ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

General Instructional Objective 1.

To know the different organs or glands of the endocrine system.

Specific Instructional Objectives:

1. To enumerate the organs of the endocrine system
2. Give the location of each of the endocrine glands in the body.
3. Describe the anatomical features of the glands.

General Instructional Objective 2:

To know the hormones secreted by the endocrine glands and their effects on the
human body.

Specific Instructional Objectives:

1. State the hormones secreted by each endocrine gland
2. Know how these hormones affect homeostasis
3. Describe the disease conditions that result from imbalance of these
hormones.
 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

 consists of glands widely separated from each other with no direct anatomical
links
 commonly referred to as ductless glands because the hormones they secrete pass
directly to the bloodstream.

HORMONE
 a chemical messenger which, having been formed in one organ or gland, is carried
in the blood to another organ (target organ/tissue) where it influences activity,
growth, and nutrition.

PITUITARY GLAND (HYPOPHYSIS)

 A small pea-sized gland at the base of the brain connected to the hypothalamus
by a stalk called the infundibulum
 lies in a depression of the sphenoid bone called the sella turcica and enveloped by
dura mater
 hormones secreted by the pituitary gland control the functions of many other
glands such as testes, ovaries thyroid gland and adrenal cortex and
 influence growth, kidney function, delivery of infants and milk production
 Divided into two parts:
A. Anterior Pituitary (Adenohypophysis)

 also referred to as the pars distalis

 made up of epithelial cells derived from the embryonic oral cavity
 cells with hormone-containing secretory granules = chromophils
 smaller cells with less stored hormones = chromophobes
 secretion of hormones is controlled by Releasing Hormones which are
produced by the hypothalamus
 releasing hormones either stimulate or inhibit the release of
a specific anterior pituitary hormone
 releasing hormones are transported through the veins
surrounding the pituitary gland and hypothalamus via the
hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system
 examples of releasing hormones:
GHRH - Growth hormone releasing hormone
PRH - Prolactin releasing hormone
TRH - Thyroid releasing hormone
GnRH - Gonadotropin releasing hormone
CRH - Corticotropin releasing hormone
MRF - Melanocyte-stimulating hormone releasing factor
 HORMONES OF THE ANTERIOR PITUITARY

1. GROWTH HORMONE
 increases protein synthesis to stimulate growth of bones, muscles
and other organs
 most people have daily peak levels during deep sleep
 secretion is increased during fasting and exercise
 Normal level of growth hormone is essential for adequate growth
of chondrocytes and adequate secretion of cartilage matrix in the
epiphyseal plates of long bones.
 Conditions with abnormal levels of growth hormone:

a. Pituitary dwarfism
- result of deficiency of growth hormone in a young person
- very little growth in the epiphyseal cartilages
- stature remains small though normally proportional.

b. Pituitary giantism
- excessive growth hormone which may be caused by
growth-hormone secreting tumors
- the excess hormone occurs before the long bones have
fused so that the person becomes abnormally tall.

c. Acromegaly
- excess growth hormone is secreted after growth in bone
length is complete resulting to increase in bone
diameter
- facial features and hands become abnormally large

2. THYROID STIMULATING HORMONE (TSH)

 thyroid releasing hormone from the hypothalamus stimulates its
release
 TSH stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete thyroxine (T4) and
triiodothyronine (T3)

3. ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE (ACTH)

 Acts on the adrenal glands to release the hormone cortisol
 Its rate of secretion is increased by corticotropic releasing hormone
(CRH) from the hypothalamus

4. PROLACTIN
 Promotes development of the breast during pregnancy
 Stimulates production of milk in the breast following pregnancy
  One releasing hormone from the hypothalamus increases prolactin
(prolactin releasing hormone) and another decreases prolactin
(prolactin inhibiting hormone)

5. GONADOTROPIC HOMONES (Sex Hormones)

 Regulate the growth, development and functions of the gonads
1. FSH – Follicle stimulating hormone
 stimulates the development of follicles in the ovaries and
sperm cells in the testes
2. LH - Luteinizing hormone
 causes ovulation of oocytes
 in males referred to as interstitial cell stimulating
hormone (ICSH)
 it stimulates the epithelial tissue of the seminiferous
tubules in the testes to produce spermatozoa
 responsible for the formation of the corpus luteum in the
ovary which secretes progesterone

6. MELANOCYTE STIMULATING HORMONE (MSH)

 Goes to the melanocytes and stimulates the secretion of melanin
 Melanin is responsible for the dark pigmentation of the skin; more
melanin darkens the skin color

B. Posterior Pituitary (Neurohypophysis)

 Extension of the nervous tissue from the hypothalamus

 Lies directly behind the anterior pituitary
 Hormones are synthesized by the cells of the hypothalamus and migrate to the
neurohypophysis via the nerve fibers forming the hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract
 HORMONES OF THE POSTERIOR PITUITARY
1. OXYTOCIN
 Causes contraction of the myometrium during parturition
 Also responsible for milk ejection or the “milk let down” in lactating women

2. ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE (ADH) or VASOPRESSIN

 Increases water reabsorption by the kidney tubules
 In large amounts can also cause vasoconstriction of the arterioles
 PINEAL GLAND

 A small pine-cone shaped body attached by a short stalk to the epithalamus of the
brain
 Secretes melatonin
 Melatonin inhibits the secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone, thereby
inhibiting the functions of the reproductive system
 Plays a role in the circadian rhythm of the body’s response to light and dark
cycles

THYROID GLAND

 Situated in the neck, in front of, and just inferior to the larynx at the level of C5-
T1
 Consists of two lobes connected by a narrow band called the isthmus
 Highly vascular and surrounded by a fibrous capsule
 Blood supply:
1. Superior thyroid artery – from the external carotid artery
2. Inferior thyroid artery – from the thyrocervical trunk of the subclavian artery
 Venous drainage:
1. Superior and middle thyroid veins – drain into the internal jugular vein
2, Inferior thyroid vein – drains into the brachiocephalic veins separately or as
one trunk
 Thyroid gland contains numerous thyroid follicles filled with proteins and
thyroid hormones
 Release of thyroid hormones is regulated by TSH from the anterior pituitary
 Thyroid Hormones
1. Tetraiodothyronine (thyroxine) = T4
2. Triiodothyronine= T3
 synthesis requires iodine
 essential for physical growth and mental development
 effects of thyroid hormone include the regulation of:
a. Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)
b. Carbohydrate, Protein and Lipid metabolism
c. Normal function of the nervous and cardiovascular
systems
d. Peristalsis
3. CALCITONIN
 secreted by parafollicular cells which are scattered between the thyroid
follicles
 released if the blood concentration of calcium ions is elevated
 effect is the reduction of blood calcium levels
 Thyroid hormone disorders:
1. Hypothyroidism
 lack of thyroid hormone
a. CRETINISM - hypothyroidism in infants
- results to mental retardation and short stature
b. MYXEDEMA - adult form of hypothyroidism

2. Hyperthyroidism
 excessive thyroid hormone
 causes elevated BMR
 GRAVE’S DISEASE – often accompanied by bulging of the eyes
(exophthalmos) due to accumulation of fat behind the eyeball

PARATHYROID GLANDS

 4 yellowish glands embedded in the posterior surface of each lobe of the thyroid
gland
 secretes parathormone (PTH)
 regulated by blood levels of ionized calcium; increased when the serum
levels of calcium fall and vice versa
 PTH maintains blood concentration of calcium within normal limits
 PTH can also stimulate osteoblasts and osteocytes to resorb calcium from
the bones
 Disorder of PTH secretion
1. Hypoparathyroidism
 abnormally low rate of PTH secretion
 from injury or surgical removal of thyroid gland
 reduced rate of bone reabsorption and reduction of calcium levels
 effects: nerve and muscles become excitable = may cause muscle
cramps or tetanus
 can be fatal if muscle tetany affects the respiratory muscles

ADRENAL GLANDS (SUPRARENAL GLANDS)

 Two adrenal glands, one each on the upper pole of the kidneys
 Right suprarenal: triangular in shape
Posterior to the liver and inferior vena cava
 Left suprarenal: semilunar in shape
Posterior to the stomach
 Blood supply of the adrenal glands:
 Branches from the: 1. Inferior phrenic artery
2. Aorta
3. Renal artery
  Venous drainage:
1. Right suprarenal vein - drains into the inferior vena cava
2. Left suprarenal vein - drains into the left renal vein
 Each gland is divided into two parts: cortex and medulla

A. ADRENAL CORTEX
 Located on the outer part of the gland
 Produces three groups of hormones, collectively called adrenocorticoids
(corticosteroids, corticoids)
1. GLUCOCORTICOID
 Cortisol and Corticosterone
 Essential for life
 Promotes breakdown of protein and fat = gluconeogenesis
 In times of stress, aids the body to respond by providing energy
sources for tissues
 Reduces the inflammatory response
 Regulates carbohydrate metabolism

2. MINERALOCORTICOID
 Aldosterone
 Maintains electrolyte balance particularly potassium and sodium
levels
 Cause sodium and water to be retained and increase potassium
elimination
 Helps to maintain blood pressure through the renin-angiotensin-
aldosterone system
a.  BP  release of renin from the kidney
b. renin converts angiotensinogen from the liver to
angiotensin I
c. angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) converts
angiotensin I to angiotensin II
d. angiotensin II causes vasoconstriction and aldosterone
secretion
e. aldosterone increases reabsorption of sodium and water
to increase the blood volume and increase blood
pressure

3. ANDROGEN (Sex Hormone)

 Stimulates the development of male sexual characteristics
 If secretion is abnormally high, exaggerated male characteristics
develop in both males and females

B. ADRENAL MEDULLA
 Completely surrounded by the cortex
 Develops as outgrowth of tissue from the nervous system
 Stimulated by its extensive sympathetic nerve supply to produce the
catecholamines: epinephrine and norepinephrine
 Not essential to life

1. Epinephrine (Adrenaline)
 principal hormone of the adrenal medulla
 associated with potentiating the conditions needed for the “fight-or-
flight” response to stress
 sympathetic response:
vasoconstriction of blood vessels in skin
vasodilatation of muscles, heart and brain
increase heart rate and metabolic rate
conversion of glycogen to glucose
dilate pupils
dilate bronchioles
2. Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline)
 maintain blood pressure by causing general vasoconstriction except the
coronary arteries
 acts together with epinephrine to produce sympathetic effects

 DISORDERS OF THE ADRENAL CORTEX

1. Hyposecretion of Glucocorticoids
 Causes diminished gluconeogenesis, low blood glucose and
muscle weakness
 Primary cause: disease of adrenal cortex
 Secondary cause: deficiency of ACTH from pituitary gland
 Also known as Addison’s disease
 Causes: autoimmune disease
Metastatic tumors
infections
 Effects: muscle weakness and wasting
Hypoglycemia
Mental confusion
Electrolyte imbalance
2. Hypersecretion of Glucocorticoids
 Also known as Cushing’s disease
 Causes: hormone-secreting adrenal tumors
hypersecretion of ACTH
 Effects: adiposity of face (moon face)
Adiposity of neck and trunk (buffalo hump)
Protein catabolism
Depressed immune response
Osteoporosis
Hypertension
 3. Hypersecretion of Mineralocorticoid
 Also known as Conn’s syndrome or primary aldosteronism
 Excess aldosterone affects kidney function
 There is reabsorption of sodium chloride and water and
excretion of potassium (hypokalemia)

 DISORDERS OF THE ADRENAL MEDULLA

 Caused by hormone-secreting tumors:
1. Phaeochromocytoma – benign; high level of hormone
2. Neuroblastoma – malignant

PANCREAS
 Located in the abdominal cavity surrounded by the duodenum, stomach,
transverse colon and spleen
 Functions both as an exocrine and endocrine gland
 Endocrine part consists of the pancreatic islets of Langerhans found in clusters
and irregularly distributed throughout the pancreas
 Three main types in the pancreatic islets:
1.  cells (alpha)
 secrete glucagon
 Increase blood glucose levels by:
a. Stimulating conversion of glycogen to glucose
b. Gluconeogenesis

2.  cells (beta)
 secrete insulin
 Maintain homeostasis of blood glucose
 Stimulates uptake and utilization of glucose by muscle and
connective tissue cells
 Increase conversion of glucose to glycogen
 Increase uptake of amino acids
 Promote synthesis of fatty acids
 Prevent breakdown of protein and fat
 Secretion is stimulated by:
a. Increased blood glucose and amino acids
b. Gastrointestinal hormones: gastrin, secretin,
cholecystokinin
 secretion is decreased by:
a. sympathetic stimulation
b. adrenaline, cortisol, somatostatin

3.  cells (delta)
 secrete somatostatin
 inhibit the secretion of both insulin and glucagon
  DISORDER OF THE PANCREATIC ISLETS
a. Diabetes Mellitus - deficiency or absence of insulin
1) Type I - Insulin Dependent DM
 occurs mainly in children and young adults
 due to the destruction of the cells of the pancreatic islets

2) Type II - Non Insulin Dependent DM

 most common form of diabetes
 most patients are obese

Effects:  blood glucose levels

Glycosuria and polyuria
Weight loss
Ketoacidosis

TESTES

 Male gonad lies within the scrotal sac

 Main hormone is testosterone
 Responsible for growth and development of the male reproductive structures
 Gives the male sex characteristics

OVARIES

 Female gonad; located in the pelvic cavity

 Hormones are Estrogen and Progesterone
 For development and function of the female reproductive structures and other
female sexual characteristics
 Estrogen is produced by the follicular cells surrounding the ovum
 Progesterone is produced by the lutein cells of the corpus luteum which
develops after ovulation

GASTROINTESTINAL HORMONES

1. GASTRIN
 Secreted by the stomach as a result of parasympathetic stimulation
 Regulates the stomach secretions

2. SECRETIN
 Secreted by the duodenum
 Inhibits gastric secretions
 Stimulates sodium bicarbonate secretion from the pancreas and bile secretion
from the liver
3. CHOLECYSTOKININ
 From the duodenum
 Inhibits gastric motility
 Stimulates gallbladder contraction and secretion of enzymes from the
pancreas

KIDNEY
 Secretes erythropoietin in response to decreased oxygen levels in the kidney
 Acts on the bone marrow to increase the production of RBC

PLACENTA
 Secretes human chorionic gonadotropin
 Essential to maintain pregnancy and stimulate breast development