Group 3B lengths depending on application; slabs for flat
STEEL PROCESSES
Steelmaking is the process of producing steel from iron
ore and/or scrap. In steelmaking, impurities such
as nitrogen, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur and excess
carbon (most important impurity) are removed from the
sourced iron, and alloying elements such
as manganese, nickel, chromium, carbon and vanadium are
added to produce different grades of steel.
Two processes
1. Basic oxygen steelmaking (BOS)
2. Electric arc furnaces (EAF)
Basic oxygen steelmaking is a method of primary
steelmaking in which carbon-rich molten pig iron is converted
into steel. Blowing oxygen through molten pig iron lowers the
carbon content of the alloy and changes it into steel.
Electric arc furnace steelmaking is the manufacture of steel
from scrap or direct reduced iron melted by electric arcs. In
an electric arc furnace, a batch of steel ("heat") may be
started by loading scrap or direct reduced iron into the
furnace, sometimes with a "hot heel" (molten steel from a
previous heat).
• The first step, involves the raw inputs of iron ore,
coke, and lime being melted in a blast furnace. The
resulting molten iron also referred to as hot metal still
contains 4-4.5 percent carbon and other impurities
that make it brittle.
• In primary steelmaking, BOS methods add recycled
scrap steel to the molten iron in a converter.
• EAF methods, however, feed recycled steel scrap
through use high-power electric arcs (temperatures
up to 1650 C) to melt the metal and convert it into
high-quality steel.
•  Secondary steelmaking involves treating the molten
steel produced from both BOS and EAF routes to
adjust the steel composition. This is done by adding
or removing certain elements and/or manipulating the
temperature and production environment.  produce wire. Very fine wires are used in many industries,
• Stirring
• Ladle furnace
• Ladle injection
• Degassing
• CAS-OB (composition adjustment by sealed argon
bubbling with oxygen blowing)
• Continuous casting sees the molten steel cast into a
cooled mold causing a thin steel shell to solidify. The
shell strand is withdrawn using guided rolls and fully
cooled and solidified. The strand is cut into desired
products (plate and strip), blooms for sections
(beams), billets for long products (wires) or thin
strips.
• In primary forming, the steel that is cast is then
formed into various shapes, often by hot rolling, a
process that eliminates cast defects and achieves the
required shape and surface quality.
• Finally, it's time for manufacturing, fabrication, and
finishing. Secondary forming techniques give the
steel its final shape and properties. These techniques
include:
• Shaping (cold rolling), which is done below the
metal's recrystallization point, meaning mechanical
stress—not heat—affects change.
• Machining (drilling)
• Joining (welding)
• Coating (galvanizing)
• Heat treatment (tempering)
• Surface treatment (carburizing)
STEELS
STEEL PRODUCT MANUFACTURING
The worlds’ most vital manufacturing material is steel, which
allows us to build machines, structures and products built to
last. This segment of the primary metals industry
encompasses companies that manufacture steel tubes,
pipes, steel wire, and metal shapes from acquired iron or
steel.
Core Operations
Here is a quick look at each of the core operations taking
place across this industry:
1. Steel Wire Drawing
2. Rolled Steel Shape Manufacturing
3. Iron and Steel Pipe and Tube Manufacturing
Steel Wire Drawing
Companies purchases iron or steel rods, bars or wire to
such as tire wires, fences, and welding wires.
Rolled Steel Shape Manufacturing
Companies roll or draw shapes (except wire). Examples of
these shapes include plate, sheet, strip, rod, and bar. Hot-
rolled and Cold-rolled strips (Coils) are a key input for
automobiles.
Iron and Steel Pipe and Tube Manufacturing
Companies manufacture welded, riveted, or seamless pipe
and tube. Steel pipes and tubes make up the 5th largest US
exported item for the industry.
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STEEL
While iron alloyed with carbon is called carbon steel, alloy
steel is steel to which other alloying elements have been
intentionally added to modify the characteristics of steel.
Common alloying elements include: manganese, nickel,
chromium, molybdenum, boron, titanium, vanadium,
tungsten, cobalt, and niobium.
Properties of Steels
Changing the amount of carbon (or other atoms)
added to steel will change those things that are interesting
and useful about the metal. These are called the properties of
the steel. Some properties are:
• Hardness
• How easily it bends
• Ductility: can it be made into thin wires
• Strength
• Is it magnetic, a magnet can pick it up
• Will it rust (or corrode)
Steel with more carbon is harder and stronger than pure iron,
but it also breaks more easily (brittle).
According to the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI),
steels can be broadly categorized into four groups based on
their chemical composition:
1. Carbon Steels
2. Alloy Steels
3. Stainless Steels
4. Tool Steels
Carbon Steels
Carbon steels are alloys made from a combination of iron and
carbon. By varying the percentage of carbon, it is possible to
produce steel with a variety of different qualities. In general,
the higher the carbon level the stronger and more brittle the
steel.
Classifications
• Low carbon steel is sometimes called "wrought iron."
It is easy to work and may be used for decorative
products such as fencing or lamp posts.
• Medium carbon steel is very strong and is often used
for large structures such as bridges.
• High carbon steel is used mainly for wires.
• Ultra high carbon steel, also called "cast iron," is used
for pots and other items. While it is a very hard steel,
it is also quite brittle.
Alloy Steels
• Alloy steels are so named because they are made
with a small percentage of one or more metals
besides iron. The addition of alloys changes the
properties of steels. For example, steel made from
iron, chromium, and nickel produces stainless steel.
• The addition of aluminum can make steel more
uniform in appearance. Steel with added manganese
becomes exceptionally hard and strong.
Stainless Steels
• Stainless steels contain between 10 to 20%
chromium, making the steel extremely resistant to
corrosion (rusting). When a steel contains over 11%
chromium, it is about 200 times more resistant to
corrosion as steels that do not contain chromium.
Classifications
• Austenitic steels, which are very high in chromium,
also contain small amounts of nickel and carbon.
These are very commonly used for food processing
and piping. They are valued, in part, because they
are non-magnetic.
• Ferritic steels contain about 15% chromium but only
trace amounts of carbon and metal alloys such as
molybdenum, aluminum, or titanium. These steels
are magnetic, very hard and strong, and can be
strengthened further by cold working.
• Martensitic steels contain moderate amounts of
chromium, nickel, and carbon, They are magnetic
and heat-treatable. Martensitic steels are often used
for cutting tools such as knives and surgical
equipment.
• Tool steels are durable, heat resistant metals
containing tungsten, molybdenum, cobalt, and
vanadium. They are used, not surprisingly, to make
tools such as drills. There are a variety of different
types of tools steels, containing varying amounts of
different alloy metals.
Group 3C
Glass is a non-crystalline, often transparent amorphous solid,
that has widespread practical, technological, and decorative
uses in, for example, window panes, tableware, optics, and
optoelectronics.
Glass is made from liquid sand. You can make glass by
heating ordinary sand (which is mostly made of silicon
dioxide) until it melts and turns into a liquid. You won't find
that happening on your local beach: sand melts at the
incredibly high temperature of 1700°C (3090°F).
Methods on manufacturing glass
 Glass-making Techniques and Other Glass Terms
Virtually all the techniques of glass-making in use
today were known in antiquity. The tools have not
changed essentially since the discovery of glass-
blowing, although on technical level furnaces,
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 chemistry and mass-production methods have been
improved. Most of the advances in glass manufacture
are the result of the industrial revolution; mechanical
pressing, acid-etching and sand-blasting are
techniques that have evolved only in the last two
hundred years.
 Core-forming
the earliest method of making glass vessels is known
as core-forming. Small containers were produced by
trailing molten glass over a shaped, clay core
fashioned on the end of a metal rod. Upon
completion, the rod was removed, the vessel
annealed (gradually cooled), and the clay core
scraped out. The Erimtan Collection contains only
one example of a core-formed vessel. It represents
one of the last types made by using the technique.
 Casting
This process involved the shaping of molten glass in
a closed mould or over an open former. The earliest
use of casting is found in the production of mosaic
glass vessels during the Late Bronze Age.
 Blowing
The combination of the blow-pipe and the knowledge
of inflation revolutionised the glass industry, enabling
craftsmen to make vessels more quickly, at less
expense and in a greater variety of shapes
 Mould-blowing
This technique developed from the invention of glass-
blowing, probably in the first quarter of the first
century AD. It allowed the glass-maker to replicate
designs and shapes at will, using a pre-made clay,
metal or wooden mould.
 Pattern-moulding
This was a method in which a gather of glass was
partially formed in a mould. The pattern thus created
was then expanded and usually spiral-twisted during
the re-inflation of the vessel.
 Tralling
The application of glass threads, often in a
contrasting colour, gave added interest to free-blown
glass vessels.
 Cutting
Cutting as a type of decoration was a separate
operation carried out when the vessel was cold.
 Fire-polishing
The re-introduction of a vessel into the furnace in
order to soften and thus smooth out any irregularities
on the surface of the glass.
 Marvering
Rolling softened glass over a flat surface, usually in
order to smooth an added trail decoration into the
side of the vessel.
 Pontil
A metal rod that enabled the glass-maker to hold and
manipulate an object while working on it. After
blowing, the pontil was attached to the bottom of a
vessel while the rim, handle(s) and other decorative
elements were added.
Kick
A depression in the bottom of a vessel, usually
caused by pressure exerted in the application of the
pontil.
Weathering
The iridescence now visible on many ancient glasses
is not original or intentional but the result of
weathering. Over time the composition of glass can
deteriorate, creating a chemical deposit that often
flakes off to leave a pitted and iridescent surface.
The Float Glass Process
This method of making flat glass is the most popular method
used by manufacturers and requires a great deal of initial
capital to start up. These float glass manufacturing plants will
work for 24 hours a day the whole year round non-stop for 15
years! The machine required to produce flat glass was first
designed by Sir Alistair Pilkington in 1952 and is now the
standardised method of making flat glass. The process line
from furnace to flat glass of variable thickness and length can
be half a kilometre long and the machine can churn out 6,000
tonnes a week amounting to 6,000 thousand kilometres of
glass a year. All this production boils down to a six step
process.
Step 1 – Melting and Refining
By far one of the most important steps because this can
influence the quality of glass highly. In this furnace the glass
is melted at approx 1400-1600˚C is refined and homogenised
to ensure the glass coming out at 1100 ˚C onto the float bath
is removed of any gas bubbles or insertions. However if the
finished product requires a certain look and feel the
compositions of the methods can take an altering.
Step 2 – Float Batch
The spout pushes out the glass onto a layer of liquid molten
tin. The molten glass is of high viscosity and does not mix
with the liquid molten tin literally ‘floating’ on top. This with a
little help from gravity creates a perfectly levelled contact
surface. The thickness is controlled by the speed at which the
glass is spread over the line of molten tin
Step 3 – Coating
Coatings are added to the glass as a more modern day
requirement according to customer specifications. A way of
applying involves an area in the line that uses advanced high
temperature wielding robots at the cooling ribbon of glass.
3
Another way to vary the optical properties of the floating glass
is through a chemical vapour depositor (CVD). This can cover
the liquid glass moving beneath with a variety of coatings less
than a micron in thickness. They can be used to bounce out
UV rays or to reflect visible and infrared wavelengths.
Step 4 – Annealing
To further ensure that the glass has no unwanted insertions
or bubbles that can occur when cooled unevenly. A long
furnace, the ‘lehr’ cools the glass at varying temperatures
best suited to keep the glass perfect to customer specs. The
later technology developed included a sensor that detects the
stress level of the glass and in turn controls the temperatures
of the lehr.
Step 5 - Inspection
Occasionally a grain of said, a tremor or a single bubble will
create a lower quality output and with improved technology
automated highly sensitive methods are used to pick up these
glitches. The automated inspection method can control the
cutters and make 100 million measurements a second across
the ribbon of glass.
FINAL STEP
Step 6 – Cutting to Order
The final step is also dictated by a computer program where
the glass is cut to order and sold to the client. Any waste
material that has been cut out due to imperfections are fed
right back into the furnace as cullet.
Group 3D
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES FOR PLASTICS
What is plastic?
Plastics are the most common materials for
producing end-use parts and products, for everything from
consumer products to medical devices.
Plastics are a versatile category of materials, with thousands
of polymer options, each with their own specific mechanical
properties.
Plastic Manufacturing Processes
For any designer and engineer working in product
development, it is critical to be familiar with the manufacturing
options available today and the new developments that signal
how parts will be made tomorrow.
How to Choose the Right Plastic Manufacturing Process?
Consider the following factors when selecting a
manufacturing process for your product:
1. Form
2. Volume/cost
3. Lead time
4. Material
Types of Plastics
Thermoplastics
Are the most commonly used type of plastic. The
main feature that sets them apart from thermosets is their
ability to go through numerous melt and solidification cycles
without significant degradation.
Thermosetting Plastics
In contrast with thermoplastics, thermosetting plastics
(also referred to as thermosets) remain in a permanent solid
state after curing.
Types of Manufacturing Processes
3D Printing. 3D printers create three-dimensional
parts directly from CAD models by building material
layer by layer until a complete physical part is
formed.
CNC Machining. CNC machining includes mills,
lathes, and other computer-controlled subtractive
processes. These processes start with solid blocks,
bars, or rods of metal, or plastic that are shaped by
removing material through cutting, boring, drilling,
and grinding.
Polymer Casting. In polymer casting, a reactive
liquid resin or rubber fills a mould which reacts
chemically and solidifies. Typical polymers for casting
include polyurethane, epoxy, silicone, and acrylic.
Rotational Molding. Rotational moulding (also called
rotoumolding) is a process that involves heating a
hollow mould filled with powdered thermoplastic and
rotated around two axes to produce mainly large
hollow objects. Processes for rotomoulding thermoset
plastics are available as well, however less common.
Injection Moulding. Injection moulding (IM) works by
injecting molten thermoplastic into a mould. It is the
most widely used process for mass manufacturing of
plastic parts.
Vacuum Forming. Vacuum forming is a
manufacturing method where a plastic is heated and
formed, typically using a mould. Vacuum forming
machines vary in size and complexity from low-cost
desktop devices to automated industrial machinery.
The steps below describe the typical process for
industrial vacuum forming.
Blow Molding. Blow moulding is a manufacturing
technique used to create hollow plastic parts by
inflating a heated plastic tube inside a mould until it
forms into the desired shape.
Extrusion moulding. Works by pushing plastic
through a die. The shape of the die is a cross-section
of the final part.
Product Processing
There are 4 process of making the rubber:
4
 • Compounding Vulcanizing
• Mixing  Vulcanizing is generally a heating process that
• Shaping accomplished cross-linking of elastomer molecules,
so that the rubber becomes stiffer and stronger but
• Vulcanizing
retains extensibility.
Compounding
 During the vulcanization process, the number of
 Rubber is always compounded with additives. cross-links increase, the polymer becomes stiffer and
Additives include fillers which act either to enhance behaves more and more like a thermosetting plastic.
the rubbers mechanical properties.
Rubber and Its Equipments
 Compounding adds chemical for vulcanization, such
Rubbers are loosely described as materials which show
as sulfur.
“elastic” properties. These materials with long chain
Mixing molecules known as “polymers” and the combination of
 Carbon black and other non-vulcanizing additive are elastic and polymers have led to the alternative name of
combined with the raw rubber. The term master batch “elastomers”.
is used for this first-stage mixture. Two major types of rubbers
 Mixing is carried out in which vulcanizing agents are 1. Natural rubber - is tapped from rubber trees as
added. latex. Latex is a colloidal dispersion of solid particles
Shaping of the polymer polyisoprene in water.
2. Synthetic rubber - are produced from petroleum by
This process helps in providing the shape to the
the same polymerization techniques used to
product in the required form.
synthesize other polymers.
 Extrusion
Rubber is used as a name for 3 categories
 Calendaring
1. Raw Rubber – This is the prime raw material for any
 Coating rubber product which determines the main
 Moulding and casting characteristics of the final product.
2. Semi-manufactured product - The addition to raw
Extrusion
rubber with chemicals and fillers, to impart desirable
 The extruder is used to give shape to the rubber properties, is termed compounding. The material is
compound through the die fixed. however still malleable and plastic.
 The rubber is fed from one end it comes out with the 3. Final product – As a result of vulcanization
performed shaped as per the die used. process, the rubber compound gets its elastic
properties and gives shape to the final product.

Calendaring
 Rubber roll is passed through a series of gaps of
decreasing size made by a stand of rotating rolls.
 Rubber sheet thickness determined by final roll gap.
Coating
 This process is used when a fabric is coated with
rubber.
 The equipment is similar to calendaring equipment.
 Automobile tires, conveyor belts, inflatable rafts, and
raincoats.
Moulding and casting
 Moulded rubber products include rubber mats,
gaskets and seals, bush, chappal soles, straps and
bottle stops.
 Also, many foamed rubber parts are produced by
moulding.
Tools and Equipment
1. Mixing equipment - These are equipment's that are
used to mix the compound out of selected
ingredients. The examples are Mills,
Rubber Internal Mixers- is a heavy duty batch
mixers designed and made for mixing raw rubber
with ingredients in rubber compound preparation.
Rubber Kneaders machine- ensures uniform
dispersion of compounds, easy cleaning for color
change and simple operations. Also employed in
a wide assortment of material mixing ranging
from low viscosity adhesives to high viscosity.
2. Shaping equipment - are used for shaping the
rubber compound into the required definite shapes
which is then used to make the articles.
5
 Extrusion machine- during this process,
extrusion machine forces synthetic or natural
rubber materials through a shaped die in order to
get it to take on its section profile.
3. Coating equipment - Coating equipment are used to
coat the substrate with the rubber compound dough
or rubber compounds which are warmed up to the
required levels of plasticity.
Calendar rubber equipment – is a mechanical
process by which either plastics or rubber is
pressed into textiles (cloth, fabric, tire cord)
forming composite sheets.
4. Molding equipment/Vulcanizing equipment - In
many cases converting the rubber compound into
final shape and setting it in the shape is a
simultaneous operation. The shaping equipment are
provided with facilities for heating which ultimately
vulcanizes the articles in the given shape.
Curing presses- is a process of applying
pressure to the green tire in a mould. This gives
its final shape.
Autoclaves- (vulcanizing autoclave) to convert
natural rubber into a cured and chemically cross-
linked rubber product.
Group 3E
Food processing equipment is an umbrella term referring to
the components, processing machines, and systems used to
handle, prepare, cook, store, and package food and food
products. Although this equipment is primarily aimed toward
the transformation—i.e., increasing the palatability,
consumability, and digestibility—or preservation—i.e.,
extending the shelf life—of food, some pieces of equipment
are also employed to perform preliminary or auxiliary
functions, such as handling, preparation, and packaging.
Employed for food and food product applications ranging from
bakery goods to beverages and dairy to produce, a wide
range of food processing equipment is available to execute
the various unit operations necessary during a complete
production cycle, such as washing, separating, mixing,
baking, freezing, and sealing. Depending on the demands of
the operation (and the overarching food processing
application), this equipment can be designed and constructed
to handle solid, semi-solid, or liquid food products by batch or
continuously. Some of the other design considerations
include the food grade material used for construction,
hygienic and governmental standards, sizing, cost, and
integration of automation or analytical components. Each of
these characteristics can influence the performance and
efficiency of the equipment, but choosing the optimal design
and construction is dependent on the specifications and
requirements of the particular food processing application.
Types of Food Processing Equipment
While the wide range of food processing equipment available
can be classified and categorized in several different ways—
e.g., end product form, mode of operation, application, etc.—
this article follows industry standards and groups them by
their respective functions.
The food processing production cycle can be broken into
several stages, characterized by a specific function and
during which individual unit operations are performed. For
example, within the preparation stage, the primary function is
to prepare the food material for further processing, and some
of the unit operations performed include washing and
separating. Other secondary functions provide support to the
primary functions of the production cycle, such as material
handling and system control operations which convey food
materials between process stations or maintain the required
processing conditions and standards, respectively.
Some of the most common functions by which food
processing equipment are grouped include:
 Preparation
 Mechanical processing
 Heat processing
 Preservation
 Packaging
Mechanical Processing Equipment
Mechanical processing operations are employed (without the
application of heat or chemicals) to reduce, enlarge,
homogenize, or otherwise change the physical form of solid,
semi-solid, and liquid food matter. By altering the form and
size of the food matter, manufacturers can facilitate and
increase the efficiency and effectiveness of subsequent
processes, improve the overall quality and edibility, and allow
for a greater range of food products to be produced.
Within the general mechanical processing classifications—
i.e., size reduction, size enlargement, homogenization—there
are numerous unit operations, such as cutting, forming, and
grinding/crushing, which fall below them. Table 2 below
describes the overarching classifications and outlines some
of their more specific unit operations and the equipment used
to execute them.
Heat Processing Equipment (Preservation by the
Application of Heat)
Depending on whether the application (and the specific unit
operation) is aimed towards heating or cooling the food
material, heat transfer equipment can be used to direct heat
towards or away from the material, respectively. This section
of the article will focus primarily on the applications and
equipment aimed towards heating food products, while the
following section—Preservation Equipment—will touch on the
applications and equipment aimed towards cooling food
6
products, as well as those intended to preserve and extend
the shelf life of food products.
Heat processing equipment—i.e., equipment which heats
food—can cause not only physical changes in the food
material, but chemical, biochemical, and biological changes
as well. These changes can transform and affect the overall
quality of the resulting food products—such as by altering the
chemical structure or enhancing the flavor—and serve as a
preservation method by inhibiting or destroying the
microorganisms or enzymes which cause spoilage.
There are many unit operations employed during the heat
processing stage, including blanching, baking, roasting, and
frying, and Table 3 below describes some of them and
outlines the equipment used to execute them.
Preservation Equipment
As indicated above, many of the heat processing operations
used in the food processing industry demonstrate
preservative qualities. Although there is significant overlap
between heat processing equipment and preservation
equipment, the previous section already covers the former
category—i.e., preservation methods (and their respective
equipment) which apply heat. Therefore, this section will
focus on other preservation methods, processes, and
equipment.
The preservation stage of the food processing production
cycle ultimately aims to prevent or inhibit the spoilage and
increase the shelf life of food products. There is a wide range
of preservation methods available ranging from refrigeration
to irradiation, each of which acts to destroy microorganisms
and enzymes within the food material or, at the very least,
limit and depress their activity.
Packaging Equipment
Following the preparation and processing stages, food
material generally undergoes one or more post-processing
operations, which help to produce the final food product and
complete the food processing production cycle. While there
are several post-processing operations involved with the
production cycle, this section will focus on packaging
operations and equipment.
Food packaging can serve several functions, including:
 Containment: Holds (i.e., contains) food contents
until they are used
 Protection and Preservation: Creates a physical
barrier between processed food products and
physical, chemical, microbial, and macrobial
variables during storage, transportation, and
distribution which can cause spoilage, contamination,
or loss of quality
 Convenience: Enables food products to be portioned
out (by weight or volume) for easier consumer use,
and stored, transported, and distributed
 Communication: Helps identify the food contents
and indicate handling, storage, and use instructions,
as well as allows for an opportunity for branding and
marketing
Additionally, food packaging is available in several forms—
e.g., boxes, jars, bottles, cans, etc. Depending on the
packaging form used to package the food material, packaging
operations, and the equipment employed to execute them,
can significantly vary. Some of the other factors which may
influence the type of packaging equipment employed include
the type and form of food product and the storage, handling,
distribution, and marketing requirements.
METHODS OF FOOD PROCESSING
What is food processing?
■ Food processing is any method used to turn fresh
foods into food products. This can involve one or a
combination of various processes including washing,
chopping, pasteurising, freezing, fermenting,
packaging, cooking and many more. Food processing
also includes adding ingredients to food, for example
to extend shelf life.
What are the methods of food processing?
■ Food processing includes traditional (heat treatment,
fermentation, pickling, smoking, drying, curing) and
modern methods (pasteurisation, ultra-heat
treatment, high pressure processing, or modified
atmosphere packaging). Some of the common
methods are described below:
Canning
■ The food is heated to a high temperature. This
process is called pasteurisation. Then, the food is
packaged and stored in an air-tight can.
Fermentation
■ The breakdown of sugars by bacteria, yeasts or other
microorganisms under anaerobic conditions. This
means, no oxygen is needed for the process to take
place (apart from oxygen present in sugar).
Fermentation is notably used in the production of
alcoholic beverages such as wine, beer, and cider,
and in the preservation of foods such as sauerkraut,
dry sausages, and yoghurt, but also for raising dough
in bread production.
Freezing
■ Food temperatures are reduced to below 0°C to
decrease the activity of harmful bacteria. The process
can be used to preserve the majority of foods
7
 including fruits, vegetables, meat, fish, and ready
meals
Modified atmosphere packaging
■ Air inside a package is substituted by a protective
gas mix, often including oxygen, carbon dioxide and
nitrogen – gases that are also present in the air we
breathe. They help to extend the shelf life of fresh
food products - usually of fruits, vegetables, meat and
meat products, and seafood.
Pasteurisation  your process -- protecting the final filter, ensuring the long life
■ Food is heated and then quickly cooled down to kill
microorganisms. For example, raw milk may contain
harmful bacteria that cause foodborne illnesses.
Boiling it (at home) or pasteurising (on a large scale)
is crucial to ensure it is safe to consume. Apart from
dairy products, pasteurisation is widely used in
preservation of canned foods, juices and alcoholic
beverages.
Smoking
■ A process of heat and chemical treatment of food to
help preserve it by exposing it to smoke from burning
material such as wood. Smoked foods usually include
types of meat, sausages, fish or cheese.
Additives
■ Food additives play an important role in preserving
the freshness, safety, taste, appearance and texture
of processed foods. Food additives are added for
particular purposes, whether to ensure food safety, or
to maintain food quality during the shelf-life of a
product. For example, antioxidants prevent fats and
oils from becoming rancid, while preservatives
prevent or reduce the growth of microbes (e.g. mould
on bread). Emulsifiers are used for instance in
improving the texture of mayonnaise, or stopping
salad dressings from separating into oil and water.
BEVERAGES
What is a Beverage?
 A beverage is any type of drink. It's something you
might offer a guest in your house; it's also the favorite
moniker of companies that manufacture both soda and
juice — they call themselves beverage companies.
 One of the most popular beverages in history is
Coca-Cola, developed in 1886. Initially, Coke was
called a brain tonic for intellectuals. Ingredients of the
original recipe included coca leaves and cola nuts, and
until 1909 contained small amounts of cocaine. Today,
the Coca Cola company markets hundreds
of beverages including soft drinks, juices, and sports
drinks.
Process
Sugar Syrup Clarification
The mixture of sugar, flavorings, essences, and water is
called syrup. Syrup clarification will retain particles and
crystals from your syrup.
Water Microbial Stabilization
Water accounts for the largest portion of your beverage and
needs to be safe. The prefiltration phase plays a key role in
and good economics of your filter train, and reducing the
initial bioburden. Final filtration removes microorganisms such
as bacteria, mold, yeast, and protozoa to achieve the
required contaminant-free water quality. 
Blender Tanks for Beverage
Blending is the process of combining liquids that are easily
dissolved to form a homogenous liquid.
Carbonation
Carbonation is the step of adding carbon dioxide to a drink.
The CO2 that you inject into your beverage must be free of
particles and microorganisms. Non-carbonated drinks do not
include the carbonization step.
Bottle Blower and Bottle Washer
The air used in the bottle blower to turn the pre-forms into the
final PET (polyethylene terephthalate) bottle must be free of
contaminants; its filtration ensures a bottle with low bioburden
is produced. Bottle blowing can be done in any beverage
process using PET bottles. 
Just as the air used in the bottle blower must be free of
contaminants, the water used to rinse the bottles must also
be free of contaminants; its filtration ensures good quality of
the bottles prior to filling. A safe and reliable container is
essential to maintain the quality and shelf life of your drink.
Bottle Filler
Gas filtration can also be used during the filling process of
carbonated drinks. In order for the filling to be possible, the
filler bowl must be pressurized and the gas used must be
microbiologically stable.
Group 3G
Processes involved in Manufacturing Metals
Casting - is a process in which liquefied material, such as
molten metal, is poured into the cavity of a specially designed
mold and allowed to harden. After solidification, the
workpiece is removed from the die to undergo various
finishing treatments or for use as a final product.
8
Powder processing - treats powdered metals with pressure  Powder Metallurgy – “ Isostatic Press “machines
(pressing, aka compacting) and heat (sintering) to form need to apply pressures from 15,000 to 40,000
different shapes.  pounds per square inch (100 to 280 MPa) for metals.
Forming,  metal forming - is the metalworking process of Deformation Process
fashioning metal parts and objects through mechanical  Bulk Process:
deformation; the workpiece is reshaped without adding or
The workpiece undergoes large plastic deformation, resulting
removing material, and its mass remains unchanged.
in an appreciable change in shape or cross section.
Deformation processes - transform solid materials from one
The portion of the workpiece undergoing permanent plastic
shape into another. The initial shape is usually simple (e.g., a
deformation is generally much larger than the portion
billet or sheet blank) and is plastically deformed between
undergoing elastic deformation. Therefore, elastic recovery or
tools, or dies, to obtain the desired final geometry and
springback after deformation is negligible.
tolerances.
A. Rolling - Roller
Machining - is the process of cutting, shaping, or removing
material from a workpiece using a machine tool. B. Forging – Forge Hammer
Joining Processes - are the processes that are used C. Extrusion - Extruder
for joining metal parts and metal fabrication work. It consists D. Wire and Bar drawing
of four types: (a) Welding (b) Soldering (c) Brazing and (d)
 Sheet Metal Working:
Adhesive Bonding.  
A. Pressing B. Punching C. Bending D. Shearing
Metal finishing - is an all-encompassing term used to
describe the process of placing some type of metalcoating on Material Removal Process
the surface of a metallic part, typically referred to as a  Machining:
substrate. It can also involve the implementation of
A. Lathe Machine
a process for cleaning, polishing or otherwise improving a
surface. B. CNC Machine

Metal Manufacturing Equipment C. Shaper

Casting Processes D. Milling

 Expandable Mold Casting:  Abrasive Machining

A. Sand Casting – “ Jolt Squeeze ” most common  Non-traditional Process

equipment in sand casting by jolting the flask the Joining and Assembly Process
sand is distributed evenly.  Welding
B. Investment Casting/Shell Casting – “ Investment  Riveting and Etc.
Casting Machine “a technique for making small,
accurate castings in refractory alloys using a mold Group 4
formed around a pattern of wax or similar material Pacakaging Processes and Equipments
which is then removed by melting. What is Packaging?
 Permanent Mold Casting: All products made of any materials of any
A. Die Casting -  ”hot chamber machines” (used for nature to be used for the containment, protection,
alloys with low melting temperatures, such as zinc) handling, delivery and preservation of goods from the
and “cold chamber machines” (used for alloys with producer to the user or consumer.
high melting temperatures, such as aluminum). Purposes of Packaging and Labeling:
B. Centrifugal Casting - A “horizontal axis machine” is  Containment
mostly used for long thin cylinders and vertical
 Information Transmission
axis machines are typically used for rings. The hollow
cylindrical Die can generate speeds exceeding 100  Physical and Barrier Protection
G's of centrifugal force, this distributes the molten  Display
metal and shapes it into the tubular/cylindrical forms.
Containment
C. Injection Molding - “ Injection Molder “ uses a high
 To hold product directly; this is primary packaging.
pressure injection pump casting the liquid metal on a
permanent mold. Information Transmission

9
  Identify the brand and any related companies Auger/Agitator Filling Machine
 Explain how it should be used • Designed to fill dry mixes, such as milk powder,
 Warn about the hazards for misuse sugar, flour etc.

 Reveal product contents • fillers have a hopper shaped like a cone that holds
the mix and puts it in a pouch using an auger
Physical and Barrier Protection screw that is controlled by the agitator.
 To prevent spoilage, leakage, breakage, moisture Flow Filling Machine
changes, theft and tampering.
• designed for liquids, oils, and thin food products.
Transport These fillers are designed when they fill a bottle or
 To easily and safely move the product from the tub that enters the machine, then ejects the open
manufacturer then to the retailer and finally, to the bottle back onto another conveyor for sealing.
consumer Tablet Fillers
Display • designed for products that is counted by pieces
 To attractively display instead of weight. These are designed for small
 To sell bottles, but the hopper of the filler is set up to permit
scan counting of tablets or candy pieces.
Basic Symbols For Transport of Packages
Sealing Section and Equipment’s
Types of Packages
Sealing Machines
i. Primary Package
• Machines used to securely close and/or fasten the
ii. Secondary Package
product. Usually after the filling section.
iii. Tertiary Package
Some types of sealing equipment’s:
Primary Packaging
 Vacuum Packaging Machine
 It is the material that first envelops the material and
 Blister Packaging Machine
holds it.
 Skin Pack Packaging Machine
Secondary Packaging
Vacuum Packaging Machine
 Used to group primary packages together.
• Method of packaging that removes air from the
Tertiary Packaging
package.
 Used for bulk handling, warehouse storage and
• Long-term storage of dry foods.
transport shipping.
Blister Packaging Machine
 Most common is a pelletize unit load that packs
tightly into containers. • Blister pack is a cavity or pocket made from a
"formable" web, usually a thermoformed plastic. This
Packaging Process
usually has a backing of paperboard or a "lidding"
 Filling Section seal of aluminum foil or plastic.
 Sealing Section Skin Pack Packaging Machine
 Labeling • Product is placed on a piece of paperboard, and a
 End of line section thin sheet of transparent plastic is placed over the
product and paperboard.
PACKAGING EQUIPMENT’S
Labeling Section and Equipment’s
Filling Section and Equipment's
Filling Machines
Labeling
• Machines used to fill bottles or a pouch depending on
the product. • Any written, electronic, or graphic communications on
the packaging or on a separate but associated label.
General types of filling machines:
Types of labeling machines:
 Auger/Agitator Filling Machine
 Flat Class Labeling Machine
 Flow Filling Machine
 Round Bottle Labeling Machine
 Tablet Fillers

10
  Side of the Class Labeling Machine
Flat Class Labeling Machine
• To achieve the plane on the workpiece, the arc of the
label and foil, such as boxes, books, plastic shell,
etc., are rolling and smoking stickers.
Round Bottle Labeling Machine
• To achieve in cylindrical, conical circumferential
surface of the product label or film, such as glass
bottles, plastic bottles.
Side of the Class Labeling Machine
• To achieve the workpiece side of the plane, side arc
label or film, such as cosmetic bottles flat, square
box, can complete a round bottle cover standard
equipment, while achieving a round bottle labeling.
End of line Section and Equipment's
End of Line Section
• After individual packages have been made the next
step is getting the products ready for shipment.
Types of machines used:
 Case Sealers
 Sleeve Wrappers and Bundlers
 Case Erectors and Box Forming Machines
 Case Packers
 Palletizing Equipment
Case Sealers
• Case Sealers are used in production environments
where a run of the same sized cases is made, then
changed over for the next sized box.
Sleeve Wrappers and Bundlers
• An alternative to case packing where the product is
bundled together for shipment.
Case Erectors and Box forming Machines
• machines which form a carton board blank into a
carton filled with a product into single carton, after the
filling, the machine engages its slots to
apply adhesive and close both the ends of carton
completely sealing the carton.
Case Packers
• Case packers automatically load products into boxes.
There are several types of case packing machines
including horizontal, vertical, overwrapping, and
robotic.
Palletizing Equipment
• Automatic palletizers arrange boxes and bags on
pallets. 
Group 5
HOW LPGS ARE PRODUCED
WHAT IS LPG
• LPG - liquefied petroleum gas or liquid petroleum gas
– (LP gas), the constituents of which are propane and
butane, are flammable hydrocarbon fuel gases used
for LPG heating, cooking and vehicles.
Slug Catcher – is the first unit in LPG site. It is used to
eliminate the slug flow from the natural gas coming from the
platform.
Dehydration and Fired heater
Dehydration – it is used to eliminate the water content from
the natural gas in dehydration towers; by using solid
desiccant which it has a high grade from water absorption.
Fired heater – it is used to perform regeneration to saturated
solid desiccant.
Heat exchanger- it used to perform cooling by natural gas by
6 units of heat exchanger, to separate some of hydrocarbon
components from LPG
Fractionation tower – fractionation unit consists of 2 tower
(Depropanizer and debutanizer)
Depropanizer: used to separate the more volatile components
that remain in natural gas.
Debutanizer: Used to separate the low volatile components
from the natural gas, to obtain liquefied petroleum gas.
Tail gas Compressors – Flashed gas coming from separation
process are compressed to seals gas network by tail
compressor.
Spherical Tanks – it is spherical tanks that used to store LPG
under pressure 5.5 bar. To transmit it though the
underground pipeline.
LPG TANKS
• LPG tanks are typically made of welded steel,
aluminum or composites. Steel is by far the most
common material, as it is the easiest to fabricate and
it is a low cost material. Some cylinders are made of
aluminum or composites to save on weight.
• Aluminum is quite common for forklift cylinders,
relating to safe lifting.
• The use of aluminum keeps the weight down to allow
for more gas whilst still staying within the safety
weight limits.
• The most recent innovation is the composite cylinder.
• These are typically fiberglass with a high impact
plastic outer shell.
• Some have an inner lining of HDPE whilst other have
a thin steel liner.
• LPG is under pressure, as a liquid, and turns back
into gas when you release some pressure. Gas
11
 cylinder pressure is too high and erratic to use, as
temperature variation affects pressure. Gas cylinders
require a gas regulator to reduce gas bottle pressure
and provide a consistent working pressure.
• A gas cylinder works with pressure that is usually far
in excess of what is required as the working
pressure. There are specific gas regulators, by gas
type, that are used to reduce the cylinder pressure
down to the working pressure needed.
• An LP gas cylinder works by storing gas under
pressure. To reduce the high pressure to a usable
level, the gas is passed through a gas regulator to
decrease the pressure to the correct level for the gas
appliances. LPG is unique, as it liquefies under
moderate pressure vs high pressure compressed gas
cylinders.
• LPG gas cylinder works (propane tank works) with
some of the LPG-propane at the top of the cylinder-
tank is in gaseous form whilst it is liquid at the
bottom.
• LPG gases, including propane, can be compressed
into liquid at relatively low pressures and is also
referred to as natural gas liquids – NGL.
• LPG-propane liquid boils and turns back into gas
vapour when you release some of the pressure in the
gas bottle by using gas.
• Almost all of the uses for LPG involve the use of the
gas vapour, not the liquefied gas.
Group 6
Plumbing
What is Plumbing?
- is any system that conveys fluids for a wide range of
applications. Plumbing uses pipes, valves, plumbing
fixtures, tanks, and other apparatuses to convey fluids.
[1]
 Heating and cooling (HVAC), waste removal, and potable
water delivery are among the most common uses for
plumbing, but it is not limited to these applications.[2] The word
derives from the Latin for lead, plumbum, as the first effective
pipes used in the Roman era were lead pipes.[3]
- In the developed world, plumbing infrastructure is
critical to public health and sanitation.
- Boilermakers and pipefitters are
not plumbers although they work with piping as part
of their trade and their work can include some
plumbing.
History of plumbing
- Plumbing originated during ancient civilizations (such
as the Greek, Roman, Persian, Indian, and Chinese
cities) as they developed public baths and needed to
provide potable water and wastewater removal for
larger numbers of people.[6] Standardized earthen
plumbing pipes with broad flanges making use
of asphalt for preventing leakages appeared in the
urban settlements of the Indus Valley Civilization by
2700 BC.[7] The Romans used lead pipe
inscriptions to prevent water theft. The word
"plumber" dates from the Roman Empire.
[8]
 The Latin for lead is plumbum. Roman roofs used
lead in conduits and drain pipes[9] and some were
also covered with lead. Lead was also used
for piping and for making baths.[10]
- Plumbing reached its early apex in ancient Rome,
which saw the introduction of expansive systems
of aqueducts, tile wastewater removal, and
widespread use of lead pipes. With the Fall of
Rome both water supply and sanitation stagnated—
or regressed—for well over 1,000 years.
Improvement was very slow, with little effective
progress made until the growth of modern densely
populated cities in the 1800s. During this
period, public health authorities began pressing for
better waste disposal systems to be installed, to
prevent or control epidemics of disease. Earlier, the
waste disposal system had consisted of collecting
waste and dumping it on the ground or into a river.
Eventually the development of separate,
underground water and sewage systems eliminated
open sewage ditches and cesspools.
- Most large cities today pipe solid wastes to sewage
treatment plants in order to separate and partially
purify the water, before emptying into streams or
other bodies of water. For potable water
use, galvanized iron piping was commonplace in the
United States from the late 1800s until around 1960.
After that period, copper piping took over, first soft
copper with flared fittings, then with rigid copper
tubing utilizing soldered fittings.
- -The use of lead for potable water declined sharply
after World War II because of increased awareness
of the dangers of lead poisoning. At this time, copper
piping was introduced as a better and safer
alternative to lead pipes.[11]
The Three Major Types of Plumbing Systems
Potable Water System
- The potable water system brings water into a
structure; this water comes from the community water
12
 main. There is a valve on the water main itself for
each structure that can be used to shut off its water
supply. From there, a single pipe brings water into
the structure, and it is then distributed to individual
fixtures through a network of pipes. A meter keeps
track of how much total water enters the structure.
Sanitary Drainage System
- The sanitary drainage system removes wastewater
from a building. It consists of pipes that take out
human waste and fecal matter as well as wastewater
from cooking, laundry, etc. The sanitary drainage
system is connected to a series of vent pipes that go
through the roof vertically; this allows for the venting
of gases and for the entire system to operate at
atmospheric pressure. The sanitary drainage system
ultimately takes wastewater to the community sewer
system.
Stormwater Drainage System
- The purpose of the stormwater drainage system is to
carry rainwater away from a structure. In older
structures, rainwater simply drains into the sanitary
drainage system, but in buildings that are more
modern a separate system of drains carries water
into the community storm sewers. Gutters are a part
of the stormwater drainage system visible from
outside the structure; other components, such as
drains and pipes, are below the ground.
Difference between pipes and tubes
- The difference between pipes and tubes is a matter
of sizing. For instance, PVC pipe for plumbing
applications and galvanized steel pipe are measured
in iron pipe size (IPS). Copper tube, CPVC, PeX and
other tubing is measured nominally, basically an
average diameter. These sizing schemes allow for
universal adaptation of transitional fittings. For
instance, 1/2" PeX tubing is the same size as 1/2"
copper tubing. 1/2" PVC on the other hand is not the
same size as 1/2" tubing, and therefore requires
either a threaded male or female adapter to connect
them. When used in agricultural irrigation, the
singular form "pipe" is often used as a plural.[20]
- Pipe is available in rigid joints, which come in various
lengths depending on the material. Tubing, in
particular copper, comes in rigid hard tempered joints
or soft tempered (annealed) rolls. PeX and CPVC
tubing also comes in rigid joints or flexible rolls. The
temper of the copper, whether it is a rigid joint or
flexible roll, does not affect the sizing.[20]
Materials
- Water systems of ancient times relied on gravity for
the supply of water, using pipes or channels usually
made of clay, lead, bamboo, wood, or stone.
Hollowed wooden logs wrapped in steel banding
were used for plumbing pipes, particularly water
mains. Logs were used for water distribution in
England close to 500 years ago. US cities began
using hollowed logs in the late 1700s through the
1800s. Today, most plumbing supply pipe is made
out of steel, copper, and plastic; most waste (also
known as "soil")[22] out of steel, copper, plastic, and
cast iron.[22]
- The straight sections of plumbing systems are
called "pipes" or "tubes". A pipe is typically formed
via casting or welding, whereas a tube is made
through extrusion. Pipe normally has thicker walls
and may be threaded or welded, while tubing is
thinner-walled and requires special joining techniques
such as brazing, compression fitting, crimping, or for
plastics, solvent welding. These joining techniques
are discussed in more detail in the piping and
plumbing fittings article.
Steel
Main article:  Galvanized pipe
- Galvanized steel potable water supply and
distribution pipes are commonly found with nominal
pipe sizes from 3⁄8 inch (9.5 mm) to 2 inches (51 mm).
It is rarely used today for new construction residential
plumbing. Steel pipe has National Pipe Thread (NPT)
standard tapered male threads, which connect with
female tapered threads on elbows, tees,
couplers, valves, and other fittings. Galvanized steel
(often known simply as "galv" or "iron" in the
plumbing trade) is relatively expensive, and difficult to
work with due to weight and requirement of a pipe
threader. It remains in common use for repair of
existing "galv" systems and to satisfy building
code non-combustibility requirements typically found
in hotels, apartment buildings and other commercial
applications. It is also extremely durable and resistant
to mechanical abuse. Black lacquered steel pipe is
the most widely used pipe material for fire
sprinklers and natural gas.
Copper
Main article:  Copper tubing
- Copper pipe and tubing was widely used for domestic
water systems in the latter half of the twentieth
century. Demand for copper products has fallen due
to the dramatic increase in the price of copper,
resulting in increased demand for alternative
products including PEX and stainless steel.
13
Plastic
Main article:  Plastic pipework
- Plastic pipe is in wide use for domestic water supply
and drain-waste-vent (DWV) pipe. Principal types
include: Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) was produced
experimentally in the 19th century but did not become
practical to manufacture until 1926, when Waldo
Semon of BF Goodrich Co. developed a method to
plasticize PVC, making it easier to process. PVC pipe
began to be manufactured in the 1940s and was in
wide use for Drain-Waste-Vent piping during the
reconstruction of Germany and Japan following
WWII. In the 1950s, plastics manufacturers in
Western Europe and Japan began
producing acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) pipe.
The method for producing cross-linked
polyethylene (PEX) was also developed in the 1950s.
Plastic supply pipes have become increasingly
common, with a variety of materials and fittings
employed.
• PVC/CPVC – rigid plastic pipes similar to PVC drain
pipes but with thicker walls to deal with municipal
water pressure, introduced around 1970. PVC stands
for polyvinyl chloride, and it has become a common
replacement for metal piping. PVC should be used
only for cold water, or for venting. CPVC can be used
for hot and cold potable water supply. Connections
are made with primers and solvent cements as
required by code.[23]
• PP – The material is used primarily in housewares,
food packaging, and clinical equipment,[24] but since
the early 1970s has seen increasing use worldwide
for both domestic hot and cold water. PP pipes
are heat fused, being unsuitable for the use of glues,
solvents, or mechanical fittings. PP pipe is often used
in green building projects.[25]
• PBT – flexible (usually gray or black) plastic pipe
which is attached to barbed fittings and secured in
place with a copper crimp ring. The primary
manufacturer of PBT tubing and fittings was driven
into bankruptcy by a class-action lawsuit over failures
of this system.[citation needed] However, PB and PBT
tubing has since returned to the market and codes,
typically first for "exposed locations" such as risers.
• PEX – cross-linked polyethylene system with
mechanically joined fittings employing barbs, and
crimped steel or copper rings.
• Polytanks – plastic polyethylene cisterns,
underground water tanks, above ground water tanks,
are usually made of linear polyethylene suitable as a
potable water storage tank, provided in white, black
or green.
• Aqua – known as PEX-Al-PEX, for its PEX/aluminum
sandwich, consisting of aluminum pipe sandwiched
between layers of PEX, and connected with modified
brass compression fittings. In 2005, a large number
of these fittings were recalled.
Plumbing Tools and Equipment a Professional Plumber
Uses
Tape Measure
• This is a simple equipment which all the plumbers
have. A metallic measuring tape rolled inside a small,
compact, plastic case is used to measure the
dimensions of plumbing system and components.
Various Screwdrivers
• The screwdrivers are used to screw or unscrew
various connections with the help of screws, nails,
and nuts. A vast variety of screwdrivers are available
with various point sizes and shapes. The most
common screwdrivers are the star- and plus-shaped
screwdrivers.
Wrenches
• This tool has fixed or adjustable, toothed or smooth
jaws at one end of a long handle. A variety of
wrenches are available in the market depending on
their jaw head size, handle size, jaw head shape, the
purpose of use, etc. Some of the commonly used
wrenches are the adjustable wrench, open end
wrench, basin wrench, pipe wrench, etc. Wrenches
are used to hold, turn, remove, or fit plumbing pipes
and fixtures.
Tube or Pipe Cutters
• This is a wrench-and-blade setting used to cut
metallic or plastic (PEX or PVC) tubes and pipes. The
head of this tool is generally adjustable according to
the width of the tube or pipe.
Teflon Tape
• This is a type of tape, generally white in color, used
to secure the connections. The tape is wound on the
threads of pipes, valves, faucets, showerheads, and
other plumbing systems to make the connections
tight and leak-proof.
Plungers
• These are the vacuum creating tools used to unclog
drains, sinks, toilets, and bathtubs. These have a
rubber cup attached to a wooden or metallic rod
(handle). The rubber cup creates a vacuum and
sucks out the clogging debris and materials.
Drill and Hole-Making Tool
14
• This is an electric equipment attached with an auger
or a hole-saw that creates holes for differently sized
plumbing pipes and systems.

15