GENERAL BIOLOGY 11 FINALS

FINALS ASSESSMENT REVIEWER

LESSON 10 : COMPONENTS OF CELL MEMBRANE

Membrane
- Organize the interior of the cell
- Form spontaneously
- Controls the entry and exit of materials between the cells and its environment
Cell Organelles
- Defined by the membranes

Membrane Components

- Phospholipids
- Cholesterol
- Proteins (peripheral and integral)
- Carbohydrates (glucose)

● Make up the cell membrane

● Contains (2) fatty acid chains that are nonpolar
● Head is polar & contains a -PO₄ group & glycerol

Fluid Mosaic Model

Fluid individual phospholipids and proteins move

side - to - side with a layer

Mosaic pattern produced by the scattered protein

molecules when the membrane is viewed from
above.

Polar, hydrophilic (water loving) “head”

Nonpolar, hydrophobic fatty acid “tails (water fearing)
Polar, hydrophilic “head”
Makes the membrane “Selective” in what crosses.

What is a cell?
- Enclosed, defined by a membrane
- A wide variety of proteins are located in and around membranes.

- Integral proteins
 - extended through one or both layers of the phospholipid bilayer

Some proteins are attached to lipid molecules which anchor them to the membrane.

- Receptor proteins
transmits signals across the membrane

Transporter and channel proteins

- Form pores through the membrane that can be opened and closed to allow specific molecules to
pass through.

What are the Functions of the cell membrane?

- Provides binding site for enzymes
- Interlocking surfaces bind cells together (junctions)
- Contains the cytoplasm (fluid in cell)

The major components of the Cell Membrane

- Also called equilibrium
- Protective barrier
- Allow cell recognition
- Allows a unicellular organism to move
- Balance internal condition of cells
- Maintained by plasma membrane controlling enters and exits the cell
- Regulates transport in and out of the cell
- Provide anchoring sites for filaments of cytoskeleton
-
Lesson 11: Transport Mechanisms in the cell

Diffusion
- A passive process
- Requires no energy used to make the molecules move
- Molecules move from of High to Low concentration

Simple diffusion
- Doesn’t require energy
- Moves High to Low concentration

Facilitated diffusion
- Doesn’t require energy
- Uses transport proteins to move High to Low concentration
- Membranes will randomly move through the pores in channel process

Types of Transport Proteins

Channel proteins
- Embed in the cell membrane

Carrier proteins can change shape to move material from one side of the membrane to the other
 Isotonic solution No net movement
- High

Hypotonic solution Cytolysis - The excessive intake of water when the

cell is immersed that results in cell bursting
- No difference

Hypertonic solution Plasmolysis occurs due to exosmosis

- Low

Active Transport
- Requires energy or ATP
- Moves materials from Low to High concentration
- Against concentration gradient
-
Sodium Potassium pump
- Found in many cell (plasma) membranes.
- Powered by ATP,
- The pump moves sodium and potassium ions in opposite directions each against its
concentration gradient.

What are the three forms of transport across the membrane?

Diffusion of substances into and out of cells is mediated by the plasma membrane.
The passive forms of transport, diffusion and osmosis, move nonpolar materials of small molecular weight
across membranes.

What are the forms of transport across the membrane?

- Diffusion of substances into and out of the cell is mediated by the plasma membrane.
- The passive form of transport, diffusion, and osmosis, move nonpolar materials of small
molecular weight across membranes.

Three processes that move molecules in and out of the cell.

- Diffusion
- Osmosis
- Active transport

Lesson 12: ENDOCYTOSIS & EXOCYTOSIS

What is the meaning of Exocytosis?

- Moving things out
- Molecules move out of the cell by vesicles that fuse with the plasma membrane.
- How many hormones are secreted
- How nerve cells communicate with one another

Exocytic vesicle
 - Large molecules that are manufactured in the cell

a. Pinocytosis - most common form of endocytosis

b. “Cell drinking”
c. Takes in dissolved molecules as a vesicle

Receptor-mediated endocytosis

- Process by which cell absorb metabolites, hormones, and proteins

- Inward budding of the plasma membrane (invagination)

Endocytosis - Phagocytosis
- Engulf large parties such as food, bacteria, etc.
- “Cell eating”

Phagocytosis
- Engulf other cells of particles

Lesson 13 A: TYPES OF BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES

What are Organic compounds?

- Based on Carbon and include hydrogen

- Includes carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
- Includes vitamins

Dehydration synthesis

Monosaccharides
- The most basic form of carbohydrates

Sucrose
- a common sugar produced naturally in plants
- Made of (2) sugars linked together and these are called disaccharides
- Requires some digestion to be used by cells

Dehydration Synthesis
- Process of joining two molecules, compounds together following the removal of water
- Revisable process called Hydrolysis

What are the macromolecules?

- Large biomolecules
- Many of these are polymers
Polymers
- Long molecules built together by linking small, similar subunits (monomers)

The Types of Biomolecules

 - Carbohydrates
- “Hydrated” carbon
- Elements of C, H, O
- Can be simple monomers
- Can be complex polymers
- Hydrogen and oxygen are in ratio of 2: 1

Monosaccharides

- Fructose, Galactose, Glucose

Disaccharides

- Lactose : glucose + galactose

- Maltose: glucose + glucose
- Sucrose: glucose + fructose

Lipids / Fats

- Are often stored in special adipose tissue, within large fat cells
- Concentrated sources of energy which can be broken down to provide fuel for aerobic respiration
- Some lipids have a four ringed structure

A. Progesterone
- A steroid hormone released by the corpus luteum that stimulates the uterus to prepare for
pregnancy.

B. Aldosterone
- To regulate salt and water in the body, thus having an effect on blood pressure.

C. Testosterone

- affects a man’s appearance and sexual development.

D. Estradiol
- Its main function is to mature and then maintain the reproductive system.

E. Cortisol

- Curbs functions that would be nonessential or detrimental in a fight-or-flight situation.

Fatty acids

- Have no double bonds between carbon atoms

- Straight structure
- Unhealthy fats usually from animal sources
Phospholipids

- Primary structural component of all cellular membranes

- Acts as a shock absorber
- Good insulator

Stored lipids provide insulation in extreme environments.

Forming a Triglyceride

- Not a polymer

LESSON 13.D : PROTEIN

Proteins

- composed of amino acids, which are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen,
oxygen or sulfur.

Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins, and proteins are the building blocks of muscle
mass.

Amino group -NH₂

Carboxyl Group -COOH
Hydrogen - H
Side group - R

The essential amino acids are histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine,
threonine, tryptophan, and valine.

The nonessential amino acids are alanine, asparagine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, and serine.

Linking Amino acids

- Cell links amino acids together to make proteins

- The process called condensation or dehydration
- Peptide bonds form to hold the amino acids together

Folding of Polypeptides to form Proteins

- Shapes of proteins determine how they interact with each other molecule.
- Shapes of proteins determine their particular function.

ENZYMATIC PROTEIN
- Enzymes are globular protein
- Their folded conformation creates an area (Active site)
- Nature and arrangement of amino acids in the active site make it specific for only one type of
substrate
SIGNAL PROTEINS
Hormones

- Signal proteins that regulate body hormones

Insulin

- Regulates glucose concentration in the blood

STRUCTURAL PROTEINS

Keratin

- Makes up about 90% of your hair.

Collagen

- Fibrous protein and the main structural protein in the extracellular matrix found in the body's
various connective tissues.

WHAT ARE THE FUNCTIONS OF PROTEIN?

TRANSPORT PROTEIN

Hemoglobin helps in oxygen transports.

Channel and Carrier protein aid cells to be selective in moving substances into and out of the cells.

DEFENSE PROTEIN

Antibodies a protective protein produced by the immune system in response to the presence of a
foreign substance, called an antigen.

CONTRACTILE PROTEINS

- proteins that mediate sliding of contractile fibres (contraction) of a cell's cytoskeleton, and of
cardiac and skeletal muscle.
- Helps regulate body temperature

DENATURING PROTEINS

- Changes in temperature
- Ph can denature (unfold)

Nucleic Acids

- Composing elements : C, H, O, P, N
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
- Encodes information used to assemble proteins

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

- Reads DNA-encoded information to direct protein synthesis

What are the Nucleotides?

- an organic molecule that is the building block of DNA and RNA

- phosphodiester bond is the linkage between the 3' carbon atom of one sugar molecule and the
5' carbon atom of another, deoxyribose in DNA and ribose in RNA

Types of Nucleotides
a. Adenine
b. Cytosine
c. Guanine
d. Thymine

Hydrogen bonding is a special type of dipole-dipole attraction between molecules, not a covalent bond
to a hydrogen atom

base pair (bp) is a fundamental unit of double-stranded nucleic acids consisting of two nucleobases
bound to each other by hydrogen bonds.

DNA Base Pairs

- Attached to each sugar is one of four bases--adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), or thymine
(T).
-
Condensation to Form Disaccharides

Energy Storage

- Sucrose is a store of energy in sugarcane and sugar beets

Energy transport

- Carbohydrate is transported in plant as sucrose

Polysaccharides - composed of monosaccharide units bound together by glycosidic linkages.

What are the Structural Carbohydrates?

Chitin

- Arthropod exoskeleton and fungal cell wall

 - Modified form of cellulose

Lesson 13. E: METABOLIC ROLE OF BIOMOLECULES

What does the “Metabolic Role of Biomolecules” mean?

Metabolic = metabolism = all the chemical reactions in cell

Role = function / job or position
Biomolecules = carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acid
Metabolic Role of Biomolecules = involvement of carbohydrates,fats, proteins in the chemical reactions in
cells.

Metabolic Role of carbohydrates and Lipids

Glucose (carbohydrate)
- An immediate source of energy.

Lipids
- Long - term energy storage

Metabolic Role of carbohydrates and Lipids

Respiration
- converts oxygen and glucose into water and carbon dioxide.

Photosynthesis
- converts carbon dioxide and water into oxygen and glucose.

Enzymes
- Controls the chemical reaction in cells.

Chlorophyll
- Protein that traps the sun’s energy during photosynthesis.

Metabolic Role of Hormones

Hormones regulate body functions.

WHAT ARE THE METABOLIC ROLE OF VITAMINS?

- Essential organic catalyst of metabolism

- Needed in the small amounts for the correct functioning of the body.
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
- For building connective tissue used for attaching organs together, or for protection.

Vitamin D (calciferol)
- Needed to absorb calcium from food.
- About 99% of the calcium in our bodies is in our bones and teeth.
 Vitamin K (phylloquinone)
- Plays a vital role in blood clothing, as well as bone and heart health.

Vitamin E (tocopherol)
- Antioxidant
- It may help to protect cells from damage.

Vitamin Deficiency and Disorders

● Lack of Vitamin C causes scurvy

● Lack of Vitamin D causes rickets in young children
- Softening of the bones of the spinal column and bowlegs osteomalacia in adults.

LESSON 14 : PHOTOSYNTHESIS

What does Photosynthesis mean?

- An anabolic, endergonic, carbon dioxide (CO