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Mr./Miss. ___________________________________

Of class, Information and Technology Engineering, ID

no.____________, Enrollment No. ____________ ,

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her term work in Subject : ES101: Basic Electronics

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ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING DEPARTMENMT

 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

(Semester-02)

SUB CODE: - ES101 SUB NAME: BASIC ELECTRONICS LAB

BRANCH: ID No.

Sr. Name of the Experiment Date of Marks/ Sign

No. Experiment Grade
1 Study about measuring amplitude and frequency of
signal using CRO.
2 Study of V-I characteristics of PN junction diode and
LED
3 Study of V-I characteristics of ZENER diode.
4 Study of half wave rectifier without filter and with
filter.
5 Study of centre tap full wave rectifier without filter
and with filter.
6 Study of various clipping and clamping circuits of
diode.
7 Study the V-I characteristics of NPN transistor.
8 Study the voltage divider biasing circuits of transistor.
9 Study the frequency response of a CE amplifier and
find its bandwidth.
10 Study the Wien bridge oscillator.
11 Study the OP-AMP as an inverting and non-inverting
amplifier.
12 Study the V-I Characteristics of JFET.
 EXPERIMENT:-1
AIM:- To study about measuring amplitude and frequency of signal using CRO.

APPARATUS:- Function Generator, C.R.O, Connecting Probes.

Figure:-

Figure:1 CRO

THEORY :-

Amplitude:

Amplitude is a measure of how big the wave is.

o What you are actually seeing are waves with different amplitudes.
o They might have the exact same frequency and wavelength, but the
amplitudes of the waves can be very different.

The amplitude of a wave is measured as:

1. The height from the equilibrium point to the highest point of a crest or
2. The depth from the equilibrium point to the lowest point of a trough

Figure: 2

When you measure the amplitude of a wave, you are really looking at the energy of the wave.
 is, just think of a home stereo’s amplifier… it
makes the amplitude of the waves bigger by using more electrical energy.

Frequency:

When we first started looking at SHM we defined period as the amount of time it takes for
one cycle to complete... seconds per cycle
Frequency is the same sort of idea, except we‟re just going to flip things around.
Frequency is a measurement of how many cycles can happen in a certain amount of
time… cycles per second.

that it has a frequency of 50 Hertz.

Hertz is the unit of frequency, and just means how many cycles per second.
 It is abbreviated as Hz.
 It is named after Heinrich Hertz, one member of the Hertz family that made
many important contributions to physics.
 In formulas frequency appears as an "f".

Since frequency and period are exact inverses of each other, there is a very
basic pair of formulas you can use to calculate one if you know the other…

Procedure:

1. Connect function generator to C.R.O

2. Measure volts/div for amplitude measurement and multiply that number to peak to peak
divisions on Y-axis.
3. Measure time/div for frequency measurement and multiply that number to division those
are covered by one complete cycle of input sine wave.

Observation Table:-

Sr. No. Amplitude Frequency

1
2
3

Conclusion:-
 EXPERIMENT:-2
AIM: - To study the V-I characteristics of p-n junction diode (Silicon & Germanium Diode)
and LED.

APPARATUS: - p-n junction diodes (Si, Ge),LED, Digital Multi-meter, variable resistance,
power supply, bread board, connecting wires, etc.

FIGURE:-

Figure:1 P-N junction diode in F.B.

Figure:2 P-N junction diode in R.B.

THEORY :-
The contact surface between the layers of p-type and n-type semiconductor pieces placed
together so as to from a p-n junction is called the P-N Junction.
When an external field with p-region connected to the +ve terminal & n-region connected to
the -ve terminal of the battery is applied across the junction , the junction is said to be
forward biased. The voltage at which current flows is called knee voltages.
When an external bias voltage is applied with positive terminal to n-side and the negative
terminal to the p-side of a p-n-junction , the junction is said to be reverse biased. It has one
limitation of breakdown voltage, at which diode has very high current.

V-I Characteristics of p-n junction diode:-

The nature of the p-n junction diode is that it conducts current in the forward direction but not
in reverse direction. It is therefore a basic tool for rectification in the building of D.C. Power
supply. The forward current turns on at about 0.5 V for a Si diode and can reach very high
currents by 0.7 V for Ge diode, the turn on voltage is about 0.2V.
 The reverse current is in the order of 108 A and is almost independent of voltage until the
breakdown point is reduced. P-n junction is represented by schematic symbol. The p-region of
diode is anode. And n-region is cathode. The D.C. battery is connected to the diode through
potentiometer P. The D.C battery is pushing conventional current in same direction.
If excessive current is permitted to flow through the diode, it may get permanently damaged.
Fact value of diode voltage produce particular current being the dependent variable is plotted
along the vertical axis. The diode does not conduct well until the external voltage overcomes
the barrier potential.

Procedure:-
P-N junction diode (Forward bias):
(1) Take a p-n junction diode (Si, Ge) and connect the positive terminal of p-n junction diode
with the positive terminal of the battery (10V) vice versa.
(2) Connect a voltmeter in parallel with the p-n junction diode and an ammeter in series with
the same, also resistance in series.
(3) Increase slowly and steadily a voltage of a source and note down the voltmeter and
ammeter readings.
(4) Plot the graph of Voltage Vs Current for Silicon & Germanium diode with a single graph
paper. Mark the cut-in voltage for both.

LED: Connect LED as same as P-N junction diode in F.B. and measure threshold voltage.

P-N junction diode (Reverse bias):

(1) Take a p-n junction diode (Si,Ge) and connect the negative terminal of p-n junction diode
with the positive terminal of the battery (10V) vice versa.
(2) Connect a voltmeter in parallel with the p-n junction diode and an ammeter in series with
the same, also resistance in series.
(3) Increase slowly and steadily a voltage of a source and note down the voltmeter and
ammeter readings.
(4) Plot the graph of Voltage Vs Current for Silicon & Germanium diode with a single graph
paper.

Observation Table:
(i) Forward bias
Observation Table for Silicon Diode: Observation Table for Germanium Diode:

Sr. No. Vin Vd I(mA) Vin Vd I(mA)

Sr. No.
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10
LED Threshold Voltage:________

(ii) Reverse bias

Observation Table for Silicon Diode: Observation Table for Ge Diode:

Sr. Vin Vd I(μA) Sr. Vin Vd I(μA)

No. No.
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10

Conclusion:-
 EXPERIMENT:- 3

AIM: - To study the V-I characteristics of Zener diode.

APPARATUS: - Zener diode, Digital Multi-meter, variable resistance, power supply, bread
board, connecting wires, etc.

FIGURE:-

Figure:1 Zener diode in R.B.

THEORY :-
Zener doide is a special diode with increased amounts of doping. This is to compensate for the
damage that occurs in the case of a pn junction diode when the reverse bias exceeds the
breakdown voltage and thereby current increases at a rapid rate. Applying a positive potential to
the anode and a negative potential to the cathode of the zener diode establishes a forward bias
condition. The forward characteristic of the zener diode is same as that of a pn junction diode i.e.
as the applied potential increases the current increases exponentially. Applying a negative
potential to the anode and positive potential to the cathode reverse biases the zener diode.
As the reverse bias increases the current increases rapidly in a direction opposite to that of the
positive voltage region. Thus under reverse bias condition breakdown occurs. It occurs because
there is a strong electric filed in the region of the junction that can disrupt the bonding forces
within the atom and generate carriers. The breakdown voltage depends upon the amount of
doping. For a heavily doped diode depletion layer will be thin and breakdown occurs at low
reverse voltage and the breakdown voltage is sharp. Whereas a lightly doped diode has a higher
breakdown voltage. This explains the zener diode characteristics in the reverse bias region. The
maximum reverse bias potential that can be applied before entering the zener region is called the
Peak Inverse Voltage referred to as PIV rating or the Peak Reverse Voltage Rating (PRV rating).
Zener diode is same as a simple P-N junction diode in forward bias condition, with adequate
power dissipation capabilities in reverse bias condition. Zener diode will regulate the variation in
load current and load voltages in the break down region. An increase in temperature increases the
energies of the valence electrons and hence makes easier for electrons to escape from their
positions in covalent bond. So, Zener break down voltages decreases with temperature.

Procedure:-

Zener diode (Reverse bias):

(1) Take a zener diode and connect the negative terminal of diode with the positive terminal
of the battery (15V) as shown in figure.
(2) Connect a voltmeter in parallel with the p-n junction diode and an ammeter in series with
the same, also resistance in series.
(3) Increase slowly and steadily a voltage of a source and note down the voltmeter and
ammeter readings.
(4) Plot the graph of Voltage Vs Current for zener diode with a simple graph paper.

Observation Table:

Sr. No. Vin Vout VR I(mA)

Or Vz (voltage =VR/R
across R)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Conclusion:-
 EXPERIMENT:-4

Aim: - To study about half-wave rectifier with and without filter.

Apparatus :- Probes, steps down transformer, DMM, CRO, resister, connecting wires, power
supply, p-n junction diode, etc.

Figure:

Figure: Half wave rectifier

Theory:

 A device which converts the ‘AC’ wave form (sinusoidal waveform) into a unidirectional
waveform (DC) is called a ‘RECTIFIER’.
 In a rectifier circuit, the input vi = vm+sinωt has a peck value vm, which is very large
compare to cut-in voltage vn of the diode.
 With the diode idealized to be a resistance Rf in the ON state and an open circuit in the OFF
state. The current in the diode Rl given by I =Im+sinωt, o<=α<=π, i=0, if π<=α<=2π (α=ωt).

Im=

 After rectification, we get the output current in unidirectional.

 A DC ammeter is constructed so that needle deflection indicates the average value of current
passing through it.

IDC=

 For half wave,

IDC=

 Here reading of a DC voltmeter reads average voltage, diode has 2 values of resistence, Rf in
ON and α in the OFF state.
 Average value of voltage,

VDC= +

= (ImRf-Vm)

VDC = =
Ripple factor:

 The rectifier output consist of AC as well as DC components the ripple factor measures
percentage of AC component in rectifier output.
 It indicates how close the rectified output is to the pure ideal DC voltage waveform. Small
value of ‘ripple factor’ indicates how close the rectified output wave form is, and should be
small (≈0) as possible.

Ripple factor=

r=

r=

=1.21 %
Voltage regulation:

 Ideally the voltage rectifier output voltage should remain constant.

 But practically,
Voltage regulation= × 100 %

 Where, VNL= average load voltage at no load

=

 VFL=average load at full load

=

 voltage regulation=( )×100%

Observation table:

A. half-wave rectifier without filter

Sr. No. R(in kΩ) VAC (V) VDC (V) Ripple % of

factor=VAC/VDC regulation

1. 1

2. 2

3. 3

4. 4

5. 5
B. half-wave rectifier with filter

Sr. No. R(in kΩ) VAC (V) VDC (V) Ripple % of

factor=VAC/VDC regulation

6. 1

7. 2

8. 3

9. 4

10. 5

Procedure:

 Take a step down transformer.

 Connect one end to 230V, 50Hz AC supply and one through p-n junction diode to Rl (load
resistance).
 Change the load resistance from 1K to 5K and note the corresponding AC volts and DC
volts from CRO.
 Find ripple factor from each reading.
 Find % of voltage variation in the rectifier.
 Draw the graph of Vop→Vip, and test the characteristic of half wave rectifier.
 Connect capacitor C parallel with RL and draw waveforms on simple graph paper with RL=
R-1KΩ and 5kΩ.

Conclusion:
 EXPERIMENT:-5-A

Aim: - To study about full-wave center tap rectifier without filter and find ripple factor

Apparatus: - Center taped transfer, probes, connecting wires, p-n junction diodes, resistance,
DMM, CRO, etc

Figure:
D1

TX1

Ls1 RL
Lp
Vin= 230V AC 50 Hz
Ls2 RL = 1k - 5k

D2

Vo/p

Figure: Centre tap full wave rectifier

Theory:

 Full wave rectifier consists of a step down center taped transformer T1 & purely resistive
load.
 In half wave rectifier, load current flows in only one half cycles but in the full wave
rectifier, it flows in both half cycles of AC supply.
Operation in positive half cycle (0-π):

 In +ve half cycle of AC supply, polarities are VA0 (+ve) & VB0 (-ve).
 Due to center tapped, secondary VA0 & VB0 are equal and opposite of each other.
 D1 in forward bias and D2in reverse biased the load current starts from a through D1, load
resistance RL back to the point O.
 The resistance load voltage is positive & equal to VA0.
Operation in –ve half cycle(π-2π):

 In –ve half cycle of the AC supply, polarities of the secondary induced voltages are shown
in fig. VA0 (-ve) & VB0 (+ve).
 Hence, D2 will be forward biased & D1 is reverse biased. D2 carries the entire load current.
 The direction of load current is as same as that in +ve.
 The instantaneous voltage ≈ VB0.
Average load current (ILDC):

= = 2 ILDC (HWR)

Average load voltage (VLDC):

 VLDC= ILDC X RL

= x RL

RMS load current:

RMS voltage:
Vrms = Im / √2 x RL
= Vm / √2
Ripple factor:

= 0.48

 Here, the Rf of FWR is less than HWR, so quality is much better than that of HWR.
 The voltage is regulation is same as the regulation of HWR.
Procedure:

 Take the center tapped transformer; connect the primary coil of the transformer to the
battery.
 Connect the secondary coil with 2 diodes, D1 & D2 & load resistance RL.
 Change the load resistance from 1K to 5K ohms and note the corresponding AC volts and
DC volts using DMM
 Find and examine the characteristic of wave form in full wave rectifier.
 Find ripple factor from each reading.
 Find % of voltage variation in the rectifier.
 Draw the graph of Vop→Vip.
Observation table:

Sr. No. R(in kΩ) VAC (V) VDC (V) Ripple % of

factor=VAC/VDC regulation

1. 1

2. 2

3. 3

4. 4

5. 5

Calculation:

Conclusion:
 EXPERIMENT: 5B
Aim: To study about full wave center tap rectifier with capacitor filter. Find ripple factor and
voltage regulation.
Apparatus: Full wave center tapped rectifier capacitance load resistance, battery, two diodes,
connecting wires probes, DMM etc.

Figure:

D1

C1
TX1
10uF
Ls1 RL
Lp
Vin= 230V AC 50 Hz
Ls2 RL = 1k - 5k

D2

Vo/p

Theory:

 Filters are the electronic circuits used along with rectifiers in order to get a pure ripple for
DC voltage.
 The filter circuits use resistors, capacitors and inductors. Therefore they are called passive
filters. Depending upon the types filters are classified as:
 Capacitive I/P filter
 Choke I/P filter
 Lc filter
 Π type filter
 In the circuit of full wave rectifier with capacitor filter, capacitance ‘c’ is very large i.e. few
hundred microfarad in order to reduce ripple.
Operation of EWR with a capacitor filter

 In I interval (0-A) :
 The initial voltage of capacitor ‘C’=0. In 1st positive half cycle of the supply, D1 is
forward biased and start conducting D2 is reverse biased and act as open switch. D1
supplies charging current of capacitor.
 Capacitor starts charging through D1 and at interval at ‘n’ charges to peak value of
secondary voltage Vm.
 After point ‘A’ the secondary voltage starts reducing as shown by the dotted
waveform of rectifier O/P in fig. This will reverse bias the diode D1, hence at A,
diode D1 turn off.
 Interval A to B:
 During this interval voltage on the capacitor is higher than rectifier O/P. Hence D 1
and D2 both remain off. The capacitor discharges exponentially through load
resistance R1.
 As the value of R1 is much higher than Rf, the capacitor discharges slowly.
Discharging time constant is ‘RLC’.C is very large in order to make discharging
constant as large as possible. This will reduce ripple content in the output voltage.
 Interval B to C:
  At ‘B’ the instantaneous rectified voltage is equal to the voltage or capacitor and
after ‘B’ it is greater than Vc.
 Therefore, diode D2 starts conducting at instant B. the capacitor charges through D2
and at the end of the interval at point C the voltage on capacitor is against equal to
+Vm.
 Due to this, D2 is reverse biased and stops conduction at point C as shown in fig.
Ripple factor:

 peak ripple voltage:

 Vrms of ripple voltage:
 Therefore, R.F = Vrms/VLDC =

Advantages of capacitor input filter:

1. Reduction in the ripple content of the output voltage waveform
2. Increase in the average load voltage
Procedure:

 Take the full wave rectifier (center tapped) with capacitor filter.
 Arrange Rl and C parallel to each other
 Apply 230 AC voltage to the circuit
 Change the load resistance from 1k to 5k and examine the output characteristics voltage
from C.R.O and note that AC and DC using DMM.
 Find different ripple factor for corresponding reading by Rf = VLDC / VRMS
 Test the charging discharging of capacitor and the effect of capacitor filter to the O/P
characteristic of full wave rectifier
 Draw the characteristic graph for FWR with a capacitor filter

Observation table:

Sr. No. R(kΩ) Vac (I/P)(V) VDC (V) Ripple Factor (2900/RLC)

1. 1 Practical Theoretical

2. 2

3. 3

4. 4

5. 5

Conclusion:
 EXPERIMENT: 6
Aim: Study of the diode applications in a clipping and clamping circuits.
Apparatus: p-n junction diode (silicon), resistor, capacitor, CRO, function generator, power
supply, probes, DMM, connecting wires, etc.

Figure:

Figure:1 Clipping circuit Figure: 2 Clamping circuit

Theory:
This experiment studies the applications of the diode in the clipping & clamping operations.

1. Clipping Circuits:
The Figure (3) shows a biased clipper, for the diode to turn in the input voltage must be greater
+V, when Vm is greater than +V , the diode acts like a closed switch (ideally) & the voltage
across the output equals +V , this output stays at +V as long as the input voltage exceeds +V.
when the input voltage is less than +V , the diode opens and the circuit acts as a voltage
divider, as usual , RL should be much greater than R, in this way , most of input voltage
appears across the output. The output waveforms of Figure (3) summarize the circuit action.
The biased clipper removes all signals above the (+V) level.
2. Clamping Circuits:
A clamper does is adding a DC component to the signal. In Figure (4) the input signal is a
sinewave, the clamper pushes the signal upward, so that the negative peaks fall on the 0V level.
As can see, the shape of the original signal is preserved, all that happen is a vertical shift of the
signal. We described an output signal for a positive dampen- On the Figure (4) shown
represents a positive clamper ideally here how it is works. On the first negative half cycle of
input voltage, the diode turns on. At the negative peak, the capacitor must charge to Vp with
polarity shown. Slightly beyond the negative peak, the diode shunts off.

Procedure:

 Connect the circuit as shown in fig. for each circuit, observe the output waveform.
 Fix the reference voltage of 2V.
 Give the input in sinusoidal waveform, having peak to peak voltage of 10 V, F=1Khz.
 Sketch the input and output waveforms.

Conclusion:
 EXPERIMENT: 7
Aim: To study about input & output characteristic of N-P-N transistor in Common Emitter
(CE) configuration.
Apparatus: N-P-N transistor kit with C-E configuration, connecting wires, 2 batteries etc.

Figure:

RC = 3.3K

Q1
RB=100K C

B V2
E 0-12Vdc

VCE
V1
0-12Vdc VBE IE = IB + IC

0 Emitter is common

Theory:

 Transistor is a three terminal device: collector, emitter & base

 Its characteristics are as follow:-
Input characteristics: (N-P-N CE transistor)

 It is a graph of input current IBE versus input voltage VBE at a constant output voltage.
 For C-E configuration, IB is the input current and VBE is the input voltage.
 At constant output voltage, VCE the input characteristics of a N-P-N transistor is shown in
fig-a. The input characteristic also shows the effect of VCE.
 The input characteristic resembles the forward characteristics of p-n junction diode. The
reason that BE junction is forward biased p-n junction that BE junction is forward biased
p-n junction.
 The base current increases rapidly as the emitter voltage crosses the cut in voltage of the
B-E p-n junction. The dynamic input resistance is defined as
RI=∆VBE/∆IB/VCE constant

 Its value can be obtained from the input characteristic because ‘R I’ is equal to the
reciprocal of slope of the input characteristic.
RI is low for C-E configuration.
Effect of change in VCE on the input characteristic:
 Fig. a shows that at a constant VBE, if we increase VCE from 5v to 15v then the base
current decreases from 60µA to 20A
 Thus IB decreases with increases VCE we can explain this as follows:
 As VCE increases CB junction is more reverse biased
 The depletion region at CB junction penetrates more into base
 This reduces the electrical width of bias
 The chances of recombination in the base region reduce
 Hence the base current will reduce

Output characteristics (n-p-n CE transistor):

 This is a graph of output current (IC) versus output voltage (VCE) for various fixed values
of the input current (IB). The typical output characteristics of a n-p-n transistor operating
in the CE configuration are as shown in fig. b.
 As shown in fig. b. there are three regions of operations namely the cut off region, active
region & saturation region.
 Cut off region:
 Both the BE & CB junction are reverse biased to operate the transistor in cut
off region, the base current IB=0 and the collector current is equal to the
reverse leakage current ICE the region below the characteristic for IB=0 is cut-
off region
 Active region:
 The B-E junction is forward biased and C-B junction is reverse biased to
operate the transistor in the active region
 The collector current IC increases slightly with increase in the voltage VCE.
However the collector current is largely dependent on the base current IB
 The collector current IC increases slightly with increase in the voltage VCE.
However the collector current is dependent on IB
 At a fixed value of VCE, if IB is increased, then it will cause IC to increase
substantially.
 Saturation region:
 The B-E junction as well as the collector junction must be forward biased to
operate the transistor in its saturation region.
 The collector base junction can be forward biased if and only if VCE drops
down to about 0-2 volts because VBE=0.1 v will forward bias the CB junction.
 The collector current increases rapidly with increase in VCE.
 The collector current increases rapidly with increase in VCE.
 The transistor is operated as a switch in this region.
Dynamic output resistance(R):-

 The dynamic output resistance of a transistor in CE configuration is defined as

R=∆VCE/∆IC/constant IB

 The dynamic output resistance can be obtained as reciprocal of slope of output

characteristic.
  Its value is large in the active region because ∆IC is very small .However value of R
will be very small in saturation region .This is because ∆IC in that region is large for a
small value of ∆VCE.

Observation Table:
1) Input Characteristics:

Vcc = 10 V RB = _____________

VBB(V) VBE (V) IB = VRB / RB IC

0.2
0.4
0.7
1
2.5
5
7.5
10

2) Output Characteristics:

IB = 0 IB = 40µA
VCE VRC IC = VBE VCE VRC IC = VBE
VRC/RC VRC/RC
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
1
1.5

Procedure:

 Connect the circuit as shown in fig. on n-p-n transistor kit.

 To study input characteristic, we have to keep VCE constant & equal to 10 V. Then, for
different values of VBE, we have to measure IB.
 Then plot the graph of input current IB versus input voltage VBE at constant output voltage
VCE=10 V.
 Then to study about output characteristics .We have to keep IB constant .first, we keep
IB=10µA and then IB=30µA and for different values of VCE, we measure IC , then plot the
graph of IC versus VCE that gives us output characteristic.
 Then we measure output characteristic in both the cases.
Conclusion:
 EXPERIMENT: 8
Aim: A biasing of CE (common emitter) n-p-n bipolar junction transistor circuit using
voltage divider method.
Apparatus: NPN junction transistor, 3 resisters, connecting wires, DMM etc.

Figure:
+VCC 12V

RL = 33k
R2

Q1

R3

Theory:

 The circuit used to establish a stable operating point is the self biasing (voltage divider)
ckt.
 As shown in fig. R1 &R2 are potential divider to apply a fixed voltage Vg to base.
 The current in Rc in the emitter lead causes a voltage drop which is in the direction to
reverse bias the emitter junction.
 The junction must be forward biased .The biased voltage is obtained from the supply
voltage.
 Here Ic tends to increase because IC0 has risen in Rc increases, so voltage drop across
Rc increase , which increases voltage drop across Rc the base current decreases .Thus
tends to decrease in Ic & compensation For in Ic achieved.
Analysis using Thevenin’s equivalent Circuit:

Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit:

+VCC 12V

RC

Q1

RB=R1/R2
RE

VTH

0 0

RB=(R1*R2) / (R1+R2)
Vth=(R2*Vcc) / (R1+R2)
Obtain Expression for Ib:
Q1

RB
RE

VTH

Applying KVL to base loop

Vth-IB.RB-VBE-IE.RE=0

Vth-IB.RB-VBE-(Hβdc).IBRE=0.

IB=(Vth-VBE)/RB+(Hβdc)RE

Obttain expression for IC& VCE:

IC=βdc*IB

=βdc(Vth-VBE)/RB+(1+βdc).RE

RC

Q1 VDC

RE

Applying KVL to loop:

VCC=ICRC+VCE+IERE

VCE= VCC - ICRC-IERE

Procedure:
 As shown in fig take n-p-n junction diode and connect 2 diodes (R1=variables and
R2=1kΩ) in base emitter circuit junction.
 Connect Rc=3.3kΩ collector emitter junction.
 Apply biasing voltage Vcc=12v.
 Here, output voltage VCE is measured.
 For setting quiescent point in the middle we assume that VCE=VCC/2, so very R1 and
find VCE.
 Continue above procedure until output is VCE=Vcc/2.

Conclusion:
 EXPERIMENT: 9
Aim: To study the frequency response of the C-E amplifier and find its bandwidth.
Apparatus: C-E amplifier, NPN (BJT), CRO, connecting wires , probes , DMM etc.

Figure:

Theory:
C-E amplifier:

 A transistor amplifier consists of a number of CE stages in cascade.

 Since there is voltage gain in each stage, it becomes important to stabilize voltage
amplification in each stage.
 By stabilization of voltage/current gain , we mean that amplification becomes
essentially independent of n –parameters of the transistor.
 Transistor parameters depend on the temperature aging and the operating point.
 The voltage stabilization necessity is seen from fig.
 Pressure of Re has following effects on the amplifier performance, in addition to the
beneficial affection biased stability.
Network Parameters:

 In high frequency region, Re network of concern has configuration in fig. At increasing

Frequencies reactance Xc decrease in magnitude, resulting in a shorting effect across
the output and a decrease in gain.

Av = 1 / (1 + j(f/f2))

 For common emitter, high frequency equivalent model for the network is appeared. By
Thervenin equivalent circuit for the input and output networks of fig. results in the
configuration.
fth = 1/(2 * π * Rth * Ci)
Rth = Rs || R1 || R2 || R
Ci = Cwi + Cbe + Cmi
= Cw + Cbe + (1 - Av) Cp
  At a very high frequency, Ci`s effect is reduced to total impedance of the parallel
combination R1, R2, Ri and Ci.
fTH0= 1/ (2 * π * Rth0 * C0)
Rth0 = Rc || RL || R0
C0= Cw0+ Ccl + Cmo

Observation table:
Vin = 20 mV = VP

Sr No. FREQUENCY Vo/p (mV) Av=Vo/Vp 20 logAv (dB)

Procedure:

 Take a CE amplifier circuit of BJT (NPN) transistor as shown in fig.

 Apply sine wave Vin = 20 mV to the circuit.
 Connect CRO and DMM at output Vo as shown in figure and measure output voltage .
 Find voltage gain Av=Vo/Vi
 Examine the range of frequency in which Av is constant.
 Draw the graph on semi log graph paper and find bandwidth. B.W = f2 – f1 (Av versus
frequency)
Conclusion:
 EXPERIMENT: 10
Aim: To study and calculate frequency of Wien bridge oscillator.

Apparatus: Wein Bridge Oscillator Kit, CRO, Connecting wires.

Circuit Diagram:

Wien Bridge Oscillator Frequency

Theory:

In the RC Oscillator tutorial we saw that a number of resistors and capacitors can be
connected together with an inverting amplifier to produce an oscillating circuit.
One of the simplest sine wave oscillators which use a RC network in place of the
conventional LC tuned tank circuit to produce a sinusoidal output waveform is called a Wien
Bridge Oscillator.
The Wien Bridge Oscillator is so called because the circuit is based on a frequency-selective
form of the Wheatstone bridge circuit. The Wien Bridge oscillator is a two-stage RC coupled
amplifier circuit that has good stability at its resonant frequency, low distortion and is very
easy to tune making it a popular circuit as an audio frequency oscillator but the phase shift of
the output signal is considerably different from the previous phase shift RC Oscillator.
The Wien Bridge Oscillator uses a feedback circuit consisting of a series RC circuit
connected with a parallel RC of the same component values producing a phase delay or phase
advance circuit depending upon the frequency. At the resonant frequency ƒr the phase shift is
0o. Consider the circuit below.
RC Phase Shift Network

The above RC network consists of a series RC circuit connected to a parallel RC forming

basically a High Pass Filter connected to a Low Pass Filter producing a very selective
second-order frequency dependant Band Pass Filter with a high Q factor at the selected
frequency, ƒr.
At low frequencies the reactance of the series capacitor (C1) is very high so acts a bit like an
open circuit, blocking any input signal at Vin resulting in virtually no output signal, Vout.
Likewise, at high frequencies, the reactance of the parallel capacitor, (C2) becomes very low,
so this parallel connected capacitor acts a bit like a short circuit across the output, so again
there is no output signal.
So there must be a frequency point between these two extremes of C1 being open-circuited
and C2 being short-circuited where the output voltage, VOUT reaches its maximum value. The
frequency value of the input waveform at which this happens is called the
oscillators Resonant Frequency, (ƒr).
At this resonant frequency, the circuit’s reactance equals its resistance, that is: Xc = R, and
the phase difference between the input and output equals zero degrees. The magnitude of the
output voltage is therefore at its maximum and is equal to one third (1/3) of the input voltage
as shown.

Procedure:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram

2. Feed the output of the oscillator to a C.R.O by making adjustments in the Potentiometer
connected in the +ve feedback loop, try to obtain a stable sine Wave.
3. Measure the time period of the waveform obtained on CRO & calculates the Frequency of
oscillations.
4. Repeat the procedure for different values of capacitance.

Observation Table:

Sr. No
Capacitance (nF) Theoretical Practical frequency
frequency (Khz) (Khz)
1
2
3
Calculation:

Conclusion:
 EXPERIMENT: 11
Aim: To study op-amp as a Inverting and Non-Inverting amplifier circuit.

Apparatus: Op-amp kit, DMM, function Generator, CRO

Circuit Diagram:

Inverting Amplifier Circuit:

Non-inverting Amplifier :

Theory:

The Inverting Amplifier:

 The circuit diagram of an inverting amplifier is shown in the figure.
 The signal which is to be amplified is applied at the inverting (-) terminal of the OP-
AMP.
 The amplified output signal will be 180° out of phase with the input signal.
Operation of the inverting amplifier:
  The signal to be applied has been connected to the inverting terminal via the
resistance R1.The other resistor Rf connected between the output and inverting
terminals is called as the feedback resistance. It introduces a negative feedback.
 The non-inverting (+) terminal is connected to ground.
 As the OP-AMP is an ideal one, its open loop voltage gain Av=-∞ and input
resistance Ri=∞.
Non-Inverting Amplifier:
 The non-inverting amplifier using OP-AMP is shown in figure.
 Here the signal which is to be amplified is applied to the non-inverting (+) terminal of
the OP-AMP.
 As shown in figure, the input and output voltages are in phase with each other.
 The negative feedback is incorporated in this circuit via the feedback resistor Rf
which is connected between the output and inverting terminal of OP- AMP.

Procedure:

 Connect the circuit.

 Take appropriate reading.
 Connect another circuit and take reading.

Observation Table:

(i) Inverting Amplifier:

Sr. No Input Voltage Output Voltage Theoretical Practical

Vin Vo Gain Av= -Rf/Rin Gain Av

1
2
3

(ii) Non-Inverting Amplifier:

Sr. No Input Voltage Output Voltage Theoretical Practical

Vin Vo Gain Av= (1+Rf/Rin) Gain Av

1
2
3

Calculation:

 Theoretically:
Vo= Av*Vin
Vo= (1+Rf/R2) Vin (Non-inverting Amplifier)
Vo= (- Rf/Rin) Vin (Inverting Amplifier)
  Practically:

Conclusion: