FABRICATION OF ELECTROMAGENETIC BRAKING SYSTEM

USING ELECTRIC POWER AND MAGNETIC POWER

The Major project Report submitted to

Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Hyderabad
In partial fulfillment for the award of degree of

Bachelor of Technology
in
Mechanical Engineering
by
P.SHIVA CHARY -- 18X35A0324

Under the Guidance of

MR. M.S0MESH SHETTY Asst.Prof.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SRI INDU INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING &TECHNOLOGY

(Affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi)

Sheriguda (V), Ibrahimpatnam (M), R.R.Dist., Telangana- 501510.
2021
 SRI INDU INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING &TECHNOLOGY
(Affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi)
Sheriguda (V), Ibrahimpatnam (M), R.R.Dist., Telangana- 501510.

DECLARATION

We, P.SHIVA CHARY , Bearing Roll No’s: 18X35A0324, hereby declared that the

dissertation entitled “FABRICATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC BRAKING SYSTEM

USING ELECTRIC POWER AND MAGNETIC POWER ”, carried out under the guidance of

Mr.M.SOMESH SHETTY.Asst.Prof. is submitted to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological

University Hyderabad in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of

Bachelor of Technology in Mechanical Engineering. This is a record of bonafide work carried out

by me and the results embodied in this dissertation have not been reproduced or copied from any

source. The results embodied in this dissertation have not been submitted to any other University or

Institute for the award of any other degree.

DATE: P.SHIVA CHARY -- 18X35A0324

 SRI INDU INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING &TECHNOLOGY
(Affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi)
Sheriguda (V), Ibrahimpatnam (M), R.R.Dist., Telangana- 501510.

CERTIFICATE

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

This is to certify that the dissertation entitled “FABRICATION OF

ELECTROMAGNETIC BRAKING SYSTEM USING ELECTRIC POWER AND

MAGNETIC POWER”, Being submitted by P.SHIVA CHARY bearing Roll No’s: 18X35A0324,

to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Hyderabad in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Mechanical Engineering, is

a record of bonafide work carried out by him. The results of investigations enclosed in this report

have been verified and found satisfactory. The results embodied in this dissertation have not been

submitted to any other University or Institute for the award of any other degree or diploma.

INTERNAL GUIDE HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

PRINCIPAL EXTERNAL EXAMINER

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I express our sincere gratitude to Mr. R.Venkat rao chairman, Sri Indu institute of
Engineering and Technology, shri R.Anup Chakravarthy secretary Sri Indu Institute of
Engineering and technology for providing us an opportunity and motivation to do this project

I would like to express our deepest gratitude to our principal Dr.I.Satyanarayana M.Tech
(IITK), Ph.D for permitting to do this project and providing constant support and motivation
to carry out the project as early as possible.

I would like to express our heartfelt thanks to our respectable Head of the Department in,
Mr P.Vijay Kumar M.Tech, Asst.Prof for the all round help rendered to us in various aspect.

I would like to thank our guide Mr.M.SOMESH SHETTY Asst.Prof for providing
invaluable guidance throughout this project.

I express our thanks to all the teaching and non teaching staff members of Department of
Mechanical Engineering for their invaluable suggestions and gentle motivation.

P.SHIVA CHARY -- 18X35A0324

Fabrication of electromagnetic braking system using
Electric power and Magnetic power
Abstract:

An electromagnetic brake is a new and revolutionary concept. These are totally

friction less. Electromagnetic brakes are the brakes working on the electric power &
magnetic power. An Electromagnetic Braking system uses Magnetic force to engage
the brake, but the power required for braking is transmitted manually. Electromagnetic
braking system is a modern technology braking system used in light motor & heavy
motor vehicles. This system is a combination of electro-mechanical concepts. The
frequency of accidents is now-a-days increasing due to inefficient braking system. It is
apparent that the electromagnetic brake is an essential complement to the safe braking
of heavy vehicles. It aims to minimize the brake failure to avoid the road accidents. It
also reduces the maintenance of braking system. An advantage of this system is that it
can be used on any vehicle with minor modifications to the transmission and electrical
systems. An Electromagnetic Braking system uses Magnetic force to engage the
brake, but the power required for braking is transmitted manually. The disc is
connected to a shaft and the electromagnet is mounted on the frame .When electricity
is applied to the coil a magnetic field is developed across the armature because of the
current flowing across the coil and causes armature to get attracted towards the coil.
As a result, it develops a torque and eventually the vehicle comes to rest. These brakes
can be incorporated in heavy vehicles as an auxiliary brake. The electromagnetic
brakes can be used in commercial vehicles by controlling the current supplied to
produce the magnetic flux. Making some improvements in the brakes it can be used in
automobiles in future.
 List of Index
CONTENT PAGE NO.
CHAPTER1
INTRODUCTION
1.Automobile industry 1
1.2 Methodology 4
1.3 Principle of braking system 5
1.4 Electromagnetic brakes 5
1.5 Switch And Wires 5
CHAPTER 2
LITERECHER REVIEW 6
2.0 Eddy current probe 11
2.1 Bobbin probes 12
2.2 Rotating probes 12
2.3 Array probe 13
2.4 Rotating field probe with bobbin coil 14
2.5 Comparison of eddy current probes 15
2.6 EM NDT techniques 15
2.7 Pulsed eddy current 15
2.8 ECT with MF measurement method 16
2.9 Multi-frequency techniques 18
2.10 Factors contributing to eddy current signals 18
2.11 Frequency 19
2.12 Conductivity of test material 20
2.13 Magnetic permeability 21
2.14 Lift-off 22

CHAPTER 3
FABRICATION WORKING
3. Fabrication model construction 24
3.1 Alloy wheel 25
3.2 Electro-magnet 25
3.3 Electromagnet 26
3.4 Belt 26
3.5 Pulley 26
3.6 Construction Details 26
3.7 Ac Motor 27
3.8 The Electromagnet 34
3.9 Hand Rule. 34
3.10 The Magnetic Strength of the Electromagnet 36
3.11 Electromagnet using a nail 38
3.12 Permeability of Electromagnets 38
3.13 Electromagnet Example No1 39
3.14 The energy in a magnetic field 40
3.15 Uniform magnetic fields 42
3.16 Fields with negligible fringing 44
3.17 The force on materials with low χ 46
3.18 A simple experiment with a solenoid 47
3.19 must read on dc motors: 49
3.20 Construction of DC Motor 50
3.21 Working Principle of DC Motor 50
3.22 Back- EMF of DC motor 51
3.23 Definition of DC motor 52
3.24 DC Motor Diagram 53
3.25 Different Parts of a DC motor 53
3.26 Armature or Rotor 53
3.27 Field Coil or Stator 53
3.28 Commutator and Brushes 54
3.29 Brushes 54
3.30 power from the static electrical circuit to the mechanically rotating region or the rotor. 54
3.31 Types of DC motor 55
3.32 Self Excited DC Motor 55
3.33 Separately Excited DC Motor 57
3.34 brushed dc motor vs brushless dc motor 57
3.35 Applications of DC Motor 58
3.36 Shunt DC Motors 58
3.37Series DC Motors 58
3.38 Cumulative Compound DC motors 59
3.39 Fabricating welding works 59
3.40 Tools 60
3.41 Processes 61
3.42 Safety Precautions 62
3.43 Drilling Machine: 62
3.44 Line Diagram of Drilling Machine: 63
3.41 Parts of Drilling Machine: 63
3.45 Base: 64
3.45.1 Vertical Column: 64
3.45.2 Swivel Table: 64
3.45.3 Power Transmission system: 64
3.45.4. Drill Feed Handle: 65
3.45.5 Chuck: 65
3.45.6 Table Clamp: 65
3.45.7 Spindle: 65
3.45.8 Drill bit: 65
3.46 Working Principle of Drilling Machine: 65
3.47 Types of Drilling Machines: 67
3.48 Drilling Machine Operations: 70
3.48.1 Drilling Operation: 71
3.48.2 Boring Operation: 71
3.48.3 Reaming Operation: 71
3.48.4 Tapping Operation: 72
3.48.5 Spot Facing Operation: 72
3.48.6 Trepanning Operation: 72
3.48.6 Honing Operation: 72
3.48.8 Countersinking Operation: 73
3.49 Advantages of Drilling Machine: 73
3.49.1 The advantages of Drilling Machine are as follows. 73
3.50 bill of material& cost of estimation 74
Table 3.1 bill of material& cost of estimation 74
CHAPTER 4
4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION 75
4.1 Calculate the Force of an Electromagnet 75
4.2 Advantages 76
4.3 disadvantages 77
CHAPTER 5
5. CONCLUSION
5.1 Future Scope 78
REFERENCES 79
 LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURES PAGENO.
Fig: 1.1 applied the manually force 1
Fig: 1.2 Electromagnetic brakes 2
Fig:1.3 This coil develops magnetic lines 4
Figure 2.1 Tube inspection probes: (a) absolute and (b) differential. 12
Figure 2.2 . Rotating probe. 13
Figure 2.3 Array probe. 14
Figure 2.4 3D model of rotating field probe with bobbin coil. 14
Figure 2.5 PEC to test multilayer sample.33 16
Figure 2.6 Lift-off curves and crack displacement at impedance plane.82 20
Figure 2.7 Wobble simulation: a bobbin coil in an offset position to a tube.87 23
Fig:3.1 frame cutting pipes 27
Fig: 3.2 single pipes 28
Fig: 3.3 pipes cutting 28
Fig: 3.4 welding frame 28
Fig: 3.5 table welding frame 29
Fig: 3.6 sprockets bush 29
Fig: 3.7 motor 30
Fig:3.8 12mm shaft 30
Fig: 3.9 sprocket wheel 31
Fig: 3.10 12mm shaft bush 31
Fig: 3.11 chain 31
Fig: 3.12 wheel 32
Fig: 3.13 12mm shaft bush 33
Fig: 3.14 brake wheel 33
Fig: 3.15 battery 12v 1.5 33
Fig:3.16 Lines of Force around an Electromagnet 35
Fig: 3.17 Magnetic Field Strength for Electromagnets 36
Fig: 3.18 strength of the magnetic field. 37
Fig: 3.19 needed to push the current 41
Fig: 3.19 electromechanical relays .44
Fig: 3.20 A 'solenoid' is the term 47
Fig: 3,21 Fleming’s left-hand rule and its magnitude decide the direction of this force. 50
Fig:3.22 dc motor 51
Fig: 3.23 Motor Diagram 53
Fig: 3.24 conductors located 54
Fig: 3.25 shunt wound motor 55
Fig: 3.26 In a series wound DC motor 56
Fig: 27 DC motors having both shunt and series field 56
Fig:3.28 In a separately excited DC motor 57
Fig: 3.29 A brushless DC motor, 57
Fig: 3.30 fabirication making 59
Fig: 3.31 The line diagram of Drilling machine 63
Fig: 3.32 rack and pinion mechanism in drilling machine 66
Fig: 3.33 Radial Drilling Machine 67
Fig: 3.34 Upright drilling machine.Photo Courtesy:IndiaMart 68
Fig: 3.35 Multiple Spindle Drilling Machine. Photo Courtesy:IndiaMart 68
Fig: 3.36 Deep hole drilling Machine. Photo Courtesy:IndiaMart 69
Fig: 4.1 Final Testing 78
 LIST OF TABLES
TABLES PAGENO.
Table 2.1. ECT probes for tube or pipe assessment inspection. 15
Table2. 3. Typical depths of penetration. 19
Table 2.4. Conductivity and resistivity of conductive materials. 21
Table 2.5. Review of lift-off compensation techniques 22
Table 3.5 Bill of Materials & Cost of estimation 74
 CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
1. AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY

A brake is a device which inhibits motion. Its opposite component is a clutch. Most commonly
brakes use friction to convert kinetic energy into heat, though other methods of energy conversion
may be employed. For example regenerative braking converts much of the energy to electrical
energy, which may be stored for later use. The brakes are different to use in stopped the
reciprocating parts and motion automobile vehicles. The new technology is produced in automobile
engineering. An automobile industry is developing new technology of braking system. These worlds
are new possibility and new thinking of braking system. The automobile industry are also developed
new braking system like to drum brake, disc brake, hydraulic brake, pneumatic brake, air brake and
electromagnetic brake. The different brakes are working on different principle operation. Future is
used in time of hydraulic and disc or drum brake. The different types of friction brake and
electromagnetic brake use. The main principle of electromagnetic brake to induced kinetic energy
into heat energy. Braking system is used to automobile vehicle speed reduced in slowly.

Fig: 1.1 Applied the manually force

The brake are applied the manually force on a brake pedal to the mechanical linkage operate and
applied the brake drum wheel and motion is slowly reduced and applied the brake. Brake applied to
the vehicle speed reduced in several time and vehicle to rest. The electromagnetic brakes are new
technology of automobile industry for1 future concept to use for automobile vehicle and other
industry level. Brakes are new technology to use for vehicle required specification. Automobile
vehicle to use for required use in purpose for like sports car, light motor vehicle, heavy motor
vehicle, bikes, sports bikes and off road vehicles. Heavy motor vehicle is use brakes this time of air

1
brakes. The electromagnetic brakes are new developed in braking system in automobile engineering.
This type brake mainly working principle is one rotating metal disc in between the two magnets to
apply the brake to induced electric current in circuit to induced magnetic field in armature to attract
the magnet to the rotating metal disc and stopped the rotation in several time while applied brake.
Equipment in addition to the regular friction brakes on heavy vehicles. We outline the general
principles of regular brakes and several alternative retardation techniques in this section. The
working principle and characteristics of electromagnetic brakes are then highlighted. In this project
we are trying to make a braking system. Which can be applicable in two wheeler at Electromagnetic
brakes have been used as supplementary retardation high speed and low maintenance cost. Here we
are using an electromagnetic coil and a plunger. There is an electromagnetic effect which moves the
plunger in the braking direction. When electricity is applied to the field, it creates an internal
magnetic flux. That flux is then transferred into a hysteresis disk passing through the field.

Fig: 1.2 Electromagnetic brakes

The hysteresis disk is attached to the brake shaft. A magnetic drag on the hysteresis disk allows for a
constant drag, or eventual stoppage of the output shaft. Electromagnetic brakes (also called electro-
mechanical brakes or EM brakes) slow or s2top motion using electromagnetic force to apply
mechanical resistance (friction). The original name was "electro-mechanical brakes" but over the
years the name changed to "electromagnetic brakes", referring to their actuation method. Since
becoming popular in the mid-20th century especially in trains and trolleys, the variety of
applications and brake designs has increased dramatically, but the basic operation remains the same.
Both electromagnetic brakes and eddy current brakes use electromagnetic force but electromagnetic
brakes ultimately depend on friction and eddy current brakes use magnetic force directly.

2
New advances are landing in this world. Numerous enter3prises got profited because of the entry of
these new innovations. A vehicle industry is one of them. As brake is an essential piece of car
innovation, there are developments in brakes as well. The generally utilized brakes in cars are drum
and circle brakes. Different sorts of slowing mechanism utilized are pressure driven, pneumatic and
so forth. Electromagnetic braking is an imaginative innovation and furthermore frames the premise
of developing innovation. Slowing mechanism is for the most part grouped by their strategy for task.
The two noteworthy kinds of brake are frictional and electromagnetic retarder. The brake is a
mechanical gadget which includes the change of dynamic vitality into warm vitality (warm) by
halting vehicle in a movement. While braking power is connected by brake to hinder the movement
of vehicle bunches of motor vitality is disseminated as warmth vitality. Essential capacity of Brakes
is to moderate the speed of a vehicle in a brief span regardless of speed. Therefore, the brakes are
required to be able to creating high torque and engrossing vitality at to a great degree high rates for
brief time-frames. Brakes might be connected for a more extended time-frames in a few applications,
for example, an overwhelming vehicle dropping in an incline at rapid. Brakes must have the capacity
to keep the warmth retention for delayed time-frames.
The recurrence of mischances is currently advantages expanding because of wasteful stopping
mechanism. Henceforth stopping mechanism should be improved for powerful and productive
braking. Electromagnetic brake is as new idea. It is discovered that electromagnetic brakes can build
up a power which is almost double the most extreme power yield of a normal motor, and no less
than three times the braking energy of a fumes brake to stop vehicle. These exhibitions of
electromagnetic brakes make them substantially more focused possibility for elective hindrance
hardware
1.2 Methodology
When the power supply is given the motor, the pulley is driven by the belt. Now the pulley is
continuously rotated. As the steel plate is connected along with pulley it is rotated infront of the
electromagnet. When the braking is required the control switch is turned on. So, the current or
voltage is applied on the electromagnet. A magnetic field is created by an energizing coil by the
application of voltage or current. This coil develops magnetic lines of flux between the metal disc
thus attracting the armature to the face of the metal disc. When the current or voltage is removed
from the brake (electromagnet) the metal disc is free to rotate. Here springs are used as medium to
hold the armature winding of the electromagnet away from the disc. Rotating motion in wheels is

3
achieved by switching controls of the supply to the coil. Slippage occurs only during deceleration
only when 4the brake is engaged, there should not be slippage once the brake comes to a full halt.

Fig:1.3 This coil develops magnetic lines

1.3 PRINCIPLE OF BRAKING SYSTEM
The principle of braking in road vehicles involves the conversion of kinetic energy into thermal
energy (heat). When stepping on the brakes, the driver commands a stopping force several times as
powerful as the force that puts the car in motion and dissipates the associated kinetic energy as heat.
Brakes must be able to arrest the speed of a vehicle in short periods of time regardless how fast the
speed is. As a result, the brakes are required to have the ability to generating high torque and
absorbing energy at extremely high rates for short periods of time.

1.4 ELECTROMAGNETIC BRAKES

Electromagnetic brakes operate electrically, but transmit torque mechanically. This is why they used
to be referred to as electro-mechanical brakes. Over the years, EM brakes became known as
electromagnetic, referring to their actuation method. The variety of applications and brake designs
has increased dramatically, but the basic operation remains the same. Single face electromagnetic
brakes make up approximately 80% of all of the power applied brake applications.

1.5 Switch And Wires

ON/OFF switch used to control the power supply to the electromagnet. It is connected with the
electromagnet. A typical common electric switch is used here. When the rotation of the pulley is to
be stop, the braking is applied by turned the switch on. When the free rotation of the pulley is
required the switch is turned off. To provide the electric supply to the motor and the electromagnet

4
the electric wire is used here. The copper wire has been used here since it has the better electrical
conductivity.5

5
 CHAPTER-2
LITERECHER REVIEW
Out team goes through various different review papers so we can know about other people’s work
on different brakes. We find some very useful papers that are listed below.

1. Literature review on Design Study in Single Disk Axial Eddy Current Brake. 2018 5th
International Conference on Electric Vehicular Technology (ICEVT) October 30-31,
2018, Surakarta, Indonesia.

In daily life the role of brake is very important. In generally vehicle is used conventional braking like
disc brake drum brake etc. Eddy current brake can be alternative for conventional brake ECB is an
electromagnetic brake which use the principle of eddy current brake. This research aim to investigate
the relationship between braking torque with the amount of coil and the air gap in single disc axial
brake ECB. FEM is used in ECB performance modelling. The eddy current brake has many
parameters that need to be developed. In this paper by changing the air gap and number of
conductors the torque is also changed. by using FEM, we can find this.

The braking torque is strongly affected by the parameter of eddy current brake. By result of this
research we can conclude that smaller air gap increases the braking torque and also number of
conductors is improving the performance of eddy current brake also by change in design the braking
torque is also change. Better braking performance is obtain when using 0.5mm air gap and 360
conductors.

2. Literature review on Enhancement of Braking System in Automobile Using

Electromagnetic Braking. Akshaya S. Putt war 6and Nagnath U. published in IOSR
Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering (IOSR- JMCE), in 2009

Two main functions of a braking system are to maintain control of the car/vehicle at a vertiginous
inclination or a declination and to stop the vehicle in the shortest distance possible. Electromagnetic
brake is a new idea. It is discovered that electromagnetic brakes can build up a power which is
almost double the most extreme power yield of a normal motor, and no less than three times the
braking energy of a fume brake to stop the vehicle. These results of electromagnetic brakes make
them essentially more focused possibility for elective hindrance hardware's contrasted and different

6
retarders. This project expects to limit the brake inability to stay away from the street miss
happenings. It additionally diminishes the support of stopping mechanism. Preference for this
mechanism is that it can be used in any vehicle and is less problematic. Mr. Akshaya S. Putt war and
Nagnath U. Et al analyses that Electromagnetic braking system is found to be more reliable as
compared to other braking systems. In oil braking system or air braking system even, a small leakage
may lead to complete failure of brakes. While in electromagnetic braking system as four-disc plates,
coils and firing circuits are attached individually on each wheel, even coil fails the brake does not
completely fails remaining three coil works properly. This enhanced bra7king system not only helps
in effective braking but also helps in avoiding the accidents and reducing the frequency of accidents
to a minimum. the electromagnetic brakes can be used as an auxiliary braking system along with the
friction braking system to avoid overheating and brake failure. ABS usage can be neglected by
simply using a micro controlled electromagnetic disk brake system. When these brakes are combined
with mechanical brakes, it increases the life of brake and act like fully loaded brakes. These
electromagnetic brakes can be used in wet conditions which eliminate the anti-skidding equipment.
Hence, the braking force produced in this is less than the disc brakes if can be used as a secondary or
emergency braking system in the automobiles

3. Literature review on electromagnetic brake. Inventors: Lindberg; Teppo (Nuppulinna,

FI) Assignee: Kone Oy (Helsinki, FI) United States Patent 5,186,286. Lindberg
February 16, 1993

A vehicle braking system having a Brake disk structure defining an annular surface and having axis,
annular magnet support assembly, an annular pole piece support assembly the system is an
adjustment mechanism for producing relative angular movement between the magnet support and
the pole piece support assembly, so as to change the circumferential alignment between each of the
pole pieces and the pair of permanent magnets adjacent there to. The invention is a vehicle braking
system including a brake disk structure defining an annular surface means and having an axis, an
annular magnet support assembly disposed adjacent to the annular surface means in the direction of
the axis, a plurality of circumferentially spaced apart pairs of circumferentially spaced apart
permanent magnets mounted on the magnet support and circumferentially spaced apart thereon, each
pair Arranged with like polarities facing the annular surface means and the polarities of the pairs of
permanent mag nets facing the annular surface means alternating circumferentially, an annular pole
piece support assembly, and a plurality of ferromagnetic pole pieces mounted on the pole piece

7
support assembly and circumferentially spaced apart in positions between the annular surface means
and the permanent magnets, each pole piece disposed adjacen 8t to a pair of the permanent magnets
and having a circumferential length substantially greater than the circumferential length of either of
the adjacent pair of permanent magnets. Also included in the system is an adjustment mechanism for
producing relative angular movement between the magnet support and the pole piece support
assembly so as to change the circumferential alignment between each of the pole pieces and the pair
of permanent magnets adjacent thereto. Selective braking and non-braking periods are established by
changing the alignment between the pole pieces and magnets. eddy braking can be used as a safety
brake. Eddy braking also find application in high-speed vehicles as braking force is proportional to
speed of vehicle.

4. Literature review on contactless eddy current brake for cars. United States Patent, US
6,286,637B1, Kwangju Institute of Science & Technology (KR): Sep. 11, 2001

A contactless eddy current brake for car is disclosed in the brake two cores are arranged the edge of
the brake disc while being spaced apart from each other at an angle of 90 each of the cores is wound
with a coil thus forming and electric magnet A control units calculates Dc or Ac control in response
to a speed signal output from the sensor thus outputting control current value to the coils, while the
AC current is variable in the frequency in accordance with the pedalling force As well known to
those skilled in a art known contact brakes for cars are designed to be operated by hydraulic or
pneumatic pressure thus pressing against the brake disc of a wheel using frictional brake pads are
frictionally in that the brake pads and making a car go slow or stop. However, such known contact
brakes in are problematic in that the brake pads with the brake disc. Another problem experienced in
the known brake the wheels while driving a car at high speed.

5. Stephen Z. Oldakowski, Bedford, Ohio A magnetic brake provides braking or locking

capability and is remotely controlled by electric power. The magnetic brake comprises a
rotatable shaft and a brake disc mounted on the shaft. A non-rotating core housing assembly
located around the shaft includes a permanent magnet and a bipolar solenoid. A magnetic
armature adjacent to the core housing assembly is capable of movement toward the core
housing assembly and toward and into engagement with a brake disc to prevent rotation of
the shaft. A spring urges the armature away from the core housing assembly and into
engagement with the brake disc. The brake does not use any electric power to maintain the

8
 brake in the set mode with the rotating shaft fully locked or in the released mode with the
rotating shaft fully released. The permanent magnet is of sufficient strength to hold the
armature against urging of the spring until an opposite polarity is supplied by the solenoid.
6. Karl Erny, Holzhausem An elevator drive has a brake device with compression springs to
actuate brake levers, and brake linings on a brake d 9rum creating a braking force. A sensor is
provided to detect the movement of a brake magnet armature tappet. A bracket is attached to
the brake magnet tappet on one end and a distance piece carrying the sensor housing is
arranged on the other end. A restoring lug is attached to the existing mechanical indicator. A
monitor evaluates the sensor signal and turns off the elevator drive in the event of dangerous
operational states via a safety circuit. The system allows the state of the brake device to be
monitored. The more the brake linings wear off due to abrasion, the smaller the distance
between the armature and the brake magnet housing. If the armature is in contact with the
brake magnet housing, the braking ability of the brake linings is completely void.
7. Hung-Chi Wu, 958-2, Ghung Shan Rd., Tao-Yuan, Taiwan This invention relates to an
adjustable magnetic brake and in particular to one including an aluminum fan, a magnetic
conducting ring enclosing the aluminum fan, a permanent magnet disposed within the
aluminum fan, a fixing seat for keeping the permanent magnet in position, a sliding seat
mounted in the fixing seat and provided with a bearing, a housing, bolts provided on one side
of the fixing seat and extending out of the housing, a mounting plate connected with the bolts
and a wire connected with the mounting plate such that when the wire is pulled outwards, the
permanent magnet will be moved outwards.
8. Jae-Woong Lee, Seoul, Rep. of Korea Disclosed is a magnetic brake system for a vehicle.
comprising: a plurality of brake disk solenoids for generating the magnetic force; a plurality
of brake pad solenoids for generating the magnetic force; a braking sensor for detecting
whether a brake pedal is applied; a wheel speed sensor for detecting wheel speed; a magnetic
polarity sensor for detecting magnetic polarity of the brake disk solenoids; and a control unit
for controlling the brake pad solenoids using signals from the braking sensor. The wheel
speed sensor and the magnetic polarity sensor.
9. Albert E. Miller, Dayton, Ohio This invention relates to a fishing reel and more particularly
to an improved type of reel having a compensated magnetic brake means for preventing
backlash or overrunning of the spool. An object of this invention is to provide a reel which is
inexpensive to manufacture and which is durable and trouble-free in operation. Still another
object of this invention is to provide an improved form of magnetic brake having spring
9
 means for modifying the brake action. A further object of this invention is to provide a
fishing reel which is smooth in operation and which is readily adjustable to desired degrees
of drag or braking effect. Further objects and advantages of the 10 present invention reside in
the construction andcombination of parts and in the mode of operation as will be apparent
from the following description, reference being had to the accompanying drawings wherein a
preferred form of the present invention is clearly shown.

2.0 Eddy current probe

Various configurations are presented for the excitation source and detection sensor. However, in
many in-service applications, the inductive coils are utilized both as a field source and field sensors.
As a result, the eddy current probes are commonly classified according to their configuration and
mode of operation. The probe configuration is closely related to the way the coil or coils’ connection
covers the testing area of interest. The probe operation mode is commonly classified into reflection,
differential, absolute and hybrid modes, whereas some of the standard configurations include the
outside diameter probes, inside diameter (bobbin) probes, bolt hole probes and surface probes.18

An inductive probe can include one or more coils. In conventional eddy current probes, these coils
typically comprise lengths of wire wound in a helical manner like a solenoid. The winding will
commonly have more than one layer to increase the value of inductance. As mentioned above, there
are many ways in which these coils can be constructed based on the specified application.
Conventional ECTs are transmit–receive probes, multi-pancake and/or rotating pancake probes and
bobbin probes. Each method has its respective strengths and weaknesses in consideration of their
characteristics such as the test speed, flaw detection sensitivity and probe structure complexity.19

2.1 Bobbin probes

Figure 2 shows the two types of the bobbin probes which are called the differential and absolute
bobbin probes. Differential bobbin probe has two coils positioned at 180° out of phase. The probe
has excellent sensitivity to detect abrupt anomalies and small defects such and relatively unaffected
by lift-off, pitting corrosion, fretting wear and probe wobble. However, the probe is not sensitive to
metallurgical and gradual changes.20,21

10
 Figure 2.1 Tube inspection probes: (a) absolute and (b) differential.

Absolute bobbin consists of a single bobbin coil and a second identical reference coil. The second
identical reference coil is used for EM shielding of the inspected tubing and electronic balancing.
The probe has excellent sensitivity to detect axial cracks and is hig11hly sensitive to material property
variations and gradually varying wall thinning. 6 The main disadvantage of the absolute coil is that
the defect is typically superimposed over a lift-off as the large signal.

2.2 Rotating probes

The rotating eddy current probes are used for high-resolution imaging of the steamgenerator tubes as
shown in Figure 3.8,22 The rotating probe is sensitive to defects of all orientations and has a high
resolution and improved sensitivity to characterize and size defects. However, the mechanical
rotation of the coils causes serious wear leading to frequent probe failure and affect the inspection
time, and subsequently, the cost will increase significantly.23

11
 Figure 2.2 . Rotating probe.

2.3 Array probe

The array probe types include the smart, probe X-probe, C-probes and intelligent probe. The array
probe works as a transceiver probe and can cover the direction of 360°. The transmitting coils are
actively driven by the AC source with a different ra 12nge of frequencies. The receiving coils generate
an induced voltage equal to the change of magnetic flux through the coil. The array probe response
for different orientation defects has a higher signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and is 10 times faster than
the rotating probe. Another disadvantage is that the hand array probe is very costly because of its
complicated excitation and data acquisition parts24,25 as shown in Figure 4.

12
 Figure 2.3  Array probe.

2.4 Rotating field probe with bobbin coil

Figure 5 shows the excitation part which consists of three coils with identical 120 axes degrees apart
and balanced alternating currents with adjustable frequency, phase and amplitude. The rotating MF
is generated without mechanical rotating support.21,26

Figure 2.4  3D model of rotating field probe with bobbin coil.

2.5 Comparison of edd13y current probes

The advantages and disadvantages of eddy current probes for the NDT as described in Table 1.30

Table2 1. ECT probes for tube or pipe assessment inspection.

Table 2.1. ECT probes for tube or pipe assessment inspection.

13
2.6 EM NDT techniques
The EM methods of NDT comprise a full spectrum of techniques ranging from static (DC) methods
to high-frequency (10 THz) methods. The next section presents the most comprehensive inspection
technique that used in the EM NDT.31

2.7 Pulsed eddy current

Pulsed excitation produces transient signals with a wide range of frequency components. Hence, it
contains more information compared to a single-frequency excitation. 32,33 The pulsed eddy current
(PEC) signals have common features in the transient characteristics such as the peak amplitude,
time-to-peak amplitude and time-to-zero crossing. The14 peak amplitude will determine the defect
size. The defect depth or material thickness will be identified by the peak amplitude. 34–36 The earliest
study of PEC for crack detection in layered structures with installed fasteners was conducted by
Harrison.37,38 Giguere et al.39 also studied the detection of cracks beneath rivet heads using the
transient EC techniques. Figure 6 shows some experimental results of PEC to test multilayer
sample.33

14
 Figure 2.5 PEC to test multilayer sample.33

2.8 ECT with MF measurement method

The most recent research introduced the GMR sensor. It is widely used in many applications because
the sensitivity of these sensors is independent of the MF, it has a high bandwidth, only requires a
low power supply, the dimensions of GMR are small and the output signal is high compared to the
other MR sensors. Therefore, the GMR-based EC testing exhibits significant advantages in detecting
complex geometry such as a layered component inspection. 40 The directional property of the GMR
sensor had been used to locate edge cracks in aluminum specimen. 40,41 A needle-type GMR imaging
technique named the SV-GMR system was designed for the inspection of a bare polychlorinated
biphenyl structure to measure the magnetic fluid15 density in a living body.10,42

High-resolution GMR elements are fabricated in a small package of sensors arrays. An inspiring
application of this array probe was found in the evaluation of metal medical implants for invisible
cracks.43 A linear array of 20 GMR elements was packaged to image a hole defect in a steel plate
using 1 Hz excitation. Designs of GMR array probes in identical elements had been studied to detect
subsurface cracks.44 High-density GMR arrays were especially promising for rapid scanning of a
large area as well as high-resolution imaging.7,45 Another type of GMR array sensors that use two-
directional elements was investigated in the EC testing to detect surface cracks of unknown
orientation. They measure both X-component and Y-component of the MF at the same point. 5 A fast
Fourier transformation to enhance the ECT probe based on the GMR array sensors for pipe
inspection was utilized by Du et al.46

The transient excitation of the coil probes with two MR sensors or two Hall sensors in differential
mode have been studied by Lebrun et al. 47,48 and used for characterizing crack parameters. Kim et
al.49 introduced a method for the assessment of aircraft structures. The system produced pulse
excitation that energized a planar multi-line coil. The GMR field sensor was used to detect the
transient field. Tai et al.50 studied similar transient features for an inversion scheme to qualify the
conductivity and thickness of the samples. Table 2 shows the difference between the eddy current
methods which rely on the sensor element that utilities alternative current signal in ECT.

15
 Table 2.2. Overviews of the utilities AC signal in eddy current
testing with different probe designs

Table 2.2. Overviews of the utilities AC signal in eddy current testing with different probe designs

2.9 Multi-frequency techniques

NDT widely uses multi-frequency techniques (MFTs). The MFT expanded the capabilities of using
single-frequency testing which allows simultaneous test16s.

The multi-frequency process uses a composite signal and subtracts the undesirable signal. 12 The
main undesirable signal caused by changes in the temperature variation, material geometrical and
probe lift-off.69 MFTs are usually accomplished by combining the results obtained at different
frequencies in the spatial domain. Liu et al.69 presented integrate two- (multi) frequency injection
with dimensional spatial domain named as a pyramid fusion method. The SNR improved due to
reduction in noise sources which demonstrated the potential of signal enhancement via fusion
method or raster scanning.70 A two-dimensional (2D) surface produced changes over of the
impedance or impedance by raster scanning images.12 Image processing techniques can be applied to
detect cracks using ECT. Bartels and Fisher71 proposed a multi-frequency eddy current image
processing technique for the non destructive materials evaluation. SNR improvement up to 1100%
over traditional two-frequency techniques a sequence of complex valued images generated from 2D
ECT to maximize the SNR. The linear combination of the images by Bartels and Fisher71

d(x,y)=∑i=12Nfcifi(x,y)d(x,y)=∑i=12Nfcifi(x,y)

where Nf is the number of test frequencies and fi are extracted from the 2D images. Results on
experimental data demonstrate.

2.10 Factors contributing to eddy current signals

The signal from an eddy current probe includes a collection of responses from defects, sample
geometry and probe lift-off.72,73 Therefore, it may be difficult to separate a single influence.

16
Adequate assessment of flaws or any other surface properties is likely when other factors are
understood.7 The primary factors influencing the response of an eddy current probe are explained in
this section.

2.11 Frequency

Eddy current response is strongly affected by t 17he frequency chosen for the investigation. This
factor should be appropriately selected by the operator, based on the crack detection sample such as
lower frequencies for bulk characterization and higher frequencies for surface characterization.

Many authors such as Ditchburn et al.74 and Thollon et al.75 utilize this range, and they suggested the
range of 100 Hz–10 MHz as standard inspection frequencies in ECT.19 However, a few authors such
as Owston76 characterized high frequency at 25 MHz for thin metallic coatings and detecting surface
defects. In the inspection of ferromagnetic materials, low-frequency tests are applied to penetrate
into the test specimen and compensate for their high permeability. Ramos et al. 77 have studied the
detection of subsurface flaws relating to the characterization of depth profiles of the subsurface
defects in aluminum plates.78 However, the high frequency applied for the inspection of small
discontinuities occured in the near-surface.79,80Table 3 summarizes the impact of different frequency
values on the depth of penetration of several materials.81

Table 2.3. Typical depths of penetration.

Table2. 3. Typical depths of penetration.

17
 2.12 Conductivity of test material

Electrical conductivity and the magnetic permeability of the test objects of the material depend on
the microstructure, for example, grain structure, the presence of a second phase, work hardening and
heat treatment. Greater conductivity of a material such as copper and aluminum will lead to greater
flow of the eddy currents and hence the probe coil resistance.In great conductive materials, defects
or cracks produce a high signal as an impedance plane, as illustrated in Figure 8. Furthermore, the
phase lag between the lift-off line and 18 the defect is ϕ1 > ϕ2,82 which is significant, as indicated
in Figure 7.

Figure 2.6  Lift-off curves and crack displacement at impedance plane.82

However, the penetration depth of highly conductive materials at a fixed frequency is lower than in
lower conductive materials such as stainless steel and steel. The conductivity of the different
materials can be measured using the International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS). Table
4 summarizes the conductivity of common elements.83

18
 Table 2.4. Conductivity and resistivity of conductive materials.

Table 2.4. Conductivity and resistivity of conductive materials.

2.13 Magnetic permeability

ECT signals are significantly affected by ferromagnetic materials due to the increase in flux
produced by the significant relative pe19rmeability of certain materials such as stainless steel or
carbon steel.84 The permeability of material changes the coupling of the coil with the conductive
specimen and subsequently affects the reactance of the coil. Permeability has a significant effect on
the ECT compared to conductivity, where the crack detection has no potential when permeability
changes randomly.85,86

19
 2.14 Lift-off

ECT is strongly affected by the amount of lift-off which can be defined as the separation distance
between the excitation coil surface and the conducting material surface. This distance changes the
mutual inductance of the circuits as the lift-off increases; the amplitude of the eddy current induces
emf as the secondary coil decreases, which can result in the misinterpretation of the signals as flaws.
At a significant lift-off, no detectable emf will be induced in the secondary coil due to the sample
chosen.81,87,88 This effect is particularly prominent when using sinusoidal excitations, which lose
sensitivity beyond 5 mm.89 Although it is not required to have a zero lift-off, it is imperative to try
and maintain a consistent lift-off, since the variation in coupling between probe and test piece will
significantly affect the received signal. Table 5 lists previous studies that have considered the lift-off
issue.

Table 2.5. Review of lift-off compensation techniques

Table 2.5. Review of lift-off compensation techniques

Figure 8 illustrates the offset position of the tube inside the bobbin coils. Lift-off is explained using a
coil whose axis is normal to the test piece. However, lift-off also occur when the test is conducted
using encircling or bobbin probes. The vibration of the rod or the tube inside the probe generates
noise which presents difficulties when inspecti20ons are conducted.117

20
 Figure 2.7  Wobble simulation: a bobbin coil in an offset position to a tube.87

There are methods for lift-off compensation when the eddy currents are used in order to detect
cracks, and lift-off becomes an undesired variable. For instance, Yin et al.100 researched dual
excitation frequencies and coil design to minimize the lift-off effect. Research about processing the
data was also conducted to minimize the lift-off effect. Lopez et al. 118 proposed the use of wavelets
to remove the eddy current probe wobble no21ise from the steam generator’s tubes. Reduction in the
lift-off effect was also attempted by optimizing the coil design and sensor array.119

Tian et al.101 had researched the reduction of lift-off effects via normalization techniques. The
technique can be applied to the measurement of metal thickness beneath the non-conductive coatings
and to the measurement of microstructure and strain/stress, where the output is highly sensitive to
the lift-off effect. Table 5 illustrates previous studies that considered the lift-off iss

21
 CHAPTER-3
FABRICATION WORKING
3. Fabrication model construction

Battery- A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy. It consists
of a number of voltaic cells; each voltaic cell consists of two half cells connected in series by a
conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell includes electrolyte and the
electrode to which anions migrate, i.e., the anode or negative electrode; the other half-cell includes
electrolyte and the electrode to which cations migrate, i.e., the cathode or positive electrode. In the
redox reaction that powers the battery, reduction occurs to cations at the cathode, while oxidation
occurs to anions at the anode. The electrodes do not touch each other but they are electrically
connected by the electrolyte. Some cells use two half-cells with different electrolytes. A separator
between half cells allows ions to flow, but prevents mixing of the electrolytes. Each half cell has an
electromotive force determined by its ability to drive electric current from the interior to the exterior
of the cell. The net EMF of the cell is the difference between the EMF of its half-cells, as first
recognized by Volta. Therefore, if the electrodes have EMF and, then the net EMF is in other words,
the net EMF is the difference between the reduction potentials of the half-reactions.
3.1 Alloy wheel-
Alloy wheels have become considerably more common since 2000. Alloy wheels are automobile
wheels which are made from an alloy of aluminum or magnesium. They are typically lighter for the
same strength and provide better heat conduction and improved cosmetic appearance over steel
wheels. The earliest light alloy wheels were made of magnesium alloys. Alloy wheels have long
been included as standard equipment on higher-priced luxury or sports cars, with larger-sized or
"exclusive" alloy wheels being options. The high cost of alloy wheels makes them attractive to
thieves; to counter this, automakers and dealers often use locking wheel nuts which require a special
key to remove. Most alloy wheels are manufactured using castin22g, but some are forged.
3.2 Electro-Magnet
An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by the flow of electric
current. An electric current flowing in a wire creates a magnetic field around the wire. To
concentrate the magnetic field, in an electromagnet the wire is wound into a coil with many turns of
wire lying side by side. The magnetic field of all the turns of wire passes through the center of the
coil, creating a strong magnetic field there. The direction of the magnetic field through a coil of wire
22
can be found from a form of the right-hand rule. The main advantage of an electromagnet over a
permanent magnet is that the magnetic field can be rapidly manipulated over a wide range by
controlling the amount of electric current. Friction Material- In most mobile or outdoor applications
friction material is not used however in most industrial applications friction material is used to help
slow wear in clutch or break the friction material is flush with the steel holes. The single friction
plate design allows for a very fast response so the brakes are very well suited for high cycle
applications. Ex:-Ferrous Materials.
3.3 Electromagnet 23
Electromagnet is the device which get magnetized when the current is feed into it. Here the
electromagnet is designed by modified a typical transformer. The transformes has double side „E‟
shape outer core around the inner core. This outside „E‟ shape core of the transformer is removed
and then arranged as single side. Now it is act as a electromagnet.
3.4 Belt
A belt is made up of a polymer material used to transmit power between two or more rotary shafts,
mostly parallel in arrangement. Belts may be used to transmit power effectively. Belts are fitted over
grooves in pulleys and also may have twists between pulleys, and the shafts need not to be parallel in
all conditions. Flat belt, vee-belt, round belt are the some important types of belts. Here the vee-belt
has been looped over the driving motor and the driven wheel.
3.5 Pulley
The pulley has been used to mound the metal disc along with it. It provide the rotary motion from
motor to the disc by the use of V-belt. Here we used a typical pulley has six arms. The material of
the pulley is used as hardened plastic

3.6 Construction Details

The construction of the system is done by the following manner. The system consists of a vertical
column. The pulley is mounted at the top of the vertical column. This setup is fitted on a wooden
board which is act as a base. On the other end of the base, the motor is fitted with the help of bolts.
The driving wheel pulley (motor) and the driven wheel pulley are looped by a typical v-belt. A
metallic disc is mounted with the front of the driven pulley. An electromagnet is fitted in the front of
the metallic disc which is fitted with driven pulley. The important thing is that the electromagnet is
to be fitted with the smallest clearance with the metallic disc. The ON/OFF switch and the regulator
are connected with the electromagnet and the motor respectively with the help of the electric wires to
controll the current supply to them.
23
3.7 Ac Motor
The rotory motion of the wheel is given by the AC motor. The electric motor convert electric energy
into mechanical energy by electromagnetic induction. The motor been used here is the typical
grinder motor. Regulator The regulator been used inorder to controll the speed of the electric motor.
The speed is controlled by changing the frequency of the electric supply to the motor. The frequency
can be adjusted to match the need of the process. The higher the frequency of the output voltage is,
the higher the speed of the motor, and thus, the output of the process. Here the capacity of the
regulator are 220V±10% in voltage, 50HZ in frequency and 400watt is used.
24

Fig:3.1 frame cutting pipes

Fig: 3.2 single pipes

Fig: 3.3 pipes cutting

24
 Fig: 3.4 welding frame

Fig: 3.5 table wel25ding frame

25
 Fig: 3.6 sproc26kets bush

Fig: 3.7 motor

26
 Fig:3.8 12mm shaft

Fig: 3.9 sprocket wheel

Fig: 3.10 12mm shaft27 bush

Fig: 3.11 chain

27
Flywheel we found difficulty in testing this setup in an automobile, So that we made a separate setup
consists of flywheel and an alternator coupled to it.
The flywheel is designed to store certain energy and the experiment is done based on how much
input current should be
Given to nullify the energy to stop the flywheel. The results were theoretically compared with other
application of automobile
Energy stored in a flywheel
Weight of the flywheel = 5kg
Velocity of rotation = ΠDN/60
Speed of rotation =60 RPM
Diameter of flywheel =20cm =0.2m
Energy stored = mv2 /2 =10*11.5132 /2 = 280.662 KJ

Fig: 3.12 wheel

28
 Fig: 3.13 12mm shaft bush

Fig: 3.14 brake wheel

Fig: 3.15 battery 12v 1.5

3.8 The Electromagnet

A simple electromagnet can be created by wrapping a coil of wire around a soft iron core, such as a
large nail

We now know from the previous tutorials that a straight current carrying conductor produces a
circular magnetic field around itself at all points along its length and that the direction of rotation of
this magnetic field depends upon the direction of curr29ent flow through the conductor, the Left 3.9
Hand Rule.

In the last tutorial about Electromagnetism we saw that if we bend the conductor into a single loop
the current will flow in opposite directions through the loop producing a clockwise field and an
anticlockwise field next to each other. The Electromagnet uses this principal by having several
individual loops magnetically joined together to produce a single coil.

29
Electromagnets are basically coils of wire which behave like bar magnets with a distinct north and
south pole when an electrical current passes through the coil. The static magnetic field produced by
each individual coil loop is summed with its neighbour with the combined magnetic field
concentrated like the single wire loop we looked at in the last tutorial in the centre of the coil. The
resultant static magnetic field with a north pole at one end and a s 30outh pole at the other is uniform
and a lot more stronger in the centre of the coil than around the exterior.

Lines of Force around an Electromagnet

Fig:3.16 Lines of Force around an Electromagnet

The magnetic field that this produces is stretched out in a form of a bar magnet giving a distinctive
north and south pole with the flux being proportional to the amount of current flowing in the coil. If
additional layers of wire are wound upon the same coil with the same current flowing, the magnetic
field strength will be increased.

It can be seen from this therefore that the amount of flux available in any given magnetic circuit is
directly proportional to the current flowing through it and the number of turns of wire within the
coil. This relationship is called Magneto Motive Force or m.m.f. and is defined as:

30
Magneto Motive Force is expressed as a current, I flowing through a coil of N turns. The magnetic
field strength of an electromagnet is therefore determined by the ampere turns of the coil with the
more turns of wire in the coil the greater will be the strength of the magnetic field.

3.10 The Magnetic Strength of the Electromagnet

We now know that were two adjacent conductors are carrying current, magnetic fields are set up
according to the direction of the current flow. The resulting interaction of the two fields is such that
a mechanical force is experienced by the two conductors.

When the current is flowing in the same direction (the same side of the coil) the field between the
two conductors is weak causing a force of attraction as shown above. Likewise, when the current is
flowing in opposite directions the field between 31 them becomes intensified and the conductors are
repelled.

The intensity of this field around the conductor is proportional to the distance from it with the
strongest point being next to the conductor and progressively getting weaker further away from the
conductor. In the case of a single straight conductor, the current flowing and the distance from it are
factors which govern the intensity of the field.

The formula therefore for calculating the “Magnetic Field Strength”, H sometimes called
“Magnetising Force” of a long straight current carrying conductor is derived from the current
flowing through it and the distance from it.

Magnetic Field Strength for Electromagnets

Fig: 3.17 Magnetic Field Strength for Electromagnets

31
 Where:

 H – is the strength of the magnetic field in ampere-turns/metre, At/m

 N – is the number of turns of the coil

 I – is the current flowing through the coil in amps, A

 L – is the length of the coil in metres, m

Then to summarise, the strength or 32intensity of a coils magnetic field depends on the following
factors.

 The number of turns of wire within the coil.

 The amount of current flowing in the coil.

 The type of core material.

The magnetic field strength of the electromagnet also depends upon the type of core material being
used as the main purpose of the core is to concentrate the magnetic flux in a well defined and
predictable path. So far only air cored (hollow) coils have been considered but the introduction of
other materials into the core (the centre of the coil) has a very large controlling effect on the strength
of the magnetic field.

Fig: 3.18 strength of the magnetic field.

32
3.11 Electromagnet using a nail

If the material is non-magnetic for example wood, for calculation purposes it can be regarded as free
space as they have very low values of permeability. If however, the core material is made from
a Ferromagnetic material such as iron, nickel, cobalt or any mixture of their alloys, a considerable
difference in the flux density around the coil will be observed.

Ferromagnetic materials are those which can be magnetised and are usually made from soft iron,
steel or various nickel alloys. The introduction of this type of material into a magnetic circuit has the
effect of concentrating the magnetic flux making it more concentrated and dense and amplifies the
magnetic field created by the current in the coil.

We can prove this by wrapping a coil of wire around a large soft-iron nail and connecting it to a
battery as shown. This simple classroom experiment allows us to pick-up a large quantity of clips or
pins and we can make the electromagnet stronger by adding more turns to the coil. This degree of
intensity of the magnetic field either by a hollow air core or by introducing ferromagnetic materials
into the core is called Magnetic Permeability.

3.12 Permeability of Electromagnets

If cores of different materials with the same physical 33dimensions are used in the electromagnet, the
strength of the magnet will vary in relation to the core material being used. This variation in the
magnetic strength is due to the number of flux lines passing through the central core. if the magnetic
material has a high permeability then the flux lines can easily be created and pass through the central
core and permeability (μ) and it is a measure of the ease by which the core can be magnetized. The
numerical constant given for the permeability of a vacuum is given as: μo = 4.π.10-7 H/m with the
relative permeability of free space (a vacuum) generally given a value of one. It is this value that is
used as a reference in all calculations dealing with permeability and all materials have their own
specific values of permeability.

The problem with using just the permeability of different iron, steel or alloy cores is that the
calculations involved can become very large so it is more convenient to define the materials by their
relative permeability.

33
Relative Permeability, symbol μr is the product of μ (absolute permeability) and μo the permeability
of free space and is given as.

Relative Permeability

 
Materials that have a permeability slightly less than that of free space (a vacuum) and have a weak,
negative susceptibility to magnetic fields are said to be Diamagnetic in nature such as: water,
copper, silver and gold. Those materials with a permeability slightly greater than that of free space
and themselves are only slightly attracted by a magnetic field are said to be Paramagnetic in nature
such as: gases, magnesium, and tantalum.

3.13 Electromagnet Example No1

The absolute permeability of a soft iron core is given as 80 milli-henries/m (80.10 -3). Calculate the
equivalent relative permeability value.

 
When ferromagnetic materials are used in the core the use of relative permeability to define the field
strength gives a better idea of the strength of the magnetic field for the different types of materials
used. For example, a vacuum and air have a relative permeability of one and for an iron core it is
around 500, so we can say that the field strength of an iron core is 500 times stronger than an
equivalent hollow air coil and this relationship is much easier to understand than 0.628×10 -3 H/m,
( 500.4.π.10-7).

While, air may have a permeability of just one, some 34 ferrite and permalloy materials can have a
permeability of 10,000 or more. However, there are limits to the amount of magnetic field strength
that can be obtained from a single coil as the core becomes heavily saturated as the magnetic flux
increases and this is looked at in the next tutorial about B-H curves and Hysteresis.

34
3.14 The energy in a magnetic field
One method of calculating the force produced by a magnetic field involves an understanding of the
way in which the energy represented by the field changes. To derive an expression for the field
energy we'll look at the behaviour of the field within a simple toroidal inductor. We equate the field
energy to the electrical energy needed to establish the coil current.

When the coil current increases so does the magnetic field strength, H. That, in turn, leads to an
increase in magnetic flux,  . The increase in flux induces a voltage in the coil. It's the power needed
to push the current into the coil against this volt35age which we now calculate.

Fig: 3.19 needed to push the current

We choose a toroid because over its cross-sectional area, A, the flux density should be

approximately uniform (particularly if the core radius is large compared with it's cross section). We
let the flux path length around the core be equal to Lf and the cross-sectional area be equal to Ax. We
assume that the core is initially unmagnetized and that the electrical energy (W) supplied to the coil
will all be converted to magnetic field energy in the core (we ignore eddy currents).

W =   v×i dt   joules

35
Faraday's law gives the voltage as

v = N×d  /dt   volts

Substituting -

W =   N(d /dt)i dt

W =   N×i d

Now, N×i = Fm and H = Fm/Lf so N×i = H×Lf. Substituting:

W =   H×Lf d

Also, from the definition of flux density   = Ax× B so d   = Ax×dB. Substituting:

W =   H×Lf×AxdB   joules

This gives the total energy in the core. If we wish to find the energy density then we divide by the
volume of the core material:

Wd= (  H×Lf×Ax dB)/(Lf×Ax)

Wd =   H d B   joules m-3   Equation EFH

If the magnetization curve is linear (that is we pretend B against H is a straight line, not a curve) then
there is a further simplification. Substitut36ing H = B/μ

Wd=   B / µ d B

36
Wd = B2/(2μ)   joules m-3   Equation EFB

Compare this result with the better known formula for the energy stored by a given inductance, L:

WL = L×I2/2   joules

Another squared term, you notice.

3.15 Uniform magnetic fields

A 'hand-waving' explanation might help clarify the physics. Take an initially uniform magnetic field
in free space and introduce into it an iron sphere. The flux lines will bend in the vicinity of the iron
so that they will converge upon it. Inside the iron the lines will be quite concentrated (though parallel
to the original field).

Now, the point is that there will be no net force on the iron, no matter how strong the field. A sphere
has perfect symmetry, so rotation will not change the picture in any way. If there is translational
movement then all that can happen if the sphere were to move is that the distortion of the field
around the original position of the sphere will disappear and the same distortion will be re-
established around the new pos37ition; the total system energy will remain unchanged.

OK, instead of the sphere let's try an iron rod. This is different because we've lost symmetry. What
happens is that the axis of the rod will be drawn into alignment with the field - like a compass
needle. The flux lines prefer the iron to the air because of the higher permeability. Equation EFB has
μ on the denominator so the field energy is lower here than in the air, and the further the flux can go
through the iron the lower the energy. Think of current flow through a resistor; the current has an
easier time going through a low resistance than a high resistance. Flux goes easier through high
permeability than through low. When the rod is aligned with the field the flux can go further through
a high permeability region. Note that we still don't have a translational force (provided that the field
is uniform on the scale of the rod). Think about the famous experiment with iron filings sprinkled
onto a piece of cardboard above a bar magnet. The filings tend to line up with the field but don't
generally move much because they are so small that the field appears uniform to them.

37
So for there to be a force on a piece of iron then a displacement of the iron must result in an
alteration to the field energy. The electromagnet y38ou are using will have an opinion about changes
to the field it generates. It will say that its inductance is changing. This is the basis of one solution to
the problem:

F = (I2/2) dL/dx   newtons   Equation EFS

where I is the coil current and x is displacement in metres. This result is proved in textbooks such
as Hammond, and also Smith. Unfortunately, it might be tricky to calculate how the inductance
changes unless the system you have is particularly simple to analyze. You might need computer
software such as described by Hammond in order to do it.

3.16 Fields with negligible fringing

Some problems of practical importance can be solved when the air gap between the electromagnet
and the work piece is small in comparison with the field cross section. This is the situation found in
most electro-mechanical relays.

Fig: 3.19 electro-mechanical relays.

Equation EFB gives the energy density (joules per metre cubed). Assuming that the field inside the
air gap is uniform you can use EFB to get the total field energy simply by multiplying by the volume
of the field, V

38
V=g×A
Equation FRV

where g is the gap length and A is the cross sectional area of the coil's core. The total energy is then
W = ( B2/(2 μ0)) × (g × A)39
Equation FRT

We need the force on the armature. That is given by the rate of change of energy with gap length
F = dW/dg
Equation FRP

F = B2 A / (2 μ0)

Maxwell's pulling force formula

We next need to find the flux density, B. It's assumption time again. Well designed relays use such
high permeability material for the core and armature that most of the field strength produced by the
coil will appear across the air gap between the core and the armature and we can ignore
the reluctance of the core, pivot and armature. Substituting equation TMH into equation TMD we
get

B = Fm μ0 / g
Equation FRQ

Substituting into Maxwell's force formula

F = ( Fm)2 μ0 A / (2 g2)

Equation FRS

If you have ever tried to bring a piece of iron into contact with a magnet manually then you will
quite literally have a feel for the g2 term!

39
Example: A relay has a coil of 1200 turns. The diameter of the coil core is 6 millimetres and the air
gap is 1.8 millimetres. The spring exerts a force on the armature of 0.15 newtons at the part of it
opposite the air gap. What coil current will operate the relay?40

The core cross sectional area, A = π (0.006/2)2 = 2.83×10-5 m2. Substituting into equation FRS

0.15 = (1200 × I)2 4π×10-7 × 2.83×10-5 / (2 × (1.8×10-3)2)

Equation FRU

Therefore I = 0.138 amps. The flux density will be 0.116 teslas. This should be well
below saturation for iron. As the gap closes, and g goes to zero, equation FRS predicts that the force
on the armature becomes infinite. Of course it won't do so because our assumptions about the field
production will go down the tubes first. Under those conditions it might be far harder to calculate the
force precisely. One point to note, though, is that flux density is limited by saturation to below about
1.6 teslas. Maxwell's force formula therefore sets a limit on the force of one million newtons per
square metre (about 100 tons).

3.17 The force on materials with low χ

Equation MPU relates the torque on a magnetic dipole to the field. Because this torque drops to zero
as the dipole rotates through 90 degrees we can find the energy (which is torque times angle)

W = m × B   joules   Equation FRJ

So, in a vacuum, substituting equation TMD -

W = μ0 × m × H   joules   Equation FRK

In non-ferromagnetic materials where the field internal to the specimen is much the same as the
externally applied field then the force is given by

F = ½ χ μ0 v (∂H2/∂l)
40
Equation FRL

where l is distance and v is the volume of the material. It needs emphasizing that this formula will
give significant overestimates for ferromagnetic materials. For them the internal 'demagnetizing
field' leads to lower values of force tha41n equation FRL would suggest. Demagnetizing fields only
have exact analytical solutions for spheroidally shaped specimens. Consult a text such as Jiles for
details on correcting for demagnetizing fields.

3.18 A simple experiment with a solenoid

A 'solenoid' is the term used to describe the type of electromagnet supplied with an iron piston or
plunger pulled in by the field generated by current in a coil.

Fig: 3.20 A 'solenoid' is the term

Solenoids are frequently used to operate valves, release locks or operate ratchets and so on. Equation
EFS above suggests that the pull of a solenoid should be related to the square of the coil current.
Take a medium sized 12 volt solenoid (having a plunger about 13 mm diameter) and test this out by
attaching it to a spring balance as shown in the figure here. Measurements are made as follows:

1. Set a high coil current by turning the power supply up towards 12 volts.
2. Push the plunger in until it is retained by the field.

41
 3. Reduce the length of the cord 42until either the balance reads maximum load or the solenoid
just retains the plunger. A turnbuckle is handy here.
4. Make a note of the force measured by the balance.
5. Reduce the current slowly, keeping an eye on the meter reading, until the solenoid lets go,
and note the current. The restraining cord is essential unless you want to be hit in the eye by a
lump of iron moving at very high speed :-)

Repeat the sequence, slackening the cord on the balance each time to obtain a lower force. This gave
the line, shown below, which has a slope of about 1.1.

Hmmm ... what may be happening is that non-linearities in the permeability of the iron are affecting
the field. If I add a 2 mm thick piece of brass on the e43nd of the plunger then I get:

42
43
 Notice that the retaining force is now much lower even though a higher coil current has been used.
Well, this line has a slope of about 2.2 - a bit closer to theory. In an air gap the flux density is exactly
proportional to field strength (and thus current). As far as a static magnetic field is concerned brass
behaves just the same as air: the permeability is a steady μ0 at any value of B.

It would be nice to extend this experiment by a measurement of coil inductance against force in
order to test Equation EFS. The difficulty is that inductance meters use AC test signals. Without
laminated iron (which is only found in solenoids designed f44or AC operation) the reading will be
affected by large eddy current losses.

3.19 must read on dc motors:

 Different Types of DC Motor 

 Difference Between AC and DC Motor
 Speed Control of DC Motor
 Applications of Dc motor

44
3.20 Construction of DC Motor
Before understanding the working of DC motor first, we have to know about their construction.
There are two main parts of the DC motor.

 Armature
 Stator

The rotating part is the armature and the Stator is their stationary part. The armature coil is
connected

3.21 Working Principle of DC Motor

A DC motor is an electrical machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The
basic working principle of the DC motor is that whenever a current carrying conductor places in the
magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force.

Fig: 3,21 Fleming’s left-45hand rule and its magnitude decide the direction of this force.

Fleming’s Left Hand Rule:

If we stretch the first finger, second finger and thumb of our left hand to be perpendicular to each
other, and first finger represents the direction of the magnetic field, the second finger represents the
direction of the current, then the thumb represents the direction of the force experienced by the
current carrying conductor.

45
 Fig:3.22 DC motor

F = BIL Newtons

Where,
B = magnetic flux density,
I = current and
L = length of the conductor within the magnetic field.
When armature winding is connected to a DC supply, an electric current sets up in the winding. 
Permanent magnets or field winding (electromagnetism) provides the magnetic field. In this case,
current carrying armature conductors experience a force due to the magnetic field, according to the
principle stated above.46

The Commutator is made segmented to achieve unidirectional torque. Otherwise, the direction of

force would have reversed every time when the direction of movement of the conductor is reversed
in the magnetic field. This is how a DC motor works!

3.22 Back- EMF of DC motor

According to the fundamental law of nature, no energy conversion is possible until there is
something to oppose the conversion. In case of generators, magnetic drag provides this opposition,
but in the case of dc motors, there is back emf. Presence of the back emf makes a dc motor ‘self-
regulating’.

When the armature of a motor is rotating, the conductors are also cutting the magnetic flux lines and
hence according to the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, an emf induces in the armature
conductors.

46
The direction of this induced emf is such that it opposes the armature current (I a). The circuit
diagram below illustrates the direction of the back emf and armature current. 

Significance of Back-EMF
Magnitude of back emf is directly proportional to speed of the motor. Consider the load on a dc
motor is suddenly reduced. In this case, required torque will be small as compared to the current
torque. Speed of the motor will start increasing due to the excess torque. Hence, being

proportional to the speed, magnitude of the ba47ck emf will also increase. With increasing back emf
armature current will start decreasing. Torque being proportional to the armature current, it will also
decrease until it becomes sufficient for the load. Thus, speed of the motor will regulate.

On the other hand, if a dc motor is suddenly loaded, the load will cause decrease in the speed. Due to
decrease in speed, back emf will also decrease which allows more armature current. Due to increase
in armature current  the torque will increase to fulfill the load requirement. 

DC motor?

A DC motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. In a DC
motor, the input electrical energy is the direct current which is transformed into the mechanical
rotation.

3.23 Definition of DC motor

A DC motor is defined as a class of electrical motors that convert direct current electrical energy into
mechanical energy.

From the above definition, we can conclude that any electric motor that is operated using direct
current or DC is called a DC motor. In the next few sections, we will understand the DC motor
construction and how a DC motor converts the supplied DC electrical energy into mechanical
energy.

In this section, we will be discussing the construction of DC motors.

47
 3.24 DC Motor Diagram

Fig: 3.23 Motor Diagram

3.25 Different Parts of a DC motor

A DC motor is composed of the following main parts:

3.26 Armature or Rotor

The armature of a DC motor is a cylinder of ma 48gnetic laminations that are insulated from one
another. The armature is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. The armature is a rotating part that
rotates on its axis and is separated from the field coil by an air gap.

3.27 Field Coil or Stator

A field coil of a DC motor is a non-moving part on which winding is wound to produce a magnetic
field. This electro-magnet has a cylindrical cavity between its poles.

3.28 Commutator and Brushes

The commutator of a DC motor is a cylindrical structure that is made of copper segments stacked
together but insulated from each other using mica. The primary function of a commutator is to
supply electrical current to the armature winding.

48
3.29 Brushes

The brushes of a DC motor are made with graphite and carbon structure. These brushes conduct
electric current from the external circuit to the rotating commutator. Hence, we come to understand
that the commutator and the brush unit is concerned with transmitting the

3.30 power from the static electrical circuit to the mechanically rotating region or the rotor.

In the previous section, we discussed the various components of a DC motor. Now, using this
knowledge let us understand the working of DC motors.

A magnetic field arises in the air gap when the fi 49eld coil of the DC motor is nergized. The created
magnetic field is in the direction of the radii of the armature. The magnetic field enters the armature
from the North pole side of the field coil and “exits” the armature from the South pole side of the
field coil.

Fig: 3.24 conductors located

The conductors located on the other pole are subjected to a force of the same intensity but in the
opposite direction. These two opposing forces create a torque that causes the motor armature to
rotate.

3.31 Types of DC motor

DC motors have a wide range of applications ranging from electric shavers to automobiles. To cater
to this wide range of applications, they are classified into different types based on the field winding
connections to the armature as:

 Self Excited DC Motor

 Separately Excited DC Motor

49
Now, let us discuss the various types of DC Motors in detail.

3.32 Self Excited DC Motor

In self-excited DC motors, the field winding is connected either in series or parallel to the armature
winding. Based on this, the self-excited DC motor can further be classified as:

 Shunt wound DC motor

 Series wound DC motor

 Compound wound DC m50otor

Shunt wound DC motor

Fig: 3.25 shunt wound motor

In a shunt wound motor, the field winding is connected parallel to the armature as shown in the
figure.

50
Series wound DC motor

Fig: 3.26 In a series wound DC motor

In a series wound DC motor, the field winding is connected i 51n series with the armature winding as
shown in the figure.

Compound wound DC motor

Fig: 27 DC motors having both shunt and series field

DC motors having both shunt and series field winding is known as a Compound DC motor, as
shown in the figure. The compound motor is further divided into:

 Cumulative Compound Motor

 Differential Compound Motor

51
In a cumulative compound motor, the magnetic flux produced by both the windings is in the same
direction. In a differential compound motor, the flux produced by the series field windings is
opposite to the flux produced by the shunt field winding.

3.33 Separately Excited DC Motor

Fig:3.28 In a separately excited DC motor

In a separately excited DC motor, the field coils are energised from an external source of DC supply
as shown in the figure.52

3.34 brushed dc motor vs brushless dc motor

Fig: 3.29 A brushless DC motor,

A brushless DC motor, also known as synchronous DC motor, unlike brushed DC motors, do not
have a commutator. The commutator in a brushless DC motor is replaced by an electronic
servomechanism that can detect and adjust the angle of the rotor.

52
A brushed DC motor features a commutator that reverses the current every half cycle and creates
single direction torque. While brushed DC motors remain popular, many have been phased out for
more efficient brushless models in recent years.

3.35 Applications of DC Motor

The applications of different types of DC motors are listed below:

3.36 Shunt DC Motors

Because of the fairly constant speed and medium starting torque of shunt DC motors, they are used
in the following applications:53

1. Centrifugal and reciprocating pumps

2. Lathe machines
3. Blowers and Fans
4. Drilling machines
5. Milling machines
6. Machine tools

3.37 Series DC Motors

Because of the high starting torque and variable speed of series DC motors, they are used in the
following applications:

 Conveyors

 Hoists, Elevators

 Cranes

 Electric Locomotives

3.38 Cumulative Compound DC motors

Because of the high starting torque of cumulative compound DC motors, they are used in the
following applications:

53
  Shears

 Heavy Planers

 Rolling mills

 Elevators

3.39 Fabricating welding works

Fig: 3.30 fabirication making

Many people use fabricating and welding as interchangeable verbs, but that’s not quite the case. In
its most basic sense, fabrication is the process of c 54reating a project out of metal, and welding can
be a singular operation during that process. 

Simply put, welding joins together two pieces of metal, glass, or thermoplastics with similar melting
points and compositions using fusion. Fabrication is the evolutionary process of creating a metal
product, from layout and design to formation and finishing. However, in this ever-evolving industry,
it’s likely that many welders can fabricate, and it’s more likely that fabricators can weld. 

So, what are the differences and similarities between the two? Before you fill out your next
apprenticeship application, Kaempf and Harris takes a look at the tools, processes, and safety
precautions that go into each trade

54
3.40 Tools

A comprehensive list of familiar fabrication tools for beginners, including various angle grinder
discs and a set of cleco fasteners, can be found here. Most metal fab tools can’t be used for welding
because that process requires different, more specific instruments, including:

 Abrasives55

 Adjustable wrench

 Benders

 Chipping hammers

 Consumable electrodes

 Cylinders with custom carts

 Electrode holders

 Hand file

 Soapstone

 Tungsten inert gas (TIG) consumables

 Vice and vice grips

 Welding clamps 

As for the similarities, both careers require cleaning supplies for disinfecting the metal. Experts use a
wire brush and organic solvent, like acetone or a mild alkaline solution, or a

citrus-based decreaser without butoxyethanol (a chemical compound that can cause breathing and
liver problems) to scrub away any grease, oily deposits, and germs.

55
To clean the facility after a hard day’s work, welders and fabricators use normal mops and sweepers.
For industry-specific cleaning techniques, these trade professionals often use surface protection
films, floor finishes and coatings, and electro-cleaners.

3.41 Processes 

Because welding is a metal forming technique, it goes hand-in-hand with sheet metal fabrication,
and each trade uses similar processes, like assembling and bending, to get the final product. To
clarify, there are different ways to weld, including oxy acetylene, TIG (the most common form in
fab shops), and gas metal arc (GMAW) welding.

However, because sheet metal fabrication is the overarching process,56 it involves many different
processes, including specialty techniques, which can involve:

 Die cutting

 Finishing

 Hydroforming

 Roll forming

 Shrinking

 Spinning

 Stamping

 Stretching

3.42 Safety Precautions

56
Because this industry can be more dangerous than others due to working with hot metal and heavy
machinery, every welder and sheet metal fabricator should be aware of the safety guidelines in their
respective shops. To help prevent injury, each tradeperson should own or be provided (at least) the
following:57

 Fume extraction equipment

 Protective, flame-resistant pants
 A sturdy, fitted, flame-resistant jacket
 Coveralls or leather apron
 Heavy, non-slip working boots or steel toe boots
 Thick leather working gloves
 An auto-darkening helmet with the proper visor
 Safety goggles
 Hearing protection
 Respirator or dust mask

To help create a safe work environment, each trade’s shop should have strict equipment storage
policies (whether handheld or automatic), and every apprentice must be trained before using
machinery on their own. Also, all tools should be thoroughly and regularly inspected for any
damage.

3.43 Drilling Machine: 

It is a machine which is used to drill the holes on the components or workpiece with the help of drill
bits.

The drill bits are also called as Multi-point cutting tools which can have their rapid impact on
the Material Removal Rate (MRR) i.e. a single-point cutting tool (like the one used in a lathe
machine) can remove the material slowly whereas, a multi-point cutting tool removes the material at
a faster rate and thereby increases MRR.

57
3.44 Line Diagram of Drilling Machine:

The line diagram of Drilling machine is shown below.

Fig: 3.31 The line diagram of Drilling machine

58
3.41 Parts of Drilling Machine: The parts of Drilling Machine are as follows.

 Base
 Vertical Column
 Swivel Table
 Power Transmission system (Stepped Cone Pulley)
 Drill Feed Handle (Hand Wheel)
 Chuck
 Table Clamp
 Drill bit
 Spindle

58
Explanation for the parts of Drilling Machine:

3.45 Base:

The base is m59ade up of Cast Iron which has the capability of high compressive strength, good wear
resistance, and good absorbing capability (i.e. absorb the vibrations induced during working
condition) and for these reasons, it acts as a base to the drilling machine.

3.45.1 Vertical Column:

It is exactly placed at the center of the base which can act as a support for rotating the Swivel table
and holding the power transmission system.

3.45.2 Swivel Table:

It is attached to the column which can hold the machine vice in the grips and thereby, the workpiece
is fixed in the machine vice to carry out the drilling operation.

The Swivel table can move up and down by means of rotational motion and can be locked to the
column by means of locking nut.

3.45.3 Power Transmission system:

It consists of motor, stepped pulley, V-belt, and the Spindle. The power transmission is explained in
the working of the drilling machine.

3.45.4. Drill Feed Handle:

By the rotation of hand-wheel, the spindle moves up and down in the vertical direction in order to
give the necessary amount of feed to the work.

Here, the rotational motion is converted into linear motion by means of a Rack and Pinion
mechanism which was explained below

59
3.45.5 Chuck:

It is used to hold the workpiece. Generally, 3 jaw chuck is used for holding circular components and
4 jaw chuck is used for holding rectangular components.

3.45.6 Table Clamp:

It is used to lock the swivel table at the desired location.

3.45.7 Spindle:60

It is used to hold the drillbit along with jaws.

3.45.8 Drill bit:

It is the major part of this machine and is used to remove the material in the form of holes from the
surface of the workpiece.

3.46 Working Principle of Drilling Machine:

When the power is given to the motor, the spindle rotates, and thereby the stepped pulley attached to
it also rotates. On the other end, one more stepped pulley is attached and that is inverted to increase
or decrease the speed of the rotational motion.

Now, a V-belt is placed in between the stepped pulleys so as to drive the power transmission. Here a
V-belt is used instead of a flat belt, in order to increase the power efficiency.

Now the drill bit also rotates which was placed in the chuck and which was in connection with the
spindle. As the Pulleys rotates, the spindle also rotates which can rotate the drill bit.

60
Now, by the rotation of hand-wheel, the spindle moves up and down in the vertical direction in order
to give the necessary amount of feed to the work and this drill bit is used to make the holes on the
component placed in the machine vi61ce.

Drive Mechanism of Drilling Machine:

This drive mechanism is based on Rack and Pinion Mechanism.

Fig: 3.32 Rack and Pinion mechanism in drilling machine

When the hand-wheel is rotated, it is converting the rotational motion to the linear motion by means
of rack and pinion.

The setup consists of Rack(has fine grooves), Pinion, Chuck and the Drill bit. The drill bit has
placed in the chuck and the chuck is connected to rack and when the hand-wheel rotates, the Pinion
is inserted in the grooves of Rack [shown in the below fig.] and thereby the rotational motion is
converted to linear motion and as this mechanism is running by means of Rack and Pinion called as
Rack and Pinion mechanism.

61
3.47 Types of Drilling Machines:

Below is the list of drilling machines which are used in the industries for the production of the
materials.

 Radial drilling machine

 Upright drilling machine
 Multiple Spindle drilling machine
 Deep hole drilling machine
 Sensitive drilling machine
 Portable drilling machine
 Gang drilling machine

The explanation of above types of drilling machines are as follows.

Radial Drilling Machine:62

A radial drilling machine is used to drill holes in the components but it is quite different from the
general drilling machine. The radial drilling machine has an arm that can rotate in the given radius.

Fig: 3.33 Radial Drilling Machine

If the component is large and if it is not able to hold on the worktable, then the component has to be
placed on the ground and by rotating radial arm, the operation is to be performed.

62
Upright Drilling Machine:

It is used to drill holes of Medium size in the components. It is heavier and bigger than the Sensitive
drilling machine.

Fig: 3.34 Upright drilling machine.Photo Courtesy:IndiaMart

A large number of spindle speed and feed can be accessible for various types of works.

The Upright Drilling machine can have a drilling capacity range of 75mm diameter drills.

Multiple Spindle Drilling Machine:

As the name indicates, these drilling machines have multiple spindles that are away from each other.

Fig: 3.35 Multiple Spindle Drilling Machine. Photo Courtesy:IndiaMart

This machine is used, when you want to drill a large number of holes on a single workpiece or
making holes on individual workpieces.63

63
By this operation, the production will be at a higher rate.

Deep Hole Drilling Machine:

These types of drilling machines are designed to drill deep holes in various components of
automobiles such as connecting rods, Aircraft Landing Gear, Inside Bore of Hydraulic Cylinder,
Fuel Injector Bodies, Oilfield Exploration Equipment, etc.

Fig: 3.36 Deep hole drilling Machine. Photo Courtesy:IndiaMart

It has to make sure that the coolant has to be added during the removal of material from the
components.

Sensitive Drilling Machine:

Here in the case of a Sensitive drilling machine, when the operator gives the feeding of the tool into
the workpiece, it allows the operator to 'feel' or 'sense' the cutting action of workpiece w.r.t.the tool
and that's the reason, it is called as Sensitive Drilling Machine

It is also called a Bench Drilling machin64e which was explained at the beginning of the article.

64
Portable Drilling Machine:

The portable drilling machine works in the similar way of bench drilling machine, but the difference
is, the portable drilling machine can be taken to the different workplaces along with you and that's
the reason it is called as portable drilling machine.

Whereas, the bench drilling machine can do various operations, but it can stand at one place and it is
not movable w.r.t. the workplaces.

Gang Drilling Machine:As the name indicates that it has a gang of drill heads with individual motors
attached to the vertical column and does multiple operations at a time.

It generally consists of 4-6 drill heads which are placed side by side which can do various operations
like drilling, boring, reaming, tapping, etc.

Either you want to create a small hole or large, the multiple spin65dles does the operation.

3.48 Drilling Machine Operations:

The opertaions of drilling machine are as follows.

 Drilling
 Boring
 Reaming
 Tapping
 Spot facing
 Trepanning
 Honing
 Counter boring
 Counter Sinking

65
An Explanation for the Operations to be performed on Drilling Machines:

The explanation is as follows.

3.48.1 Drilling Operation:

The operation of making holes on the surface of th66e workpiece by the use of drill bit is called
Drilling Operation.

3.48.2 Boring Operation:

The operation of enlarging an existing hole is called the Boring Operation. The existing hole was
created by the drilling operation.

3.48.3 Reaming Operation:

The operation of sizing and finishing an existing hole with the help of a reamer is called Reaming
Operation.

66
Reamer is a multipoint cutting tool having several cutting edges to finish the surface.

3.48.4 Tapping Operation:

It is the operation of creating internal threads by means of a cutting tool called Tap and the operation
is called Tapping Operation.

3.48.5 Spot Facing Operation:

This is an operation of removing 67the chips from the surface of the hole such that proper seating of
bolts takes place and this removal can be done through end mill cutter using a drilling machine.

3.48.6 Trepanning Operation:

Without drilling, a Trepanning operation is used for producing a large-size hole of more than 50mm
in diameter. This Trepanning operation cannot be used for blind holes.

3.48.6 Honing Operation:

In this operation, the tool will rotate and reciprocate about its axis for producing very smooth holes.

This honing operation is mainly used for finishing the holes in the IC Engine cylinder.

3.48.7 Counterboring Operation:

67
The Counter boring operation is used to enlarge a particular portion of the hole.

3.48.8 Countersinking Operation:

The Countersinking operation is use68d to enlarge the end of the hole to give it a conical shape for a
shorter distance.

These are the various operations that are performed on Drilling machines.

Let's know about the Advantages and Disadvantages of the Drilling Machine along with its
applications.

3.49 Advantages of Drilling Machine:

3.49.1 The advantages of Drilling Machine are as follows.

 It requires less labor.

 High precision and accuracy will be maintained by the operator in Bench Drilling Machine
whereas, in the case of Automatic drilling machine, high accuracy is maintained by the
machine itself.

68
3.50 bill of material& cost of estimation
Sr. Name of material Quantity Cost
1. M. S. bar frame 1 2000/-
2. Small wheels 1 500/-
3. Screw 40 100/-
4. Nut 40 100/-
7. D.C. Motor 2 1500/-
12. Big wheel 1 1000/-
13. springs 01 500/-
15. Magnet coil 01 1500’-
16. Supply wire 01 500/-
17. Handle Washer 40 500/-
Total 8200/-

Table 3.1 Bill of material & Cost69 of estimation

CHAPTER-4
4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

69
By using the electromagnetic brake as supplementary retardation equipment, the friction brakes can
be used less frequently, and therefore practically never reach high temperatures. The brake linings
would last considerably longer before requiring maintenance, and the potentially “brake fade”
problem could be avoided. In research conducted by a truck manufacturer, it was proved that the
electromagnetic brake assumed 80 percent of the duty which would otherwise have been demanded
of the regular service brake. Furthermore, the electromagnetic brake prevents the dangers that can
arise from the prolonged use of brakes beyond thei 70r capability to dissipate heat. This is most likely
to occur while a vehicle descending a long gradient at high speed. The installation of an
electromagnetic brake is not very difficult. It does not need a subsidiary cooling system. It does not
effect on the efficiency of engine. Electromagnetic brake also has better controllability. Thermal
stability of the electromagnetic brakes is achieved by means of the convection and radiation of the
heat energy at high temperature. The electromagnetic brakes have excellent heat dissipation
efficiency. Electromagnetic brakes have better thermal dynamic performance than regular friction
brakes
4.1 Calculate the Force of an Electromagnet

Engineers make solenoids – electromagnets – by twisting lengths of metal in a spiral fashion

around a cylindrical template. You can determine the magnitude of that force by plugging the
dimensions and other properties of the magnet based into a simple equation: F = (n X i) 2 X
magnetic constant X a / (2 X g 2). Passing an electrical current through the solenoid results in a
magnetic field that exerts force on nearby ferromagnetic objects, such as pieces of iron or steel.
The joining together of magnetic and electric forces on a charged item is called the Lorentz force.

Calculate the force by writing the equation:

F = (n x i)2 x magnetic constant x a / (2 x g 2)

70
Where, F = force, i = current, g = length of the gap between the solenoid and a piece of metal, a =
Area, n = number of turns in the solenoid, and the magnetic constant = 4 x PI x 10 -7.

Analyze your electromagnet to determine its dimensions and the amount of current you will be
running through it. For example, imagine you have a magnet with 1,000 turns and a cross-sectional
area of 0.5 meters that you will operate with 10 amperes of current, 1.5 meters from a piece of
metal. Therefore: 71

N = 1,000, I = 10, A = 0.5 meters, g = 1.5 m

Plug the numbers into the equation to compute the force that will act on the piece of metal.

Force = ((1,000 x 10) 2 x 4 x pi x 10-7 x 0.5) / (2 x 1.52) = 14 Newtons (N).

4.2 ADVANTAGES
 No grating misfortune.
 Less warmth misfortune.
 Less wear of segments.
 Fully electronically controlled.
 Great braking proficiency potential to recover
 vitality lost in braking.
 Potential to recapture vitality lost in braking.
 Potential danger of tire crumbling and blasts
 because of grinding is disposed of.
 No need to change brake oils consistently.
 No oil spillage.
 Problem of brake liquid vaporization and solidifying is dispensed with.
 Less support cost.
 Longer life traverse contrasted with ordinary
 brakes.
 Can be utilized as a part of industry to stop or
 decelerate turning parts.
71
  No need of abs.72

4.3 DISADVANTAGES
1) Dependence on battery power to energize the brake system drains down the battery much faster.
2) Due to residual magnetism present in electromagnets, the brake shoe takes time to come back to
its original position.
3) A special spring mechanism needs to be provided for the quick return of the brake shoe.
Developed for application on lighter vehicles.

Fig: 4.1 Final Testing

CHAPTER 5
5. CONCLUSION

72
The concept designed by us is just a prototype and needs to be developed more because of the above
mentioned disadvantages. These electromagnetic brakes can be used as an auxiliary braking system
along with the friction braking system to avoid overheating and brake failure. ABS usage can be
neglected by simply using a micro controlled electromagnetic disk brake system .These find vast
applications in heavy vehicles where high heat dissipation is required. In rail coaches it can used in
combination of disc brake to bring the trains moving in high speed. When these brakes are combined
it increases the life of brake and act like fully loaded brakes. These electromagnetic brakes can be
used in wet conditions which eliminate the antiskidding equipment, and cost of these brake are
cheaper than the other types. Hence the braking force produced in this is less than the disc brakes if
can be used as a secondary or emergency braking system in the automobiles. With all the advantages
of electromagnetic brakes over fricti 73on brakes, they have been widely used on heavy vehicles
where the „brake fading‟ problem exists. The same concept is being
5.1 FUTURE SCOPE
Electromagnetic brakes have numerous preferences over frictional slowing mechanism. The blend of
swirl present and attractive powers makes this brake more successful. This brake can be utilized as
assistant stopping mechanism in vehicle. The utilization of abs can be dismissed by utilizing a
smaller scale controlled electromagnetic framework. it can be utilized as a part of rail mentors to
decelerate the prepare moving in fast. Mix of these brakes expands the brake life and act like
completely stacked brakes. These brakes can be utilized as a part of wet condition, so there is no
utilization of against slipping instrument. it is completely electrically controlled which brings about
less mishaps. The braking power delivered in this brake is not as much as the plate brakes.
Subsequently, it can be utilized as an auxiliary or crisis slowing mechanism in the autos.

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