3.

FUEL

Fuels are those substances which release thermal (heat) energy when ignited at a sufficiently
high temperature. Most of the commonly used fuels consist primarily of hydrogen (H) and
carbon (C); and hence, they are called hydrocarbon fuels, denoted by C nHm. But, there will also
be Oxygen (O), Nitrogen (N), Sulfur (S) and moisture (H2O) in small amounts. These fuels exist
in all states; for instance: coal(solid), gasoline or diesel oil(liquid), and propane or butane(gas).

The properties and characteristics of fuels play a vital role in the design, power and torque
output, efficiency and fuel consumption, emission, noise, reliability and durability of the engine.
One of the engineer’s duty in this field of study is, to estimate the quantity of air required to burn
a given quantity fuel and the amount of thermal (heat) energy to be released. This requires a
further knowledge of the properties of matter and the chemistry of combustion. IC engines use
different kinds of Conventional and Alternative fuels.

3.1. Conventional Fuels

Conventional fuels are derivatives of crude petroleum (crude oil). Crude petroleum is a dark oily
liquid known as rock oil (In Greek, petra means rock and oleum means oil). It is formed from
bacterial decomposition of the remains of animals and plants buried under the sea or the crust of
the earth over millions of years ago. When these organisms (animals and plants) died, they sank
to the bottom and got covered by sand and clay. Over a period of millions of years, gradually
converted into hydrocarbons due to heat, pressure and catalytic action. The so formed
hydrocarbons rose through porous rocks and trapped by impervious rocks forming an oil trap.

Natural gas is found above petroleum. The crude petroleum is obtained by drilling a hole into the
earth’s crust and sinking a pipe into it. When the pipe reaches the oil deposit, natural gas comes
out first with a high pressure. After the pressure has subsided, the crude oil is pumped out of the
oil well. This process of obtaining crude oil from its source is called mining.

Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons, such as: Alkanes(Paraffins), Alkenes (Olefins),

Naphtenes (Cycloparaffins), Aromatics(Benzene). The actual composition of petroleum depends
upon its place of origin. The crude petroleum obtained by mining is a dark viscous liquid called
Crude oil. Before using a crude oil (crude petroleum) it must be separated into various
components. The process of separating petroleum into useful fractions or components and

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removal of undesirable impurities is called refining. The refining of petroleum is carried out by
the process of fractional distillation as shown in the figure. Fractional distillation is the basic
refining process used to separate the crude oil (the crude petroleum) into more desirable fractions
or products.

Figure 2.1 Refining of petroleum

The refining of petroleum is done in big refineries. The first step during refining is neutralization
of crude oil by washing with acidic or basic solution as needed. Then, the oil is heated in a
furnace to about 675 K and the vapor so obtained is entered into a fractionating tower. The tower
is divided into a number of compartments by means of shelves (trays) having holes as shown in
the figure. The holes are covered by caps which allow the lighter (more volatile) components to
pass up the column while the heavier (less volatile) components condense and flow onto trays
below. Each shelf is provided with an overflow pipe which keeps the liquid to a certain level and
allows the rest to flow down to the lower shelf.

During fractional distillation, the fractions (components) with lower boiling points rise up the
tower and condense at different levels depending upon their boiling points.

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 Figure 2.2 different fractions of petroleum refining.

Chemical Composition of Pertoleum

I. Alkanes(Paraffins):- have a chemical formula CnH2n+2. They can be ‘Straight chain or

Normal Paraffins (n-Paraffins)’ and ‘Branched chain or Iso-Paraffins’.
a) Straight chain or n-Paraffins consist of a single bond, straight chain molecular structure
and are saturated compounds as the valency of carbon is fully utilized. Hence they are
stable but have poor knock-resistant quality.

Figure 2.3 Structure of Straight chain or n-Paraffins

b) Branched chain or Iso-Paraffins consist of a single bond, branched molecular structure

and are saturated compounds as the valency of carbon is fully utilized. Hence they are
stable and also have good knock-resistant quality.

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 Figure 2.4 Structure of Branched chain or Iso-Paraffins

II. Alkenes(Olefins):- have a chemical formula CnH2n for ‘mono-olefins’ and CnH2n-2 for ‘di-
olefins’. They consist of one or more double bonded carbon atoms with a straight chain
molecular structure and are unsaturated compounds as the valency of carbon is not fully
utilized. Hence they are unstable but have good knock-resistant quality. These
hydrocarbons can readily oxidize when they present in a cracked fuel. This results in
‘gummy deposit’ formation in the storage. As a result, the percentage of these
hydrocarbons should be kept lower (less than about 3%).

Figure 2.5 Structure of Olefins

III. Naphtenes(Cyloparaffins):- have a chemical formula CnH2n. They consist of a single

bond with a ring molecular structure and are saturated compounds as the valency of
carbon is fully utilized. Hence they are stable and also have good knock-resistant quality.

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 Figure 2.6 Structure of Naphtenes

IV. Aromatics( Benzene) :- have a chemical formula CnH2n-6. They consist of one or more
double bonded carbon atoms with a ring molecular structure and are unsaturated
compounds as the valency of carbon is not fully utilized. Hence they are unstable but
have good knock-resistant quality.

Figure 2.7 Structure of Aromatics

CONVENTIONAL FUELS FOR IC ENGINES

Conventional fuels for SI engines ( Gasoline ) : Gasoline is one of the major fuels used for SI
engines which is a mixture of various hydrocarbons, such as: paraffins, olefins, napthenes, and
aromatics. The composition depends upon the source of crude oil and the nature of refining
process.

Main desirable properties of ‘Gasoline’

1. Heating (Calorific) Value (Higher (HHV) or Lower (LHV)).

2. Volatility.

3. Knock resistance (Octane Number) and

4. Self Ignition Temperature (SIT).

4. Ease of handling or storage.

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Heating Value (HV):- refers to the energy content of the fuel. The higher the heating value, the
more energy it releases during combustion and this depends on the H/C ratio. Higher H/C ratio
mean, more HV. Note:- Heating Value (HV) can be of Higher Heating Value (HHV) or Lower
Heating Value (LHV) depending on the state of H2O.

Volatility:- is commonly known as the evaporating tendency of a liquid fuel.

Advantage

• If the fuel is more volatile, there will be good or homogeneous air-fuel mixture formation
during intake and compression strokes (for SI engines) and promotes cold staring
behavior of the engine (for both SI and CI engines).

Disadvantage

• If the fuel is more volatile, the self ignition temperature (SIT) or the fuel resistance to
knock will be lower. Hence, there will be self- or auto-ignition of the air-fuel mixture (for
SI engines).

Knock resistance and Self Ignition Temperature (SIT): When the temperature of an air-fuel
mixture is raised high enough, the mixture will tend to ignite by itself without the assistance of
the igniter (spark plug). The temperature at which ‘self-ignition’ occur is called ‘self ignition
temperature (SIT)’. This is the basic principle of ignition in CI (diesel) engines, where
compression ratio is high enough so that the temperature rises above self ignition temperature
(SIT) at the end of compression stroke. Self-ignition then occurs when the fuel is injected into
the combustion chamber. On the other hand, self-ignition or auto-ignition is not desirable in SI
engines, where spark plug is used to ignite the air-fuel mixture at the proper time during the
engine cycle. When self-ignition occurs in SI engine, undesirable high pressure pulses or waves
are generated and this may cause an audible sound and vibration and also engine damage. It is,
therefore, recommended to use a fuel with a lower Self Ignition Temperature (SIT) or higher
Knock-resistant quality. Or higher Octane Number (ON) (for SI engines).

Octane Number (ON) is the property of a fuel which describes how a fuel will or will not self-
ignite is called the Octane Number (ON). This is a numerical scale generated by comparing the

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self-ignition characteristics of the given fuel to that of a standard reference fuels. The two
standard reference fuels are:

• Normal heptane or n-heptane (C7H16):- this fuel has lower resistance to knock and is
given an octane number of ‘0’.

• Iso-octane (C8H18):- this fuel has higher resistance to knock and is given an octane
number of ‘100’.

Conventional fuels for CI engines ( Diesel ): Diesel oil is one of the major fuels used for CI
engines which can be obtained from crude oil (crude petroleum) in a similar way as gasoline is
obtained.

Main desirable properties of ‘Diesel’

1. Heating (Calorific) Value (Higher (HHV) or Lower (LHV)).

2. Volatility.

3. Diesel knock (Cetane Number) and Ignition Delay (ID).

4. Sulfur content.

5. Flash point (Ease of handling or storage).

6. Viscosity.

7. Cloud point.

Heating Value (HV):-

• Affects power output and fuel economy.

• The heat of combustion (MJ per kg or liter) is a measure of the amount of energy
available to produce work.

• In general, a fuel with a higher volumetric heating value (MJ per liter) will produce more
power or provide better fuel economy.

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 Note:- Diesel fuel is more denser than Gasoline fuel. Hence, for the same volume diesel
has more energy content than gasoline.

Volatility:-

• Less volatile fuel causes: hard cold starting, deposit formation, wear, and exhaust smoke.

• Less volatile fuels have higher boiling points and higher self ignition temperature (SIT).

Note:- Diesel fuel is less volatile than Gasoline fuel. Hence, it has poor cold starting
behavior, but suitable for storage and handling.

Diesel knock (Cetane Number) and Ignition Delay (ID):

The cetane number (CN) is a measure of the ignition delay of a diesel fuel. When a diesel fuel is
injected into the hot compressed air within the engine cylinder, atomization, vaporization,
physical mixing of fuel and air, molecular interaction and ignition at various locations, and actual
combustion taking place. If the ignition delay is longer due to lower cetane number (CN) or due
to accumulation of large quantity of fuel as a result of large quantity of fuel injection, a bulk of
charge or mixture catch fire almost instantaneously and causing violent combustion called ‘diesel
knock’ or ‘detonation’. In order to avoid or minimize ignition delay (ID), a diesel fuel with the
proper or higher cetane number (CN) should be used.

Cetane Number (CN):

Cetane Number is an indicator of the ignition delay or ignition quality of a diesel fuel. This is a
numerical scale generated by comparing the ignition delay (ID) characteristics of the given fuel
to that of a standard reference fuels.

Sulfur content:

• The sulfur content depends on the crude oil source and the refining steps it undergoes. As
the fractions temperature increases, the content of sulfur also increases. Hence, the
content of sulfur in diesel is more than gasoline. It causes wear, deposits, and particulate
emissions.

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 • Sulfur oxides (SO2 and SO3) are produced during combustion of fuel. SO 3 combines with
water in the exhaust to form sulfuric acid (H2SO4). Sulfuric acid causes corrosive wear
and contributes to engine deposits.

Flash point:

• It is the temperature at which fuel vapors can be ignited when exposed to a flame.

• It is related to volatility and fire hazard in handling. Hence, it is important for safety
reasons.

Viscosity:

• Affects injector lubrication and atomization. Low viscosity fuels may not provide
sufficient lubrication in close-fit pumps and injectors. Hence, this may cause abnormal
wear, loss of power and smoke.

• Influences the size of the fuel droplets.

• High viscosity increases wear of fuel pump and gear train due to high injection pressures.

Cloud point:

• Cloud Point is the temperature where a cloud or fog appears in the fuel. This happens
when the temperature falls below the melting point of the wax in the fuel. Hence, it
affects low temperature operation.

• Cloud point must be below the lowest outside operating temperature to prevent filter
plugging and it is recommended to use a fuel heater or blended fuel or proper additives.

Alternative Fuels

Sometime during the 21st century, crude oil and petroleum products will become very scarce and
costly to find and produce. At the same time, there will likely be an increase in the number of
automobiles and other IC engines. Another reason motivating the development of alternate fuels

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for the IC engine is concern over the emission problems of gasoline engines. Some of Alternative
Fuels

1. Alcohol: can be produced from a highly reliable and long-lasting raw sources like
sugarcane, starchy materials, corns, potatoes, etc. Hence, they are renewable energy
sources.
2. Biogas: can be produced from byproducts and wastes, such as: cow-dung, sewage, etc.
Hence, it is a renewable energy source.
3. Biodiesel: can be obtained from vegetable oils and animal fats. Hence, it is a renewable
energy source.
4. Hydrogen: is a naturally available element and can also be obtained from various
chemical processes (eg:- electrolysis of water). Hence, it is a renewable energy source.
5. Methanol: Of all the fuels being considered as an alternate to gasoline Methanol can be
obtained from many sources, both fossil and renewable. These include coal, petroleum,
natural gas, biomass, wood, landfills, and even the ocean.
6. Ethanol: Ethanol can be made from ethylene or from fermentation of grains and sugar.
Much of it is made from corn, sugar beets, sugar cane, and even cellulose (wood and
paper). Ethanol has less HC emissions than gasoline but more than methanol.

Disadvantages of alternative (renewable) fuels:

1. Social problems; as Alcohol and Biodiesel fuels need large hectares of land for
cultivation.
2. Need of some engine design modifications.
3. Relatively low heating (calorific) value, except Hydrogen; this affects the engine
performance.

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