Advantages of M6FY Series Flour Mill

 The M6FY series flour mill is a kind of small flour milling machines, the length of whose roller
is below 200mm. The small flour mill for sale have a couple of rollers. The two roller of flour mill is
located at a level. Generally, the small flour mill is controlled by hand.
 Compared to big pneumatic flour milling machines, the small flour mill featured compact
structure, small area occupied, low investment, easy operation, suitable for home use or small wheat
grinding workshop.
 Besides grinding wheat, 6FY series flour mill have widely application in grinding corn,
sorghum, cocoa, coffee and other grain material. It can be an multi-function flour milling machine.
 The M6FY series flour mills can be equipped to small flour milling line with capacity lower
than 50 ton per day. Such as the flour milling system developed by our company, 6FTY-18B/C,
6FTF-19, 6FTYF-32, 6FTFZ-37, all of them adopt 6FY series flour milling machines.

The Technological Process of Milling Flour

After being cleaned and tempered (moisture content should be controlled within 13-15%), the wheat
is lifted to the hopper, then it is fed evenly into between the fast roller and slow roller. The grinded
grain flows into the round separator to sieve flour, the bran flows out through the bran vent. Flour
flows out through the flour vent. And then the bran is fed into the hopper by manual or wind power to
grind once more. Generally speaking, 5 times will be all left for the processing of wheat milling.
1. hopper
2. deflector
3. fast roller
4. slow roller
5. down reel
6. separato
KEMC has been working on wheat flour making machine for more than 30 years. We specialized in
improvement on single wheat flour mill machine, small wheat flour mill plant, capacity from 10TPD to
30TPD and complete set of wheat flour mill 40-500TPD and other grain flour milling machine and
plant. According to different needs, we can supply the different designs with different cost to meet
different buyer's request.
Wheat is the most common grain that used in flour producing, also wheat flour has the widest range
of usage in baking and other area.

GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF WHEAT FLOUR

According to it’s gluten content, wheat flour can be divided into following aspects:

 All-purpose or plain flour is a blended wheat with a protein content ranging between 9% and
12%. it is usually blend of hard and soft wheat. It is usually used in house baking as an
inexpensive choice.
 Bread flour or strong flour is always made from hard wheat. The protein content is between
10% and 13%, which makes it excellent for yeast bread baking.
 Cake flour is a finely milled white flour made from soft wheat. The protein content is between
8% and 10%, making it suitable for soft-textured cakes and cookies.
 Durum flour is made from Durum wheat and is suited for pasta making, traditional pizza and
so on.
CHARACTERISTIC OF WHEAT FLOUR MILL MACHINE

 The new modern wheat flour mill machine is simple in structure and easy to install, the
working hour of the flour mill machine is also longer than the past, the whole set of machine can
work for 5-7 days without stopping, the only thing that need to pay attention is lubrication.
 The new modern wheat flour mill machine is much more easy to operate, some of the
complete set of flour mill machines are equipped with PLC control system. As for the old style
flour mill, it needs plenty of human workforce. The new modern flour mill production line are
energy saving and convince.
 There is a great difference between the traditional flour miller and the new modern flour mill
plant. The function of the old one is limited. Nowadays, a variety of grain can be milled in to
flour powder and the powder is much more delicate. It can mill wheat, corn, cassava, chili,
sesame and so on. To crate more choice for customers and wildly applied in home, small
workshop and large factory.

CHARACTERISTIC OF KEMC WHEAT FLOUR MILL MACHINE

 Our company offer coordinated services. Our service may includes budget, designing,
delivery, test run, debugging, installation and afters-sale service. Even if you have not been in a
flour milling industrial at all, you do not need to worry about it at all.
 Quality assurance. Our equipment meet the world standard in quality. We are ISO 9001-
2008 certified and CE qualified. Quality is the basis for survival, word of mouth is the way
success. We also have 24 hour consulting and after sale service for customers.
 Good reputation and moderate price. Since 1992. KEMC has sold it’s wheat flour mill
machine to all over the world. For now, every project we built won good reputations. Not only for
our high quality products but also for our thoughtful service.
  From single machine to complete set of wheat flour production line, you can find what you
want here. all kinds of flour milling machine, grain cleaning machine, packing machine,
magnetic selector, dust collector and so on

Mill (grinding)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Attrition Mill

A tabletop hammer mill

Other names Grinding mill

Uses Grinding

Related items Mortar and pestle

Expeller

Extruder

A mill is a device that breaks solid materials into smaller pieces by grinding, crushing,

or cutting. Such comminution is an important unit operation in many processes. There
are many different types of mills and many types of materials processed in them.
Historically mills were powered by hand or by animals (e.g., via a hand crank), working
animal (e.g., horse mill), wind (windmill) or water (watermill). In modern era, they are
usually powered by electricity.
The grinding of solid materials occurs through mechanical forces that break up the
structure by overcoming the interior bonding forces. After the grinding the state of the
solid is changed: the grain size, the grain size disposition and the grain shape.
Milling also refers to the process of breaking down, separating, sizing, or classifying
aggregate material. For instance rock crushing or grinding to produce uniform
aggregate size for construction purposes, or separation of rock, soil or aggregate
material for the purposes of structural fill or land reclamation activities. Aggregate milling
 processes are also used to remove or separate contamination or moisture from
aggregate or soil and to produce "dry fills" prior to transport or structural filling.
Grinding may serve the following purposes in engineering:

 increase of the surface area of a solid

 manufacturing of a solid with a desired grain size
 pulping of resources

Contents

 1Grinding laws
 2Grinding machines
o 2.1Ball mill
o 2.2Rod mill
o 2.3Autogenous mill
o 2.4SAG mill
o 2.5Pebble mill
o 2.6High pressure grinding rolls
o 2.7Buhrstone mill
o 2.8Vertical shaft impactor mill (VSI mill)
o 2.9Tower mill
 3Types of grinding mills
 4See also
 5References
 6External links

Grinding laws[edit]
In spite of a great number of studies in the field of fracture schemes there is no formula
known which connects the technical grinding work with grinding results. To calculate the
needed grinding work against the grain size changing three semi-empirical models are
used. These can be related to the Hukki relationship between particle size and the
energy required to break the particles. In stirred mills, the Hukki relationship does not
apply and instead, experimentation has to be performed to determine any relationship. [1]

 Kick for d > 50 mm

 Bond[2] for 50 mm > d > 0.05 mm

 Von Rittinger for d < 0.05 mm

with W as grinding work in kJ/kg, c as grinding coefficient, dA as grain size of
the source material and dE as grain size of the ground material.
A reliable value for the grain sizes dA and dE is d80. This value signifies that
80% (mass) of the solid matter has a smaller grain size. The Bond's grinding
 coefficient for different materials can be found in various literature. To
calculate the KICK's and Rittinger's coefficients following formulas can be
used
with the limits of Bond's range: upper dBU = 50 mm and lower dBL = 0.05 mm.
To evaluate the grinding results the grain size disposition of the source
material (1) and of the ground material (2) is needed. Grinding degree is the
ratio of the sizes from the grain disposition. There are several definitions for
this characteristic value:

 Grinding degree referring to grain size d80

Instead of the value of d80 also d50 or other grain diameter can be used.

 Grinding degree referring to specific surface

The specific surface area referring to volume Sv and the specific surface area
referring to mass Sm can be found out through experiments.

 Pretended grinding degree

The discharge die gap a of the grinding machine is used for the ground solid
matter in this formula.

Grinding machines[edit]
In materials processing a grinder is a machine for
producing fine particle size reduction
through attrition and compressive forces at the grain
size level. See also crusher for mechanisms producing
larger particles. In general, grinding processes require
a relatively large amount of energy; for this reason, an
experimental method to measure the energy used
locally during milling with different machines was
recently proposed.[3]

Operation of a ball mill

Ball mill[edit]
A typical type of fine grinder is the ball mill. A slightly
inclined or horizontal rotating cylinder is partially filled
with balls, usually stone or metal, which grind material
to the necessary fineness by friction and impact with
the tumbling balls. Ball mills normally operate with an
approximate ball charge of 30%. Ball mills are
characterized by their smaller (comparatively) diameter
and longer length, and often have a length 1.5 to 2.5
times the diameter. The feed is at one end of the
cylinder and the discharge is at the other. Ball mills are
commonly used in the manufacture of Portland
cement and finer grinding stages of mineral processing.
Industrial ball mills can be as large as 8.5 m (28 ft) in
diameter with a 22 MW motor,[4] drawing approximately
0.0011% of the total world's power (see List of
countries by electricity consumption). However, small
versions of ball mills can be found in laboratories where
they are used for grinding sample material for quality
assurance.
The power predictions for ball mills typically use the
following form of the Bond equation:[2]
where
 E is the energy (kilowatt-hours per metric or
short ton)
 W is the work index measured in a laboratory
ball mill (kilowatt-hours per metric or short ton)
 P80 is the mill circuit product size in micrometers
 F80 is the mill circuit feed size in micrometers.
Rod mill[edit]
A rotating drum causes friction and attrition
between steel rods and ore particles.[citation needed] But
note that the term 'rod mill' is also used as a
synonym for a slitting mill, which makes rods of iron
or other metal. Rod mills are less common than ball
mills for grinding minerals.
The rods used in the mill, usually a high-carbon
steel, can vary in both the length and the diameter.
However, the smaller the rods, the larger is the total
surface area and hence, the greater the grinding
efficiency[5]
Autogenous mill[edit]
Autogenous or autogenic mills are so-called due to
the self-grinding of the ore: a rotating drum throws
larger rocks of ore in a cascading motion which
causes impact breakage of larger rocks and
compressive grinding of finer particles. It is similar
in operation to a SAG mill as described below but
does not use steel balls in the mill. Also known as
ROM or "Run Of Mine" grinding.
SAG mill[edit]
 Principle of SAG Mill operation

SAG is an acronym for semi-autogenous grinding.

SAG mills are autogenous mills that also use
grinding balls like a ball mill. A SAG mill is usually a
primary or first stage grinder. SAG mills use a ball
charge of 8 to 21%.[6][7] The largest SAG mill is 42'
(12.8m) in diameter, powered by a 28 MW (38,000
HP) motor.[8] A SAG mill with a 44' (13.4m) diameter
and a power of 35 MW (47,000 HP) has been
designed.[9]
Attrition between grinding balls and ore particles
causes grinding of finer particles. SAG mills are
characterized by their large diameter and short
length as compared to ball mills. The inside of the
mill is lined with lifting plates to lift the material
inside the mill, where it then falls off the plates onto
the rest of the ore charge. SAG mills are primarily
used at gold, copper and platinum mines with
applications also in the lead, zinc, silver, alumina
and nickel industries.
Pebble mill[edit]
A rotating drum causes friction and attrition
between rock pebbles and ore particles. May be
used where product contamination
by iron from steel balls must be avoided. Quartz or
silica is commonly used because it is inexpensive
to obtain.
High pressure grinding rolls[edit]
A high pressure grinding roll, often referred to as
HPGRs or roller press, consists out of two rollers
with the same dimensions, which are rotating
against each other with the same circumferential
speed. The special feeding of bulk material through
a hopper leads to a material bed between the two
rollers. The bearing units of one roller can move
linearly and are pressed against the material bed by
springs or hydraulic cylinders. The pressures in the
material bed are greater than 50 MPa (7,000 PSI).
In general they achieve 100 to 300 MPa. By this the
material bed is compacted to a solid volume portion
of more than 80%.
The roller press has a certain similarity to roller
crushers and roller presses for the compacting of
powders, but purpose, construction and operation
mode are different.
Extreme pressure causes the particles inside of the
compacted material bed to fracture into finer
particles and also causes microfracturing at the
grain size level. Compared to ball mills HPGRs
achieve a 30 to 50% lower specific energy
consumption, although they are not as common as
ball mills since they are a newer technology.
A similar type of intermediate crusher is the edge
runner, which consists of a circular pan with two or
more heavy wheels known as mullers rotating
within it; material to be crushed is shoved
underneath the wheels using attached plow blades.
Buhrstone mill[edit]

Table top hammer mill

Another type of fine grinder commonly used is

the French buhrstone mill, which is similar to old-
fashioned flour mills.
Vertical shaft impactor mill (VSI mill)
[edit]
 Main article: VSI mill
A VSI mill throws rock or ore particles against a
wear plate by slinging them from a spinning center
that rotates on a vertical shaft. This type of mill
uses the same principle as a VSI crusher.
Tower mill[edit]
Tower mills, often called vertical mills, stirred mills
or regrind mills, are a more efficient means of
grinding material at smaller particle sizes, and can
be used after ball mills in a grinding process. Like
ball mills, grinding (steel) balls or pebbles are often
added to stirred mills to help grind ore, however
these mills contain a large screw mounted vertically
to lift and grind material. In tower mills, there is no
cascading action as in standard grinding mills.
Stirred mills are also common for mixing quicklime
(CaO) into a lime slurry. There are several
advantages to the tower mill: low noise, efficient
energy usage, and low operating costs.

Mill flow diagram, mill adjustment and mill balance

“The mill design starts with the flow diagram (grinding diagram). The preparation of the mill
diagram is the selection and design of order, types, number, and specification of grinding units by
taking into account technical data. The length of a flow sheet determine the flexibility of
the miller has in making changes in flour yield and quality of flour produced to meet specific
needs of different customers.”
Prof. Farhan Alfin
Avrasya University
Head of Food Engineering Department
Although the aim of wheat grinding is very simple, the modern systems carrying out this simple process is
very complex. The aim of wheat grinding is to break the wheat kernel and to separate endosperm from
the bran and germ and then to refine endosperm and turn it into flour or semolina. Regardless of the
system applied in the milling process, a part of the bran is mixed with the endosperm, and some
endosperm remains with the shell and germ. In other words, it is not possible to separate bran,
endosperm, and germ from one another. In the modern grinding system, the grinding and sieving
processes are combined in an appropriate manner, and these mixed quantities are tried to be minimized.
These processes are carried out in a gradual manner. At the end of each grinding, the classification is
formed, and materials in different class are separated, and different processes are applied to each class.
Thus, the bran and germ are effectively separated.
The grinding systems of flour mills have a continuous process, meaning that material moves from one
machine to another just like in other food processing. But, this is a far more complex system. Because the
material coming out of the grinding machine is divided into 4-5 materials in the next sieve and each is
sent to a separate grinding machine. For this reason, the characteristics or working settings of a machine
change the properties of the products. In addition, an instant stoppage in a device causes significant
disorder in the entire system. For this reason, it is required to form an appropriate flow diagram
compatible with the mill design and to choose an active machine. A high-quality flour from well-planned
mills with high-tech machines can be obtained on the condition that these machines are configured in a
good way.

Whether called the mill flow diagram or flow chart, this document, is the first stage in the mill’s design
stages and is a valuable tool to manage mill successfully. The flow chart is a two-dimensional road map
of the grinding process and draws the direction for any material coming from a machine to go in what
direction and to which direction the material came from.
In the mill flow chart, the following information should exist at least:
a. The current diagram shows the locations of the machines to be used.
b. Flow direction, distribution, and quantities of material are shown.
c. Technical information is given about grinding machines, semolina purifier, sieves, and other used
equipment.
DIAGRAM PLANNING
The mill design and milling are like art based on experience rather than science. In contrast to sectors in
which various factors determining the dynamics of the process are well known and formula and
equilibriums allowing effective sizing and management of equipment define processes, in the milling,
generally speaking, there are many factors affecting the grinding quality and the amount of the final
product. For example, the results obtained from the mill (for example: flour yield and quality) vary
according to the climate and humidity conditions, and the diagram varies according to the capacity of the
mill. When planning a diagram, you must have information and experience with grinding. Information at
the new literature on the planning of a mill diagram is not enough and is often not based on industrial
experience.
As companies in the milling industries see the diagram as a competition element and consider as
important in terms of grinding economy, they do not publish the diagram. Researches at universities and
research centers are limited because in commercial scale mills many variables have to be tried on a large
scale. Commercial mills do not permit such researches. Some of the information in sources is either old or
limited.
When industrial companies design mills, commercial concerns, and technical data are taken into
consideration. Before industrial companies offer a tender to investors, in order to gather these data, they
want investors to fill out a survey. Generally, technical data can be classified into two main subjects:
general technical data and technical data related to grinding diagram.

General technical data is the result of feasibility report on the weather conditions where the mill will be
installed (temperature and moisture level), how much wheat will be taken at a time and which
transportation vehicle will be used, how much it will be stored, wheat storage preferences, building height,
product packaging, storage duration and delivery method and loaded deliveries, milling automation,
preferences regarding to building type (hangar or multi-storey full closed).
The technical data for the grinding diagram can be summarized as follows:
• The capacity of the mill in 24 hours,
• Variety of wheat available and its characteristics,
• Product diversity, quality, and extraction rate.
In terms of the available wheat diversity and characteristics, the mills can be classified as specialized and
multi-purpose mills. Specialized mills are designed for a single product (eg common flour, biscuit flour). In
the multi-purpose mill, different types of wheat are milled separately, and the flours are blended, and
various flours are obtained. This practice provides high added value. However, the requirement for
investment, information, personnel, and technology are high as well. Based on the technical data related
to the grinding diagram, the number of machines required in forming the diagram (such as unit grinding
length, unit screening area and the use of semolina purifier) is calculated.

The mill design starts with the flow diagram (grinding diagram). The preparation of the mill diagram is the
selection and design of order, types, number, and specification of grinding units by taking into account
technical data that previously specified.

The length of a flow sheet determine the flexibility of the miller has in making changes in flour yield and
quality of flour produced to meet specific needs of different customers . Although it is complex to design a
flow sheet, the analysis of the flow chart is similarly complex. However, the analysis of the flow chart can
be easy by splitting into several subsystems. The flow sheet of the milling process can be divided into
flour main subsystems:
1. Break System: The break system break and open the kernel and separate the endosperm as much as
possible with minimum bran and flour. In this process, it pays special care to leave endosperm as big as
possible. So, it gets easier to separate this from bran at purifier. The break system consists of break roller
mill corrugated and after each of these machines, there is sifting machinery. Based on the capacity of
mills, there are 4-5 break stages in the break system. The final stages in mills with high capacity can be
formed with two breaking machines with thin and coarse. After each stage, the material is sorted by
sifting. Flour is separated at sifting. The material, which is coarse and consists of particles in which the
bran and endosperm have not yet been separated, is sent to the next breaking machine. The medium
size material is sent to the purification system of the plant for the separation of pure endosperm particles.
These processes are repeated at each breaking stage and at the end of the last stage; the endosperm is
removed with the residual bran.
2. Purification System: The purification system consists of machines called as purifier that separate
bran, pure endosperm, and composite particles in midsized coming from the sifting of the break system
based on size, air resistance, and specific weight. Bran are delivered to feed materials, and composite
particles are sent to either breaking system or sizing system based on the capacity, and the endosperm
particles are also classified and sent to the reduction rollers. The use of the purification system is reduced
in modern mills due to cost efficiency and efficiency in other parts of the grinding process.
3. Sizing System: The duty of sizing system is to separate bran, endosperm, and germ from endosperm
particles attached to the shell and came from the purification system and to refine coarse semolina which
is not very clean. Particles coming to the sizing system are cleaner than materials going to breaking
system and coarser than semolina and are not as pure as semolina.
4. Reduction System: The reduction system also consists of a series of rollers and sifting machines after
each roller. However, the surface of the reduction rollers is not corrugated as the breaking rolls, but it is
smooth. The duty of reduction system is to refine pure endosperm particles coming from the sifting of the
sizing system and the purification system and turn into flour at desirable fineness. In the reduction
system, it is essential that the material is refined while controlling the damage of starch granules and the
minimum abrasive of bran particles. This process is done again gradually, at the end of each stage a part
of the flour is separated, and the larger material is sent to the next stage.
MILL ADJUSTMENT
It is wrong to think that “The flow diagram will be kept constant during operation of the mill once it is
designed in the mill design.” On the contrary, the current flow sheet should be reviewed from time to time
according to conditions such as wheat characteristics, climate conditions, and flour quality and the
required adjustment should be carried out. But, it should not be changed too often. An experienced
person should know the overall diagram of the mill and must work on it first when it is necessary to make
a change. In order to determine whether a change in the flow sheet is necessary, the products and the
mid products are checked regularly after being visually analyzed. Generally, it is necessary to try to
change the proportions of conditioning, breaking release , and purifier material before making changes in
the flow diagram.
The objectives of changing flow diagram:
a. To obtain the highest flour yield from the mill.
b. To produce flour with the least possible ash.
c. To ensure that the characteristics of the flour are appropriate to the market requirements and purpose.
The flow sheet is regarded as the most important tool for miller, mill engineer, and even production and
quality team to engage close communication. After the new mill is installed and in the process of
operation or in the case of the appropriate use of the flow sheet of the previous mill, the flow sheet plays a
critical role in the mill performance. In other words, the correct diagram is the key to success in grinding.
In the success of mill design and diagram, it is crucial how equipment is in line with the objective and to
use the equipment with the optimal setting. Mill diagram is one of the factors affecting the profit of the
enterprise. Production costs play a role in the profit of enterprise, and mill performance is influential in
production costs. Mill performance is evaluated with different parameters. However, the measurements
used to determine mill performance, in general, can be listed as follows.

a. Total flour yield or extraction rate for specific ash content from milled wheat. The flour yield is the first
parameter that defines the production cost of products.
b. The ratio of acquired high quality (first clear flour) in contrast to low-quality flour (second clear flour)
from the mill.
c. The flexibility to mill many types of wheat. In some cases, it is required to grind hard, soft and even
durum wheat. In this case, the flow sheet should be appropriate, and there should not be many problems
in the transition from one wheat to another.
d. Flexibility to produce different products. The type of flour required from the mill may vary according to
market requirements. It requires the flow diagram to be flexible. Although the flow diagram is as simple as
possible, it becomes more complex to provide flexibility.
e. Energy efficiency. It is the amount of energy required to produce unit flour. This is directly related to the
flow sheet.
f. Production stability. For high-capacity enterprises, flour with stability properties is very important. The
flow diagram is of great importance for obtaining stable flour.
MILL BALANCE
As long as materials in the mill work according to calculated flow amount at design, it is said that mill is in
balance. Even if the mill is well-designed and suitable machines are selected, the mill’s performance is
reduced and good results are not achieved if it is not precisely adjusted by an experienced person. In
order to maintain the balance or even have a good balance, all the milling machines must be adjusted. To
achieve optimum efficiency in the operation of all machines, all machines must be operated at the
optimum setting, and all tools of the mill should be fed with the correct quality, size, and appropriate
amount of material. The deviation in a machine affects the performance of subsequent tools because the
balance of the material coming there is disturbed. For good adjustment of the machine, it is necessary to
analyze the properties of the material well and to know where and how to adjust accordingly.
To reach the balance of the mill, the adjustment should be carried out by testing periodically when raw
material or mid products are changed. For this, ash curve, granulation curve, and distribution table are
found out. These provide useful information to the miller about the total performance of the mill, the
quality of the raw material, and the efficiency of the mill.

Food safety aspects of grain and cereal product quality*

A.J. Alldrick, in Cereal Grains, 2010
13.5.1 The contribution of grain processing to food safety
Grain processing, as exemplified by four milling, is essentially a physical process whereby the
kernel is cleaned, adjusted to an appropriate moisture content and then mechanically reduced to
the desired particle size to produce a four (Fig. 13.2). Where appropriate, four production also
involves fractionation – not only to separate bran, germ and endosperm from each other but also
assure the correct particle size of the milled endosperm. The process involves neither chemical
nor thermal treatments and thus does not bring about decontamination of the grain itself.
Nevertheless, as discussed below, the milling process can bring about changes in the distribution
of contaminants when comparing amounts within the grain and the resultant mill fractions.
Contaminants are not only heterogeneously distributed within any particular lot of grain but also
within the kernel. Modern milling processes can effectively achieve contaminant redistribution in
the four and by-products produced. This is achieved at two levels. Prior to milling grain is
‘cleaned’ (Fig. 13.2) by the physical removal of extraneous matter and substandard grains.
Cleaned grain may also be subject to further ‘ cleaning’ by the removal of surface bran layers by
pearling or scouring. A second factor is that milling often involves processes that bring about
both mechanical reduction and also fractionation. Certain mill streams (e.g. endosperm) will
therefore often contain lower concentrations of a particular contaminant while others (e.g. bran
layers) may contain higher levels.
The significance of the milling process can be demonstrated by consideration of its role in the
quality of four in terms of microbiology and mycotoxin content. In terms of the microbiological
quality of four, the major contributory factor is the level of microbiological contamination of the
grain from which it is produced (Richter et al., 1993; Berghofer et al., 2003). However, mill
hygiene may also be a contributory factor. Australian studies have associated microbiological
loading, in part, with the conditioning stage of the four milling process due to the presence of
highly contaminated wheat residues in the damper (Eyles et al., 1989). In common with a
number of other types of contamination, microbial contamination appears to occur on the surface
of the kernel. Consequently during the milling process microbial loading is differentiated
between the bran and the endosperm fractions, with higher levels of loading associated with
those fractions associated with the grain surface (e.g. bran), as opposed to the endosperm
(Berghofer et al., 2003). Weather conditions at harvest may also be a factor. Surveys and
analyses of UK four produced from new harvest wheats by Legan and co-workers (Legan, 1994;
Legan and Curtis, 1990) correlated wetter harvests with both increased total bacterial viable
counts as well as total numbers of moulds and yeasts.
As shown in Fig. 13.3, mycotoxin contamination of milled cereals is a significant issue with
regards to notifications made by enforcement agencies within the EU. Milling can contribute to a
reduction in mycotoxin loading of the finished four. This reduction is particularly dependent on
facilities within the screen room and the four extraction rate. In the case
of Fusarium spp. mycotoxins, physical sorting methods such as the use of specific-gravity tables
can lead to the removal of certain types of contaminated (shrivelled) grains and hence reduce the
mycotoxin content of the resultant four (Tkachuk et al., 1991). Reliance on such systems
presupposes a strong linkage between grain damage and mycotoxin contamination (which may
not necessarily be the case; Edwards et al., 2001) and that not only the capital costs of the
equipment but also of handling the rejected grain have to be met. The milling process itself can
also contribute to a reduction in the final levels of mycotoxin contamination seen in the finished
product. Separation of endosperm from the bran layers has been reported as contributing to
reductions in levels of both ochratoxin A (Alldrick, 1996) and deoxynivalenol (Abbas et al.,
1985; Lepschy and Suess, 1996) contamination of the final four.
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Food Safety Aspects of Grain and Cereal Product Quality
Anton J. Alldrick, in Cereal Grains (Second Edition), 2017
15.3 Grain processing (flour milling)
Grain processing as exemplified by flour milling (Fig. 15.4) is essentially a physical process
whereby the kernel is cleaned, adjusted to an appropriate moisture content and then mechanically
reduced to the desired particle size to produce a flour and by-products (e.g. bran). Where
appropriate, flour production also involves fractionation—not only to separate bran, germ
and endosperm from each other but also to assure the correct particle size of the milled
endosperm.

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Figure 15.4.  Primary processing (e.g. flour milling).

The process only involves physical processes in terms of food-safety steps, such as grain
cleaning. For example the use of gravity tables can be effective in removing admixtures such as
seeds of toxic plants or shrivelled grains which might be local sources of high levels
of Fusarium mycotoxins. The risk to the consumer is therefore to a large degree predicated by
the level of contamination of the grain supplied to the miller. It is therefore incumbent on the
miller not only to set specifications detailing limits for the presence of particular compounds but
also to have the appropriate supplier quality assurance (SQA) systems in place to ensure
compliance. In developing these specifications attention has to be paid not only to any statutory
levels set for a particular contaminant in grain but also to levels which are compatible with the
needs and obligations of the miller’s customers. In this case, the term ‘customer’ applies not only
to those purchasing the flour but also the milling by-products (e.g. animal-feed compounders).
The complexity of the situation is shown by consideration of current EU regulations concerning
permitted levels of deoxynivalenol in wheat (European Commission, 2006a). Depending on the
food, limits are set at 250 mg/kg for cereal-based foods intended for babies, infants and young
children; 500 mg/kg for bakery wares, breakfast cereals etc.; 750 mg/kg for grains and flour
intended for human consumption and 1250 mg/kg for unprocessed grains. Given the
mechanically reductive nature of the milling process, this will have implications in terms of the
final specification set by the miller to the vendor for the grain. It is therefore likely that the miller
will have to pass on the consequences of his customers’ requirements to his grain supplier by
specifying maximum levels of mycotoxin contamination for the grain lower than the limit set for
unprocessed grain in the regulations. The margin of difference required will depend on the flour
extraction rate used (discussed later in the chapter), and the requirements of the miller’s
customers. With regard to SQA, for it to be effective, it is necessary for the purchaser to have
both the appropriate knowledge and information to set relevant specifications as well as the tools
to verify compliance. Acquisition of knowledge and information requires an integrated
appreciation of both the grain’s provenance and associated food-safety hazards, together with the
risk of them occurring. From this base, appropriate verification programmes can be developed.
At a generic level these could involve some form of supply chain inspection and audit process,
which could be undertaken either by the purchaser or through a third party supplier certification
scheme. An example of the latter approach can be found in the standard terms and conditions of
trade adopted by the National Association of British and Irish Millers (National Association of
British and Irish Millers, 2014). These specify that grain grown in the United Kingdom will be
purchased from third-party certified (Red Tractor Assurance, 2014) suppliers.
Any management system requires that it be validated, verified and reviewed as necessary [see
HACCP principle 6, Codex Alimentarius (2003)]. At one level this could be requiring the vendor
to supply an appropriate certificate of analysis. Ideally information provided in the certificate,
should be based on analyses performed in an appropriately accredited [e.g. ISO
17025:2005, International Organisation for Standardisation (2005)] laboratory on a sample
collected in an appropriate manner. Ultimately, however, verification will also include periodic
analysis commissioned by the grain processor. Strategies for the development of appropriate
analytical programmes for food-safety management purposes within the cereals industry have
been described by Poms et al. (2009). Essentially the intensity of testing depends on the degree
of confidence that can be placed on the functionality of the SQA system in respect of a particular
contaminant. Where confidence is high, the frequency of analyses may be reduced to as little as
once per harvest. Under certain circumstances, for example in years where the risk of mycotoxin
contamination is unacceptably high it may be necessary to positively accept at-mill intake on the
basis of results from the use of rapid test kits [discussed by Alldrick (2014)].
Notwithstanding this observation the milling process can bring about changes in the distribution
of contaminants when comparing amounts within the grain and the resultant mill fractions.
Contaminants are not only heterogeneously distributed within any particular lot of grain but also
within the kernel. Modern milling processes can effectively achieve contaminant redistribution in
the flour and by-products produced. This is achieved at two levels. Prior to milling, grain is
‘cleaned’ (Fig. 15.4) by the physical removal of extraneous matter and sub-standard grains.
Cleaned grain may also be subject to further ‘cleaning’ by the removal of surface bran layers by
pearling or scouring. A second factor is that milling involves processes that bring about both
mechanical reduction and also fractionation. Certain mill streams (e.g. endosperm) will therefore
often contain lower concentrations of a particular contaminant while others (e.g bran layers) may
contain higher levels. The significance of the milling process can be demonstrated by
consideration of its role in the quality of flour in terms of microbiology and mycotoxin content.
In terms of the microbiological quality of flour, the major contributory factor is the level of
microbiological contamination of the grain from which it is produced (Richter et al., 1993;
Berghofer et al., 2003). However, mill hygiene may also be a contributory factor. Australian
studies have associated microbiological loading, in part, with the conditioning stage of the flour
milling process due to the presence of highly contaminated wheat residues in the damper (Eyles
et al., 1989). In common with a number of other types of contamination, microbial
contamination appears to occur on the surface of the kernel. Consequently during the milling
process microbial loading is differentiated between the bran and the endosperm fractions, with
higher levels of loading associated with those fractions associated with the grain surface (e.g.
bran), as opposed to the endosperm (Berghofer et al., 2003). Weather conditions at harvest may
also be a factor. Surveys and analyses of UK flour produced from new harvest wheats by Legan
and co-workers (Legan, 1994; Legan and Curtis, 1990) correlated wetter harvests with
both increased total bacterial viable counts as well as total number of moulds and yeasts.
As shown in Fig. 15.3, mycotoxin contamination of cereals and cereal products is a significant
issue with regards to notifications made by enforcement agencies within the European Union.
Milling can contribute to a reduction in mycotoxin loading of the finished flour. This reduction is
particularly dependent on facilities within the screen room and the flour extraction rate. In the
case of Fusarium spp. mycotoxins, physical sorting methods such as the use of specific-gravity
tables can lead to the removal of certain types of contaminated (shrivelled) grains and hence
reduce the mycotoxin content of the resultant flour (Tkachuk et al., 1991). Reliance on such
systems pre-supposes a strong linkage between grain damage and mycotoxin contamination
[which may not necessarily be the case, Edwards et al. (2001)] and that not only the capital costs
of the equipment but also of handling the rejected grain have to be met. The milling process itself
can also contribute to a reduction in the final levels of mycotoxin contamination seen in white
flour. Separation of endosperm from the bran layers has been reported as contributing to
reductions in levels of both ochratoxin A (Alldrick, 1996) and deoxynivalenol (Abbas
et al., 1985; Lepschy-von Gleissenthal and Suess, 1996) contamination of the final flour.
Fractionation of grain in this manner can be a two-edged source since the process does not
destroy the mycotoxin, it simply removes the fraction containing it, with a consequent increase in
mycotoxin concentration within that fraction. This can become an issue as within the European
Union following the wet 2008 wheat harvest which led to higher than normal levels
of zearalenone in the crop and eventually higher levels of zearalenone in wheat bran intended for
breakfast cereals. This ultimately led to a derogation in the regulations and a temporary increase
in the maximum permitted levels for this mycotoxin (Edwards, 2011).
View chapter Purchase book
Storage, handling and preprocessing
Kurt A. Rosentrater, A.D. Evers, in Kent's Technology of Cereals (Fifth Edition), 2018
5.1.1 Material handling
In modern grain storage and processing facilities, mechanical conveyors are key to moving grain,
flour, feed and other products. The most common conveyors are shown in Fig. 5.10. For the most
part, bucket elevators are used for vertical transfer of grain. Horizontal transfer can be
accomplished via paddle drag, belt and screw conveyors. Paddle and belt conveyors can also be
used to raise grain at small elevation changes (i.e., conveyors installed at shallow angles), but
screw conveyors can actually be used for steep (and even vertical) angles – it can be more
expensive to use a screw conveyor instead of a bucket elevator – depending upon the distance
lifted and the specific situation. Gravity is also used, either via confined flow (i.e., by chute or
spout) or unconfined flow (i.e., open drop, such as filling a silo, bin or container). Specific
information about engineering and design of these systems can be found at the Conveyor
Equipment Manufacturers Association webpage (http://www.cemanet.org).
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Figure 5.10.  Mechanical conveyors are used in modern grain facilities to transfer grain; bucket elevators for

vertical transfer; and belt, drag and screw conveyors for horizontal transfers.

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Assessing and Managing Quality at all Stages of the Grain
Chain
Colin Wrigley, in Cereal Grains (Second Edition), 2017
1.6.5 Processing
Whatever type of grain processing is involved, assessment of its quality is integral to efficient
processing. Blending of grain streams from different storages or deliveries is the first avenue of
management available to the processor. In the milling of wheat to white flour, it is estimated that
about 75% of flour quality is determined by the quality of the incoming wheat; that is
management factors (mill adjustment and environmental conditions) contribute only 25%
(Posner and Hibbs, 2005). This example illustrates the importance of adequate assessment of
grain quality as a basis for sound management with respect to safe-guarding the quality of the
product—in this case, flour for the specific processing requirement at the next stage, possibly
large-scale bread manufacture, pastry production or processing into cookies and confectionery.
The milling of wheat flour requires the miller to achieve tight specifications that are set by the
flour customer. The blending of flour streams is an important management tool in meeting these
specifications, but this approach is totally dependent on effective assessment of quality prior to
and during milling (see Chapter 22).
Barley for malting is another grain for which detailed information about grain quality is critical
to achieve effective management in processing. In this case, the maltster must have uniformity of
grain size, of variety and of germination rate, thus to achieve uniform germination and maximise
the extraction of soluble sugars for malting (see Chapter 9).
For feed mill operation, a primary concern is for the absence of disease or contaminants that may
cause injury to stock. As a result, analyses for mycotoxins and contaminating grains are
conducted on incoming grain.
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Cereal raw material pretreatment
Kaisa S. Poutanen, in Breakfast Cereals and How They Are Made (Third Edition), 2020
The malting process
Like in other processing, grains need to be cleaned and graded before malting, which involves
three stages: steeping, germination, and kilning (Fig. 5.1). The malting process starts with
steeping, where water is supplied for the grains to absorb. Water uptake depends on the steeping
time and temperature and, in addition, on kernel characteristics. The moisture content of the
grains is increased to 44%–48% normally at 13–20°C in different phases for a period of several
days. The grains are in the beginning immersed in water, and water may also be sprayed on the
grains to control moisture. The grains also need to be aerated during steeping to allow for
adequate respiration rate (Kunze, 1996).

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Figure  5.1. The processing steps of the grain from field to malt.

The second major step in the malting process is germination. During germination, the growth of
the new plant is initiated (Fig. 5.2). For even germination, the grains need to be evenly wetted. It
is also controlled by the level of grain dormancy, which depends on different endogenous (e.g.,
phytohormones such as abscisic acid and gibberellic acid) and environmental factors, such as
light, temperature, water status, and bacteria in soil (Shu et al., 2015). The earlier floor maltings
have nowadays been replaced with germination boxes or drums, where conditions can be
controlled and the grains aerated to provide oxygen and remove carbon dioxide. The grains are
turned regularly to avoid temperature gradients and packing of growing rootlets. Germination
happens under humid and aerobic conditions at 16–20°C for 3–6 days depending on raw material
and process conditions.
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Figure  5.2. Progress of sprouting in rapidly germinating barley kernels: (a) after steeping, (b) after 1 day of

germination, and (c) before kilning (green malt).

 Courtesy of Dr. Ulla Holopainen-Mantila, VTT.

In the third and final step, germination is terminated by kilning (drying) the grains for around
21 h at temperatures increasing in steps from 50 to 85°C or more depending on the type of malt
to be produced. This stops the biochemical reactions initiated in the grain during germination and
also improves microbiological stability of malt. Color and flavor compounds are produced due to
Maillard reactions during kilning. The final moisture content should be below 5% (Kunze, 1996).
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Processing of germinated grains
Dariusz Dziki, Urszula Gawlik-Dziki, in Sprouted Grains, 2019
Abstract
In this chapter the methods of germinated grains processing (GG) are described. The ways of GG
grains drying are shown and the method of GG dehydration is proposed. The grinding process of
GG is also studied and the different methods of size reduction of GG are presented. The data
revealed that the crushing of GG before drying significantly reduces the drying time and the
germination of cereals reduces grain hardness, and thus has a significant effect on the grinding
process, both on the grinding energy requirements and the grinding particle size distribution. As
a result of this GG are more easily ground than sound grains. Moreover, other thermal and
nonthermal methods for processing germinated grains are discussed and processing of flour from
germinated grains is described. In summary, germinated grains can be consumed fresh, cooked,
or as a value-added healthy food ingredient after the dried grain is converted to a powdered form.
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Dust Pollution from Agriculture
B. Sharratt, B. Auvermann, in Encyclopedia of Agriculture and Food Systems, 2014
Grain elevators and feed mills
Grain-storage and grain-processing facilities are found across a wide range of sizes,
configurations, and capacities throughout the world. For example, individual farmers may have
on-site bunkers and silos for grain storage. Local farmers' cooperatives typically have one or
more storage elevators, sometimes known as country elevators, to facilitate grain marketing for
their members. Animal-feeding operations may also use bunkers and silos to store and mills to
process grains and other components into animal feed. Flour mills, bread factories, breweries,
and other grain-processing industries may maintain on-site storage of grains to ensure adequate
production capacity. Regional transfer facilities in larger towns and cities will aggregate grain
from surrounding country elevators into numerous, large elevators for long-distance transport by
rail or tractor-trailer. Terminals and processing facilities along major waterways or harbors will
have sizeable elevators and mills to store and process a wide range of grains for import/export
markets. At all scales, however, the dust associated with loading, unloading, transferring, storing,
and processing grain has significant implications for human safety, human health, and
environmental air quality.
Grain dust, which is rich in organic carbon, is highly flammable and can detonate or deflagrate,
with catastrophic results in fatalities, injuries, and loss of property. The risk of grain-dust
explosions is present when the suspended dust concentration exceeds the minimum explosive
concentration (MEC), dusty air is confined within an enclosed space, adequate oxygen is
available to support combustion, and an ignition source (e.g., static electricity, electrical shorts or
loose connections, unsealed motors, pilot lights, failing bearings between metal parts, and
cigarettes) is present (Jones, 2011). Particles of grain dust are intrinsically flammable, but their
explosive risk increases as particle size decreases. The MEC of grain dusts may be as low as 45–
50 g m−3, with optimum explosive concentrations between 100 and 150 g m−3 (Gillis, 1985).
Occupational health is at risk when grain-storage or grain-processing workers do not wear
adequate respiratory protection. Grain dusts may include soil particles, fragments of plant
tissues and grains, insect fragments, mold spores, fungi, bacteria, viruses, and other biological
aerosols. Even when biological aerosols are noninfectious, they may contain nonviable or dead
organisms whose cellular components (e.g., endotoxins, lipopolysaccharides, and
peptidoglycans) may be toxic to humans, with either chronic or acute health effects (Schwartz et
al., 1995). Environmental air quality may also be a concern for neighboring residences and
communities, especially for susceptible persons including the young, elderly, asthmatics, or
those with weak or compromised immune function. In general, grain dust from elevators and
feed mills is a class of air pollutants subject to governmental regulatory standards.
Emission rates from elevators and mills are generally computed using emission factors or
process-weight tables and, similar to cotton gins, each discrete process within an elevator or mill
will have its own emission factor (Figure 7). For example, the emission factor for grain cleaning
in elevators or grain crushing in feed mills is at least twice that of receiving grain at either
facility (Table 4). In addition, each type of grain has its own intrinsic dustiness, which may vary
with moisture content, harvest method, or other management factors (USEPA, 2003). In
principle, then, there could be a unique emission factor for each permutation of grain type, grain
condition, harvest method, and elevator or mill process.
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Figure 7.  Schematic of emissions sources in a grain elevator (USEPA, 2003). VOC, volatile organic

compound.
 Table 4 . Example emission factors for processes within grain elevators and feed mills in the United States (USEPA,

2003)

TSP emission PM10 emission PM10/TSP

Process
factor (g mg ) −1
factor (g mg ) −1
ratio
Feed mill:
• 8.5 1.25 0.15
Grain receiving
33.5
•
Hammer mill with
cyclone
1.65 0.4 0.24
•
Feed shipping

Grain elevator:
• 37.5 9.5 0.25
Grain cleaning with
17.5 3.9 0.22
cyclone
•
Grain receiving,
hopper truck 12.5 3.15 0.25
•
Grain handling
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Food Processing
Ruth MacDonald, Cheryll Reitmeier, in Understanding Food Systems, 2017
6.3.1 Processing Cereal Grains by Milling
In the early years of grain processing, local mills served farming communities throughout the
country but, with the building of railroads and improved transportation during the late 1800s,
grain processing moved to larger cities. With ready access to major waterways and railroads to
deliver grain and distribute products, Minneapolis, Chicago, and Omaha became the nation’s
largest grain processing centers (Fig. 6.2).
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Figure 6.2.  The city of Minneapolis was a hub for grain milling in the early 1900s because of its location on

the Mississippi River and proximity to wheat growing regions. The Washburn-Crosby Milling Complex in

Minneapolis later became General Mills, which marketed Gold Medal Flour.

Source: Photo from the Library of Congress image library.

Milling is a process in which grains such as oats, wheat, rice, and corn are dehulled and ground
into smaller pieces or flours to improve palatability, reduce cooking time, and create food
products. Each type of grain has a unique processing method that yields a wide range of
products. The milling process usually includes removal of the outer hull which contains tough
fibrous material. The grains may then be toasted, soaked, or cooked to soften and release the
starch and other carbohydrates. Flaking, crushing, or grinding the grains is done to generate the
desired product. For example, whole wheat flour is made using the entire wheat kernel that
includes both the germ (part of the kernel that contains most of the vitamins and minerals) and
the endosperm (inner part of the kernel that is mostly starch). White flour is made from just the
endosperm. Because unsaturated fatty acids contribute to rancidity and subsequent off-flavors,
removal of the germ (which contains about 10% fat in most cereal grains) from the rest of the
kernel improves the storage time of white flour compared to wheat flour. The germ, however,
contains most of the B vitamins and minerals, so whole wheat flour has more of these nutrients
than white flour. A process of bleaching white flour, by exposed it to small amounts of chlorine
gas or benzoyl peroxide, was found to improve the elasticity of the dough made from the flour
and inhibited mold growth. This made bleached white flour a desired product. In addition to
producing flours with different compositions, modern milling techniques can separate flour
particles of different sizes to produce flours with exact protein contents for cakes,
cookies, doughnuts, and breads. Different types of wheat are also processed for pastas, cereals,
and additives for a wide variety of foods. Processing of grains can create more convenient food
products. For example, whole brown rice requires about 50 minutes of cooking to become
softened enough to eat. Polishing the grain to remove the hull allows the white rice to be cooked
and ready to eat in about 20 minutes. Fully cooked and dried rice (instant rice) can be cooked
(rehydrated) in a minute. Reduced cooking times provide convenience and saves time and
energy.
Before industrial breadmaking was widespread, bread was made at home using whole grain
flours. At that time, commercially made white bread, made from bleached white flour, was
considered a modern food and was more expensive than whole wheat breads. The addition of B
vitamins and iron replaced the nutrients lost in milling (enriched flour). White bread was favored
by those who could afford it and being able to serve white bread was a bit of a status symbol. In
the 1920s the white bread product “Wonder Bread” was marketed as “helping build strong
bodies 12 ways” due to the addition of 12 vitamins and minerals and was heavily advertised as a
healthy food for children. With further understanding of the nutritional value of whole wheat,
white bread has become less favored. Today, whole wheat bread is more expensive than white,
refined bread, illustrating the changing dynamic of food technology and nutrition science on food
choices.
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Safe Storage and Preservation Techniques in Commercialized
Agriculture
Narashans Alok Sagar PHD, Sunil Pareek PhD, in Natural Remedies for Pest, Disease and Weed
Control, 2020
Preservation and Storage of Grains
Grains such as rice, wheat, corn, oats, and pulses are important source of our diet and energy.
Their preservation and storage is very crucial to meet our future needs. Preservation (drying,
gamma irradiation, and ozone treatment) and storage (short term or long term) may vary
according to the commodity and purpose. Long-term storage is done at commercial
level [127,128]. Global grain loss is about 20% due to improper facilities of storage. The demand
of grains is increasing everyday with the population [129]. Microbes, insects, mechanical
damage, enzymatic activities, and problem of heat result in loss of quality in grains at the time of
storage. Right method of storage and selection of efficient machinery can prevent this loss [128].
Proper harvesting and storage of grain are the main factors to protect grains from beetles, moths,
weevils, and rodents [130]. Before storing the grains, cleaning and drying of grains, selection of
suitable storage site and structure, and proper fumigation of store are important factors [128].
Apart from this, there is a need to utilize integrated pest management strategies due to limitation
of regulating agency and consumer concerns over residues of chemicals [131].
Thermal disinfestation
This technique is used in grain processing units to protect grains from insects by high
temperature range (54–60°C). The duration of the operation may vary from few hours to 24 or
more hours, depending upon the area of storage house [132]. Thermal disinfestation is becoming
popular in flour mills and about to replace methyl bromide (MB) fumigation, because in
chemical treatment, manufacturing process should be stopped, whereas thermal disinfestation
can be carried out in running manufacturing condition [131].
Aeration systems
Mechanical aeration by fans is popular practice to decrease temperature of grains. Aeration refers
movement of forced ambient air via bulk of grain to revamp storage quality [131]. Aeration is
one of the popular methods of grain preservation and to maintain abiotic factors such as
humidity, temperature, and atmospheric condition of stored grain bulk. Force aeration is used in
commercial practice which gets advantage of porosity and thermal insulation property of grains.
As per the experiment for wheat, it will take 220 h to cool down the temperature from 35°C to
20°C at 3.49 m3 h−1 t−1 airflow rate and 200 h at 3.88 m3 h−1 t−1 aeration rate. If airflow rate is
increased to 5.63 m3 h−1 t−1, the cooling time would be 135h [133].
Refrigerated air
Ambient air is not sufficient in the case of fungi, mites, and insects; therefore, chill air is applied
to preserve stored grains from insects, germination, and self-heating and to maintain quality
during warm season. Chilling of grains was successfully applied on sensitive grains such as
maize, soybean, seeds, edible beans, and dry gains for the protection against insects and
mites [133].
Storage technologies for grains
Basically, there are two ways for storage of the grains: temporary method and long-term storage
methods [130]. Temporary storage is done at field level, and aerial storage, storage on drying
floor or ground, and open timber platforms are the temporary storage methods. Long-term
storage is classified into solid wall bins, storage baskets, calabashes, gourds, jar, pots, and
underground storage [128]. In modern way, warehouses are the best structures constructed for
quality grain storage. Aeration and sealing are the main components to be taken care of during
bulk storage. Based on requirement, ambient or refrigerated aeration can be applied to stop
storage loss. Following are the popular storage techniques.
Storage in bag
Storage in bag is a long-term storage method. Rice and legumes are packed into bags (sacks) and
then stored to maintain the quality of grains. Numbering and sampling of sacks are easy in this
method but controlling of the grains in bags is tough. Apart from this, limited amount of grains is
stored per unit area in this method compare to bulk storage method. It is an expensive method of
storage because it is time consuming and involves higher labor cost.
Underground storage
This method of storage is considered effective to keep the grain safe for a longer time.
Sometimes pits are made airtight, and they keep grain cool [134]. Before soil covering, stalk,
polyethylene, hay, and apron are used at base and on the grains in this technique. This method
does not allow the air to come in contact with grains during whole storage. Due to unavoidable
weather conditions, this method has been obsolete for storing grains [128].
Storage in silo
This is most preferred method of grain storage in plants. The merits of this method are less time
consuming, less cost of labor, easy discharge and hygiene maintenance during processing. More
quantity of grains can be stored in silo due to its vertical orientation. Silos can be made up of
concrete, wood, and steel. Wood silos are prone to fire, and so they are generally ignored for
preservation. Steel, concrete, and galvanized silos are the common and ideal options for grain
storage. They are easy to control and resistant to insects and fire. Barley, wheat, rye, and oats can
be stored in concrete and steel silo as well [134].
Bulk storage
Bulk storage offers both horizontal and vertical warehouses for grain storage. Leveling of the
bulk stack surface is important in this technique. It gives more unit area for storing wheat, rye,
oat, barley, corn, lentil, and chickpea. It is time saving and requires less labor cost [135].
Modified atmosphere technology
Modified atmosphere (MA) comprises CO2, O2, and N2 gases in different ratio that provides
protection to food materials [136]. From past decades, atmospheric manipulation has been
carried out throughout the world for the protection of grains from adverse conditions and
pathogens [137–139]. Hermetic and airtight storage methods have been extensively used to
protect the quality of grains from chemical residues, attacking insect, and fungi. MA and
controlled atmosphere (CA) technologies offer a replacement for conventional chemical methods
which has negative effects on food and environment. However, the commercial use of MA and
CA still needs to be explored because it is limited to some countries for grain storage [139].
Hermetic storage
Hermetic storage is a kind of MA technology which is also called as airtight storage, sealed
storage, and sacrificial sealed storage. This method seals the available atmosphere by increasing
CO2 and decreasing O2 which is responsible for the growth of aerobic pathogens and
insects [140]. Hermetic environment keeps the grain quality intact for longer period and protects
from mites, insects, and other microorganisms [11]. Hermetic storage has been proven to be a
better technique for insect control (up to 99.9% killing) than conventional fumigants. When
grains were stored under such condition, only 0.15% loss was observed during 15 months of
storage [141]. Protective storage of pulses, cereals, oilseeds, coffee, and cocoa can be done by
this technique for many years. This method has been successfully used in plastic structures and
bulk storage for long-term storage of grains. Additionally, there are various storage systems
based on hermetic technique—(1) bunker gastight storage: for conserving huge bulks from
10,000 to 15,000 tons; (2) flexible gastight silo: for preserving up to 1000 tons of bulk in bags
and weld-mesh container; (3) gas-tight liners: suitable for storage cubes of 5–1000 tons of corn
or rice paddy. These systems provide space to MA technology for storage of grains throughout
the world [131].
Hermetic storage of paddy and rice seeds has been carried out from a long time in different
countries such as India, Indonesia, Pakistan, Cambodia, East Timor, Vietnam, and Sri
Lanka [142]. Coconut are multicapacity (5–1000 tons) storage structure which is used to store
grains in a protective environment. Coconuts are widely used in African and Asian countries to
store shelled corn and corn seeds. The flexible storage units (hermetic) are used at village as well
as district level to reserve the corn [142]. In Cyprus, hermetic bunkers (10,000–15,000 tons) are
utilized to store barley up to 3 years with germination (above 88%) and total losses up to
0.98% [143]. In the case of wheat, grains are stored at 12.5% of moisture content in hermetic
unit to prevent quality degradation [132]. Pulses are susceptible to Callosobruchus
chinensis and Callosobruchus macula which can be inhibited by hermetic storage. In many
African countries, pulses are stored in coconut which provides storage capacity (20–50 tons) to
the farmers during off season [144]