Indraprastha College For Women

Assignment
Nishu

19/ENG/32

IV

Q1. Define Inclusive Development in Sustainable Resource Development.

Introduction
While sustainable development has ecological, social and economic aspects, the difficultiesin
optimizing all three aspects for present and future generations has led to the rise ofconcepts that
embody dualities of this trinity—green economy/growth (which combinesthe environment with
the economy), green society (whichcombines the environment with social goals), inclusive
growth (which combines growthwith social aspects) and inclusive development (which focuses
on social and ecologicalaspects). Green growth and inclusive growth are the two mostdominant
dualities and both have neo-liberal roots but take on an additional dimension—either
environmental issues or the need to share economic growth with the poorest.

Inclusivedevelopment questions the need for continuous economic growth in a business-as-

usualparadigm. If the global community is willing to develop legally binding ruleswithin which
such growth is achieved, then the growth paradigm may also contribute tosustainable
development. Until this happens, however, an inclusive development approachis necessary to
balance the dominance of the growth approach, especially in the context ofglobal recession.

Inclusiveness can be understood by looking through three kinds of inclusiveness- Social

Inclusiveness, Environmental Inclusiveness and Relational Inclusiveness.

SOCIAL

ENVIRONMENTAL RELATIONAL RELATIONAL

SOCIAL INCLUSIVENESS
Social inclusiveness has its roots in human rights, inequality, redistribution, rural
development,entitlements and capabilities concepts and has been expressed in the
MillenniumDevelopment Goals. Social inclusiveness is a multi-level challenge: at theglobal
level, it implies accounting for the least developed and developing countries andpost-conflict
societies. This can be done by encouraging meaningful participation inUN processes,adopting
equity principles, capacity building, technology transfer, andfinancial support. At the regional
level, it implies taking the issues of the more vulnerablecountries into account and equitable
sharing of transboundary resources.

There are seven reasons that justify social inclusiveness: humanitarianand normativeconcerns for
the most vulnerable; legal reasons call for theprotection of the dignity and human rights of
people; economic reasons aim to promotesocial well-being and participation of the poor in
labour and consumption markets; national security reasons justify meeting the needs of humans;
democratic and communist discourses require sharing the results ofprosperitywith all; public
health reasons require investing in the conditions in which the poorlive to prevent the spread of
poverty related diseases such as cholera, typhoid and others;and international reasons to ensure
sustainable societies both within and across borders.

Social inclusiveness aims at empowering the poorest through investing in human capitaland
enhancing the opportunities for participation. It aims to reduce the exposure to risks such
asnatural disasters and civil conflict that exacerbate vulnerability. In doing so, inclusive
development policies focus attention on the places (e.g. rural,peri-urban), sectors (e.g. small-
scale farming, fishing and community forestry), and arenas(home-based activities, street
vendors) of high vulnerability to enhance well-being,including material (i.e. livingconditions
through access to infrastructure and amenitiessuch as drinking water and sanitation services,
education and transport services), socialrelational(i.e. in terms of human relations), and cognitive
well-being (i.e. taking people’sknowledge, experiences and aspirations into account).

ENVIRONMENTAL INCLUSIVENESS
Historically, environmental issues focused on single issues like the protection of
endangeredspecies. Ecological inclusiveness at the local level focuses on protecting localaccess
to and ownership of resources as well as protecting local ecosystems. At the nationallevel, it
requires that resources are well managed and the sustainability of ecosystemservices are ensured.
At the transboundary and global level, it implies not causing harm toother countries and using
common but differentiated responsibilities for dealing withglobal problems.

Environmental inclusiveness, or the relation between environmental issues and

themarginalized, emerges from three different strands. First, the livelihoods argument hasbeen
that the poor depend on their local ecosystem for their survival. Second, the vulnerability
argument focuses on how the vulnerability poor may be exacerbated by the effects of climate
change andthus calls for enhancing adaptive capacity and resilience. Third, theAnthropocene
argument is that the great acceleration in the demand for limited land, water,and other resources
and sinks may lead to ecospace grabbing or the large-scale transfer ofthese resources from local
communities to governments, large corporations and the privatesector by changing the rules of
access to these resourceswhich may further exacerbate the vulnerability of the poor.

RELATIONAL INCLUSIVENESS
Relational inclusiveness recognizes that poverty and ecological degradation are often theresult of
actions taken by others because of increasinginequality in society and the substance and process
of politics. A scalar perspective requires understanding and addressing the multileveldrivers of
inequality, exclusion and vulnerability. invest heavily in these resourcesand sinks (e.g. by
purchasing emission rights) leading also toecological inequality. By not accepting their
responsibility for environmental pollution(e.g. the USA has not ratified the Law of the Seas, the
Kyoto Protocol, the BiodiversityConvention), the rich can also avoid their responsibility with
impunity by influencing therules of governance at the national and international level.Thus, the
concentration of wealth leads to inequality through direct and indirectresource expropriation. It
also increases the ability of the rich to lobby for a certain kind ofpolitics such as calling for small
government and deregulation.

A relational approach first requires a rethinking of how merit and public goods aremanaged and
whether the privatization and securitization of these bystate entities compromises human security
or not. Second, the direct and indirect drivers ofpoverty, exclusion, and environmental
degradation operate from the local to the globallevel, involving marginal to extremely powerful
actors. This calls for policies that dealwith all actors as opposed to policies that only deal with
empowering the poorest. This would counter the tendency to offshore economicactivities and
offload governance activities (deregulation) as a way to bypass rules. Third,it recognizes that the
roots of the direct and indirect drivers of inequality may lie in theideological foundations of
society calling for the questioning of dominant discourses andvested interests. Fourth, it sees the
normative, legal, and instrumental interventions as not value-neutral.

SDGs and INCLUSIVE DEVELOPMENT

The UN document, ‘Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for SustainableDevelopment’
includes a declaration of the 17 SDGs and their respective targetsalong with follow-up and
review measures. The document has a verbalcommitment to ‘sustainable development’
(mentioning it 85 times). It does notmention ‘inclusive development’. It has 41 references to the
term ‘inclusive’including six references to ‘inclusive societies’ and ‘inclusive and
sustainableeconomic growth’ respectively and one to ‘inclusive growth’. It focusesstrongly on
‘growth’ which is repeated 16 times (which is occasionally qualifiedby adjectives such as
inclusive or sustainable).
SDGs and social inclusiveness
1. Of the 17 Goals, 13 focus on social inclusiveness, but also take someecological or relational
aspects into account.
2. Goal 1 aims to end all forms of poverty everywhere, recognizes thatpoverty is not simply
measured in income per capita and that it is also notexclusively located in poor countries. It
specifies targets for eradicatingextreme poverty, ensuring social protection systems including
floors andensuring access to basic resources.
3. These social floors are further elaborated in Goal 2 which aims to endhunger andmalnutrition
by 2030, while doubling the productivity andincomes of small-scale food producers; and in Goal
3 which aims atenhancing well-being and healthy lives through targets on reducingmaternal
mortality, preventable deaths of children, and major epidemics,
managing substance abuse and traffic related deaths, and universal accessto sexual and
reproductive health care services and health coverage by2030.
4. Social floors also include Goal 4’s focus on inclusive and equitableeducation through
universal completion of primary and secondaryeducation, access to pre-primary education, and
opportunities to enhancevocational and lifelong learning by 2030. Similarly, Goal 6 aims
toensure universal access to water and sanitation.
5. Goal 7 ensures universal access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and
modern energy, while
6. Goal 8 promotes universal employment opportunities.
7. They set targets on production and consumption patterns
8. (Goal 12) including sustainable and resilient agricultural practices,maintaining ecosystem
services and
9. (Goal 2) adaptation to climate change, genetic diversity and securing seedand plant banks,
10. (Goal 7) demand side management through energy efficiency and supplyside management
through promoting renewable energy,
11. (Goal 8) resource efficiency, decoupling growth from pollution and
sustainable industrialization; and
12. (Goal 9) on enhancing the quality of life by providing access to open andgreen spaces for all,
sustainable transport systems, sustainableurbanization, sustainable human settlement planning,
and improving airquality and waste management within sustainable and resilient cities(Goal 11).
13. These targets also focus on sustainable water management from local toglobal levels (Goal 6
and 14), mitigating climate change (Goal 13), andprotecting ecosystems and forests (Goal 15).
14. Perhaps most significant for the prospects of ensuring ecologicalinclusiveness is Goal 15
which calls for mainstreaming the principle ofecosystem protection into international, national,
and local developmentagendas.
15. They set targets on production and consumption patterns
16. (Goal 12) including sustainable and resilient agricultural practices,maintaining ecosystem
services and
17. (Goal 2) adaptation to climate change, genetic diversity and securing seedand plant banks,
18. (Goal 7) demand side management through energy efficiency and supplyside management
through promoting renewable energy,
19. (Goal 8) resource efficiency, decoupling growth from pollution and
sustainable industrialization; and
20. (Goal 9) on enhancing the quality of life by providing access to open andgreen spaces for all,
sustainable transport systems, sustainableurbanization, sustainable human settlement planning,
and improving airquality and waste management within sustainable and resilient cities(Goal 11).
21. These targets also focus on sustainable water management from local toglobal levels (Goal 6
and 14), mitigating climate change (Goal 13), andprotecting ecosystems and forests (Goal 15).
22. Perhaps most significant for the prospects of ensuring ecologicalinclusiveness is Goal 15
which calls for mainstreaming the principle ofecosystem protection into international, national,
and local developmentagendas.

SDGs and relational inclusiveness

Three of the 17 SDGs take an explicitly relational approach (Goals 10, 16 and17), while
others are more implicit.

Goal 10 provides guards against exclusion at different levels and recognizes theoverlap between
multiple forms of exclusion and marginalization. Inclusionrefers to closing the income gap
between the rich and poor, eliminatingdiscriminatory laws and implementing social protection to
enhance equality. Thisgoes beyond social protection purely to prevent people from falling below
theabsolute poverty line.

Furthermore, inclusion is facilitated by monitoring global financial markets, andby enhancing

representation and conditions for developing countries in globaldecision-making fora. It tries to
tackle structural inequality through changingdecision-making processes, aid, investment, and
trade agreements.

Goal 16 goes a step further to call for the rule of law and equal access to justicefor all, which is
critical for addressing structural issues. It also focuses onreducing illicit financial and arms
flows, reducing corruption and bribery andensuring responsive participatory institutions.

Goal 17 addresses structural issues by focusing on enhancing tax imposition onthe rich,
development assistance commitment of rich countries and addressingstructural international debt
issues. It includes the usual clauses on technologytransfer and capacity building, the promotion
of policy coherence, multistakeholderpartnerships and monitoring and accountability.

Goal 3 includes a reference to WHO’s Framework Convention on TobaccoControl, an

instrument with a relational approach since it not only focuses onrules to reduce demand, but
also on rules to control supply by producers. It alsorecommends that there should be access to
medicines in developing countriesusing the flexibilities of intellectual property rights laws in
order to promotepublic health.

Goal 4 on gender equality tries to address the complex issue of ownership rights,butotherwise is
not really dramatic in its relational approach.Goal 11 encourages positive links between urban,
peri-urban and rural areas topromote mutually inclusive instead of exclusive development. Goal
12 includestargets which addressthe threat of private ownership of resources and aims to regulate
private actorsand their reporting practices.
Goal 13 emphasizes the need for national ratification of climate change measures,and the
responsibility that developed countries have to developing countries tohelp them act in
accordance with them. Goal 15 reiterates the need for developedcountries to raise financial
resources to protect biodiversity and other ecologicalgoals.

CONCLUSION

From the perspective of inclusive development, successful implementationof the SDGswould not
only mean that poverty and marginalization are reduced,ecological sustainability is enhanced,
and the gap between the powerful and lesspowerful is minimized. Rather, it also means
recognizing a powerful ends-meansconnection between the goals and the ways in which they are
integrated intoglobal society. This requires conceptual coherence between the SDGs
themselvesand how they are applied. Thus, the methods for implementation would need
toembrace the principles of inclusive development in themselves to overcomeunequal power
relations in order to genuinely address the goals.Second, the implementation of the SDGs would
need to challenge the businessas-usual approach to growth. Seeking to promote the rule of law at
the nationaland international levels,upward and downward accountability in institutions,
enhanced participation,freedoms and capabilities at all levels, the SDGs clearly aim to bring up
thebaseline for developing countries and poorer global populations.

Third, as a result to this, the inclusive approach to the SDGs requires developedcountries to give
something up. This might be done by establishingimplementation goals for enhanced democratic
and multi-scalar decision-makingframeworks which include clear stipulations for how richer
participants mustchange their own behaviour and adjust their own interests as well as ensure
thatthere are resources for financing the implementation of the goals.
Q6. What are the limitations associated with Sustainable development.

Sustainable Development

Sustainable development has been defined in many

ways, but the most frequently quoted definition is
from Our Common Future, also known as the
Brundtland Report:

“Sustainable development is development that meets

the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs”
The aim of sustainable development is to define viable schemes combining the economic, social,
and environmental aspects of human activity. These three areas must therefore be taken into
consideration by communities, companies, and individuals. The ultimate goal of sustainable
development is to find a coherent and long-lasting balance between these three aspects.
Sustainable development did not just appear out of thin air; it is the product of a set of
transformations in which the exploitation of natural resources, the choice of type of investment,
and orientation of technological and institutional modifications are in harmony with present and
future needs. The goal of this concept is to build and improve urban and suburban areas with as
little impact on the environment as possible. The growth of environmental movements has put
the debate over sustainable development front and center. While the long-term pros to
sustainable development are clear, the cons aren’t as easy to see, but they lurk behind the debate.

One of the main obstacles that the application of sustainable policies finds itself in is the duality
that exists between the need for solutions and strategies that transcend borders. Currently,
unfortunately, global patterns of production and consumption go in the opposite direction to that
required by a sustainability policy. However, everything that glitters is not gold, and there are
also numerous negative elements in sustainable policies.
Governance itself has to face constant uncertainity, because there are many aspects that must be
married to achieve a result that achieves that desired sustainability.

And, in the same way, even the tools considered more sustainable, such as organic farming or
renewable energy sources have a host of drawbacks that need to be tackled intelligently in order
to really help that sustainability.

Thus, although sustainable development can help to end poverty in the world and adjust social
inequalities, addressing human needs in a fairer way and reorienting technology to respect the
planet and ensure its long-term viability, there are also negative consequences.

Among others, that change of mentality that is demanded would hurt the big capitals, which
means that a radical transformation of society would be necessary so great that it is difficult to
trust that it will happen.

The main challenges to sustainable development which are global in character are :-

1. Poverty and exclusion

2. Unemployment
3. Climate change
4. Conflict and humanitarian aid
5. Building peaceful and inclusive societies
6. Building strong institutions of governance
7. and supporting the rule of law.

The above issues are discussed in further paragraphs.

Increased Costs
Because sustainable development relies on newer technologies and materials that cost
more to produce, the overall costs are often more than that of traditional construction.
The higher cost of materials is passed on to developers. Developers pass it on to
property owners, who pass it on to tenants. Future development will include tools that
haven’t even been invented yet. The trial and error of using new materials and ideas
can also bring costs up for everyone. Although intentions are good, carrying them out
costs work because it is about reducing or completely dispensing with energy that
already supplies part of the population with a new one, changing infrastructure,
consumption habits and this whole transition can be very expensive
In this sense, the perspective also influences from the point of view, because the
countries of the first world would not have much difficulty in adopting new forms of
energy, but in the developing nations, it would not be possible to assume these
expenses.

Lower Quality of Life for Some Elements of Society

Sustainable development will shrink or do away with certain job sectors. This will
lead to job loss for some workers. The fossil fuel industry could see plants close and
employees lose jobs as sustainable development relies on new energy sources. The
rising costs and less robust power of alternative energy can also lead to a lower
quality of life for people who live in sustainably developed areas. Changes to preserve
and care for ecosystems and biodiversity can cause several industries to reduce their
activities or, in the last case, stop them altogether. This can bring unemployment for
many people who have dedicated their whole lives to work in a single sector, such as
the coal industry.

Although in sustainability a better quality of life is contemplated in the future, it does

not take into account the collateral effects for the population in the present.

Resistance to New Methods

When people try to implement new ideas, there’s naturally a certain amount of
resistance. People in general are set in their ways and don’t want to change their lives
radically. As more governments and companies attempt to put sustainable
development into practice, more resistance will follow.

Some of the resistance will come in the form of people who initially adopt the idea of
sustainable development with enthusiasm, but their commitment shrinks as they start
to put new ideas into practice. Contractors and tenants may resist a specific initiative
because it forces them to change the ways they work and live.

Fragile Commitment
As the transition to a more environmentally friendly industry is more costly and difficult to meet
because of the points mentioned above, there is a risk that the commitment made with society is
not so serious. This inconvenience would occur because the results obtained are generally long-
term, but in places that are just developing, it may not be possible to wait so long.
Increased Regulation Sustainable approaches will naturally lead to increased regulation on
construction and the daily operation of businesses. A greater commitment to the environment
will lead to tighter controls on how people live their lives. Stricter building codes and tougher
emission standards are likely. While some people will accept a greater burden of regulation
because they see the overall benefit, many people will disagree with government intruding into
their lives. 

More Requirements
The companies, plants, factories and others responsible for affecting the environment would have
more requirements to function, such as reducing their carbon dioxide emissions or correct
treatment of their waste, and although they seem necessary and common sense, not everyone
could meet them without compromising their efficiency and their work, in addition to the entry
requirements would be very high for small companies.

To conclude, People and organizations that are in favor of sustainable development believe that
it’s worth moving past these disadvantages to work on the environment. Advocates say that
sustainable development is an investment in future generations. The biggest defenders of these
initiatives are working on ways of overcoming the hurdles. Do not abuse nature, the human
being or turn the economy into an instrument that enriches only a few is the goal of sustainable
theory, a paradigm that today invites you to dream and, of course, also to fight to do so reality. A
better world is possible.
Q4. Discuss the Historical development of sustainable development. Discuss
any one summit.

Answer:

Definition of Sustainable Development

Sustainable development is the idea that human societies must live and meet their needs without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The “official” definition
of sustainable development was developed for the first time in the Brundtland Report in 1987.

Specifically, sustainable development is a way of organizing society so that it can exist in the
long term. This means taking into account both the imperatives present and those of the future,
such as the preservation of the environment and natural resources or social and economic equity.

More than 200 years ago, the first questions arose regarding the impact of the evolution of our
civilizationcould have on the environment and resources of our planet. In 1798, Thomas Robert
Malthus (1766-1834),demographer, political economist and country pastor inEngland wrote An
Essay on the Principle ofPopulation. He predicted that the world’spopulation would eventually
starve or, at the least, live at aminimal level of subsistence because food production could not
keep pace with the growth of population.He believed that the population was held in check by
“misery, vice and moral restraint”.

The debate about Malthusian limits has continued in time, with many critics asking how it
became possibleto have a six-fold increase in global population - from one to six billion – since
1798 and still be able tomore or less feed the population. The next wave ofMalthusianism is
represented by the ideas and prospectspresented by the Club of Rome. The results of computer
simulations made by MIT technicians werepublished in the well-known book The Limits to
Growthwhich focused attention ondepletion of non-renewable resources and resulting increases
in commodity prices. Additionally, thismodel assumed that population and industrial capital
would continue to grow exponentially, leading to asimilar growth in pollution and in demand for
food and non-renewable resources”.The supply of both food and non-renewable resources was
assumed to be fixed. Not surprisingly given theassumptions, the model predicted collapse due to
non-renewable resource depletion. At the same time, oneof their conclusions remarks that “there
is no extraordinary effort to abate pollution or conserveresources”163. But as time passed, “most
if not all of the Club of Rome’s predictions for the next 30 years,from 1973 to 2003 were not
borne out.

The Emergence of the Concept

1st UN Conference On The Environment And Sustainable Development (1972)

The 1972 Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm, Sweden, attended by 113 states
andrepresentatives from 19 international organizations, was the first truly international
conference devotedexclusively to environmental issues. There, a group of 27 expertsarticulated
the links betweenenvironment and development stating that: “although inindividual instances
there were conflicts betweenenvironmental and economic priorities, they were intrinsically two
sides of the same coin”. Another result of the StockholmConference was the creation of the
United Nations EnvironmentalProgram (UNEP) which has the mission “to provide leadership
and encourage partnership in caring for theenvironment by inspiring, informing, and enabling
nations and peoples to improve their quality of lifewithout compromising that of future
generations.

The Brundtland Report And Sustainable Development [1987]

In 1983, the UN General Assembly created the World Commission on Environment and
Developmentwhich was later known as the Brundtland Commission, named after its Chair, Gro
Harlem Brundtland, thenPrime Minister of Norway and later head of the World Health
Organization. In 1987, the Commissionpublished the Brundtland Report, entitled Our Common
Future. The Brundtland report, also known as ‘Our Common Future’, gave the most recognized
and widely accepted definition of the term sustainable development in 1987. Following this
report, “the human ability to ensure that the current development meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” was the first
widely accepted definition of sustainable development.

The World Commission on the Environment and Development also stood out that sustainable
development needed to consider that developing has limitations. According to the organization,
the “present state of technology and the social organization on environmental resources, together
with the limited ability of the biosphere to absorb the effects of human activities” impose
limitations on sustainable development.

Earth Summit (1992)

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known as
the 'Earth Summit', was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from 3-14 June 1992. This global
conference, held on the occasion of the 20th anniversary of the first Human Environment
Conference in Stockholm, Sweden, in 1972, brought together political leaders, diplomats,
scientists, representatives of the media and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) from 179
countries for a massive effort to focus on the impact of human socio-economic activities on the
environment. A 'Global Forum' of NGOs was also held in Rio de Janeiro at the same time,
bringing together an unprecedented number of NGO representatives, who presented their own
vision of the world's future in relation to the environment and socio-economic development.

The Rio de Janeiro conference highlighted how different social, economic and environmental
factors are interdependent and evolve together, and how success in one sector requires action in
other sectors to be sustained over time. The primary objective of the Rio 'Earth Summit' was to
produce a broad agenda and a new blueprint for international action on environmental and
development issues that would help guide international cooperation and development policy in
the twenty-first century.

The 'Earth Summit' concluded that the concept of sustainable development was an attainable
goal for all the people of the world, regardless of whether they were at the local, national,
regional or international level. It also recognized that integrating and balancing economic, social
and environmental concerns in meeting our needs is vital for sustaining human life on the planet
and that such an integrated approach is possible. The conference also recognized that integrating
and balancing economic, social and environmental dimensions required new perceptions of the
way we produce and consume, the way we live and work, and the way we make decisions. This
concept was revolutionary for its time, and it sparked a lively debate within governments and
between governments and their citizens on how to ensure sustainability for development.

Agenda 21
One of the major results of the UNCED Conference was Agenda 21, a daring program of action
calling for new strategies to invest in the future to achieve overall sustainable development in the
21st century. Its recommendations ranged from new methods of education, to new ways of
preserving natural resources and new ways of participating in a sustainable economy.The
commitment of leaders from around the world to sustainable development was clearly articulated
inAgenda 21, the key document of the summit - a 500 page collection of agreed healthy practices
and advicesfor achieving sustainabledevelopment in almost any area on the surface of the earth.

Agenda 21 activitiesare organized under environmental and development themes: quality of life,
efficient use of naturalresources, protection of the global commons, management of human
settlements, and sustainable economicgrowth. It recognizes that the persistence of severe poverty
in several parts of the world alongside astandard of living based on wasteful consumption of
resources in other parts is not a sustainable model, andthat environmental management must be
practiced in developing and industrial countries alike. During the1992 conference it was agreed
that to implement Agenda 21, countries should prepare a national
sustainable development strategy

The 'Earth Summit' had many great achievements: the Rio Declaration and its 27 universal
principles, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the
Convention on Biological Diversity; and the Declaration on the principles of forest
management . The 'Earth Summit' also led to the creation of the Commission on Sustainable
Development, the holding of first world conference on the sustainable development of small
island developing States in 1994, and negotiations for the establishment of the agreement on
straddling stocks and highly migratory fish stocks.

Kyoto Conference (1997)

In the 1997 Kyoto conference on climate change, developed countries agreed on specific targets
for cuttingtheir emissions of greenhouse gases, resulting in a general framework, which became
known as the KyotoProtocol, with specifics to be detailed over the next few years. The U.S.
proposed to stabilize emissionsonly and not cut them at all, while the European Union called for
a 15% cut. In the end, there was a tradeoff, and industrializedcountries were committed to an
overall reduction of emissions of greenhouse gasesto 5.2% below 1990 levels for the period
2008–2012. However, the complexity of the negotiationscreatedconsiderable confusion over
compliance even after the Kyoto Protocol itself was adopted because it onlyoutlined the basic
features for compliance but did not explain the all-important rules of how they wouldoperate.
Although 84 countries signed the Protocol, indicating their intent to ratify it, many others
werereluctant to take even this step.
Millenium Summit (2000)
In September 2000 at the Millennium Summit held in New York, world leaders agreed on the
MillenniumDevelopment Goals, most of which have the year 2015 as a timeframe and use
1990 as a benchmark.These goals are both modest and ambitious. The Millennium Development
Goals demonstrate that “thelivelihoods and well-being of the world’s poor are now
conceptualized in terms of access to opportunityand absence of insecurity andvulnerability”.
They represent a more practicalexpression of the principle of equilibrium between the economic,
social and environmental pillars ofsustainable development. They include 1) halving the
proportion of people living on less than a dollar a
day and those suffering from hunger, 2) achieving universal primary education and promoting
genderequality, 3) reducing child mortality and improving maternal health, 4) reversing the
spread of HIV/AIDS,5) integrating the principles of sustainable development into country
policies, 6) reducing by half theproportion of people without access to safe drinking water.

The World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg (2002)

It was a landmark in thebusiness of forging partnerships between the United
Nations,governments, business and NGOs to gatherresources for addressing global environment,
health and poverty challenges176. The Johannesburg Summitreconfirmed the Millennium goals
and complemented them by setting a number of additional ones such ashalving the proportion of
people lacking access to basic sanitation; minimizing harmful effects from
chemicals; and halting the loss of biodiversity. Some authors consider the summit a “progress in
movingthe concept [of sustainable development] toward a more productive exploration of the
relationship betweeneconomic development and environmental quality”. The WSSD “fills some
gaps in theAgenda 21 and the Millennium Development Goals and addresses some newly
emerging issues.

CONCLUSION
Thus, after many of the conferences and summits, MDGs and SDGs came into existence. Finally,
in 2012, The Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs) were born at the United Nations
Conference Development in 2012. The objective was to produce a set of universal goals that
meet the urgent environmental, political and economic challenges facing our world. 17 goals
were adopted and 2030 is the year set to achieve these goals and targets of SDGs.
 Q5. Discuss national Strategies of millennium Development Goals and its
Performance.

MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS (MDGS)

There are Eight Millennium Development Goals adopted by United Nation.

● To eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

● To achieve universal primary education
● To promote gender equality and empower women.
● To reduce child mortality.
● To improve maternal health.
● To combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases.
● To ensure environmental sustainability.
● To develop a global partnership for development.

NATIONAL STRATEGIES FOR MDGS

GOAL 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

TARGET 1: Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people whose income is less than
one dollar a day.

A Poverty Head Count Ratio (percentage of population below the national poverty line)

Poverty Gap Ratio

Share of poorest quintile in national consumption.

TARGET 2: Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from hunger.

Prevalence of underweight children under three years at age.

GOAL 2: Achieve Universal Primary Education

TARGET 3: Ensure that by 2015. children everywhere, boys and girl all will be able to complete
a full course of primary education.

Indicators: Net Enrollment Ratio in primary education.

Proportion of pupils starting Grade 1 who reach Grade 5.
Literacy rate of 15-24 year olds.

GOAL 3: Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women

TARGET 4: Eliminate gender disparity in primary, secondary education, preferably by 2005,

and in all levels of education, no later than 2015.

Indicators: Ratio of girls to boys in primary, secondary and tertiary education.

Ratio of literate women to men, 15-24 years old.
Share of women in wage employment in the non agricultural sector.
Proportion of seats held by women in National Parliament.

GOAL 4: Reduce Child Mortality

TARGET 5: Reduce by two-thirds, between 1990 and 2015, the under-five Mortality Rate.

Indicators: Under Five Mortality Rate

Infant Mortality Rate
Proportion of one year old children immunised against measles.

GOAL 5: Improve Maternal Health

TARGET 6: Reduce by three quarters between 1990 and 2015, the Maternal Morality Ratio.

GOAL 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria and other Diseases

TARGET 7: Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS

TARGET 8: Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the incidence of Malaria and other major
diseases.

GOAL 7: Ensure Environmental Sustainability.

TARGET 9: Integrate the principle of sustainable development into country policies and
programmes and reverse the loss of environmental resources.

TARGET 10: Halve, by 2015 the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe
drinking water and basic sanitation.

TARGET 11: By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100
million slum dwellers.

GOAL 8: Develop a global partnership for development.

TARGET 12: In co-operation with the private sector, make available the benefits of new
technologies, especially information and communication.

PERFORMANCE FOR MDGS

MDG 1: ERADICATE EXTREME POVERTY AND HUNGER.

The all India Poverty Head Count Ratio (PHCR) estimate was 47.8% in 1990. In order to meet
the target the PHCR level has to be 23.9% by 2015. In 2011-12, the PHCR at all India level is
21.9% (IT HAS BEEN ACHIEVED
BEFORE TIME.)

During 2004-05 to 2011-12, the Poverty Gap Ratio reduced both in rural and urban areas.
While the rural PGR declined from 9.64 in 2004-05 to 5.05 in 2011-12 in the urban areas it
declined from 6.08 to 2.70 during the same period.

During 1993-94 to 2011-12, in urban areas, the indicator showed a decline from 8.0% in 1993-94
to 6.97% in 2009-10, and then showed a slight improvement 7.1% in 2011-12. In rural areas, the
share of poorest quintile steadily declined from 9.6% in 1993-94 to 9.1% in 2011-12.

The National Family Health Survey shows that, the proportion of under-weight children below 3
year declined from 43% in 1998-99 to 40% in 2005-06. At this rate of decline the proportion of
underweight children below 3 years is expected to reduce to 33% by 2015, which indicates India
is falling short of the target.

MDG 2: ACHIEVE UNIVERSAL PRIMARY EDUCATION

The Net Enrolment Rate (NER) in primary
education (age 6-10 years) was estimated at
84.5 per cent in 2005-06 (U-DISE) and the NER
has increased to 88.08 per cent in 2013-14.

The youth (15-24 years) literacy rate has increased from 61.9% to 86.14 per cent during the
period 1991-2011 and the trend shows India is likely to reach 93.38% which is very near to the
target of 100% youth literacy by 2015. At national level, the male and female youth literacy rate
is likely to be at 94.81% and
92.47%.

MDG 3: PROMOTE GENDER EQUALITY AND EMPOWER WOMEN

In Secondary education also gender parity has achieved GPI of GER is 1 in 2013-14 and in
tertiary level of education, the GPI of GER is 0.89 in 2012-13.

The youth literacy rate has increased from

61.9% to 86.14% during the period 1991-2011 and the trend shows India is likely to reach
93.38% which is very near to the target of 100% youth literacy by 2015. At national level, the
male and female youth literacy rate is likely to be at 94.81% and 92.47%.

During 1991- 2011, the increase in youth literacy rate was higher among females than males and
the gender gap is also declining. During this period, the average annual increase in female and
male literacy rate is 1.63 and 0.83 percentage points respectively.

The NSS (2011-12) had estimated the percentage share of females in wage employment in the
non- agricultural sector as 19.3% with corresponding figures for rural and urban areas as 19.9%
and 18.7% respectively. It is projected that, at this rate of progress, the share of women in wage
employment can at best reach a level of about 22.28% by 2015 which is far from the targeted
50%.

As in January 2015, India, the world’s largest democracy, has only 65 women representatives out
of 542 members in Lok Sabha, while there are 31 female representatives in the 242 member
Rajya Sabha and hence presently the proportion of seats in National Parliament held by women
is only 12.24% against the target of 50%.

MDG 4: REDUCE CHILD MORTALITY

An overall reduction of nearly 60% happened during 1990 to 2013, registering a faster decline in
the recent past, and if this rate of reduction is sustained, the achievement by 2015 is likely to be
very close to the target by 2015.
MDG 5: IMPROVE MATERNAL HEALTH

In 1990, the estimated MMR was 437 per 1,00,000 livebirths. In order to meet the MDG target,
the MMR should be reduced to 109 per 1,00,000 live births by 2015. As per the latest estimates,
the MMR status at all India level is at 167 in 2011-13.

MDG 6: COMBAT HIV/AIDS, MALARIA AND OTHER DISEASES

The prevalence of HIV among Pregnant women aged 15-24 years is showing a declining trend
from 0.89 % in
2005 to 0.32% in 2012-13.

According to Behavioural Surveillance Survey (BSS) conducted in 2001 & 2006, the national
estimates for Condom use at last high-risk sex (%) (Proportion of population aged 15-24 years
who used condom during last sex with non-regular partner) registered a 19% increase from
51.9% in 2001 to 61.7% in 2006. As per the ‘Condom Promotion Impact Survey 2010’, the
national estimate for Condom use at last high-risk sex is 74%, thus recording an improvement of
20% during 2006 to 2010.

The Annual Parasite Incidence (API) rate – Malaria has consistently come down from 2.12 per
thousand in 2001 to 0.72 per thousand in 2013, but slightly increased to 0.88 in 2014 but
confirmed deaths due to malaria in 2013 was 440 and in 2014 ,578 malaria deaths have been
registered.

In India, Tuberculosis prevalence per lakh population has reduced from 465 in year 1990 to 211
in 2013.
Tuberculosis Incidence per lakh population has reduced from 216 in year 1990 to 171 in 2013.
Tuberculosis mortality perlakh population has reduced from 38 in year 1990 to 19 in 2013.

MDG 7: ENSURE ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY

Per-capita Energy Consumption increased 8.76% annually between 2011-2013.

From the year 2000, the CFC consumption decreased steadily till 2008, but showed minor
increase in 2010.

The Carbon dioxide emission showed a percentage increase of 235.57% in 2014 over 1990 for
India.
During 2011-2013, there is an increase of 5871 sq. km in forest cover.

The network of Protected Areas comprising 89 National Parks and 489 Sanctuaries giving a
combined coverage of 155475.63 km2 in 2000, has grown steadily over the years.

As of 2014, there are 692 Protected Areas (103 National Parks, 525 Wildlife Sanctuaries, 4
Community Reserves and 60 Conservation reserves, covering 158645.05 km2 or 5.07% of the
country’s geographical area.

During 2012, at all India level, 87.8% households had access to improved source of drinking
water while 86.9% households in rural and 90.1% households in urban area had access to
improved source of drinking
water.

MDG 8: DEVELOP A GLOBAL PARTNERSHIP FOR DEVELOPMENT

The overall tele-density in the country has shown tremendous progress and is at 76% as on 31st
July 2014.

The internet subscribers per 100 population accessing internet through wireline and wireless
connections has increased from 16.15 in June 2013 to 20.83 in June 2014.

Q7 Give a detailed account of the achievements of MDG at global level.

Unprecedented efforts have resulted in profound achievements:-
GOAL 1: ERADICATE EXTREME POVERTY AND HUNGER

•Extreme poverty has declined significantly over the last two decades. In 1990, nearly half of the
population in the developing world lived on less than $1.25 a day: that proportion dropped to 14
per cent in 2015.

• Globally, the number of people living in extreme poverty has declined by more than halt,
falling from 19 billion in 1990 to 836 million in 2015. Most progress has occurred since 2000.

• The number of people in the working middle class-living on more than $1 a day-has almost
tripled between 1991 and 2015. This group now makes up half the workforce in the developing
regions, up from just 18 per cent in 1991.

• The proportion of undernourished people in the developing regions has fallen by almost half
since 1990, from 23.3 per cent in 1990-1992 to 12 9 per cent in 2014-2016

GOAL 2: ACHIEVE UNIVERSAL PRIMARY EDUCATION

• The primary school net enrolment rate in the developing regions has reached 91 per cent in
2015, up from 83 per cent in 2000.

• The number of out-of-school children of primary school age worldwide has fallen by almost
half, to an estimated 57 million in 2015, down from 100 million in 2000.

•Sub-Saharan Africa has had the best record of improvement in primary education of any region
since the MDGs were established. The region achieved a 20 percentage point increase in the net
enrolment rate from 2000 to 2015, compared to a gain of 8 percentage points between 1990 and
2000.

• The literacy rate among youth aged 15 to 24 has increased globally from 83 per cent to 91 per
cent between 1990 and 2015. The gap between women and men has narrowed.

GOAL 3: PROMOTE GENDER EQUALITY AND EMPOWER WOMEN

• Many more girls are now in school compared to 15 years ago. The developing
regions as a whole have achieved the target to eliminate gender disparity in primary, secondary
and tertiary education.

• In Southern Asia, only 74 girls were enrolled in primary school for every 100 boys in 1990.
Today, 103 girls are enrolled for every 100 boys.

• Women now make up 41 per cent of paid workers outside the agricultural sector, an
increase from 35 per cent in 1990.

• Between 1991 and 2015, the proportion of women in vulnerable employment as a

share of total female employment has declined 13 percentage points. In contrast,
vulnerable employment among men fell by 9 percentage points.

• Women have gained ground in parliamentary representation in nearly 90 per cent of the 174
countries with data over the past 20 years. The average proportion of women in parliament has
nearly doubled during the same period. Yet still only one in five members are women.

Goal 4: REDUCE CHILD MORTALITY

• The global under-five mortality rate has declined by more than half, dropping from
90 to 43 deaths per 1,000 live births between 1990 and 2015.

• Despite population growth in the developing regions, the number of deaths of children under
five has declined from 12.7 million in 1990 to almost 6 million in
2015 globally.

• Since the early 1990s, the rate of reduction of under-five mortality has more than tripled
globally.

• In sub-Saharan Africa, the annual rate of reduction of under-five mortality was over
five times faster during 2005–2013 than it was during 1990–1995.

• Measles vaccination helped prevent nearly 15.6 million deaths between 2000 and 2013. The
number of globally reported measles cases declined by 67 per cent for
the same period.

• About 84 per cent of children worldwide received at least one dose of measles-
containing vaccine in 2013, up from 73 per cent in 2000.

GOAL 5: IMPROVE MATERNAL HEALTH

• Since 1990, the maternal mortality ratio has declined by 45 per cent worldwide,
and most of the reduction has occurred since 2000.

• In Southern Asia, the maternal mortality ratio declined by 64 per cent between
1990 and 2013, and in sub-Saharan Africa it fell by 49 per cent.

• More than 71 per cent of births were assisted by skilled health personnel globally in 2014, an
increase from 59 per cent in 1990.

• In Northern Africa, the proportion of pregnant women who received four or more antenatal
visits increased from 50 per cent to 89 percent between 1990 and 2014.

• Contraceptive prevalence among women aged 15 to 49, married or in a union,

increased from 55 per cent in 1990 worldwide to 64 per cent in 2015.
GOAL 6: COMBAT HIV/AIDS, MALARIA AND OTHER DISEASES

• New HIV infections fell by approximately 40 per cent between 2000 and 2013,
from an estimated 3.5 million cases to 2.1 million.

• By June 2014, 13.6 million people living with HIV were receiving antiretroviral
therapy (ART) globally, an immense increase from just 800,000 in 2003. ART
averted 7.6 million deaths from AIDS between 1995 and 2013.

• Over 6.2 million malaria deaths have been averted between 2000 and 2015, primarily of
children under five years of age in sub-Saharan Africa. The global malaria incidence rate has
fallen by an estimated 37 per cent and the mortality rate by 58 per cent.

• More than 900 million insecticide-treated mosquito nets were delivered to malaria-endemic
countries in sub-Saharan Africa between 2004 and 2014.

• Between 2000 and 2013, tuberculosis prevention, diagnosis and treatment

interventions saved an estimated 37 million lives. The tuberculosis mortality rate
fell by 45 per cent and the prevalence rate by 41 per cent between 1990 and 2013

GOAL 7: ENSURE ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY

• Ozone-depleting substances have been virtually eliminated since 1990, and the
ozone layer is expected to recover by the middle of this century.

• Terrestrial and marine protected areas in many regions have increased substantially
since 1990. In Latin America and the Caribbean, coverage of terrestrial protected areas rose from
8.8 per cent to 23.4 per cent between 1990 and 2014.

• In 2015, 91 per cent of the global population is using an improved drinking water source,
compared to 76 per cent in 1990.

• Of the 2.6 billion people who have gained access to improved drinking water since
1990, 1.9 billion gained access to piped drinking water on premises. Over half of the global
population (58 per cent) now enjoys this higher level of service.

• Globally, 147 countries have met the drinking water target, 95 countries have met the sanitation
target and 77 countries have met both.

• Worldwide, 2.1 billion people have gained access to improved sanitation. The
proportion of people practicing open defecation has fallen almost by half since
1990.

• The proportion of urban population living in slums in the developing regions fell
from approximately 39.4 per cent in 2000 to 29.7 per cent in 2014.

GOAL 8: DEVELOP A GLOBAL PARTNERSHIP FOR DEVELOPMENT

• Official development assistance from developed countries increased by 66 per cent in real
terms between 2000 and 2014, reaching $135.2 billion.

• In 2014, Denmark, Luxembourg, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom continued to
exceed the United Nations official development assistance target of
0.7 per cent of gross national income.

• In 2014, 79 per cent of imports from developing to developed countries were

admitted duty free, up from 65 per cent in 2000.

• The proportion of external debt service to export revenue in developing countries

fell from 12 per cent in 2000 to 3 per cent in 2013.

• As of 2015, 95 per cent of the world’s population is covered by a mobile-cellular

signal.

• The number of mobile-cellular subscriptions has grown almost tenfold in the last 15 years,
from 738 million in 2000 to over 7 billion in 2015.

• Internet penetration has grown from just over 6 per cent of the world’s population
in 2000 to 43 per cent in 2015. As a result, 3.2 billion people are linked to a global
network of content and applications.