v u l ga r ) wo 5 1
union
24. p l ay Jew ' s harp t ob a l e 5 1 ( c f . Banz ( 3 7 ) )
Jew ' s harp
25. spi t eb I I 5 I ( c f . Banz ( 1 7 ) )
spi t
26. b leed ma l a m 5 1
b l ood
2 '{ . wash b u ge 5 1
sp lash
28. buy/p ur c h a s e bI Ie 5 1
purchase
29 . flatter ka k l n a n 5 1 ( c f . Enga a n d ( k (
word e a r p i ng (
30 . j ump ole 5 1
jump
3l. fa Z Z age 5 1 a l s o o v e rflow
fa Z Z en
32. joke kule 5 1
noise
33 . wi g g l e n o o s e k u r e re 5 1
wigg l e

u t t e r, say d l ( pp . 1 2 6 - 9 )

I Ba s i c Meaning :
34 . s p e a k the truth one d l
t rue
 Sinasina 2 0 3

35. lie ki bd d i
lie
36 . s p e a k t h r o u g h nos e guna ka d i
n o s e word
37 . refu s e , forb i d mana d i
refu s a l -my
38 . s n ap , c r a c k , b r e ak tu di
breaking
39 . break p aw a d i
40 . s nore g u gora d i
s n o re s ha k i ng
4l . indi c a t e om i n e d i
i ndi c a t i o n
42 . bark gau d i
bark
43. s i n g , go to p a r t i e s g a l k a ge d i
man s ongs

I I Inner St at e :
44. b e b l ind 9 i di
closed
45. be hot, have a fe v e r n i ga d i
hot
46. b e s traigh t , fi t k uno d i
fi t s
47 . b e s oft u ra d i
s oft
48. b e angry ka u re d i
work angry
49. b e b ea u t i fu l min di
good
50 . be fu l l 9 i di
b locked
5l . b e a t re s t yu d i
just
52 . be di
t h e re - i s
53. b e carefu l mono d i
easy

I I I Mi s c e l l aneous :
54 . break bi 1 di
break

do/make e l ( pp . 1 30 - 2 )
I Bas i c Me aning :
55. do corre c t l y , s u c ce s s fu l l y m i n one e l
good true
56 . s u c ce e d, win yob i l age e l
s t rong
2 0 4 S in a s i n a

57 . do i n c o rre c t ty ki e1
bad
58 . work kogen an e l
work
59 . t ab o u r i n v a i n y u mo re e l
in-vain
60 . work c o n t inuou8 t y morone mo r o n e e l
man n e r . true manner . true
61 . p ai n t m i ne gol e l
de 8 i g n 8 r e d
62 . d o go o d/honour a k u n d a l t e re e l
ho tding-good c a t t ing h a v i n g - g i v e n

II Inner S t a t e :
63 . be fi t , e q u a t , 8 ame kune e l
fi t
64 . b e happy a rgan e l
happy
65. b e 8 i ck nibi l e1
8 i o k ne 8 8
66 . be indu 8 t r i o u 8 n l ma p i r e e l
8 tr a i g h t having-gone
67 . thank min el
good

III Mi s c e l laneous :
68 . ho td p i g fe 8 ti v a t bona I g l n e l ( c f . Enga p i n g ( do )
p i g ri t u a t
69 . s t i r , mix, churn auna mauna e l
pU8h putt
70 . p t ay ( ca:::o d 8 ) kat e l
card8
7l. have i n t ercourse ( 8 exua t ) un an unan e l
around around
72. have i n t ercourse ta1 k1 e1
thing bad

e ffe c t , cons ume de ( pp . 1 2 4 - 5 )

I Inner St at e :
73. b e he avy i b i n de
w e i gh t
74. b e de cayed/r o t t e n d u g i 1 de
decay
I I Mot ion :
75 . s e n d a m e 8 s age ka d i de i wa
word 8 ay i ng
76 . s p i t l , emp t y t u l e de
empty
77 . fe l l , p u l l down g u re maun i l de
8 h a k i ng down
 S inas ina ; Gahuku 2 0 5

I I I Mi s c e l lane ou s :
78. burn g a n a de
s k i n -my
79 . s hi n e (of m o o n ) b a de
moon
80 . s h ine (of sun) a re de
s un burns

know , hear p i l ( pp . 1 4 1- 3 )
8l . suffe r 9 i u1 pi 1
bound p a i n
82 . sme l t k um i n e p i l
scent
83 . unde rs tand ka p i 1
word
84 . b e lieve one p i 1
true
85 . fe ar ku r i 1 p i 1
fear
86 . fe e l bad/sad pri l s i pi 1
bad s tr i king
87 . p i t y , mercy mi 1e p i 1
s orrow

M Gahuku

D e i b l e r d o e s not give a n i n t e r l inear t rans lat i o n , s o t h e f o l l owing

mat e r i a l is grouped ac c ording to the b a s e verb ( l i t eral me anings un­
known ) :

nepe l e k ave
l. He h i t me . Nepe l e kave .
2. I am t i r e d . Gose l eq nepe l ekave .
3. I have a c o l d . Avona n e pe l e kave .
4. I am s w e a t ing . Gov i s i n e pe l e kave .
5. He i s cro s s a t me . M u k a h aq n e p e l e k a v e .
6. I am inj ured . Gotaq nepe l ekave .
7. He i s l o o k ing at me . G o n u q n e p e l e k a ve .
8. Bananas have fo rme d . G i z a s i a pe l e k a v e .
9. I am c hi l l y . Hepeq nepe l e kave .

ve l e k a v a
10. H e made a p o t . S omo ve l e k a v a .
11 . He made a road . G a p o ve l e k a v a .
12 . She wore a s k i r t . G a i n a ve l e k a v a .
2 0 6 Gahuku

13. He v omi t e d . M u s i ve l e k a v a .
14 . Wa t e r boi Z s . N a g a m i q ve l e k a v a .
15 . He s crap e d t h e k aukau . G o i ve ve l e k a va .

z e k a ve

16 . He wen t s epara t e Z y . O t op a q z e kave .

17 . He k i c k e d the b a Z Z . V a I i z e k a ve .
IS . I t i s raining . Go I I n i zekave .
19 . It i s c o Z d . Geh a zekave .
20 . I t i s dark . L i qmu g i s i zekave .
21. It has frui t . G i h i l a z e k a ve .
22. He d i d i t onc e . Epen ape zekave .
23. H e buried i t . Ga l e zekave .

h i ze kave
24. They k n e e Z e d . A l a p u s a h i z e k a ve .
25 . He b r o ug h t . Me i n a h i z e k a v e .
26. He has meas Z e s . G o i ve h i z e k ave .
27. He p u t in p o s t s . Za h i z e kave .
2S. He wore i t . T u l i t a l i h i zekave .
29 . He made a boundary . G i n i q h i zekave .
30. He made a fe nce . Ge i s a h i ze k ave .
31 . He h ad p i ty . Ag i k a h i z e k ave .
32 . He bore t a Z e s . L o t o k a h i z e k a ve .
33. H e i s c ra z y . Neg i h i z ekave .
34 . A c h i c k e n p e ck e d i t . O k o l o h o h i z e k a ve .
35 . He j ugg Z e d . Pe l e t a n i h i z e k a ve .
36 . There w a s a rai nbow . H u g e p a h i z e k a ve .

v i z e k ava

37 . H e i s re s t ing . Av a s u q v i z e k a v a .
3S. The kaukau i s b i g . Go i re v i zekava .
39 . He cur s e d . Us i q v i zekava .
40 . It i s dri e d . G o s a g av a v i ze kava .
41 . He foo Z e d me . Nogoka v i ze kava .
42 . He urged him . Ga l a v i zekava .
43. He i s happy . Agol i za v i zekava .
44 . He b e n t o v e r . H i g i q v i zekava .
45 . H e r e p ro v e d . P i g i v i zekava .
46 . H e embra c e d . Ap u t aq v i z e k av a .
47 . He was afrai d . Ahe l e l e v i ze ka v a .
4S . H e taught them . Kogoq v i z e k a v a .
 Gahuku ; BenaBena 2 0 7

49 . It i s swo l l e n . Lu l u v i ze ka v a .
50 . He fi l l e d i t . Gon i v i zekava . ( l9 7 1 : 3f . )

F BenaBena

Young ( 1 9 6 4 ) s t at e s that

the periphrastic [ verb ] complex constitutes more than 50 per cent

of all verb constructions in text . It is defined as a verb com­
plex consisting of a free-form word of specifi c verbal implicat ion
in close knit sequence with a fully inflected nuclear verb , which
together have a unique semanti c content ( 7 8 ) .

The form o f t h e periphras t ic verb c omp l e x c on s i s t s o f the

free-form word , which is lateral to the nuclear verbs , is termed

the peripheral s ince it behaves as an auxiliary to the verb within
the complex . It is non-inflectional . The nuclear verb , with
obligatory affixes of tense , person and number , and mood ( as well
as optional suffixes ) , occurs as the nucleus of the complex .
In this complex , the nuclear verb , losing its basic meaning in
almost every instance , becomes the nucleus for a great range of
peripherals , the peripheral bearing the main semanti c load for the
complex and the verb a mainly functional one ( 78f. ) .

In s t ating the c r i t e r i a for ident ifying t h e c omp onent s a s two s e p ­

arat e words , Young men t i on s t hat where a s " p re f ixal morpheme s a r e not
limited t o any one verb c l as s , e a c h peripheral i s limited to one
spe c if i c nuc l e ar verb , and t here fore c l as s " ( 79 ) . Re s t at ed , what
Young is say ing i s that what he c a l l s the ' nu c l e ar verb ' o f the peri-
phrast i c verb c omp lex acts a s a c l as s i f i c at ory verb . " A peripheral
o c curs only w i t h one s p e c i f i c verb , . . . " (79) .

[ No t e : Young e s s e nt i a l ly says that he has no i nt e r s e c t ion of

t he kind s hown ab ove in the Enga dat a 4 . 2 . 3 , and demons trated
for Karam b y Paw ley ( p . 1 0 9 above ) when s howing that t he ' nu c lear
verb ' doe s in fact carry s ome s emant i c l o ad . ]

Young pre sent s h i s p re d i c at ions with t y p i c a l e xamp l e s :

attention has been drawn to a specific nuclear verb , with its clas s ,
i n each set o f examples . Each verb selected i s a typi cal example of
those nuclear verbs which have high frequency count in periphrastic
construct ions ( 80 ) .

hit h o-

1. I a s k e d [ him ] . L o k a h o ? oh u be .
2. I b r o k e /b e n t [ i t ] . I g o f a h o ? oh u b e .
3. I fe l l down . Ko t a h o ? oh u b e .
2 0 8 BenaBena ; Usarufa

do i -

4. I ca Z Z e d . Ke h e i ? oh u b e .
5. I dri e d . L i s e pa i ?oh u be .
6. I speared. I ya i ?ohube .

t a ke 1i-

7. I wi t t work . Foya l i l ube .

8. We [ p I ] wip e d [ i t ] . Ke I e 1 i ? o h u n e .
9. He i s a c t ua t ty s te a Hng now . A g um i n a n o l l be .

be h u-

10 . I cut . Laga h u?ohube .

ll. I washed. Oka l a h u?ohube .
12 . I cooked. L a i t a h u ?oh ube .
p i erce f i -

n. I bough t . M i n a f i ? oh u b e .
14 . I wi Z Z break [ i t ] up . L i t u l u f l l u be .
15 . He is t e a ring [ i t ] out now. Te n o f i b e .

o U s aru fa

Verb phras e s o f the i d i om type have " re s tri c t e d c o-oc c urre n c e

p o t e n t i a l of c on s t i t uent words and a limited degree o f produ c t i v i t y "
( Bee 1 9 7 3 : 2 8 7 ) . " . . . only a few ve rb s are potent ia l f i l l e r s o f the
verb s lo t . The f o l l owing e xamp l e s give the more c ommon ones wh i c h
a c c ount f o r about two-th irds o f the verba l i di oms " ( 1 9 7 3 : 2 9 1 ) .

do , make 0

l. be angry , p o u t k om a
pout
2. s h o t , bark, e t c . wHga
noi s e
3. i n i t i a t e a boy m a a b uma
y o ung man
4. b e b a s h fu t a g ayema
s hame
5. s n i ff, sme t t akub i t aa
fragrance
6. t au g h , b e happy w r rH
t au g h , s mi t e
7. s e arch ab�� ( c f . Enga a l 0 p i n g ( )
tost
8. admi re aayoq
ga z e
 U s aru fa 2 0 9

9. shiver aqteq te
10 . w a s h , s cr u b , cut wood fi n e l y tete
ll. s ha k e s ome t hing ap i b i
12 . kiss am6 q n a moq n a
kiss
13. burp kamu gam��
a b urp
14 . b e me s s y turi tHri
me s s y
15 . b e crazy n a g ( n aa g l
cra z y

O f e s p e c i a l i n t e re s t t o our c ompar i s on o f Enga k a e n ge b e ( o f i n n e r

s ta t e s ) , i s t h e d a t a Bee pre s e n t s f o r the v e r b do .

The verb to do , . . . , is an auxiliary verb which occurs only in verbal

phrases and equat i onal clauses . In many of its funct ions it is like
the English verb to be . As a verbal auxiliary it may be used t o
form tens e , voice o r mood contrasts instead of the usual suffixat ion .
In this case the appropriate suffixes occur on the verb to do and the
main verb precedes it without suffixation . In equati onal clauses and
descriptive or state of being phrases it functions as a copula ( 1973 :
294 )•

Of the five c at e gor i e s o f phra s e s with t h i s verb , the ' st a t e of b e ing '
phras e s are o f mo s t int ere s t t o t h e previous d i s c u s s i on ; s ome examp l e s
o f t he s e are

do
,
16 . b e emaci a t e d pe
s kinny
17 . b e di sp L e a s e d k6
pout
18 . be obedient kato
o b e di e n t
19 . be easy, tight oy H
tight
20 . b e warm, dry k ok 6
warm
2l. be bad diq
bad
22 . be big an6
big
23. b e fo und pHq
found

say

24. h i c coughs n (k i q n i k i q
h i c c ough
25. an i t c h i n g fo o t indi c a t i n g �agaa � gaa
s omeone is thin king of y o u gossip
2 1 0 U sarufa

26. hurry someone waku waku

27. b e crack Ly dry teto ( c f . Enga k e ke lenge)
28. b e fi rm L y p L an t e d kfki
29 . fi t t i gh t l y toge t h e r dti
30 . suck m fqmi q
3l . s t u t t er abububu
32 . mimi c ame me
33. cough u m o .l m a
,

cough
34 . hum �uqa
i n s i de
35 . urinate aw i m �
uri ne

b urn

36 . fade opo
du L Ln e s s
37 . shine �w� a r a r a
b ri L l iance

dance

38 . p L ay

. ,
39 . be b e s i de one s e L f w i th anger I ma a m u
rage

go

40 . fLy a rabe
f l i gh t

move

41 . move a s tubb o rn chi Ld a n uma

moun tain
42 . sand k a m a n ama
a rough L e a f

ge t , take

43. buy m e y �mma

purchase
44. s te a Z moy � mm �
t h e ft

come

45 . b emoan karag (q�

s orrow
46 . visi t n a mm � q �
visit
 U s arufa ; Tairora ; Waffa 2 1 1

pour over

47 . bathe n o mm�
wa t e r
,
48 . paint a y a mma
a o l ou r

Mi s c e l laneous :
49 . a t t e n d s a ho o l n a amma
house
50 . ary i b i q a ya ra
a a ry t o weep
51. sme l l akuqa ( ta
an o dour to h e ar

P Tairora

" Some nominal s o c c ur i n other c on s truct ions c learly as nouns wh i l e

ot her nomi n a l s o c cur only in c ompound s t em c on s t ru c t i ons . T h e f o l low­
ing verb has genera l ly no meaning i n i s o l at ion . For e xamp l e t he nom­
inal , i h a fi rewood o c curs e l s ewhere a s a noun but the verb , q u a r e
o c c ur s only w i t h i h a " (Vincent 1 9 7 3 : 5 6 2 ) .

1. He fi rewoode d the tree b ranah

Ka t a r i k a a r a i h a q u a re - r o o
i . e . He burn e d the t r e e
tre e branah fi rewood burn - i t
bran a h .
2. It h i t h i s hunger p l aae H-an tuqa h - a r i - ro .
He i s hungry . h i s - hunger . p l a a e him- hi t . i t

Thi s i s proba b l y another c a s e ( c f . Ro s s and Luzb e t ak ) i n wh i c h t h e

verb i s c o n s t ant in meaning ( or neutra l ) , a n d the adj unct i s the
var i ab le .

3. He s a i d t a l k , h e s p o ke . Uva t i - ro .
talk say-he
4. He gave him t a l k , h e to l d Uva t i -va a - m il - r o o
him. t a l k say nom . him-gi v e - he
- ( 197 3 : 56 2 )

Examp l e s ( 3 ) and ( 4 ) are o f a nomina l i z e d verb s t e m p l u s a s e c ond verb

s t em .

Q Waf f a

T h e " p eriphras t i c verb phras e s " a r e d i s cu s s e d b y Stringer a n d Hot z

( 1 9 6 9 : 2 9 ) , who g i ve t h e f o l l owing as verb s u s ed in t h e nuc l eus s lo t :

k i aa , i i k i a do kia say
va r i a , r ak i a be, sit p i k i aa leave
taa , r i k i aa s e e , h e ar (unde rs tand) raa move
2 1 2 Waffa ; Kat e ; Selepet

t aa de s 'ire ngi a come

kua go t ummua come down
daa ? ( mean ing unknown , d o e s not o c c ur as a s imp le verb )

R Kate

Das Kate hat eine verh81tnismassig geringe Zahl von pr1maren Verben ,
wie z . B . l a gehen, 1 0 nehmen, mu sagen, hone sehen, mana horen usw.
Die meisten Verba dagegen sind mit ke zus amme ngesetzt . . . intransitive
Verb a , die auf ke auslauten [ sind ] , z . B . mate�-ke kUhZ sein, ?a�- ke
morsch sein, du�-ke sich niederbeugen .
Mit Hilfe von ke werden auch aus anderen Wort art en Verba gebildet ,
z . B . wokec-ke jemand auf dem Boot fahren, von woke das Xanu; fu�-ke
etwas anfangen, von fu�ne das dicke Ende eines Zangen Gegenstandes;
upec-ke etwas urn den HaZs tragen, von u pec der HaZs; b i a�-ke gut
sein, von b i a�ne gut; s e l ec-ke e twas gemeinsam tun, von se l e c
miteinander. Der k-Laut i n k e ist schwer z u erklaren , und e s erhebt
s i ch die Frage , ob ke gleich dem Verbum e sein, tun) ist , so dass k
nur Lautkonservierung unter bestimmten Bedingungen ware . Fur letztere
Auffassung spricht der Umstand , dass dem k -Laut stets der harte
Stimmabsat z c oder ein � vorausgeht ( vgl . § 118 , c und 119a) . Doch
steht dem die andere Tat sache gegenuber , dass es Verba gibt , die auf
e und ke zugleich auslauten , z . B . eatu-e intr . tauschen, eatuc-ke
tr. jemand tauschen; a s u -e intr . riechen, asuc-ke tr . etwas beriechen,
beschnuppern.
Andere Endbestandteile von Verben sind : e , ne , I e , we , z . B .
f i l u-e ZosZosen, l i s i -e urnkehren, k i so�-ne zwischen de n zahnen
tragen, l a l a�-ne verschwinden, gapa- I e schwarz sein, hes i - I e krumm
sein, jo�-ta-we schabig aussehen, l oka -we schwach sein. E wird auch
viel als selbstandiges Verbum tun, machen gebraucht . Bei den
Konsonanten der letzten drei handelt es sich wohl nur um
Lautassimilat i on . Etliche Verba lauten sowohl auf n e als auch auf
ke aus , ohne dass ein Bedeutungswandel damit verbunden ware , z . B .
?a�-ne und ?a�-ke zerfaZ Zen, b an de �-ne und bande�-ke festbinden .
Zur Bildung verbaler AusdrUcke kommen auch vielfach
Zusamme nstellungen von Substantiven und Verben vor , z . B . gu� mana
traumen, da� mu reden, f i f i a ba schwimmen, k i �a� ga dienen, ma l o he
keuchen, gu� he donnern, sasec e Zustern sein usw . ( Pi lhofer 1933 :
24- 5 ) .

S Se lepet

Examp l e s are given for the aux i l i ary verb phras e s u s ing do and say
i n Se l e p e t , a s we l l a s c omment s on t h e a s s i gnment o f Tok P i s in loan
it ems .

do o a p

l. it oozed k i n k i n kan kan oap

2. h e h i ccough e d �atak oap
3. he de t e c t e d s o r c e ry h atak oap
4. he di s ap p e a r e d g u l i p oap
 S e l e p e t ; Nab ak 2 1 3

s ay y a p

5. i t araa k Z e d k i t i k patak yap

6. i t dri e d up s a l) y a p
7. i t rat t Z e d k i r i k ka rak yap
8. i t a o Z Z ap s e d putuk yap
. . . the verb tuhu to do, buiZd, make, frequently occurs as the
auxiliary when a Neo-Melanesian transitive verb ending in i m
occurs as the adjunct . Note that many Selepet homopersonal
verbs end in m so that this type of AVP is probably analogous
to the Selepet sentence which consi st s of a dependent homo­
personal verb immediately followed by an independent verb
( McElhannon 1972 : 73 ) .

9. he dri v e s i t d ra l v l m t uh ua p
10 . he s t rai g h t en s i t s t re t l m t uh uap
II . he p a i n t s i t pe n l m t uh u a p
12 . he s h o v e s i t s ub i m t uh u a p

T Nabak

do m i

1. He i s n o t angry . Ngenz i ngz i ng ku tabm .

anger neg prog-do -he
2. You are y awning . An g t a b mn i k .
y awn prog-do - y o u - pr e s
3. He burp e d . Ka t mi p .
burp di d - h e
4. I am wri t i n g . Me l ow a n g m i ap .
wri ting do - I-pre s

hit ku

5. He i s aoughi ng . Ka t on a n 9 k un .
aough do - h e -pres
6. Th ey are dan ai ng/s inging . Si l i k ku- i p .
danae/s ong h i t - t h e y - pre s

Other s :
7. He i s u r i n a t i ng ( l it e r a l ly : Sand i tasand i n .
He i s urinating urine ) . urine prog-u r i n a t e he p r e s- -

8. He i s s Z e ep i ng ( l it erally : Me l u k t aw a n .
He i s s Z e ep i n g a s Z e e p ? ) . s Ze e p pr og-s Z e e p he - p r e s
-

9. Don ' t a ry ( a a ry ) . Si Sus up i n g .

ary ary - r e dup-neg

Note e xamp l e s ( 7 - 9 ) , the c ognat e ob j e c t verb s . ( Fab i an and Fab ian

( 1971 : 80 f . ) )
2 1 4 Kapau

U Kapau

The Noun-Verb e xpre s s ion

i s a very common one in Kapau . It consists of a noun plus a verb

centre . . . [ it ] i s not a close-knit expression structurally as the
noun can be separated from the verb by object , adverb and other
things . . . But it is close-knit semantically ( Oates and Oates 1968 :
38f. ) .

An e x amp l e given of t h i s type o f Vphrase i s

1. I am working . N i wamn g a g i ya .
I garden am-doi n g - I

In t h e d i s cus s i on o f t h e verb s t ems whi c h o c c ur in s uch Vphra s e s ,

the Oat e s s t a t e that the

do stem is by far the most common Many of these forms expres sed
. • •

Kapau idiom ( and it is wise to learn the phrase as entity ) [ sial .

For example , many physi cal needs and attributes and the forces of
nature are expressed in a N- i -Vx : hunger, hearing, water in flood,
wind all do ( 39 ) .

do i -

2. be l i g h tn i n g i n ava
l i g h tn ing
3. b e windy ymn g a
wind
4. o o z e pus g uymn g a
pus
5. b e dry ing yea
dry
6. ripen mq a
ripe

speak, utter t - , ti-

occurs with nouns which deal with uttering or making a noise and
with nouns dealing with natural phenomena , or the emot ions ( 40 ) .

7. speak, talk p a ne ' a

talk
8. whi s t le wi pa
whi s t l e
9. sing apa
song
10 . thunde r h i nko
t hunder

t h i n k or u t t e r from wi t h i n m t - , m t i -

occurs with nouns dealing with that which proceeds from inside
a person ( 40 ) .

11. think quno

thought
 Kap au ; Weri 2 1 5

12 . vomit q uota
fe e l i n-

13. rememb e r q uno

thoughts

h i t , s trike q i - , 'i-
14 . hit i pka
s ti c k for h i t ti n g
15 . wri t e t u wamn g a
mar k , charc o a l
16 . rain p i ya
rain

t h row away m a u , mo-

17 . bre a t h e mtnga
b r e a t h , s team
18 . throw a s to n e h aw a
s t one

go u -

19 . walk ganga
door, wa l k
20 . b e s orrowfu l h a ' va
s orrow, h e a rt

make

21. bui ld house anga

house
22. b e a t e g gs mn ga
eggs

e a t , de vour n -

23. eat i ta
fo od
24 . b u rn ta
fi re

go down 0- , we
25. s l eep sa ' a
s leep

V Weri

Boxwe l l i n h i s d i s cu s s ion o f t h e Weri verb phras e give s a s one t yp e

o f aux i l i ary verb phrase type a , c omp o s e d o f two i n s eparab l e part s , a
noun s t e m , d e s c r i p t ive or adj unct fol l owed by an auxil i ary verb . Some
e xamp l e s of t h i s t yp e of verb phrase are :
2 1 6 Weri

I. he s p e a k s nyun ya
word say
2. he s p e a k s profo u n d l y nyun kunum ya
word he avy say
3. he b l ows pU 1 y am i n g k
breath hits
4. he has a a o l d !! n g - re n g !! s u l ya
ary-and ao l d do e s
5. h e i s i n a temp e r !! n g - re k u l ap ya i
ary - an d angry does
6. he craw l s mor yan g yes
hand ground g o e s

Some e xamp le s o f the aux i l i ary verb phra s e t ype b are :

7. he works waU r ya i
work do e s
8. he works v e ry hard w a ll r k i s a n g p a n yai
work big v e ry does
9. h e dri n k s !! yen
wate r eats
10 . i t i s smoky es k o ll l u p ya i
fi re smoke does

Some e xamp l e s o f type c are :

II. i t i s ripe k u p y a mu
red hits
12 . i t i s bad ll t p e t y e w a s
b ad puts
13 . h e i s i t ahy (from l ump s ) U l u p ll l u p y a i
l ump l ump d o e s
14 . s h e i s awake !! t !! t wi i
eye eye is
15 . i t is tight tai n-ta i yewas
t i g h t - t i g h t do e s
16 . he h e l p s kaamuk-muk y a i
he l p - he lp d o e s
Sens ory verb phras e s :

The auxi l i ary verb u s ed here i s e i ther y a i do or y e s go

17 . he i s hungry ki i n-i i n ya i
gre e n v e ge t ab l e - b en d o e s
18 . he i s t i r e d k o r u p - un ya i
s k i n - ind . obj do e s
19 . he i s deaf k a t - i i p - un ya i
e a r - ind . ob j doe s
20 . he is thirsty !! - !! t - e n ya i
w a t e r - s g- ind . ob j d o e s
( Boxw e l l and Boxw e l l ( 1 9 6 9 : 6 f f . ) )
 Kunimaip a ; Suena 2 17

W Kunimaipa

" The auxi l i ary c arr i e s mos t of the meaning o f the phras e and the
Head c arries a l l the s u f f i x a t i o n . . . the verb wh i c h mos t c ommon l y mani ­
fe s t s t he Head i s t a do " ( Ge ary and Pence 1 9 7 3 : 6 1 ) . The ve rb s l i s t e d
a s head are t a do , heza be, r a v a b e come , v a t a mak e , o r a e z a t i e s , n a
eat, me n a k i t t , t e z a t a k e o ff, and e ma come . Some e xamp l e s o f t h i s
c on s t ruc t io n in Kun imaipa are

l. he s h o o k i t de i de i ta-ha
s hake s ha k e do - 3 s /per
2. i t boUed rokoroko e ma - h a
boU come - 3 s /per
3. i t dawne d ale tez a - h a
t i g h t o p e n - 3 s /per
4. I wi t t b a k e i t a ro teza-ha
b a k e do - l s/imp
5. i t paine d kakama ta-ha
pain do - 3 s /p e r
6. he on t y danc e d h e re dapa-h a ra e re me n a - h a
dance - j u s t he re h i t 3 s /per -

7. i t dri e d nga i rava-ha

dry be come - 3 s /per
8. i t i s emp ty n g a i o raeza
dry ties
9. t h e y dri e d i t nga i vata-ha
dry m a k e - 3pl/per
( Geary and Pence ( 1 9 7 3 : 6 2 f . ) )

X Suena

Wi l s on s a y s

perhaps the contribution which Suena can make to an understanding

of all the Binandere languages is in the area of ' Compound Verb s ' .
In Binandere itself it would appear that all verbs are formed with
the Auxiliary verb a r i to do. In Z i a , Mailander set up five clas s es
of verbs , four of them based on the fact that they took di fferent
Auxiliary verbs . This c an be done for Suena , too , though this
would be establishing the clas ses on the bas i s of form rather than
function . The Auxiliary verbs , with their primary meaning , are :

SUENA ZIA BINANDERE OROKAIVA ENGLISH

wai yari ari e /a r i to do
sai sari say
ma i ma r i come
ga i ga r i see
awa i rest
nai arrive
Suena compound verbs formed from the Auxili ary verbs listed above
[ are ]
2 1 8 Suena ; Korafe

l. s leep g i t aw a w a i
2. sneeze as i o s a i
3. he lp s o re m a i
4. b u rp o n i aw a i
5. y e z.z. a re n a i ( Wi l s o n 1 9 6 9 : 1 0 4 )

Y Korafe

P e r s o nal d i s c us s io n w i t h J ame s and Cynthia Farr ind i c a t e the pre s ­

e n c e o f p redi cat ions i n Korafe ; a few e x amp l e s from t h e i r unpub l i s he d
word l i s t /not e s a r e given f o r a r i d o a n d s a r i s a y .

do a r i

1. cry sorara a r i
2. fe ar oj u a r i
3. fi g h t tataya a r i
4. quarre l l i ke chi ldren j uj un a
5. hate i mboe a r i
6. p l ay , s i ng yaru ari
7. sell m a ke t a r i
8. w a t c h , wai t , p r o t e c t k a i fo a r i
9. wan t , l i ke uju ari
10 . work s a ramana a r i
11. move j av i a r i
12 . walk wi t h knees f l e x e d/ l imp kenj u ken j u a r i
13. hop ke r i te ke r i te a r i
14 . h i ccough uko a r i
15 . s e arch fo r kakone a r i
16 . l e arn , know k a s a ma a r i
17 . be o p e n keowa a r i
18 . marry a man wai a ri
19 . s hare fo od s o ro a r i
20 . we e d v i ve a r i
21. n o t ch kambae a r t
22 . i t c h ( 3rd person ) g i ng i to a r i
23. be fi n i s h e d ( 3rd pers on ) dadaba a r i
24 . fe e l p a i n , angui s h i t a tama a r i
25. stink mas a a r i
26 . sme l Z good, kiss muno a r i
27. swim muno a r i
28. Zook for , fi n d uj ava
 219

29 . carry p i g gy b a c k asa a rI
30 . rip, tear t o re re a r I
3l . worry ( l i t e ra Z Z y t h r o a t p a i n s do ) d u b o m e rn a a r l
32 . tickle ku r l ku r l a r I
33. e rr s e mb ae a r I
34 . turn o ff l amp , e x t i n g u i s h fi re soana a r I
35 . bandage a s o re f l �a a r I
36 . pass gas j e g l mo a r I
37. craw l u k u ge j i r I r I a r I
38 . re c l i n e t u t u ro a r I
39 . h e lp s oh e m b a a r I
40 . c l imb hand o v e r hand r i r i ke a r I
4l . be lieve t u mo n d e a r i
42 . spi t kos l ua a r i
43. l a s s o an anim a l I va s a a r l
44 . coi l ( of s t rin g ) ke f u a r I
45 . p e e l ( o f v e g e t ab l e s ) s a ru ra a r I
46 . s h i v e r ( 3rd per s on ) ( t a mo ) s u s u m b a r a a r a
47 . b e h ap p y I wuga a r I
48 . commi s er a t e g umema a r I
49 . s n a p , b r e a k o ff d e g a ge a r I
50 . s tre t c h ( o f rop e ) kamu s a a r I
5l. pinch gabasa ar l
52 . s te e r ( o f a b o a t ) k u n I �a a r I
53. mix up j l nemba a r I
54. meas ure I noro a r I
55. l i v e , b e in h e a l th jebuga a r I
56. dan ce IvIsa arI

say s a r i

57 . cough ekono sa r i
58. laugh g e �a s a r I
59 . sneeze a s l yo s a r I
60 . reque s t benunu s a r i
6l. an swer m I no sa r i
62 . s ho u t , y e Z Z korI sar I
63. whisper s a n�l a k o s a r I
64 . lie g un g u b a 5 a r I
65 . gossip yove s a r i
66. gossip os a s a r I
Note that Korafe is a memb e r o f the Binandere fami l y : c f . the ma­
t e r i a l s g i ven on Suena .
 B I B L I O G RA P H Y

Parent he s e s around a name o r t i t le ind i c at e that t h e s e are known

but not indicated on the i t em c i t e d .
The f o l l owing abbreviat ions are u s e d
AA Amer i c an Anthrop o l o gi s t
IJAL Int ernat ional Journal o f Ame r i c an Lingui s t i c s
N G L M - MS New Guinea Lutheran Mi s s i on-Mi s s ouri Synod
PLA Pac i fi c Lingui s t i c s , Seri e s A ( Oc ca s i onal Papers )
PLB Pac i fi c Lingui s t i c s , Seri e s B ( Monographs )
PLC Pac i f i c Linguis t i c s , S e r i e s C ( Books )
PLV Pac i f i c Lingui s t i c s , S e r i e s D ( Sp e c ia l Pub l i cat ions )
SIL Summer Ins t i t ut e o f L ingui s t i c s

BACH , Emmon
1967 " Ha v e and be in Eng l i s h Synt ax . " L a �g uag e 4 3 : 4 6 2 - 8 6 .

BACH , Emmon and Robert T . Harms ( ed s . )

1968 U ��v e�� at� � � L��g u�� � � c T h e o � y . New York : Holt ,
Rinehart and Wins t o n , I n c .

BAR-HILLEL , Yehoshua
1967 " Di c t i onar i e s and Meaning Rul e s . " F o u �da�� o �� 06
L a�g uag e 3 : 4 0 9 - 1 4 .

BEE , Darlene
1973 " Us arufa : A D e s cript i ve Grammar . " I n Mc Kaughan ( e d . )
197 3 : 225-323 .

BERL IN , Brent
1968 T z et�at Num e�at C t a� � � 6 � e�� , A S � u d y �� E � h � o g �a p h� c
S em a���c� . The Hague : Mout on .

220
 221

BERL IN , Brent , Dennis E . Breedlove , and Peter H . Raven

1968 " C overt Categories and F o lk Taxonomie s . " AA 70 : 290-9 .

BIERWISCH , Manfred
1970 " Semant i c s . " In Lyons ( ed . ) 1 9 7 0 : 1 6 6- 8 4 .

BOELAARS , J .
1 9 50 T h e Li�g uih tic POh itio � 0 6 S o ut h - W eh t e � � N ew Gui� e a .

Leiden : E . J . Bri l l .

BOLINGE R , Dwight
1965 " The A t omi z a t i o n of Meaning . " L a � g uag e 4 1 : 5 5 5 - 7 3 .

1969 " The Sound o f t he Be l l . " Kiv u �g 2 : 2 - 7 .

BOXWELL , Haurice and He len Boxwel l

1965 " E s s en t i a l s for Trans lat ion for Wer i . " S I L MS . 2 3pp .

1969 " We r i Verb Phras e s . " S I L MS . 17pp .

BULMER , R. N . H .
1957 " A Primi t ive Ornitho logy . " AUh t�alia� Muh eum Mag a z i � e
12 : 224-9 .

1967 " Why i s t h e C a s s owary n o t a Bird ? A Prob l em o f

Z o o l o g i c a l Taxonomy among the Karam o f the N e w Guinea
High l ands . " Man 2 : 5 - 2 5 .

1968 " Karam C o l our Cat e gorie s . " Kiv u�g 1 : 12 0- 3 3 .

BUDKE , Mrs . C l arence

1964 " Ab ridged Engl i s h-Enga D i c t i onary f o r t h e Enga
C onversat ional Pe dagogi c a l Grammar . " N G L M - MS .

BURCE , Wil lard Lewis

1963 " An Inve s t igat i on Pre l iminary t o Tran s lat ing t h e G o s p e l
o f Mark i n t o t h e Enga Language . " D . Th . the s i s .
St . Louis : C oncordia S eminary .

1965 " Se n t e n c e S t r u c t ure s in Mark : Greek and Enga . "

T h e B i b l e T�a�h l a t o � 1 6 : 1 2 8- 4 1 .

(BUS , G . A . M . l
n.d.a ( Enga Grammar ) . Part Two . Morphology and Synt ax .
Type s c ript .
222

n.d. a D i c t i onary o f t h e Wabag-Language ( wi t h Engl i s h Index ) .

Typ e s cript .

CAPELL , A .
1948 " D i s t ribut ion o f Language s i n t h e Central High l and s ,
New Guinea . " O c. ea nia 1 9 : 1 0 4 - 2 9 , 234-5 3 , 349-77 .

1951 " Bantu and North A u s t r a l i an : A Study in Agglut inat ion . "
A 6 Ai c. a n S tu di e� 1 0 : 4 9 -5 7 .

1962 A Ling ui� tic. S UA v e if 0 6 t h e S o ut h - W e � t eA n Pac.i 6 i c. .

New and Rev i s e d Edit i on . South Pac i fi c C ommi s s ion
T e c hn i c a l Paper N o . 1 3 6 . Noumea , New Caledon i a :
S outh Pac i f i c C ommi s s io n .

1969 A S U A v e if 0 6 N ew Guinea L a n 9 uag e� . Sydney : Sydney

Univer s i t y Pre s s .

CASAGRANDE , Joseph B . and Kenneth L . Hale

1967 " Seman t i c Re lat ionships i n Papago Folk-d e f i n i t i on s . "
In Hyme s and Bit t le ( ed s . ) 1 9 67 : 1 6 5 - 9 3 .

CHOMSKY , Noam A .
1965 A� p e c.t� 0 6 t h e T h e o A if 0 6 S if nta x . Camb r idge : The MIT
Pre s s .

19 6 8 " Deep Struct ure , Surfa c e Structure , and Semant i c

Interpretat i on . " ( Reprinted b y the Indiana Univer s i t y
Lingui s t ic s C lub , 1 9 6 9 ) .

1969 " Some Emp i r i c al I s s u e s in the Theory of Trans format ional

Grammar . " MS .

CHOMSKY , Noam and Morris Halle

1968 T h e S o u n d Patt eAn 0 6 E ng li� h . New York : Harper and
Row .

CONKLIN , H . C .
1954 " The Relat i on o f Hanun6 0 Culture t o t h e P l ant World . "
Ph . D . t he s i s , Yale Un ivers i t y .

1955 " Hanun6o C ol our Cat e gorie s . " S o ut hwe� t eA n J o u A n al 0 6

AnthA o p o l 0 9 if 1 1 : 3 3 9 - 4 4 .

1962 " Le x i c o gr aph i c a l Tre atment o f F o l k Taxonomi e s . " In

Householder and Saporta ( ed s . ) 1 9 6 2 : 1 1 9 - 4 2 .
 223

CROTTY , John
1951 " F i r s t D i c t i onary o f Tchaga Language , Central High l and s ,
New Guine a . " A n � h� o p o � 4 6 : 9 3 3-6 3 .

CUPIT , L . A .
1970 A P� o g �a m m e d C o u�� e i n K ya � a E ng a wi� h A c c o m p a n yi n g
T a p e� . Lumus a : The Aus t r a l i an Bap t i s t Mi s s i onary
Society .

1971 K y a�a G�amma� C o u�� e , Revi s e d 1 9 7 1 : The Language spoken

b y the K y a � a E n g a o f the We s t ern H i gh l ands of Papua New
Guine a . Lumus a : The Aus t ra l ian Bap t i s t M i s s i o nary
S o c i e t y Inc orporat ed .

DAHL , Guenter and Gerd Heidemann

1973 " Nur e i n Irrtum d e r Natur ? " S � e�n Mag a z i n , Heft Nr . 47
( 1 5 Novemb er 1 9 7 5 ) : 8 0 - 8 6 .

DEIBLE R , E l l i s
1961 " L anguage Idi oms . " S I L MS . 4pp .

DIXON , R . M . W .
1963a L i n g u i � t i c S ci e n c e a n d L o g i c . The Hague : Mouton and C o .

1 9 6 3b " A Trend in Semant i c s . " Ling ui� tic� 1 : 30-5 7 .

1964 " A Trend i n Semant i c s : Rej o inder . " Ling ui� t i c� 4 : 14-8 .

1968 " Noun C l a s s e s . " Lingua 2 1 : 10 4 - 2 5 .

1971 " A Method o f Semant i c D e s cript ion . " I n Ste inberg and
Jakobovit s ( ed s . ) 1 9 7 1 : 4 6 3 - 7 1 .

DRABBE , P .
1952 S p �aa R Ru n � t v a n h e t E R a g i . D e n Haag : Mart inus N i j h o f f .

1953 S p � aa R R u n� t v a n d e K a m o � o - Taal . D e n Haag : Mart inus

Nij hoff .

1959 G�amma� 0 6 t h e A � m at L a ng uag e . Syracus e , Indi ana :

Our Lady of the Lake Pres s .

DRAPER, She i l a

1953 D ic t i onary ( Enga-Engl i sh ) . Typ e s cript .

1954 An Enga Grammar S t at ement . Bapt i s t N e w Guinea M i s s i o n .

Typ e s cript .
224

n.d.a 1. The Verb . 2. The Noun Phrase and i t s Con s t i t uent s .

Mime o .

n.d.b Eng l i sh-Kyaka D i c t i onary . Mime o .

DUBERT , Mar j orie

1965 B i angai Phrase Type s . S I L MS . l lpp .

DUTTON , T . E .
1969 " The Koiarian Languages o f Central Papua : A n H i s t or i c a l
and De s c ript ive L ingui s t i c S t udy . " Ph . D . t he s i s , The
A u s t ra l ian Nat i onal Univers i t y .

ELLIS , Jef frey

1964 " ' Ru l e s ' , Probab i l i t y and De l i c ac y . " U . n g ui � .U.c.� 6 : 39-4 2 .

ELSON , Ben j amin F . ( ed . )

1964 "Verb Stud i e s in Five New Guinea Language s . " Norman : S I L .

FABIAN , Edmund and Grace F ab i an

1971 Nab ak Grammar E s s en t i a l s . S I L MS . 1 3 1pp .

F ILLMORE , Charles J .
1968 " The Case for C a s e . " In Bach and Harms ( ed s . ) 1 9 6 8 : 1- 8 8 .

F INNE Y , Mrs . A . , Rev . D . Rothenbush , and Rev . 0 Hintze

1964 " Abri dged Enga-En g l i s h D i c t i onary for t h e Enga
C onver sat i onal Pedago g i c a l Grammar . N G L M - MS .

FODOR , J . A . and J . J . Katz ( ed s . )

1964 " The Struct ure o f Language . " R e ading� in � h e Phil o � o p h y
06 L a ng uag e . Englewood C l i f f s : Pre n t i c e Hal l .

(FOOTE , Esthe r )
n.d. Engl i s h-Kyaka-Engl i s h D i c t i onary . Mime o .

FRAKE , Charles O .
1960 " The East ern Subanun o f Mindanao . " I n Murdo c k ( e d . )
1 9 6 0 : 5 1-6 4 .

1964 " Not e s o n Quer i e s i n Et hno graphy . " AA 66 . 3 , pt . 2 :

1 32-4 6 .
 225

F RANKL IN , Karl J .
1971 A G�amma� 0 6 K ewa , N ew G ui n e a . PLB 16 .

F RIEDRICH , Paul
1970 " Shape in Grammar . " L a n g uag e 4 6 : 3 7 9 - 4 0 7 .

GAEFFKE , Peter
1967 U n� e�6 u c h ung e n z u � S y n� a x d e6 Hindi . The Hague :
Mout on and C o .

GEARY , E l aine and Alan Pence

1973 Four Leve l s o f t h e Kunimaipa Grammat i ca l H i e rarchy .
S I L MS . 1 0 9pp .

GETHING , Thomas W .
1968 " St ru c t ural Redundancy i n Thai Semant i c s . " L a ng u ag e
4 4 : 81 3-8 .

GIVON , Talmy
1969 " St u d i e s i n ChiBemb a and Bant u Grammar . " Ph . D . t he s i s ,
Unive r s i t y of C a l i forn ia at L o s Ange le s .

1970 " The Re s o lut i on of Gend e r Confl i c t s in Bantu Conj unct i on :

When Synt ax and Semant i c s C l a s h . " In P a p e�6 6 0 � � h e 6 �h
R e g i o nal M e e�ing , C hi cag o Ling ui6 �ic S o ci e� y , C hi c a g o :
2 5 0- 6 1 .

GOODENOUGH , Ward H .
1956 " Component ial Analy s i s a n d t h e S t udy o f Meaning . "
Languag e 3 2 : 195-2 1 6 .

GREENBERG , Joseph H .
1966 " Some Unive r s a l s o f Grammar w i t h Part i c u l ar Refere n c e t o
t h e Order o f Meaningful E l eme nt s . " I n Greenberg ( ed . )
1966 : 7 3-113 .

HAAS , Mary R .
1948 " C las s i fi c at ory Verb s in Mus ko ge e . " IJAL 14 : 244-6 .

1967 " Language and Taxonomy i n Northw e s t ern C a l i forni a .

AA 6 9 : 3 5 8 - 6 2 .
226

HALLE , Morr is
1959a " Qu e s t ions o f L ingui s t i c s . " Nuo vo Cim e n � o 1 3 : 4 9 4 - 5 1 7 .

19 59b T h e S o u n d Pa�� e�n 0 6 RU4 4 i a n . The Hague : Mouton and C o .

HAYS , David G .
1964 " Dependency Theory : A Forma l i s m and Some Ob s ervat ions . "
L a ng u a g e 4 0 : 5 1 1- 2 5 .

HEAD , Robert A . and June Head

1972 Kauge l Es sent i a l s for Trans l at i on : Grammar . S I L MS .
8 2pp .

HEALEY , Alan
1964 " The O k Language Family i n New Guinea . " Ph . D . the s i s ,
The Au s t r a l i an Nat ional Univer s i t y .

HEALEY , Phy l l i s M .
1 9 6 5a " T e l e fo l Verb Phras e s . " P L A 5 : 27 - 5 3 .

1 9 6 5b " T e l e f o l Noun Phra s e s . " PLE 4 .

HETZ RON , Robert

1970 " Nonverb a l Sent enc e s and Degr e e s of Definit ene s s in
Hungarian . " L a n g uag e 4 6 : 8 9 9 - 9 2 7 .

HIATT , L . R . and C . Jayawardena ( ed s . )

1971 A n � h� o p o l o g y in O � eania . Angus and Robert s on : Sydney .

HINTZE , O . C .
1960 2 - 3 - 4 - 5 - 6 - 7 Syl l ab le Tone T e s t L i s t . Re s u l t ing from
NGLM-Bapt i s t Language Conferenc e . Mime o .

1962 " An Introduct ory Grammar o f t h e Enga Language i n the

Mai and Raeapo D i a l e c t s . " N G L M - MS . Orientat ion Course
for New Staff .

1963a L e a�ning �o S p ea k � h e E n g a L a n g u ag e in � h e Mai a n d

R a e a p o Vial e ��4 . Manua l . Language Le s s on s f o r N G L M
S t a ff .

1 9 6 3b " A C onver s a t i onal Pedago g i c a l Grammar of the Enga

Language . " NG L M - MS .
 227

n.d.a The C onj ugat ion of 1 8 Verb s in Mae Enga w i t h Tone Mark s .
Mime o .

n.d.b A Grammar o f the Mai Enga Language . Typ e s c r ip t .

HOCKETT , Charles F .
1958 A C o u�� e i n M o d e� n L i n g ui� tic� . New York : Macm i l l an
C ompany .

HOIJE R , Harry
19 4 5 " C l a s s i f i c at ory Verb S t em s i n the Apachean Language s . "
IJAL 11 : 13-2 3 .

HOUSEHOLDER , F red W . and S o l S aporta ( e d s . )

1962 " Pr ob lems in L e x i c o graphy . " IJAL 2 8 . 2 , pt . 4 .

HYMES , Del l and N . E . Bittle ( eds . )

1967 S tudie� i n S o ut hwe� t e� n E t h n o ting ui� t i c� : M ea ni n g a n d
H i� t o � y i n t h e L a ng u ag e� 0 6 t h e A m e � i c a n S o ut h w e� t .
The Hague : Mouton and C o .

IRWIN , Barry
19 7 1 Salt-Yui Grammar I . S I L MS . 6 9pp .

JACOBS , R . A . and P . S . Rosenbaum

1968 Eng ti� h T�an� 6 0 �m atio nat G�amma� . London : G inn and
C ompany , Lt d .

JAMES , Dorothy
1970 " Emb edding and Coordinat ing Trans forms i n S iane . "
PLB 13 : 1 095-125 .

KACHRU , Yamuna
1970 " Review o f Gaeffke 1 9 6 7 . " Languag e 4 : 9 6 8- 7 4 .

KAT Z , J . J . and J . A . Fodor

1964 " The Stru c t ure o f a Seman t i c Theory . " In Fodor and
Kat z ( ed s . ) 1 9 6 4 : 4 7 9 - 5 1 8 .

KAT Z , J . J . and P . Postal

1964 A n I nt eg � a t e d T h e o � y 0 6 L i n g ui� t i c Ve� c�i p ti o n� .
C amb r idge , Mas s : MIT Pre s s .
228

KAY , Paul
1969 " Some Theoret i cal Impl icat i ons o f Ethnographic Semant i c s . "
Working Paper No . 2 4 . Language -Behavior Re search
Laborat ory , University of Californi a , Berkeley .

1970 " On Taxonomy and Semant i c C ontras t . " Working Paper

No . 3 1 . Language-Behavior Re search Laborat ory ,
University of Cali fornia , Berke ley .

KELLY , E . J .
n.d. Kyaka Exerc i s e s . Mimeo .

LAKOFF , George
1966 " St at ive Adj ect ives and Verb s i n Engl ish . " Report NSF
1 7 , Harvard University Comput at i onal Laborat ory .

LAKOFF , Robin T .
1968 A b� t�act S y ntax and Lat�n C o mpl em e ntat� o n . Cambr idge ,
Mas s : MIT Pre s s .

LANDAR , Herbert
1964 " Seven Navaho Verbs o f Eat ing . " I J A L 3 0 : 9 4 -8 .

1965 " C lass Co-oc currence i n Navaho Gender . " IJAL 31 : 326-31 .

LANG , Adrianne
1971 " Nouns and C l a s s i ficat ory Verbs i n Enga ( New Guinea ) :
A Semant ic Study . " Ph . D . the s i s , The Aus tralian
Nat i onal University .
1973 " Enga D i c t i onary with Engl ish Index . " PLC 2 0 .

LANG , Adrianne , Katharine E . W . Mather and Mary L . Rose

1972 " Information St orage and Re trieval : A D i c t i onary
Proj ect . " PLV 8 .

LANG , Ranier
1970 " Enga Que s t i ons : Structural and Semant ic Studi e s . "
Ph . D . the s i s , The Austra l ian Nat ional Univers ity .

1973 " Grammat i c a l Sketch . " In A . Lang 1 9 7 3 : xv i i i - lvi i .

LARSON , James E .
1967 Enga Language Speaking Manual . 2 Vols . N G L M - MS .
Mime o .

n.d. Summary o f Enga Grammar Divided int o Eight Unit s .

N G L M - MS . Mimeo .
 229

LAWRENCE , Marshal l
1971 Oks apmin Verb Phras e s . S I L MS . 2 1pp .

LAWRENCE , P . and M . J . Meggitt ( ed s . )

1965 G o d� Gh o � t� a n d M en i n M e l a n e� ia . Melbourne : Ox ford
Unive r s i t y Pre s s .

LAYCOCK , D . C .
1965 " The Ndu Language Fami ly ( Se p i k D i s t r i c t , New Guinea) . "
PLe 1 .

n.d. N o t e s on Enga Supras e gme nt a l Phoneme s . Prel iminary

Draft . Mime o .

LEHRE R , Adrienne
1970 "Verb s and D e l e t ab l e Ob j e c t s . " Lingua 2 5 : 2 27-5 3 .

LOUNSBURY , F l oyd G .
1956 " A Seman t i c Anal y s i s o f t he Pawnee Kinship Us age . "
L a n g uag e 3 2 : 1 5 8 - 9 4 .

LUZ BETAK , Louis J .

1954 T h e Middle Wahgi Vial ect� . Vol . 1. Banz Grammar .
Ban z , We s t ern H i ghl and s , New Guinea : C a t ho l i c M i s s i on .

LYONS , John
1966 " Review of Kat z and Po s t al 1 9 6 4 . " ] o u�nal 0 6
L i n g ui� tic� 2 : 119-2 6 .

1967 " A N o t e o n Pos s e s s ive , Exi s t en t i a l and L o c at ive

Sent enc e s . " F o u n d ati o n� 06 L a ng u ag e 3 9 0 - 6 .

196 8 I nt� o du ctio n to T h e o �etical Ling ui� tic� . Cambridge :

Cambri dge Unive r s i t y Pre s s .

1970 " Generat ive Synt ax . " I n Lyons ( ed . ) 1 9 7 0 : 1 1 5 - 3 9 .

LYONS , John ( e d . )
1970 N ew H o �i z o n� in Ling ui� tic� . Harmondsworth : Penguin
Books Lt d .

McCAWLEY , Jame s
196 8 " C onc erning the Bas e C omp onent of a Trans format ional
Grammar . " F o u n d ati o n� 06 L a n g u ag e 4 : 2 4 3 - 6 9 .
230

McELHANON , K . A .
1970 " The Selepet Language . " Ph . D . t h e s i s , The Au s t ral ian
Nat i onal Univers i t y .

1972 " Se lepet Grammar Part I . " PLB 2 1 .

McELHANON , K . A . and C . L . Voorhoeve

1970 " The Trans -New Guinea Phylum : Explorat ions in Deep­
l eve l Gene t i c R e l at i onship s . " PLB 16 .

MCVINNEY , Paul A . and Louis J . Luzbetak

1954 T a b a� e V�al e e� . Vol . 1 . Grammar . Madang , New Guine a :
Cath o l i c Mi s s i on .

McKAUGHAN , Howard ( ed . )
1973 A � � h� o p o l o g � eal S � u d�e� �� � h e W e� � e�� H�g hla�d� 06
N ew Gu�� e a . Vol . 1 . " The Language s o f the Ea s t ern
Fami ly of the Eas t New Guinea Highl and S t o c k . "
Seat t l e : Unive r s i t y of Washingt on Pre s s .

MATTHEWS , P . H .
1967 " Review of Chomsky 1 9 6 5 . " J o u��al 0 6 L��g u�� ��e�
3 : 119-52 .

MATHIAS , Gerald
1968 " The Sele c t i onal Feat ure s of J apane s e Verb s . " Ph . D .
the s i s , Unive r s i t y of C a l i forn ia at Berke ley .

MATH IOT , Hade leine

1962 " Noun C las s e s and Folk Taxonomy i n Papago . " AA 6 4 :
340-50 .

MEEHAN , Dorothy and Phi lip Meehan

1967 E � g a - E � g l�� h V�e�� o � a� y . Laiagam : Apo s t o l i c Chur ch
Mi s s i on .

MEGGITT , M . J .
1965 " The Mae Enga o f t h e We s t ern Highlands . " I n Lawrence
and Meggitt ( ed s . ) 1 9 6 5 : 1 0 5- 3 1 .

197 1 " From Tribe smen t o Peasant s : The Case of the Mae Enga
of New Guinea . " In Hiatt and Jayawardena ( ed s . ) 1 9 7 1 :
191-209 .
 231

MILLE R , J . E .
1970 " St at ive Verb s i n Rus s i an . " F o u n dati o n.6 06 L a n g uag e
6 : 4 8 8-50 5 .

MOULD , Martin
1971 " The Agreement o f Nominal Pre d i c at e s in Luganda . "
S tu di e .6 in A 6 �i c a n Ling ui.6tic.6 2 : 25-36 .

MURDOCK , G . P . ( ed . )
1960 " Soc ial Structure i n S out h e a s t A s ia . " Viking Fund
P u b li c atio n.6 i n A nt h�o p o l o g y 2 9 .

N I DA , Eugene A. in col l aboration with Kenneth Osborne

1968 Tone , Int onat i o n , Stre s s , and Length i n t he Kyaka
D i a l e c t of Enga . Mime o .

NILLES , J .
1969 Kuman E n g li.6 h Victi o na�y . Kundi awa : Catho l i c Mi s s i on .

OATE S , W . and L . Oates

1968 " Kapau Pedagogi c a l Grammar . " PLC 10 .

PAWLEY , Andrew
1966 " The Struc t ure o f Karam : A Grammar o f a N e w Guinea
High l ands Language . " Ph . D . t h e s i s , The Unive r s i t y o f
Auc kland .

1969 " Trans format i onal Grammar and t h e Native Speaker : S ome
Element ary I s s u e s . " Ki v u n g 2 : 2 - 3 7 .

P ILCHER , �\T . W .
1967 " Some C omment s o n the F o l k Taxonomy o f the Papago . "
AA 69 : 2 0 4 - 8 .

P ILHOFER , G .
19 3 3 " Grammat ik der Kat e-Sprache in Neuguinea . " Z eit.6 c hJti 6 t
6 u e� Eing e b o � e n e n - S p � a c h e n , 8 ei h e 6 t 1 4 .

1953 V o c a b ula�y 0 6 t h e K a t e L a n g u ag e . Madang : Lutheran

Mi s s i on Pre s s .

POSTAL , Paul
1966 " Review o f Dixon 1 9 6 3 . " L a n g u a.g e 4 2 : 8 4 - 9 3 .
2 32

RAY , S . H .
1938 A G�amma� 0 6 t h e K�wa� L a ng u a g e , Fly Velt a , Papua , with
a Kiwai Vocabul ary by Rev . E . B . Riley . Pt . More s b y :
Government Print er .

ROMMEY , A . Kimball and Roy Goodwin D ' Andrade ( eds . )

1964 " Tran s c u ltural Studi e s in Cognit ion . " AA 6 6 . 3 , pt . 2 .

ROSS , John R .
1967 " C on�traint s o n Variab l e s i n Syntax . " Ph . D . the s i s ,
MIT . ( Reprinted by the Lingui s t i c s C lub of Indi ana
Univers it y , 1 9 6 8 . )

( ROSS , Wi l liam A . )
1946 Grammar of the Moge i Language . Reb iamul : Catholic
Mis s i on ; Typ e s c ript .

RULE , W . M .
1954 Hu l i Language . Tent at ive Statement o f t h e Grammar .
Tari : Unevange l i zed F i e l d s M i s s ion . Mime o .

SAP I R , Edward
1932 " Two Navaho Puns . " L a n g uag e 8 : 2 1 7 - 9 .

SCHNEUKER , c . L .
1962 K a t e L a n g uag e H a n d b o o k . Madang : Lutheran Mi s s i on
Pre s s .

SEBEOK , T . A . ( ed . )
1966 Cu�� ent T� e n d4 � n L�ng u�4 t�c4 . Vol . 3 . The Hague :
Mout on and Co .

SMITH , Jean and Pam Weston

1971 Mianmin Grammar E s s e n t i a l s for Trans lat i on . S I L MS .
l 0 5pp .

( SMYTHE , Wi l l iam)
n.d. Prel iminary Grammar o f the Wabaga Language . Typ e s cript .

STAAL , J . F .
1965 " Review o f Kat z and P o s t a l 1 9 6 4 . " F o u n dat� o n4 06
Lang uag e 1 : 1 3 3 -5 4 .
 233

STE INBERG , D . D . and L . A . Jakobovits ( ed s . )

197 1 S em a ntic� : An I nt e�di� cipli na�y R e a d e � in Phil o � o p h y ,
L i n g ui� tic� , and P� y c h o l o g y . C amb ridge : Camb ri dge
Unive r s i t y Pre s s .

STRAUSS , Hermann
n.d. Morphophonem i c s o f the Melpa Language . Lut heran Mis s i on ,
New Guine a .

STRINGER , Mary and Joyce Hotz

1967 ( Waffa Verb Phras e s . ) S I L MS .

STURTEVANT , W i l l iam C .
1964 " Studies i n Ethn o s c i enc e . " I n Rornmey and d ' Andrade
( ed s . ) 1 9 6 4 : 9 9 - 1 3 1 .

TRYON , D . T .
1970 " Noun C l as s i f i c at i on and Conc ord i n t h e Daly River
Language s . " M a n ki n d 7 : 2 1 8- 2 2 .

TYLER , Stephen A . ( ed . )
1969 C o g niti v e A n t h� o p o l o g y . New York : Holt , R inehart and
Winst on , Inc .

VAN DER STAP , P . A . M .

1966 " Ou t l i ne of Dani Morphology . " V e� h a n d eling e n v a n h et
K o ni n kli j k I n� tituut v o o � Taal - , Land - , en Volk enkunde .
Deel 4 8 . Den Haag : Mart inus Nij ho f f .

VINCENT , Alex
1973 " Ta irora Verb Struct ure . " I n Mc Kaughan ( ed . ) 19 7 3 :
5 6 1- 8 7 .

VOELT Z , Erhard
1971 " Surfa c e C o n s t ra int s and Agreement Re s o lut i on : Some
Evidence from Xhos a . " S tudie� i n A 6 �i c a n L i ng ui� tic�
2 : 37-60 .

VOORHOEVE , C . L .
196 5 " The F l amingo Bay D i a l e c t of t he A smat Language . "
V e � h a n d eling e n v a n h et K o ni n kli j k I n� tituut v o o � Taal - ,
Land- en V o l k e n k u n d e . Deel 4 6 . Den Haag : Mart inus
Nij hoff .
 234

WADDELL , E . W .
1972 T h e M o u n d 8 uild e�� . Seat t le : Univer s i t y o f Wash ingt on
Pre s s .

WALLACE , A . F . C . and J . Atkins

1960 " The Me aning o f Kinship Terms . " AA 6 2 : 58-80 .

WEINRE I CH , Uriel
1962 " Le x i c ographic De fin i t i o n i n Des cript ive Semant i c s . "
I n Househo lder and Saporta ( eds . ) 1 9 6 2 : 2 5 - 4 4 .

1966 " Exp l orat ions i n Semant i c The ory . " I n Sebeok ( ed . )
1966 : 395-477 .

WILSON , Darryl
1969 " Suena Grammar Highl ight s . " PLA 18 : 95-110 .

WU RM , S . A.
1964 " Aus t r a l i an New Guinea High l ands Languages and the
D i s t r ibut ion o f The ir Typ o logical Feature s . " AA 6 6 . 4 ,
pt . 2 : 7 7 - 9 7 .

YOUNG , Robert A .
1964 " The Primary Verb i n Bena-b ena . " I n E l s o n ( ed . ) 1 9 6 4 :
45-83 .

Lang, A. The semantics of classificatory verbs in Enga (and other Papua New Guinea languages).
B-39, xii + 246 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1975. DOI:10.15144/PL-B39.1
©1975 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative.