2019 8th International Conference on Modern Power Systems (MPS)
Advanced techniques for fault detection and
classification in electrical power transmission
systems: An overview
Radu-Adrian Tîrnovan, member, IEEE – PES, Maria Cristea
Department of Electric Power Systems and Management
Technical University of Cluj-Napoca
Cluj-Napoca, Romania
radu.tirnovan@enm.utcluj.ro
Abstract—One of the consequences of the power systems
complexity increasing consists in the rise of probability of system
fault occurrence. A rapid restoration of power system enhances
the service reliability and reduces power outages; therefore, fault
section should be estimated quickly and accurately. Transmission
lines, as important elements of power systems, may be subject to
unexpected failures due to various faults. So, to guarantee the
reliability and safety of a power system, efficient fault detection,
classification and localization (FDL) schemes for transmission
lines are essential. Consequently, the improvement in suitable
techniques for the fault detection and classification (FD) in power
transmission systems, to increase the efficiency of the systems and
to avoid major damages, it is a permanent requirement. A lot of
FD methods are described in the technical literature and
proposed by a large variety of research works, so a suitable
survey of these methods is needed for choosing the most proper
FD technique. In this work, an overview on the methods used for
FD in transmission systems is accomplished, analyzing the
technical literature and summarizing the most important
methods that can be applied for FD. After overall concepts and
general ideas are presented, representative works are covered
and discussed briefly, focusing on the newly approaches
(including machine learning) developed by various researchers
for FD in power transmission systems.
Keywords— transmission system, fault detection, fault
classification, artificial intelligent, machine learning
I. INTRODUCTION
The normal operation of power systems may be affected by
faults (caused by internal problems – include breakdown of
transmission lines or equipment, aging or deterioration of
insulation in generator, transformer and other electrical
equipment, improper installations and inadequate design,
failure of power system components due to aging of
equipment, human errors - or external causes – include
overloading of equipment, insulation failure due to lighting
strike and mechanical damage by public), or abnormal
operation (overloading, system swing).
These phenomena affect the system reliability, effect loss
of productivity, cause power loss to customers and results in
expensive repairs. Since fault is unpredictable, a fast fault
This work was supported by the Executive Unit for Financing Higher
Education, Research, Development and Innovation (UEFISCDI) of Romania
(Project No. 31PCCDI/2018).
978-1-7281-0750-9/19/$31.00 ©2019 IEEE
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location and isolation is required to minimize the impact of
fault in power systems [1].
Detection is the act of noticing or discovering something
[dictionary definition]. A fault detector must be capable of
distinguishing between faulty and non-faulty states. The task of
fault detection is done prior to fault-type classification and fault
location. Moreover, in many situations this function is
implemented in the classifier or the locator [2].
Classification (the act or process of classifying) represents
a systematic arrangement in groups or categories according to
established criteria [Merriam-Webster]. Fault classification
techniques represent methods that determine the fault type. The
fault type and faulty line identification on the transmission line
is a classification problem [3].
Location, as the act or process of locating, can be defined
like “a position or site occupied or available for occupancy or
marked by some distinguishing feature” [Merriam-Webster].
By fault location techniques one understands methods
(techniques) that calculate (estimate) the distance between a
reference location (station) and the location of the fault [3].
In general, faults in overhead transmission lines (they cover
large distances and are exposed to atmospheric condition) may
occur more frequently, with far more serious consequences,
compared to most other components of the power system (such
as generators, transformers, bus bars and other devices like
current transformers, fact devices etc.) [4].
Faults in overhead transmission lines classified mainly into
two types:
 open circuit faults (series faults), which occur due to the
failure of one or more conductors (phases), commonly are
caused by joint failures of cables and overhead lines, failure of
one or more phase of circuit breaker and due to melting of a
fuse or conductor in one or more phases. Single- and two-phase
open conditions can produce the unbalance of the power
system voltages and currents that causes great damage to the
equipment. Series faults can be identified easily by observing
each phase voltage: an increasing of voltage values denotes that
open conductor fault is occurred;
 short circuit faults (shunt faults), caused due to the
insulation failure between phase conductors or between earth
and phase conductors or both, can be defined as a connection
(whether made intentionally or accidentally) of a very low
impedance between two points of different potential. These are
the most common and severe kind of faults with results in
abnormal augmentation of currents through the equipment or
transmission lines. It can lead to the extensive damage to the
equipment. Short circuit faults are divided into two types:
 symmetrical, also called as balanced fault, occurs when all
the three phases are simultaneously short circuited. Two kinds
of symmetrical faults include line to line to line (L-L-L) and
line to line to line to ground (L-L-L-G). A rough occurrence of
symmetrical faults is in the range of 2 to 5% of the total system
faults. However, if these faults occur, they cause a very severe
damage to the equipment even though the system remains in
balanced condition;
 unsymmetrical, the most common faults that occur in the
power system network, are also called as unbalanced faults as it
causes unbalanced currents in the system. Three types of
unsymmetrical faults occurred due to the short circuit
conditions, namely phase or line to ground (L-G) fault, phase
to phase (L-L) fault and double line to ground (L-L-G) fault. A
single line-to-ground (L-G) fault is one of the most common
faults and experiences show that 70-80 % of the faults that
occur in power system are of this type. A line to line fault
occurs when a contact is established between two active
conductors belonging to different phases (often heavy winds
are the major cause for this fault during which swinging of
overhead conductors may touch together). These are less severe
faults and its occurrence range may be between 15-20%.
The occurrence of any transmission line faults gives rise to
the transient condition which may lead to the instability of the
system. The purpose of a protective relaying system is to detect
all the abnormal signals indicating faults on a transmission
system and to initiate procedures for a quick isolation of the
faulty line from service and protects it from the transient
effects of the fault [5].
Transmission line relaying involves three major tasks -
detection, classification and identification of fault - in order to
isolate only the faulty section with minimum time delay,
ensuring stability and continuity of service [3,5,6]. So, fault
detection, classification and location are very important in
order to take appropriate actions and ensure that the system
continues to operate safely and efficiently.
Methods for fault detection, classification and location in
transmission lines and distribution systems have been
intensively studied over the years. In recent times the
researches related to the location of the faults, in both
transmission systems in high voltage as in sub-transmission
and distribution systems, is having a great boom in developing
of novel methods and in quantity of technical publications [1-
3,7,8].
Complexity of power systems has growth in the last
decades due to the decisive changes in the power system
structure, arrangement and management, driven by the process
of market liberation (“deregulation”), energy transition from
the conventional to the renewable energy generation paradigm
and distributed generation promotion on large scale. Therefore,
generally the management and operation of the electric power
systems have also changed [6, 7].
The concepts associated with smart grid emphasized the
importance of development intelligent fault monitoring and
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diagnosis systems capable of classifying and locating different
types of faults [2].
In recent years, rapid development in various fields
concerning the detection, classification and location of faults in
power systems has been taking place, such as [2,9-12]:
 signal processing techniques;
 artificial intelligence and machine learning;
 global positioning system (GPS) and communications;
 intelligent electronic devices (IEDs) are being deployed to
obtain information at multiple nodes in the grids with
prospective of GPS-based synchronized sampling and high-
speed broadband communications for IEDs in power grids;
 self-powered non-intrusive sensors are also being
developed with the potential to form sensor networks for smart
online monitoring of smart grids;
 the application of phasor measurement units has also gained
wide attention;
 high-performance computing solutions such as server
clusters can complete distributed computing tasks within very
short period, thus allowing methods with higher computation
complexity to be implemented etc.
These technical improvements can guarantee fast response
to faulty situations and the proper functioning of online
monitoring systems. In these terms, selecting an adequate fault
classification method becomes more and more important and
involve knowing as many fault classification methods.
This work presents an overview on different fault
classification methodologies in transmission lines focused on
the advanced technics developed most recently. Also, an
attempt has been made to relate the fault classification methods
based on their techniques and simulation tools used in
corresponding approach.
II. SURVEY OF THE FAULT DETECTION AND
CLASSIFICATION METHODS
A. Fault Detection, Classification and Location Framework
Fig. 1 illustrated a condensed diagram for fault detection,
classification and location sequences, which involve the
following steps [2,3,13]:
Electrical Grid
Current and Voltage
Signals Acquisition
Data Processing
Fault
Detection
Fault Fault
Classification Location
Classification result Location result
Fig. 1. Simplified diagram for fault detection, classification
and location.
 Fault detection methods classification
Type based
Time domain - are used to analyze the global characteristics of data and to extract
the features in time domain
Frequency domain - transform the data into frequency
domain and are used to detect and identify a fault which
is not possible by time domain based techniques
Time series
Time-Frequency domain - analyze the data in both time
transforms - mainly for
and frequency domains
waveform signal
Wavelet domain - contains information like the STFT, but
with additional special properties of the wavelets, which
show up at the resolution in time at higher analysis
frequencies of the basis function
Data descriptive models
Other - reduce the
dimensionality of data
Time-independent transforms
 current and voltage signals acquisition (adjusting,
separation, sampling/hold, analog/digital conversion);
 the sampled values are passed to the data processing
module for extracting features. It is extremely hard to fit, the
raw current and voltage signals, into some sets of rules and
criterions capable of intelligently interpreting the underlying
messages brought by the signals. The feature extracting
techniques dig out purposefully useful information reducing
the impact of variance within the studied system and offering
proper features to a better awareness of the nature of the fault
classification or location problems;
 the fault detector – a good fault detection system provides
an effective, reliable, fast and secure way of a relaying
operation;
 the fault classifier – based on methodologies that
determine the fault type and are able to identify the faulted
phase(s);
 the fault locator – use techniques that estimate the distance
between the locator installation point, and the fault.
B. Feature Extraction Methods
Feature extraction process can be resumed, as it is
enunciated in [14]: “A process of extracting the important or
relevant characteristics that enclosed within the input data.
Dimensionality or size of the input data will be subsequently
reduced to preserve important information only”, or as it
appears in [15]: “Feature extraction transforms raw signals
into more informative signatures or fingerprints of a system”.
Basically, the feature extraction techniques, appealed for
fault detection in power transmission systems, can be
categorized as is shown in table 1 [2,8,15,16].
C. Fault Detection Based on Extracted Features
Mostly, the fault classifier or the locator are capable of
distinguishing between faulty and non-faulty states. So, there
is no need to use additional components for fault detection [2].
In the case when for fault detection is used an independent
method the classifier and the locator are triggered after a fault
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Signal (input
Description
data)
RMS, mean, variance, kurtosis, crest factor, peak to stationary/non-
peak, auto correlation, cross correlation etc. stationary
Spectral analysis, Envelope analysis, Cepstrum
stationary
analysis, Higher order spectrum
Short-Time Fourier Transform - STFT, localized
Fourier transform (Gabor transform), S transform - stationary/non-
ST, Empirical mode decomposition – EMD, stationary
Spectral kurtosis etc.
Continuous wavelet transform (CWT), Discrete
wavelet transform (DWT), Wavelet packet non-stationary
transform, Hilbert-Huang transform
Regression: Curve fitting, Autoregressive (AR) stationary/non-
models etc. stationary
Principal component analysis - PCA, Independent stationary/non-
component analysis - ICA etc. stationary
is firmly detected. This can be done easily by comparing some
extracted features with set thresholds.
In [2] are surveyed only methods, which are used in some
special cases, or representative methods that are independent
of the classification or location methods, such as:
 use of negative sequence components - for a more stable
detection of faults has been designed a joint fault indicator by
convoluting the partial differential with respect to time of
negative sequence components with a triangular wave, so that
the chance of issuing false alarms can be reduced [17];
 a wavelet-based method for real-time fault detection in
transmission lines has been proposed in [18]. The border
effects of the sliding windows used to obtain the wavelet
coefficients used for energy calculation were considered,
allowing a shorter detection time than considering the
transients alone;
 the method introduced in [18] was used for HIF detection
in [19];
 in [20], authors used DWT with quadratic spline mother
wavelet to extract high-frequency information for HIF
detection;
 in [21] the authors converted scale coefficients and
wavelet coefficients obtained by DWT to RMS values to help
detect HIF;
 in [22] PCA was applied to mean values of DWT
coefficients in different frequency bands to reduce the
dimensionality of features;
 in [4] a new fault detection method is proposed for
protection of transmission lines using RMS values of 3-phase
instantaneous powers at both sending end and receiving end
etc.
The time used for fault detection must not negatively
influence the overall performance of fault classification and
location systems. Nevertheless, detecting the faults as fast as
possible, while maintaining high robustness and accuracy, is a
domain that deserves further research [6].
D. Cataloguing of Fault Detection and Classification
Techniques
Fault detection and classification approaches (FDC) can be
categorized according to several different criteria and different
points of view, such as:
1) The quantity, quality and detail of information about /
coming from the supervised system - in some systems,
including electrical systems, FDC can be divided into three
main categories:
 model-based approaches - usually use mathematical
dynamic models that can fall into physics-based models and
statistical models (developed from collected input/output data
and as such might not account for conditions that have not
been recorded and thus not included into the models) [15,23];
 knowledge-based methods, compared to model-based
approaches, require no models and are suitable for solving
problems usually solved by human specialists. These
approaches are employed where the limitations of using
model-based approaches become significant (the process is too
complex to be modeled analytically, need much assumptions
about system and its operating conditions etc.) [23,24]. Two
typical examples of knowledge-based approaches are expert
systems and fuzzy logic systems;
 data-driven approaches are supposed not to require an
explicit or complete model of the complex system. Based on
statistical (static and dynamic principle components analysis,
linear and quadratic discriminations, partial least squares etc.)
and learning techniques (probability neural networks, decision
trees, multi-layer perceptrons, radial basis functions and
learning vector quantization, Bayesian networks, hidden
Markov model etc.) they are preferred when system
monitoring data for the nominal and degraded conditions are
available. Amongst them, Neural Networks (NNs) and Hidden
Markov Models (HMMs) are two typical approaches [23,24].
FAULT CLASSIFICATION TECHNIQUES
Signal
Analysis
Fundamental High Freq.
Components
Phasor Time Freq. Wavelet
Quantity Analysis Transform
Genetic Support Vector
Algorithms Machine
Fig. 2. Summary of recent algorithm proposed for fault detection and classification.
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In the case of complex power systems, the use of model-based
methods is extremely difficult, if not impossible. The
characteristics of faults, which can occur (these are
hierarchical, correlated, with different time, uncertainly etc.)
in complex power systems, make that the processes becoming
too complex to be analytically modeled. The same can be
asserted in the case of knowledge-based approaches, which, in
the case of complex power systems, suffer from the lack of
expertise (expert knowledge) [24]. In the case of data-driven
approaches, however, it is assumed that a complete and
explicit model is not required, so it is preferred when the
system monitoring data for normal and faulty conditions is
available. So, based on the complementary of the three
methods, in many cases the trend is to use hybrid techniques -
model-based, knowledge-based and data-driven techniques are
usually integrated together to achieve a better performance for
a complex system [25];
2) The developed and implemented tools - over years,
various signal processing tools have been developed for
electrical power system fault detection and classification based
on principles of estimation, PMU approaches, wavelet
transforms, artificial intelligence, fuzzy logic etc., and any
combination of tools [26]. In Fig. 2 is shown a summary of
most algorithms on fault detection and classification in power
systems classified based on this criterion;
3) In terms of evolution over time of the used tools (old
and newly developed tools applied in this field) [2, 27]. A
brief schema that illustrates such a categorization is presented
in Fig. 3 [27];
4) Approaches based on artificial intelligence and others -
In Fig. 4 the subcategories of AI involved in developing of
fault classification techniques are highlighted [3] etc.
Artificial
Intelligence
Fuzzy Fuzzy Based ANN
Logic ANN
Based Fuzzy
and Wavelet
Based ANN
and Wavelet
Wavelet Entropy
Principle
 FAULT CLASSIFICATION TECHNIQUES

Modern techniques

 PMU-based  Genetic algorithm  FPGA-based

Commonly, well- Integrated techniques
 Fast estimation of  Support vector implementation
known techniques phasor components machine  PCA based framework
 Neuro-fuzzy  GSM technique  Decision tree  Pilot scheme
 Wavelet  Wavelet and ANN  Multi-information  Extreme Learning  Functional analysis and
 ANN  Wavelet and fuzzy-logic measurements Machine (ELM) computational
 Fuzzy logic  Wavelet and neuro-fuzzy  K – Nearest Neighbors intelligence
 Bayesian Networks  Euclidean distance
Based Approach  Pattern recognition

Fig. 3. Tree diagram of fault classification methods in terms of evolution over time of the used tools.

FAULT CLASSIFICATION TECHNIQUES

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI) -

“sometimes called machine intelligence, is intelligence demonstrated by machines, in contrast to the
natural intelligence displayed by humans and other animals. Colloquially, the term AI is applied when a
OTHERS
machine mimics cognitive functions that humans associate with other human minds, such as learning
and problem solving. The scope of AI is disputed: as machines become increasingly capable, tasks
 PMU-based considered as requiring intelligence are often removed from the definition (in Tesler's Theorem: AI is
 Fast estimation of phasor whatever hasn't been done yet).” [29]
components
 GSM technique  Fuzzy Logic
 Multi-information  Pattern recognition [26,30-32]
measurements “Pattern recognition has its origins in engineering, whereas machine learning grew out of computer
 Euclidean distance science. However, these activities can be viewed as two facets of the same field, and together they have
undergone substantial development over the past ten years… The field of pattern recognition is
concerned with the automatic discovery of regularities in data through the use of computer algorithms
and with the use of these regularities to take actions such as classifying the data into different
categories.” [Bishop, Christopher M. (2006). Pattern Recognition and Machine Learning. Springer]

MACHINE LEARNING (ML) -

“is the study of algorithms and statistical models that computer systems use to
progressively improve their performance on a specific task. Machine learning
algorithms build a mathematical model of sample data, known as "training data", in
order to make predictions or decisions without being explicitly programmed to
perform the task.” [33]
 Decision Tree (DT) [34-40]
 Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) [41-50]
 Support Vector Machines (SVMs) [51-67]
 Bayesian Networks [68]
 K – Nearest Neighbors [69-70]
 Genetic Algorithms (GAs) [71-73]

DEEP LEARNING (DL) – [74,75]

“is any artificial neural network that can learn a long chain of causal links.” [33]
 Deep Neural Network (DNNs)
 Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs)
 Convolutional Deep Neural Networks (CNNs)

Fig. 4. Approaches based on artificial intelligence and others.

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III. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI) METHODS FOR
FAULT CLASSIFICATION IN ELECTRICAL POWER TRANSMISSION
SYSTEMS
In the last years, a wide range of power transmission
systems faults analysis techniques have been developed. These
advanced fault classification techniques turn to AI-based
methods, or to a series of other modern techniques already
developed, implemented and used in power systems (for
analysis, monitoring, control, etc.), such as:
 PMU-based - protection scheme consisted of fault
detection, classification and direction discrimination have
been developed. For example, was proposed an adaptive
protection technique for transmission systems using
synchronized phasor measurements or it has been presented a
model for location of faults for two-terminal multi section
compound transmission lines, which was the combination of
overhead lines and underground power cables, using
synchronized phasor measurements [28]. In [24] under the
current measurement precision of PMU, the authors put
forward a new type of fault detection and localization
technology based on fault factor feature extraction;
 Fast estimation of phasor components – such is
presented in [28] the key selection technique utilizes the
relations among magnitudes of current for different possible
fault loops based on readings of phase currents and fast
estimation of phasor components in relatively short data
window;
 GSM technique - a powerful GSM is considered to send
data from a network to other network, any variation in
parameters of transmission is detected to protect the whole
transmission and distribution [28];
 Multi-information measurements – this novel procedure
used multi-information measurements of fault transients with
the help of information entropy measurement and complexity
measurement for fault classification [28] etc.
Next, regarding the AI-based classification methods, some
of the directions addressed are mentioned.
A. Pattern Recognition
In [30] the authors use readings of the phase current only
during the first (1/4)th of a cycle in an integrated method that
combines symmetrical components technique with the
principal component analysis (PCA) to declare, identify, and
classify a fault (the approach distinguishes a real fault from a
transient one and can be used in either a transmission or a
distribution system. Implementation results using PSCAD are
also presented.
Similarly, the work presented in [31] extracts phase current
values during (1/4)th of a cycle to generate unique signatures
and by utilizing PCA methods identify and classify any fault
instantaneously.
A fault discrimination method based on the three-phase
current and voltage waveforms measured when fault events
occur in the power transmission-line network is proposed in
[32]. To overcome the difficulties associated with
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conventional voltage and current based measurements (due to
effect of factors such as fault inception angle, fault impedance
and fault distance), this approach employs wavelet multi
resolution analysis (MRA). MATLAB Simulink was used for
implementation.
B. Machine Learning (ML)
1) Decision Tree (DT) [34-40]
DTs are a non-parametric supervised learning method used
in classification and regression. DTs are constructed top-down
approach, by choosing a variable at each step that best splits
the target into homogeneous sets. It follows greedy search for
one feature value which can “best” split the target space which
is a decision value at a given node. This process repeats for the
next child node [3].
In [35] a decision tree algorithm is employed for
recognition of the intercarrier fault type based on the
estimation of the exact time of fault inception and computation
of the odd harmonics of the measured signals (up to the
nineteenth) for fault classification in double-circuit
transmission lines. The method uses the measured voltages
and currents of only one terminal of the protected line. The
method was extended for classification of crossover faults in
these transmission lines.
A new approach for fault zone identification and fault
classification for TCSC (Thyristor Controlled Series
Compensator) and UPFC (Unified Power Flow Controller)
line using decision tree (DT) is presented in [36]. The DT-
based classification algorithm takes one cycle data from fault
inception of three phase currents along with zero-sequence
current and voltage and constructs the optimal DT for
classifying all ten types of shunt faults in the transmission line
fault process.
Bagging is a simple method that can be employed to
reduce the variance for those machine learning techniques
with high variance. Post fault current is decomposed by Fast
Discrete Orthonormal S-Transform and bagged tree ensemble
technique is used to classify faults [3]. Other researchers have
used bagged tree ensemble technique [40]. The feasibility of
the proposed relaying scheme is tested on a modified WSCC
3-machine 9-bus system under different fault conditions using
PSCAD/EMTDC etc.
2) Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs)
ANNs are a family of non-linear statistical models and
learning algorithms with the intention to imitate behaviors of
connected neurons within biological neural systems, which
has developed and evolved over a long period of time.
Different ANN models have been used for applications in
various fields, including fault classification in transmission
lines and distribution systems [2].
A large number of methods and applications of ANNs for
fault classification are proposed in the literature, such as:
 In [41] are presented two popular classification methods:
logistic regression (LR) and artificial neural network (ANN)
applied on power distribution fault cause identification.
Practical application problems (data insufficiency, imbalanced
data constitution, threshold setting that are often faced in
power distribution fault cause identification problems) were
discussed;
 Reference [42] presents a new fault classification scheme,
for high speed relaying using minimal radial basis function
neural network, which reduces the training time drastically
providing a systematic framework for selecting the number of
neurons in the hidden layer and that yields an accurate fault
type classification on a transmission line even in the presence
of high fault resistance in the fault path. Also, two different
approaches in generating the inputs to the neural network with
a view to simplify the training procedure and reduce the
complexity in calculations were proposed. EMTDC software
package is used to simulate fault data for different power
system conditions;
 Mirzaei et al. proposes a classification methodology based
on probabilistic neural networks that uses the “K-fold” cross-
validation method to automatically select the training data and
obtain the performance evaluation results. The work proposes
a classifier that can recognize 11 classes of three-phase
distribution system faults to solve the complex fault (three-
phase short-circuit) classification problem for reducing the
multiple-estimation problem to estimate the fault location in
radial distribution systems. It is shown that the probabilistic
neural network approach can provide a fast and precise
operation for various faults. The data for the fault classifier is
produced by DigSilent Power Factory, Integrated Power
System Analysis Software on an IEEE 13-node test feeder
[45];
 The work presented in [48] is mainly concentrated on
classification of fault based on the obtained energy values
after applying discrete wavelet transform by taking these
values as an input for the neural network. The proposed
system and analysis are carried out in MATLAB Simulink;
 In [49] is presented a new relaying principle based on
application of wavelet-based artificial neural networks
(ANNs) that uses high-frequency content of a subset of local
currents of one end of a protected line to classify transients on
the line protected and its adjacent lines. Discrete wavelet
transform (DWT) is used to extract high-frequency
components of the two aerial modal currents and a feature
vector is built using the wavelets details coefficients of one
level of the aerial modes and is used to train an ANN. The
results demonstrate that is possible to obtain a very accurate
classification using one-eighth of a cycle of postevent data etc.
3) Support Vector Machines (SVMs)
SVM was invented by Cortes and Vapnik in 1995. The
main idea of SVM classifiers is to find an optimal hyperplane
that maximizes the margin between two groups of examples.
By using non-linear kernel functions which map the examples
into higher dimensional spaces, one can obtain non-linear
SVM classifiers [2].
Few SVM based approaches are mentioned as follows:
 Reference [51] presents an approach for the fault
classification in transmission line using multi-class support
vector machine. The method uses information obtained from
the wavelet decomposition of post fault current signals as
input to SVM. Using MATLAB Simulink, dataset has been
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generated with different types of fault and system variables,
which include fault resistance, fault distance and fault
inception angle;
 The work presented in [52] shows that the recognition
method for a transmission line fault types based on SVM
technique completely overcomes the limitations by using
common multilayer perceptions (MLP) classification methods.
MLP achieves results by SVM with the transient data and
steady-state simulations for transmission line fault mode
spaces and solves the essential problem for high voltage
transmission lines This paper use Support Vector Machines
SVM, with strong generalization ability for small samples and
fuzzy set theory of being suitable for solving uncertainty linear
division relations to perform the recognition task for high
voltage transmission line fault types, was used;
 The integration with an online wavelet-based pre-
processing stage enhances the SVM learning capability and
classification power. The classification criterion, presented in
[53], is based on using only the phase angles between the three
line currents in the transmission line. Simulations were carried
out using ATP and MATLAB-SVM Toolbox;
 A method for fault classification in the power systems,
using a combination of support vector machine classifier and
Wavelet Transformation, was proposed in [66]. The method
needs measurements from only one terminal and DWT is used
to extract the transient information of recorded voltages. The
classifier is trained with different fault scenarios in the power
system where the normalized wavelet energy of post-fault
voltage and normalized energy of the post-fault currents are
used as the input to the classifier. The transient voltages and
phase currents for different types of faults and locations along
the power system were obtained through ATP simulations and
MATLAB was used to process the simulated transient
voltages and apply the proposed method etc.
4) Bayesian Networks
Because there are some wrong and missed signals in a
power system, which may be caused by data-transmission
error or loss, and there are mal-operation and non-operation of
circuit breakers or relays, uncertainty reasoning is needed to
diagnose the system’s faulty section. Among the existing
uncertainty reasoning approaches, Bayesian networks
approach is more accurate and has solid theoretical foundation
based on probability theory [68].
Reference [68] proposes three element-oriented models
based on simplified Bayesian networks with Noisy-Or and
Noisy-And nodes to estimate the faulty section of a
transmission power system, which are characterized by:
 the three models are used to test if any transmission line,
transformer or bus bar within a blackout area is faulty;
 they can deal with uncertain or incomplete data and
knowledge relating to power system diagnosis, so they are
flexible. The structures and initial parameters of the Bayesian
networks are depended on the prior knowledge of the domain
experts. The parameters can be revised by using an error back
propagation algorithm similar to the BP algorithm for artificial
neural networks;
 they don’t vary with the change of the network structure,
so they can be applied to any transmission power system;
 they have clear semantics, rapid reasoning, powerful error
tolerance ability and no convergence problem during the
diagnosing procedure etc.
5) K – Nearest Neighbors (k-NN)
The k-NN algorithm is a non-parametric method used for
classification and regression where the input consists of the k
closest training examples in the feature space:
 in k-NN classification, the output is a class membership -
an object is classified by a plurality vote of its neighbors, with
the object being assigned to the class most common among its
k nearest neighbor. If k = 1, then the object is simply assigned
to the class of that single nearest neighbor;
 in k-NN regression, the output is the property value for the
object. This value is the average of the values of k nearest
neighbors.
Majd et. al. [69] proposed two new methods, based on k-
NN algorithm, for fault detection and classification in distance
protection. By finding the distance between each sample and
its fifth nearest neighbor in a pre-default window, the fault
occurrence time and the faulty phases are determined. The
maximum value of the distances in case of detection and
classification procedures is compared with pre-defined
threshold values. Therefore, k-NN is applied to the
instantaneous values of normalized three phase currents. The
main advantages of these methods are: simplicity, low
calculation burden, acceptable accuracy, and speed. The
performance of the proposed scheme is tested on a typical
system in MATLAB Simulink.
Dasgupta et. al. [70] proposed a method for detecting and
classifying transmission line faults using cross-correlation and
k-NN. A unique analogy between the cross-correlogram
obtained from the sound phase and a faulty phase in an electric
power system, defined here as the fault correlogram, and a
normal electrocardiogram (ECG) of human heart has been
validated in the proposed work. The proposed method uses
synthetic fault data within half cycle of pre-fault and half
cycle of post-fault to detect and classify the different faults
under varying fault parameters. EMTP/ATP software has been
used as the platform to carry out simulation of the power
system network followed by signal processing in MATLAB
etc.
6) Deep Learning (DL)
The structure of a DL model is similar to that of a multi-
layer FNN (Feedforward Neural Network), but the
unsupervised feature learning from large amount of unlabeled
input data can prevent the model from over-fitting and falling
into local optima [2].
As is shown in [2] the easy access to massive amount of
data and high computing ability of machines have made such a
pre-training method possible:
 recent developments in DL have successfully improved
classification ability in many fields [75] and the application of
DL in power system fault classification is promising;
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 methods such as convolutional neural networks (CNNs)
are also used to deal with multi-channel sequence recognition
problems [76], providing new ideas for the fault classification
tasks, where three-phase current and voltage signals are also in
the form of multi-channel time sequences.
IV. CONCLUSION
The paper presents a review on the methods used for fault
detection and fault classification in transmission lines and
distribution systems. The work has included several more
recent fault classification techniques along with their key
features.
It begins with a brief review on the techniques used for
feature extraction, which lays the foundation for other fault
diagnosis tasks. Fault detection is presented on top of the
feature extraction methods, as the detection techniques are
highly dependent on feature extraction.
In the paper is analyzed and putted forward many fault
classification techniques principally focused on machine
learning algorithm. Also, in addition to the classical models
such as ANN and SVM, the work presents some promising
new models emerged lately.
In conclusion, the content of this study is expected to be
helpful as a literature review and useful as a practical technical
guidance for fault analysis and design of power system
protections.
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