TENSION MEMBERS

Failure Mode

1. Yielding Failure
2. Tension Fracture of Net Area
3. Effect of Shear lag and Eccentric Connection
4. Block Shear Failure
5. Excessive Slenderness
6. Fatigue
7. Brittle Fracture
8. Combined Tension and Moment

Yielding Failure and Tension Fracture

Yielding Fracture Resistance of an element

Pt Ft
Consider say a UB. The flanges and the web will be considered as two different elements.
Together, the flanges and web will Yielding on Gross
be considered asArea
a section. We consider the tension
capacity of elements first. This concept can then be readily expended into the full cross-section.

ag p y
Pt =
❑M 0

Pt Ft

Tension Fracture on Net Area

Where,

Pt = Design Yielding failure resistance

ag = Total or gross area of the element

py = Specified or design yield stress

❑M = Partial factor for yielding = 1.0

0

Tension Fracture Resistance of an element

anU s
P n=
❑M 2

Where,

Pn = Fracture resistance

an = net area of the element across the bolts holes

Us = Specified ultimate stress = 1.2 py

M2 = partial factor for fracture = 1.2

The effect of the bolt holes on the actual load-displacement characteristic of the tension
member will depend on the size of the hole with respect to the total area.

ag Us

ag py Hole size not No holes

significant
an U s
Hole size
significant

Elongation

Load-elongation curve of tension member

In the case where the holes sizes are not significant, the member fails by yielding on the gross
area (ductile desirable). If the hole sizes are significant, the member fails by fracture on the net
area (not ductile and not desirable)

To ensure that the former is the failure mode, we set

Pt ≥ Pn

Or

ag p an U s

y

❑M 0 ❑M 2

U s ❑ MO
a g ≥a n { }{ }
p y ❑M 2

U s ❑ MO
Let Ke = a g ≥a n
{ }{ }
p y ❑M 2
and substitute ❑M 0=1.0 and ❑M 0=1.2 , we obtain

Us
K e=
[ ]
1.2 p y

Hence

a g ≥ K e an=ae

Us
BS 5950 uses the minimum values of ratio and obtain the following Ke values [Clause
py
3.4.3]

Us / py Nominal Ke Recommended
Us / 1.2 py Ke[Cl 3.4.3]
Grade S275 1.55 1.3 1.2
Grade S355 1.38 1.15 1.1
BS 5950 uses the effective area to determine the tension capacity. The use of effective area
reduces two design checks (Pt and Pn) into one check, and ensures that the more ductile
yielding failure controls.

The net area of the section is the sum of the effective area in the elements.

An =Ʃ an

The effective area of the section is the sum of the effective area in the elements but less than
1.2An [Clause 4.6.1]

Ae = Ʃ ae =Ʃ K e an ≤1.2 An

The tension capacity, Pt is given by [Clause 4.6.1]

Pt = p y A e

Notes

Stress concentration and fracture across bolt holes

In the presence of bolt holes, the stresses around the holes are magnified. We call this
magnification stress concentration. It can be determine from theory that the stress next to
circular bolt holes are three times higher than the far stress, and we say that the stress
concentration factor for circular holes is 3.

Thus, even if the applied average stress is py/3, the stresses next to the bolt holes have yielded.
It is to be expected that under working load, yielding will have occurred when bolted connection
are used.

As the load increases, the yielding around the bolt holes will spread across the section is the
steel is ductile (S275, S355 etc). At this stage, the net section has not fracture. Fractures occur
when the entire net section reaches the ultimate stress.

While ductile material is forgiving, every effort must be taken by the engineers to reduce stress
concentration as much as possible, especially in structures subjected dynamic loading (bridges,
crane rail etc). This can be achieved, for example, by not having abrupt changes in geometry,
and using generous fillet radii in rolled sections.
 py 3 ƒa=py
ƒa=
3

Spread at
yielding

ƒa < p y

Yielding across
entire net section

ƒa << py

Simultaneous
fracture on net
section and yielding
on cross section
ƒa = py Us
 STRESS CONCENTRATION
Stress Concentration

The fracture of a material is dependent upon the forces that exist between the atoms. Because of
the forces that exist between the atoms, there is a theoretical strength that is typically estimated
to be one-tenth of the elastic modulus of the material. However, the experimentally measured
fracture strengths of materials are found to be 10 to 1000 times below this theoretical value. The
discrepancy is explained to exist because of the presence of small flaws or cracks found either on
the surface or within the material. These flaws cause the stress surrounding the flaw to be
amplified where the magnification is dependent upon the orientation and geometry of the flaw.
Looking at fig. 1, one can see a stress profile across a cross section containing an internal,
elliptically-shaped crack. One can see that the stress is at a maximum at the crack tip and
decreased to the nominal applied stress with increasing distance away from the crack. The stress
is concentrated around the crack tip or flaw developing the concept of stress concentration.
Stress raisers are defined as the flaws having the ability to amplify an applied stress in the locale.

Fig. 1: (a) The geometry of surface and internal cracks. (b) Schematic stress profile along the line
X-X' in (a), demonstrating stress amplification at crack tip positions.

Determination of the Maximum Stress at the Crack Tip

If the crack is assumed to have an elliptical shape and is oriented with its long axis perpendicular
to the applied stress, the maximum stress, m can be approximated at the crack tip by Equation
1.

a
σ m=2 σ 0
ρ √[ ]
Eqn. 1: Determination of the maximum stress surrounding a crack tip.

The magnitude of the nominal applied tensile stress is o; the radius of the curvature of the crack
tip is ; and a represents the length of a surface crack, or half the length of an internal crack.

Determination of Stress Concentration Factor

The ratio of the maximum stress and the nominal applied tensile stress is denoted as the stress
concentration factor, Kt, where Kt can be calculated by Equation 2. The stress concentration
factor is a simple measure of the degree to which an external stress is amplified at the tip of a
small crack.

σm a
K=
ρ0
=2
ρ √
Eqn. 2: Determination of the stress concentration factor.
Stress Concentration Considerations

It is important to remember that stress amplification not only occurs on a microscopic level (e.g.
small flaws or cracks,) but can also occur on the macroscopic level in the case of sharp corners,
holes, fillets, and notches. Fig. 2 depicts the theoretical stress concentration factor curves for
several simple and common material geometries.

Fig. 2: Stress concentration factor plots for three different macroscopic flaw situations.

Stress raisers are typically more destructive in brittle materials. Ductile materials have the ability
to plastically deform in the region surrounding the stress raisers which in turn evenly distributes
the stress load around the flaw. The maximum stress concentration factor results in a value less
than that found for the theoretical value. Since brittle materials cannot plastically deform, the
stress raisers will create the theoretical stress concentration situation.

Ductility and Distribution of Forces in bolt groups

5 4 3 2 1
Pt
 Lj

Consider the bolted connection shown. Initially, the forces in Bolt 1 and 5 will be highest and the
forces in Bolt 3 the smallest. We have seen that the stresses near bolts holes are yielded even
under service load. Thus, stresses in the plate around Bolt 1 and 5 will soon yield and will no
longer carry any further load. The force in bolt 2 and 4 will now increase until the plate around
this bolt also reaches the yield stress. This effect continues and the forces slowly transfer to Bolt
3, and the applied forces are distributed evenly throughout the bolt group. In short, bolt failures
will start at the end and progress towards the middle.

However, the elongation around the bolt holes will continue as the force distribution takes place
and the Bolts-hole 1 and 5 will have the largest elongation. Failure will occur when fracture
takes place across Bolt 1 or Bolt 5.

NOTE: The distribution of forces in the bolt group will only take place if the steel is
ductile. Ductility of the steel is very important

In general, it can be said that the forces will distribute evenly to all bolts in the bolt group in
‘commonly’ used bolted details.

However, if the distant Lj is too large( > 500 mm [Clause 6.3.2.5]), the bolt-hole 1 would have
over elongated and fracture before the forces can be distributed to the last bolt. The bolts will
start to fail progressively starting from the ends; a phenomenon called “unbuttoning”. For this
reason, when the bolted joint length is greater than 500 mm, a reduction factor must be applied
as given in Clause 6.3.2.5

Effect of residual stresses on the tension capacity

Load
No Residual Stress

agUs

agpy

Residual stresses causes non-linearity. It has no effect on the magnitude of the yield load (agpy)

Elongation

Load –Elongation curve of tension member with residual stresses

Residual stresses causes non-linearity to the load-displacement curve particularly at loas near
the yield load. It has no effect on the tensile yield strength on the gross area (a g py)’ It has also
has no effect on the tensile fracture strength on the net area (an Us /ɣM2).

Effect of Initial Out-Of Straightness (IOOS) on the tension capacity

When a member with IOOS is subjected to tension load, the IOOS will straighten out. A smaal
bending moment is induced. This bending has negligible effect on the tensile strength if IOOS is
small ( or within the tolerance set out by the specification (BS EN 10025)

IOOS

Determination of net area

Net area is simply the total or gross area subtracts the total transverse bolt-hole area
 PL b x t
a b

s2 t
Net Area, An = a g−∑ ( Dt )+ ∑
4g
Pt g Pt
Where,

D = Hole diameter
s
t = thickness of plate element a
Hole Diameter, D
s = spacing parallel to the applied tension stress

g = spacing perpendicular to the applied tension stress

The (s2/4g) term is a correction to be used only for cases where the net area is calculated
across holes that are staggered [Clause 3.4.4.3 and figure 3]. Having determined an, the total
effective area and tension capacity can be determined from Clause 4.6.1

An =∑ ae =∑ K e a n ≤ 1.2 A n

The tension capacity, Pt is given by Clause 4.6.1

Pt = p y A e

Shear Lag and Eccentric Connection

Eccentric connection occurs when the line of applied force (F) does not coincide with the line of
reaction force (Pt) as shown in the diagram below. The eccentricity will cause a non-uniform
shear stress distribution between the force F and force Pt. Part of the member will have no
shear stress, a phenomenon called shear lag. Tension member design must account this shear
lag effect.

t F

Pt
Area of zero stress (Shear Lag)
 b1

Weld top and bottom

t F
The shear lag will be greater as the eccentricity, ū between the two forces increase. On the
hand, the shear lag will be smaller the longer the length L of the connection because the
connection will be stiffer and able to better channel the stresses. Hence, it is reasonable to
account for shear by reducing the effective area by an amount proportional to U given by
Pt
Area of zero stress (Shear Lag)
ū
U =1− equation 1
L
b1
Where ū and L is defined in the following figure.

Uu

Uu

For UB and UC, calculation U assuming structural Te cut from UB or UN

 Û
Let n= , then the tensile capacity accounting for shear lag is
L

Pt = p y A e U

¿ p y A e (1−n)

¿ p y ( Ae −n A e )

For single angle, channel or T-section, the term (n Ae ) is given in Clause 4.6.3.1 obtained
through calibration with test results. For other cases equation 1 can be used.

Bolted joint: Pt = p y ( Ae −0.5 a 2)

Welded joint: Pt = p y ( Ae −0.3 a 2)

Where;

a 1=¿gross area of the connection element

a 2=A g −a1

A g= gross cross-sectional area

Under certain detailing condition, Clause 4.6.3.2 allows for lesser reduction in area for double
angle, Channel and T-section.

Double Angle, Double Channel or Double T-section Members interconnected in at least two
locations [Clause 4.6.3.2(a)]
Double Tension Member in parallel and connected to both sizes of gusset

>10x smallest leg of angle

F 1 of at 2 battens along the length of the member

Isometric view of half the length of a double angle tension member

 Connected to both sides of the gusset

 Members must be parallel
 Connected by battens in at least 2 locations
 Distance between gusset and nearest battens must be at least ten times the smallest
dimension of the tension member. Gusset Plate

Bolted Member

Pt = p y ( Ae −0.25 a 2)
 Welded Member

Pt = p y ( A g−0.15 a2 )

Block Shear

Block shear failure is combined shear failure on one direction and tension failure in the
perpendicular direction. There two possible combination of failure modes,

1. Shear fracture on length Lv followed by tension yielding on length Lt

2. Shear yielding on length Lv followed by tension fracture on length Lt

Lv

Tension Lt

Ft
Shear
Pt

Block Shear Failure

Experimental evidence shows that the maximum value from the two possible failure modes can
be used. BS 5950 chooses to use the second possible failure mode and recommend this design
equation. [Clause 6.2.4]

Pt =0.6 p y t[ Lv + K e ( Lt −k Dt ) ]

Where

Dt = hole diameter (for ordinary clearance hole)

K = 0.5 for single line of bolts

0.25 for two lines of bolts

The first term (0.6 p y t Lv ) is the familiar shear yielding failure. The second term

[0.6 p y t K e ( Lt −k D t ) ] is the tension fracture over the net area, where the failure stress is
conservatively assumed to be 0.6py

Fatigue

Fatigue failure refers to the fracture in steel under relatively low stress level caused by large
cycle of fluctuating loads. Fatigue is tensile stress problem. Compression stresses do not cause
fatigue. The fatigue fracture generally starts at areas with stress-concentrations. Initially, only
small crack are formed, and the cracks become progressively longer as the number of cycles or
stress level increase. Once the crack reaches a critical length, sudden fracture of the entire
cross-section can occur.

A typical type of steel structure that is susceptible to fatigue failure is bridge, when the stresses
fluctuate under the dynamic loads from the heavy moving vehicles. Failure is generally not a
problem in building except for those steel structures supporting vibrating machinery.

Brittle Fracture

Brittle fracture is another failure mode associated to fatigue failure. If the Charpy Tests are to be
carried out on test specimens at various temperatures, the results will be similar to the figure
below. It shows that below certain temperatures, crack propagation takes place easily and the
failure mode is brittle fracture. Above that range, the crack propagation is more difficult, the
ductile shear-slip failure mode dominates. Due to this temperature dependency , the Charpy
Impact test report must be accompanied by the temperature which the specimen is tested.

The transition range for mild steel is abour zero degree Celcius for mild steel. Thus most
steelworks in Malaysia will not succumb to the brittle fracture failure mode. Accordingly, it is only
necessary to specify up to testing in room temperature for Charpy test for those steel to be used
locally.

Crack Initiation easy, brittle failure Cracking initiation difficult, ductile failure
Transition range

Charpy Impact Value

About 00C for mild steel Temperature

Introduction to Fracture Mechanics

Fracture mechanic is study of fracture in solid due to presence of cracks

Consider a plate with elliptical hole

y
 y
b x
a
2a
¿¿ Maximum stress at tip of ellipse

b
For fine ellipse, zero
a

y  brittle material will start to crack at areas of stress concentration

Once cracked, we have to use principles of fracture Mechanics

Consider now, a plate with a crack

Consider now, a plate with a crack

θ
x

2a

a θ θ 3θ
σ y =σ
√ 2r [
cos 1+sin sin
2 2 2 ]
Where θ is the angle measured counterclockwise from the tip of the crack

Stress intensity factor

K Ic =σ √ πa [ MPa √ m ]
Then,
 KI θ θ 3θ
σ y=
√2 πr
cos
2 [
1+sin sin
2 2 ]
Maximumσ y occurs when θ=0

Thus the stress intensity factor, K I is a measure of the stress field at the tip of a crack

The values of stress intensity factors for various types of cracks can be found in handbook. It
should NOT be confused with stress concentration factors.

Note the special units of stress intensity factor.

Griffith Criteria for Crack Propagation

Say we load and hold the displacement .Crack start to grow from (a) to (a+da) at constant
displacement .In the process load drops from P1 to P2

da
Constant

P Load Displacement curve

Energy lost due to crack propagation

 Drop in load when crack starts

Displacement
U1

P2

Change in Work Done, ΔW = 0 (since displacement constant)

1 1
Change in strain Energy ΔU = P U − P U
2 2 1 2 1 1

1
¿ ( P2−P1 ) U 1
2

Total Potential ∆ U −∆ W < Zero

da
Constant
 a

Say we load and hold the displacement , crack starts to grow from a da at constant
displacement. In the process, displacement increases from U1 to U2

P
Load Displacement curve

Energy lost due to crack propagation

U1 U2 Displacement
Change in work done, ΔW =P1 ( U 2−U 1)

1 1
Change in strain energy, ΔU = P1 U 2− P1 U 1
2 2

1
¿ P ( U −U 1 )
2 1 2

Total Potential energy ¿ ∆ U −∆ W

 1
P ( U −U 1 )−P1 ( U 2−U 1 )
2 1 2
˂ Zero

In both cases, the total potential has decreased (< 0) or energy released. This energy released
is used to create new surface area when crack extend from a a+da

Graffith criteria states that for crack growth

Energy to
propagate crack

d dW
( W P +U ) >
da da

Work done by
Internal Strain
applied load
energy

From Griffith Criteria, it can be shown that the critical stress intensity factor, KIC

For a crack to propagate is

K IC=σ c √ πa=material constant (**)

Thus, for each material test can be done to determine KIC ( just like we carry out test to
determine FY, E and etc)

If K I =σ √ π a< K IC −Crack Stable

If K I > K IC −Crack propagate

Crack Mode

MODE I
KI
 MODE II
KII

MODE III
KIII

The equation for KIC in equation (**) assumes that the plate is infinitely large. For finite sized
plate, a correction λ is used, Thus

K IC=λ σ c √ π a=material constant

The correction λ is shown in the attached table 4.2

 If K I =λσ √ π a < K IC - Crack stable

If KI > K IC - Crack Propagate

The factor of safety for fracture mechanics is defined as

K IC
F . O . S=
KI

Example

σ
The plate shown has a 60 mm long
crack,

a) If σ=100 MPa, determine the

factor of safety against crack
b) Determine the tensile stress
at fracture
a=60 mm

w=100 mm

a) From attached table

2a = 60
a = 30 mm

2w = 100
w = 50 mm

a 30
Therefore = =0.6
w 50
 λ = 1.3
K I =λσ √ πa
¿ ( 1.3 ) ( 100 ) MPa √ π∗0.03
= 39.9 MPa√ m

Frpm Table 4.3 for AISI 4340 KIC =59 MPa √ m

59
F.O.S = =1.48
39.9

b) At fracture

K IC=λ σ c √ πa

= 59 MPa√ m

59
σ c=
( 1.3 ) ( √ π∗0.03 )

¿ 147.8 MPa

From table Yield Stress σ y =1503 MPa

σ c 147.8
Therefore = =0.098
σ y 1503

So plate fails at 9.8% of yield stress

Excessive Slenderness
Tension members should not vibrate excessively (like guitar string). To control this, keep the
slenderness ratio (length to radius of gyration) below 30

Combined Tension and Bending

In mechanics of material, we learnt that the stresses in a section under combine forces can be
added to determine the final stresses (assuming linear behavior which is largely the case). We
then ensure that the final maximum stress is below the allowable stress. This approach is
generally conservative.

A more accurate approach is to use the bending strength interaction given by

Mx M y
+ ≤1 Equation [A]
M tx M ry

Where Mry is the reduced bending strength in y-y (minor or weak) axis due to the presence of
tension force given by

Ft
( )
M ry =M cx 1−
Pt

and Mcy is the moment capacity about minor axis [clause 4.2.5]

Mts account for either the yielding failure mode (Mrx) or the buckling failure mode (Mb)

Thus, Mtx is given by the smaller of

Ft
( )
M rx =M cx 1−
Pt

OR

Ft
(
M btx=M b 1−
Pt )
≤ M cx

Mrx is the reduced bending strength in the x-x (major or strong) axis due to the presence of
tension force.

Mcx is the moment capacity about the major axis [Clause 4.2.5]

Mb is the buckling resistance moment capacity (Lateral Torsional Buckling-LTB) (Clause 4.3)

The buckling resistance moment capacity will be discussed further under behavior of beams.

Assume for now that LTB failure does not occur and the section fails by yielding of cross-
section. We call this cross-section capacity.
Equation [A] can be written as

Mx My
+ ≤1
F F
M cx
( ) ( )
1− t
Pt
M cy 1− t
Pt

Rearranging,

Ft M x M y
+ + ≤1
Pt M cx M cy