AviaCave 28Days Meteorology Program

Aviation Meteorology

CHAPTER ONE – THE EARTHS’ ATMOSPHERE

1.01 A DEFINITION OF METEOROLOGY

1.02 REASONS FOR STUDYING METEOROLOGY

1.03 A DEFINITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

1.04 THE CONSTITUENTS OF THE ATMOSPHERE (BY VOLUME).

1.05 PROPERTIES OF THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE

1.06 THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

1.07 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF TROPOPAUSE HEIGHT

1.08 TEMPERATURES

1.09 ATMOSPHERIC HAZARDS

1.10 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE (ISA)

1.11 ISA DEVIATION

1.12 THE ICAO INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE

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1.01 A DEFINITION OF METEOROLOGY

The study of Meteorology is broadly defined as “The branch of science dealing with the earth’s atmospheric
envelope and the physical processes occurring in it. This study also includes the Air – Earth - Ocean
interactions.”

1.02 REASONS FOR STUDYING METEOROLOGY

a) To gain a better understanding of meteorologists’ deductions and documentation.

b) To gain a better understanding of in-flight hazards and techniques to cope with them.
c) To gain a better understanding of data and its collection methodology.
d) To gain a better understanding for self-forecasting.

Weather is the one factor in modern aviation over which man has no control. Knowledge of meteorology, and
especially of Aviation Meteorology, will at least enable the aviator to anticipate some of the difficulties which
weather may cause.

For this course, knowledge of advanced physics is not required, but knowledge of the elementary laws of
motion, heating, cooling, condensation and evaporation will be useful.

1.03 A DEFINITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Atmosphere is defined as “The spheroidal gaseous envelope surrounding a heavenly body called Earth and
held together by the force of its gravity”.

1.04 THE CONSTITUENTS OF THE ATMOSPHERE (BY VOLUME)

Permanent Constituents : The permanent gaseous constituents of the atmosphere are Nitrogen, 78.084%,
Argon, 0.934%, Oxygen, 20.946% and Carbon Dioxide, 0.036%.

Trace Constituents : Neon, Nitrous oxide, Helium, Nitrogen Dioxide, Krypton, Carbon Monoxide, Xenon,
Sulphur Dioxide, Hydrogen, Ammonia, Methane, Iodine and Ozone are the trace gaseous constituents in the
atmosphere.

Variable Constituents: Water vapor, Aerosols and Solid Particles are called the variable constituents of the
atmosphere. There is a constant injection of aerosols and solid particles into the atmosphere. This occurs due
to volcanic eruptions, burning of fossil fuels, release of fluorocarbons and erosion of the earths’ surface.

The proportions of the constituents in the atmosphere remain constant up to a height of at least 60 kms (except
for Ozone). But by 70 kms, the force of gravity not only decreases with height, but also its field strength is
weaker. This causes these proportions to change.

The trace of ozone in the atmosphere is important and acts as a shield against ultra violet radiations. If the
whole layer of ozone is brought down to sea level, the ozone layer would only be 3 mm thick. Most Ozone is
found half way into the Stratosphere. The Ozone layer is neither continuous nor does it have a uniform
thickness. The extent and its thickness varies over time, latitude and season.

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1.05 PROPERTIES OF THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE

The earth’s atmosphere varies both vertically and horizontally. This variation is studied through the
simultaneous spatial and time measurements of

a. Pressure b. Temperature c. Density d. Humidity

Studies also show that the earth’s atmosphere is a poor conductor of heat and electricity. To study earth’s
atmosphere, laws of Physics and Fluid Dynamics are used, as the atmosphere is a fluid. It is also observed that
the earth’s atmosphere supports life only in the lower levels.

1.06 THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

a) The Troposphere;-
i) That layer of the earth’s atmosphere where temperatures decrease with an increase in height.
ii) Consists of ¾ of the total atmosphere in weight.
iii) Contains almost all the moisture
iv) Contains almost all the weather
v) Contains almost all the life forms

b) The Tropopause

i) Marks the boundary between the Troposphere and the Stratosphere. This is a region where
temperature ceases to fall with an increase in height. For all practical purposes, it is taken as the
height where the temperature fall is 0° C or less than 2ºC per 1,000 ft.
ii) The height of the Tropopause is controlled by the temperature of the air near the surface. The
warmer the air, the higher the tropopause. The colder the air, the lower the tropopause. Therefore,
temperature variations due to latitude, season, land and sea, will all cause varying heights of the
tropopause. There are two locations where the tropopause abruptly changes height or “folds”. These
are at 40º and 60º latitude.

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Aviation Meteorology
iii) Generally over the poles, the tropopause can be observed between 8-10 kms and over the equator at
16-18 kms.
iv) The temperature of the tropopause is also controlled by its height. The higher it is, the colder the
temperature at the tropopause. The lower it is, the warmer the temperature at the tropopause. The
temperature at the tropopause can be as high as -40ºC over the poles and as low as-80ºC over the
equator.

1.07 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF TROPOPAUSE HEIGHT

The significance of the tropopause height is that it usually marks:-

a) The maximum height of the cloud.

b) The presence of Jetstreams.
c) The presence of Clear Air Turbulence (CAT).
d) The maximum wind speeds.

1.08 TEMPERATURES

a) Temperatures in the Troposphere increase from the poles to the equator at all levels.
b) Temperatures in the lower Stratosphere increase from the equator to the poles in summer but reaches
maximum temperature in mid latitudes in winter.
c) The lapse rate (the rate of change of temperature with height)

(i) In the Troposphere is produced by rising air, whilst

(ii) In the stratosphere, it is produced by solar radiation. In fact, the lapse rate is reversed in the
Stratosphere.

1.09 ATMOSPHERIC AVIATION HAZARDS

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Concentrations of Ozone and Cosmic Radiations increase with height in the atmosphere. As the operating
heights of aircraft increase, the effect of Ozone and Cosmic Radiations assume greater importance to the aviator.

Above 50,000 ft or 16 Kms, normal concentrations of ozone exceed tolerable human limits and this air needs to
be filtered before it is permitted to enter the cabin. This is done by the heat of the compressor system which
assists in the breaking down of the ozone (into O and O²) to acceptable levels.

Cosmic radiation is not normally hazardous, but at times of solar flare activity a lower flight level may be
necessary to avoid interference in radio communications and navigation systems.

Advances in meteorological forecasting and communications have resulted in pilots receiving prompt and
accurate information regarding high altitude hazards. However, it is important that pilots be aware of these
hazards and be prepared to take the necessary re-planning action.

(c) Stratosphere: From 11 km to 20 km, the temperature remains constant (Isothermal layer) and then starts
to increase again upto the Stratopause. The increase is due to the release of energy, association and dis-
association, from Ozone (O³), a greenhouse gas, which is found between 50,000 – 1,15,000 ft (15 – 35 Km) with
a maximum concentration around 80,000 ft or 25 -26 Kms.

(d) Mesosphere: The coldest part of the Atmosphere is the Mesosphere with temperatures of -100° C or less.
Beyond the Mesopause is the region of the Thermosphere.

(e) Thermosphere: Thermosphere is the region of the Atmosphere where the temperatures increase to
thousands of degrees Celsius. This is an area of highly charged particles and is subject of ionospheric studies
and their effect on radio aids.

1.10 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE (ISA)

For a variety of reasons it is necessary to establish a standard average atmosphere, describing variations in
temperature, pressure and density throughout altitude.

There have been several different Standard Atmospheres, but the one in general use now is the `ICAO Standard
Atmosphere - ISA`, which covers the atmosphere from -16,400ft (-5km) to 262, 464ft.

The ISA is needed for;-

a) the calibration of aircraft instruments

b) The design and testing of aircraft.

The ISA is defined as follows;-

a) a MSL temperature of +15º Celsius

b) a MSL pressure of 1013.25 hPa
c) a MSL density of 1225 gms/cubic metre
d) from -5km, a lapse rate of 1.98º Celsius/1000 ft (6.5° C/kms) up to 36,090 ft (11 kms),
e) a constant temperature of -56.5º C from 36,090 ft (11 Km) up to 65,617 ft (20 kms),
f) An increase of temperature of 0.3º Celsius /1000 ft (1 deg/km), up to 104,987 ft (32 kms).

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1.11 ISA DEVIATION

Although meteorological observations are made is absolute figures, it is usual, when making calculations
involving aircraft performance or corrections to instruments, to consider them relative to the ISA. These are
known as “ISA deviations”.

If for instance, the observed temperature were 5ºC warmer than that expected in the ISA, then the deviation
would be+5ºC.

For temperatures below, calculate the ISA temperatures and deviations:-

Height(ft) Temperature (ºC) ISA temperature ISA Deviation

1500 +28
17,500 -18
24,000 -35
37,000 -45
9,500 -5
5,000 +15
31,000 -50
57,000 -67

If the limiting deviation for your aircraft at an airfield 5,000 ft AMSL is ISA +10, what is the maximum
temperature at which you can operate?

If the deviation at 3,500 ft is ISA +12, what is the ambient temperature?

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1.12 THE ICAO INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE

Height (kms) Height (ft) Temp (ºC) Pressure (hPa) Height Change Density (%)
(per hPa)
32.00 104987 -44.7 8.9 1.1
30.48 100000 -46.2 11.1 1.4
27.43 90000 -49.2 17.3 2.2
24.38 80000 -52.2 28.0 3.6
21.34 70000 -55.2 44.9 5.8
20.00 65620 -56.5 56.7 7.2
15.24 50000 -56.5 116.6 15.3
13.71 45000 -56.5 148.2 19.5
11.78 38662 -56.5 200 103ft 26.3
11.00 36090 -56.5 228.2 91 ft 29.7
9.16 30065 -44.4 300 73 ft 36.8
5.51 18289 -21.2 500 48 ft 56.4
3.05 10000 -4.8 696.8 37 ft 73.8
3.01 9882 -4.6 700 36 ft 74.1
1.46 4781 +5.5 850 31 ft 87.3
0 0 +15 1013.25 27 ft 100

Note:
The above height change figures show how the pressure against height changes. Equation is modified as altitude
changes but the figures offered only relate to ISA conditions of Temperature and Pressure. We can assess
changes outside these conditions by using the following formula:

H=96T/P

Were H=height change per hPa in feet

T=actual Absolute Temperature at that level
P=Actual Pressure in hPa
K=96 (the equation constant)

The 4% Rule:

The 4% rule is an extension of the above which states that when the ELR temperature is 10° C away from ISA,
a 4% height change error is generated at or through any given altitude change. Eg. at FL 360 (H) =96x226.5 ÷
228.2 =95ft per hPa height change at that level which equates to 4% difference from the ISA change of 91 ft.

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