Module 1

Electrical Power Generation & Transmission
Module- 1
Electrical Power Generation

INTRODUCTION: - The structure of power systems includes generating stations,
transmission lines and the distribution system. These three form the main components of an
electric power system. Generating stations and distribution stations are connected through
transmission lines which also connect one power system to another. A distribution system
connects all the loads in a particular area to the transmission lines. For economical and
technical reasons individual power systems are organized in the form of electrically
connected areas or regional grids.
Sources of electric energy are generally classified into two categories: conventional energy
sources and non conventional energy sources. Conventional energy sources include coal,
diesel, gas, and nuclear. On the other hand non conventional energy sources are water, wind,
solar, fuel cells, tidal biogas etc. which are free of operating cost, pollution free and
inexhaustible. These are also called Renewable energy sources.
WIND ENERGY SYSTEM
Energy of wind can be economically used for the generation of electrical energy. Wind is
caused due to:
 The rotation of the earth with respect to atmosphere and its motion around the sun.
 Heating and cooling of the atmosphere. Heating is caused by the absorption of solar
energy on the earth’s surface and in the atmosphere.
The exploitation of wind energy at present is increasing due to high price of oil and fast
depleting of oil, gas and coal deposits.
Wind power plant:

Usually propeller type units are used. It consists of two or three blades made up of stainless
steel. The wind striking the blades at a suitable angle is mounted at the top of a tower in a
nacelle containing the main shaft, the gear box and the generator. When wind strikes the
blades it rotates with some speed. Gear system is with gear ratio 1:25 or 1:30 is used to
increase the speed which in turn drives a generator to produce electricity. Figure 1 shows the
general arrangement of Electrical Power Generation using wind energy.
Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (EE406) Page 1

For Internal Circulation only (Dept. of EEE, MCE, Hassan)
Fig. 1: Electrical Power Generation using wind Energy
Advantages:
 Wind power systems are non polluting
 No fuel provision and transport are required in wind energy systems.
 It is a renewable source of energy.
 Wind power systems, up to a few KW, are less costly but on a large scale, costs can
be competitive achieved by mass production.
Disadvantages:
 Wind energy systems are noisy in operation, a large unit can be heard many
kilometers away.
 Large areas are needed to install wind farms for electrical power generation.
 The main disadvantage regarding wind power is down to the winds unreliability
factor. In many areas the winds strength is too low to support is wind turbine, and this
is where the need of solar power or geothermal power that could be great alternatives.
Selection of area:
 The wind power plant site should have abundant air resource and site should be
cheaper.
 It should be more suitable near to the coastal and remote areas.
 It should be located nearer to the load centers

SOLAR POWER:
Sun offers unlimited supply of energy. First steam engine using sun as its source of power
was put into operation in 1915. In 1960 Israeli scientists developed a solar powered
generating plant. Domestic requirements are being supplied from solar cells in several houses
constructed by Dr. Harry Thomson near Washington.
Advantages
1. Solar power is pollution free and causes no greenhouse gases
2. Virtually no maintenance as solar panels last over 30 years
3. Excess power can be sold back to the power company if grid integrated
4. Solar can be used to heat water, power homes and building, even power cars
Disadvantages
1. High initial costs for material and installation
2. solar power at night so there is a need for a large battery bank
3. Depending on geographical location the size of the solar panels vary for the same
power generation
4. Cloudy days do not produce much energy
Site selection
1. Availability of land and solar radiation
2. Distance from load center
3. Topography of site
4. Variation in local climate
There are two types of solar plants:
1. Solar Thermal power plants 2. Solar PV cell.
Solar Thermal power Plants :
In the solar power plant, solar energy is used to generate electricity. Sunrays are focused
using reflectors on to copper tubes filled with water and painted black outside. Figure 2
shows the arrangement of solar thermal power plant. The water in the tubes boils and become
steam. This steam is used to drive steam turbine which in turn causes the generator to work.
Fig. 2: Electrical Power Generation using Solar Thermal.

1. Solar photovoltaic systems
Charge DC Load
PV
controller
array
Battery Inverter AC Load
Fig. 3: Electrical Power Generation using Solar Photovoltaic Systems
Solar power which falls upon the earth is of magnitude 1.77X1014kW. The rate at which solar
energy reaches the earth’s atmosphere is known as solar constant expressed as:
Solar constant=1200kcal/m2-h.
When sun passes through the atmosphere, part of sun’s radiation is reflected, scattered and
absorbed by heating air dust and by evaporating water. Solar power densities at surface of
earth depend upon sun’s position and upon the clarity and humidity of the atmosphere.
A general arrangement for Solar Photovoltaic systems is shown in Figure 3. Photo voltaic cell
or solar cell is a converter; it changes the light energy into electrical energy. A cell does not
store any energy. So when the source of light (typically the sun) is removed there is no
electrical energy output from the cell. If electricity is needed in the night, a battery must be
included in the circuit. The conversion process occurs instantaneously whenever there is
light falling on the surface of a cell and the output of the cell is proportional to the input light.
Applications:
 Water heating for domestic,

 Solar water pumping
 Commercial and industrial use
 Solar power Generation.
 Space heating and drying.
 Domestic lighting
 Street lighting
 Water Pumping
 Powering of remote telecommunication repeater stations
 Railway signals

HYDRO POWER GENERATION
Introduction:
A hydro – electric power station is used to supply electrical energy to consumers where ample
quantity of water resources is available. The potential energy of water is converted into kinetic
energy. The kinetic energy of water is converted to mechanical energy and then into electrical
energy. This type of station however, cannot be located anywhere. Firstly there must be ample
quantity of water available at sufficient head; secondly a suitable site must be available.
Advantages of hydroelectric plants:

 Operation, running and maintenance costs are low.
 Water reaches the powerhouse site on its own where no mining operation and
transportation are involved as in the case of coal, oil and gas.
 After use of water in electricity production it can be redirected for the further use of
drinking and irrigation.
 Once the dam is built the energy is virtually free.
 No fuel is burnt and the plant is quite neat and clean.
 Pollution free
 Hydel plant has very high efficiency about (80%)
 Hydel plants can started quickly and shutdown quickly
 It offers more flexibility in operation. control, etc.
Disadvantages of hydroelectric plants
 High initial cost or capital cost (capital cost of generators, civil engineering works and cost
of transmission lines is very high).
 High time of construction period (It will take 5 to 8 years to setup plants).
 Finding a suitable site can be difficult.
 Power generation is dependent on the quantity of water available, which may vary from
season to season and year to year. If the rainfall is in time and adequate then only the
satisfactory operation of the plant can be expected.
 Large hydro – plants disturb the ecology of the area, by way of deforestation and
destroying vegetation and also the impact on residents and the environment may be
unacceptable.

Selection of site:
Selection of hydro electric power plants depends on following factors:
1. Availability of water: Since the primary requirement of a hydro electric power station is the
availability of huge quantity of water, such plants should be built at a place where adequate
water is available at a good head.
2. Water storage: Wide variation of rainfall during the year makes it necessary to have the
resources to store water for continuous generation of power. This makes it necessary to store
water by constructing a dam in order to ensure the generation of power throughout the year.
The storage helps in equalizing the flow of water so that water is available during times of very
low flow in the river.
3. Head of water: The availability of head depends upon the topography of the area. High head
means high potential energy. An increase in effective head for a given output reduces the
quantity of water required to be supplied to the turbines.
Head of water is very important factor to decide the amount of power generation.
4. Distance from power station to the load centers :
The generated power is transmitted through transmission line up to the load centre and it is
distributed to the consumer through distribution lines and substations. In order to minimize the
cost of transmission, the load center should not be too far from the generating station.
5. Cost and type of land :
The land for the construction of the plant should be available at a reasonable price. Further the
bearing capacity of the ground should be adequate to withstand the weight of heavy equipment
to be installed.
6. Transportation facilities :
The site selected for a hydro electric plant should be accessible by rail and road so that
necessary equipment and machinery could be easily transported.
Classification of hydro eclectic plants
There are three different methods of classifying hydro electric plants. The classification may be
based upon
a. Quantity of water available

b. Available head
c. Nature of load
Classification on Hydro electric plants based on quantity of water available: According to

this classification the plants may be divided into.
1. Run - off River plants without Pondage: As the name indicates this type of plant does not
store water, the plant uses water as it comes. The plant can use water only as and when
available. In this type of arrangement there can be no control over the flow of water into the
turbines. Thus heavy flow of water yields at scope for generation of large quantity of power. If

the load demand is low, much of the water in the river goes to waste as it cannot be utilized.
On the other hand when there is a heavy load demand, it cannot be met if there is not enough
flow of water. Thus this scheme has inherent drawbacks.
2. Run – off river plants with pondage: Usefulness of a run – off river plant is increased by
providing sufficient pondage. Pondage permits storage of water during the off peak periods
(when the load demand is low) and use of this water during the peak period (when the load
demand is high). The amount of pondage which can be provided depends upon practical
considerations. When providing pondage, tail race conditions should be such that floods do not
raise the tail–race water level, thus reducing the head on the plant and impairing its
effectiveness.
3. Reservoir/Storage plants: A storage type plant is one with a reservoir of sufficiently large
size to permit water storage from the wet to dry season. Only as much water as is necessitated
by the load demand is drawn from the flow of water into the turbines. This plant can be used as
base load plant as well as peak load plant depending on water available with control and on
practical requirements. Thus the power plant can be worked throughout the year unlike in the
previous scheme where in there can be no generation of power if the river were to dry up.
Classification of Hydro Electric plants according to available head:
Head: The vertical difference between the upper reservoir and the tail race is called head.
Hydro – electric plants may be classified into
1. Low head plants (below 30 mts)

2. Medium head plants (between 30 to 300 mts)
3. High head plants (above 300 mts)
Low head plants
In a plant belonging to this category the operating head of water available for power is generally
less than 30 meters. Only small quantities of power can be generated and hence such plants find
use only to cater to occasional peak loads. Fig.4 shows the general arrangement of a low head plant
Fig.4 Low head plant.

Low head plant stores water by the construction of a dam across a river and the power plant is
installed near the base of the dam on the downstream side
Medium Head plants
If the operating head available for power generation is less than 300 meters but is more than 30
meters it is usually referred to as a medium head plants. The fore bay provided at the beginning of
penstock serves as water reservoir for such plants. In these plants water is generally carried in open
canals from main reservoir to the forebay and then to the power house through the penstock. The
forebay itself serves as surge tank in this case. Medium head plants also may be worked as either
base load or peak load plants. Figure 5 shows the arrangement of medium head plants.
Fig.5 Medium head plant.
High head plants
Fig.6 High head plant.
In case of high head plants, the operating head is more than 300 meters. This type of plants has an
elaborate arrangement of dam and head works, surge tank or forebay, penstocks, etc. for conveying
river water to the hydraulic turbines installed in power house. Reservoir is at elevated place and
power house is situated down below usually at the foot of hillock or waterfall. The difference
between head race and tail race is 300 meters or more. Spillways and crest gates are provided so as
to drive out excess water during flooding. Head gates are provided at the dam. Any desired
quantity of water can be drawn from the reservoir and conveyed via tunnel and surge tank to the
turbines by means of large penstock. High head plants with storage are very valuable to electric
utilities because they can be quickly adjusted to meet the electrical demand on a distribution
system. A typical arrangement for this type of plant is shown in Fig.6.
Classification of Hydro –electric plants according to nature of load
There is yet another classification of hydro electric plants based upon the nature of the loads
coming on the station. Thus we have 1. Base load plants 2. Peak load plants 3. Pumped storage
plants.
1. Base Load plants: The plants which take up base portion of the load curve are called base
load plants. These plants are required to supply a constant power when connected to grid. They
are often remote controlled and require less number of staff. A base load power plant is one
that provides a steady flow of power regardless of total power demand by the grid. These
plants run at all times through the year except in the case of repairs or scheduled maintenance.
Run off river plants with without pondage may work as base load plants.
2. Peak load plants: Plants which can supply power during peak loads corresponding to load at
top portion of the load curve are known as peak load plants. Since the peak loads occur only
occasionally it is evident that the load factor at which a peak load station operates is quite low.
Run – off river plants with pondage can be used as peak load plant. Generally hydropower is
quite suitable for peak load operation due to its quick starting and relative ease in picking up
load.
3. Pumped storage plants for peak load
Fig.7 Pumped storage plant.
Pumped storage plants are employed at places where the quantity of water available for power
generation is inadequate. Here the water passing through the turbine is stored in ‘tail race
pond’. During low load periods this water is pumped back to the head of the reservoir using the
extra energy available and this water is used again for generating power during peak load
periods. In a pumped storage plant there is an arrangement by which the tail race water can be
pumped back into the small storage reservoir at the head race. A small pond is created at the
tail race; water leaving the turbines after doing useful work gets collected in this pond. By
means of a pump this water is pumped back to the head race reservoir. A ‘reversible turbine
pump’ set installed in the power house which pumps the tail race water during the off peak
periods. During peak periods, it functions as a turbine and drives the generator which in turn
supplies the peak loads thus the same set acts as both pump and turbine. It may be noted that
during the off peak periods the generator acts as motor and drives the pump to lift the tail race
water.
The pumped storage plants have the flowing advantages
Advantages:
 Increase in peak load capacity at low cost.
 Improves load factor of plant.
 Plant is independent of stream flow conditions.
General arrangement of hydroelectric plants
Fig.8 General Layout of hydroelectric power plant.

Fig. 8 shows the general layout of a hydroelectric plant in which an artificial storage reservoir
formed by constructing dam is as shown. The water surface in storage reservoir is known as head
race and the water is carried through penstocks or canals to the power house. In some installations
smaller reservoirs known as forebays are provided which temporarily stores water when it is not
required by the plant and supply the same when it is not required by the plant and supply the same
when required. Water after passing through turbines is discharged into tail race.
Functions of different components in storage reservoir plants
1. Catchment Area: The whole area behind the dam draining into a steam or river across
which the dam has been constructed is called the catchment area.
2. Reservoir: It is a basic requirement of a hydroelectric plant. Its purpose is to store water
which may be utilized to run the prime mover to produce electrical power. A reservoir
stores water during the rainy season and supplies the same during the dry season water
stored is not only used for power generation but also for irrigation flood control drinking
water supply and navigation.
3. Dam : A dam performs the following two basic functions :
 It develops a reservoir of the desired capacity to store water; and
 It builds up a head for power generation.
4. Trash Rack: It is provided to stop the entry of debris which might damage the gates and
turbine runners. A trash rack is made of steel bars and is placed across the intake.
5. Spill way: A spillway as the name suggests could be called as a way for spilling of water
from dams. It is used to provide for the release of flood water form a dam. It is used to
prevent over toping of the dams which could result in damage or failure of dams. Spillways
can be either controlled type or uncontrolled type. The uncontrolled type starts releasing
water upon water rising above a particular level. But in case of the controlled type
regulation of flow is possible.
6. Surge Tank: Surge tank may be considered as an additional storage space near the turbine
usually provided in high head and medium head plants when there is a considerable
distance between the water source and turbine which necessitates a long penstock. Its
function is to protect the penstocks from water hammer effect. If the load on the turbines
suddenly drops, the governor mechanism of the turbines causes the nozzles or the gates to
close, thus blocking the entry of water into the turbines. As a result of it the water in the
penstocks is pushed back its pressure immediately rises up to a very high value. This
sudden change of pressure above normal is known as water hammer. If there is no
mechanism by which the pressure is immediately brought down, the penstocks may get
burst. Surge tank controls pressure variations resulting from rapid changes in water flow by
providing space for holding/releasing water as load on turbine increases or decreases
suddenly.
7. Penstock: It is a conduit system for taking water from the intake works and forebay to the
turbines. There are two types of penstock
 Low pressure and

 High pressure
Penstock pipes are generally of steel for high and medium head plants; they may be of
concrete in low head plants. The high pressure type consists of steel pipes which can take
water under pressure. It should however be noted that the diameter and cross sectional area
of a penstock pipe depends on the velocity of water.
8. Power house: Power house is normally located near the foot of the dam. It may be
underground or open type. Water is brought to the powerhouse with help of penstocks and
passed to the turbines which rotate the alternators. The location of power house is decided
based on the max possible head at the turbine. In power house there are several in house
auxiliaries and controls.
9. Prime mover: The head of water is converted into the kinetic energy in prime mover
which rotates the shaft of the Generator. Thus a prime mover also called a turbine converts
the kinetic and potential energy of water into the mechanical energy. The commonly used
water turbines are Francis, Kaplan propeller, Pelton etc.
Principle of working/ operation of hydroelectric plant
A hydroelectric power station should have water available at enough head from the a
hydroelectric power station should have water available at enough head from the rivers or
reservoir behind the dam. The water is taken through the intake works and forebay, then
through the penstock under pressure to the turbines in the power stations.
There are basically two types of turbines
 Reaction turbine
 Impulse turbine
In reaction turbine, at the entrance to the runner only a part of the available head is converted
into kinetic energy and substantial part remains in the form of pressure and let out through
draft tube into the tail race without loss of pressure to the atmosphere anywhere in the system.
Energy in the form of pressure is converted into kinetic energy. Reaction turbines usually
have vertical arrangement; the power station needs a good deal of sub structure and super
structure. Francis, propeller and Kaplan are some of reaction turbines which are commonly
used.
Impulse turbines are used for high head plants where the pressure head is converted into
velocity head by nozzles at the admission of water into the turbines. The water coming out of
the nozzle formed into a free jet which strikes a series of buckets mounted on the periphery of
the wheel and gives it motion. In this type velocity head is converted into kinetic energy and
after the work has been done on the turbine water is let into the tail race without using draft
tube. Pelton wheel is often used as impulse turbine. Impulse turbines are either horizontal or
vertical arrangement and hence no special sub structure is necessary.

Power station structure: Separating intake, the house may be broadly divided into three
sections, namely
i. Sub structure
ii. Intermediate structure
iii. Super structure
Sub structure: part of the power house which extends from top of the draft tube to the soil
or rock or ground forms the sub structure which serves to support the equipment and to
provide the necessary passage of water ways. The main structural functions of it are to
safely carry the superimposed loads of machines and others, to act as transition foundation
member which distributes the heavy machine loads on the soil. In case of multi unit power
house it consists of number of compartments each containing a water passageway and a
turbo generator unit. The stability of entire power house largely depends on the
construction of sub structure which is in direct contact with water.
Intermediate structure: The part of power house which extends from the top of draft tube
to the top of generator foundation forms intermediate structure. In case of reaction turbine,
this structure contains a scroll case on which generator foundation rests and in case of
impulse turbine, the intermediate structure contains manifold supplying water to the jets
Super structure: The part which is above the generator from right up to the roof form
super structure which provides walls and roof to the power station and also an overhead
travelling crane for handling heavy machine parts i.e., in other words super structure houses
generator and entire power house equipments. The generator room of a hydel power plant
is rather than that of thermal plant which depends on the size of the cranes used that of
generator rotor. The flooding of super structure is customarily ceramic tile.
Layout of power house
The selection of layout of electrical equipments in a hydel station largely depends on

the general connection pattern to ensure reliably power supply and ease of operation
and maintenance. Each generator has a step up transformer of its own. Each generator
has a step up transformer of its own and together known as ‘unit’ to transmit current at
extra high voltage to an outdoor switch gear installation from which transmission line
originates. Generating voltages are 3.3, 6.6 and 11kVat 50Hz and grid voltages are
132kV/220kV/400kV. For opening and closing of circuits during normal conditions,
isolators are used. And opening of circuits under fault conditions are done circuit
breakers along with relays which are installed in power house. EHV switch gears
consisting of circuit breakers and relays are outdoors. Generators, transformers and
switching devices are connected by aluminum or copper bar conductor and cables.
Transmissions lines have conductors made of steel reinforced aluminum wires
suspended from the tower cross arms by strings of insulators.

Control
In practice the number of turbine generators operates in parallel and share load in
proportion to their speed droop characteristics. Speed is adjusted to maintain frequency
constant and to share the load on the generators as required. Accurate control of
frequency is essential since main operated electric clocks and synchronous machines
have to work accurately. Reactive load taken by each generator is adjusted by
excitation control which is done by voltage regulators to maintain the voltage of
generator held at desired value of machine bus.
THERMAL POWER PLANT

SELECTION OF SITE FOR THERMAL POWER PLANT
While selecting the site for thermal plants following points have to be considered
1. Availability of raw material: Thermal power plants using coal or oil as fuel require
huge quantity of it per annum. A plant of 400MW capacity requires 5000 to 6000
tonnes of coal per day. Therefore, it is necessary to locate the plant as near as possible
to coal fields in order to save the transportation charges.
2. Nature of land: Land selected should have good bearing capacity as it has to
withstand the dead load of the plant and the forces transmitted to the foundation due
to the machine operations.
3. Cost of land: Cost of the land should be reasonable as area required for thermal plant
is very large.
4. Availability of water: Thermal plants use water as the working fluid which is
repeatedly evaporated and condensed. Ample amount of water is required for
condensers and also for disposing the ash if hydraulic system is used.
5. Transport facilities: Availability of proper transport facilities like railway lines
should be available near the power station to transport heavy machinery and fuel.
6. Ash disposal facilities: Rather than coal handling, handling ash is more serious
problem, as it has serious effect on atmospheric conditions as the human health is
concerned. Thus, there must be sufficient space available for ash disposal.
7. Load centre: A steam power plant must be located near the loads to which it is
supplying power. However, a plant cannot be located near all loads.

8. Future extensions: The choice of the site should allow for economical extensions
consistent with the estimated growth of load.
LAYOUT OF THERMAL POWER PLANT
Basically a steam plant works on the rankine cycle (idealised thermodynamic cycle of a heat
engine that coverts heat into mechanical work while undergoing phase change is the
fundamental operating cycle of all power plants where an operating fluid is continuously
evaporated and condensed). Steam produced in boiler is expanded in the prime mover and is
condensed in a condenser to be fed back to boiler. A typical schematic layout of coal fired
power plant is shown in fig 9.
The plant can be divided into four main circuits:
1. Fuel and ash circuit.

2. Air and gas circuit.
3. Feed water and steam circuit.
4. Cooling water circuit
Fuel and ash circuit
Coal from storage is fed to the boiler through fuel feeding device commonly known as
coal handling plant (CHP). Ash produced after combustion gets collected at the back of
boiler and is removed to ash storage through ash handling equipment.
Air and gas circuit
Air from atmosphere is supplied to the combustion chamber of the boiler through forced
draught (FD) fan or induced draught (ID) fan. Air is pre heated by heat of flue gases,
then made to pass through boiler tubes and super heater tubes in furnaces. It is then
passed through dust collector and economiser and finally exhausted to atmosphere
through air preheater and electrostatic precipitator (ESP).

Fig. 9 Schematic layout of typical coal fired power station
Feed water and steam circuit
For better operation of plant and safety of turbine, the water used is demineralised and thus it
is not wasted but used by converting it back to water in condenser. The condensate is heated

in a feed water heater and there by extracting steam. This water then passes through deaerator
and few more heaters before going into boiler through economiser. A small part of it gets
lost, which is compensated by adding make up water. This raw water passes through
evaporator, is heated to steam and condensed to water in evaporator and then passes through
feed water pump into the boiler as shown fig 10.
In boiler drum and tubes, water circulates because of difference of density in low and high
temperature sections of the boiler. Wet steam is further heated in super heater before being
supplied to prime mover. The steam after expansion in high pressure turbine is taken to the
reheat boiler where it is brought to original dryness and then low pressure turbine from where
it is exhausted through condenser.
Fig. 10 Feed water and steam flow circuit for a boiler-turbine unit
Cooling water circuit
A large quantity of cooling water is required to condense the steam in the condenser and to
maintain a low pressure in it. Cooling water is taken from upper side of river and after
passing through the condenser it is discharged to the lower side of the river. If adequate
quantity of water is not available then water from condenser may be cooled either in cooling
pond or cooling towers.

MAIN PARTS OF THERMAL PLANTS
Boilers: A boiler may be defined as a closed vessel in which steam is produced from water
by combustion of fuel. The fuel is burnt in the furnace of the boiler. Enough air has to be
supplied to ensure efficient combustion. Heat produced in combustion gives most of their
heat to water in tubes of boiler and superheater. Heat transfer takes place through walls of the
tubes of the boilers. Drum is protected from direct contact with hot flue gases. In order to
make use of remaining heat, the gases are made to pass through an economiser and thereby
heating water in it. The gases then pass through the air preheater thus providing initial heat to
air before it is admitted to the furnace.
Classification of Boilers
The boilers may be classified as follows:
1. Horizontal, vertical or inclined: If the axis of the boiler is horizontal, the boiler is
called as horizontal, if the axis is vertical, then it is called vertical boiler and if its axis
is inclined then it is known as inclined boiler.
2. Fire tube and water tube: In fire tube boilers, the hot gases are inside the tubes and
water surrounds the tubes. Ex: Cochran, Lancashire and locomotive boilers. In water
tube boilers, the water is inside the tubes and hot gases surround them. Ex: Babcock
and Wilcox, Stirling, Yarrow boiler etc. Generally water tube boilers are used for
electric power production in thermal power plants.
3. Externally fired and internally fired: If the fire is outside the shell, then boiler is
known as externally fired. Ex: Babcock and Wilcox, Stirling, Yarrow boiler etc. If
furnace is located inside the boiler shell then it is known as internally fired boilers.
Ex: Cochran, Lancashire and locomotive boilers.
4. Forced circulation and natural circulation: If the circulation of water is done by
forced pump, then it is known as forced circulation boilers, whereas in natural
circulation type of boilers, circulation of water in boiler takes place due to natural
convention currents produced by the application of heat.

5. High pressure and low pressure boilers: The boilers producing steam at pressure of
80bar and above are called high pressure boilers, whereas boilers which produce
steam at pressure below 80 bar are called low pressure boilers.
A number of other accessories present on the boiler are, water level indicators, feed water
regulators, safety valves, blow down valves, automatic alarms, etc. for adequate control and
operation of boiler.
Boiler feed pump: High capacity induction motor is used to feed water to boiler. In thermal
power plants approximately 10% of generated power is consumed by its auxiliaries. Boiler
feed pump is highest power consuming auxiliaries in steam plants.
Feed water: Natural water cannot be used for steam generation as it contains solid, liquid
and gaseous impurities which can damage the blades of the turbine. Thus water is treated to
prevent scaling, corrosion, foaming and priming.
Economisers: An economiser is a mechanical device which is used as a heat exchanger by

pre heating a fluid to reduce energy consumption. In a steam boiler, it is a heat exchanger
device that heats up fluids or recovers residual heat from the combustion product i.e. flue
gases in thermal power plants before being released through chimney. The purpose of
economisers is to heat feed water to recover a part of heat which would otherwise be lost
through flue gases.
The flue gases coming out of the steam boiler furnace carry a lot of heat. Function of
economiser in thermal power plant is to recover some of heat from the heat carried away in
the flue gases up the chimney and utilised for heating the feed water to the boiler. Hence, the
economiser in thermal power plant is used to economise the process of electrical power
generation.
Air pre-heater: Along with economisers, air preheaters are employed to recover some of the
heat in flue gases. The use of air preheater is more economical with pulverised fuel boilers
because the temperature of flue gases going out is sufficiently large and high air temperature
(250-3500C) is always desirable for better combustion.
Superheaters and reheaters: Their function is to superheat steam to desired temperature by

removing last traces of moisture (1-2%) from saturated steam coming out of boiler. By

increasing temperature sufficiently above saturation, temperature increases overall cycle
efficiency.
Condensers: A device in which the exhaust steam from engines and turbines is condensed,
air and other non condensable gases are removed in a continuous process called Condenser.
Advantages of condenser are:-
 Increases efficiency of plant.

 Recovery of condensate for re-use as boiler water.
There are two types of condensers, namely surface and jet. Just passing air over surface of
condenser is not adequate and water is used as a cooling medium. Huge amount of water is
needed for this purpose which is taken from river or Lake, etc. and warm water is disposed
off to river. If ample quantity of water is not available then same water is cooled and used
again.
Steam prime mover
Steam turbines are generally preferred over steam engines as prime movers in thermal power
plants. Steam turbines have higher efficiency as steam can be expanded to a lower final
temperature. Simple construction as there is no need of piston rod mechanism and slide
valves, hence maintenance is simple.
Two types of steam turbines are:
i. Reaction turbine.
ii. Impulse turbine.
In reaction turbine, there are no nozzles and has number of fixed and moving blades. A
partial drop of pressure is used to allow the steam into moving blades, whereas in impulse
type, steam expands in nozzles and attains higher velocity. Potential energy in steam due to
pressure is converted to kinetic energy when passing through nozzles and number of
stationary and moving blades.
Spray pond
It consists of tank of water in which the water to be cooled is distributed by pipes and sprayed
through nozzles at suitable pressure. Water falls over pond in a fine spray with considerable

surface of contact with atmospheric air. But one of its limitations is ground area requirement,
especially when size of station increases. Thus cooling towers are preferred in modern and
large sized plants.
Cooling towers
In cooling towers, the water which is to be cooled gets divided into smaller quantities, such
as, the size of drops. These drops fall from a height of 8-10 meters to the bottom of cooling
tower. The spilling of water in droplets, the draught provided by tower and large evaporating
surface help to cool water very quickly during the time it is descending. Water from the base
is pumped to condensers and cycle repeats.
Fuels
Fuels may be solid, liquid and gaseous which can be either natural or prepared. Coal, oil and
gas are generally used fuels in thermal power plant. Gaseous is rarely used; oil is preferred
where it is available in abundance and cheap. Coal is used most commonly in thermal power
plants. Coal occurs naturally in seams which is result of decay in vegetables matter
accumulated in earth years ago having got transformed by action of heat pressure. Peat,
lignite, semi bituminous, bituminous, anthracite, semi anthracite are classification of coal in
increasing order of the heat value.
NUCLEAR POWER PLANT
PROS AND CONS OF NUCLEAR POWER GENERATION
Pros:-
 Nuclear fuel is inexpensive, abundant than fossil fuel, easy to transport.

 Nuclear reactors need little fuel and to be changed approximately once in three years.
 Waste produced is compact compared to fossil fuel plants.
 Nuclear reactors are safe compared to fossil fuel plants.
 Nuclear reactors are safe compared to fossil fuel methods.
 Chances of nuclear accident that would cause damage to human life are once in 250
years.
 Clean source of energy and does not contribute to greenhouse effect or acid rain.

Cons:-
 Even though cost of fuel is low, actual cost of producing energy is higher because of
emergency, containment and radioactive waste storage systems.
 High level radioactive waste must be stored deep below the surface of the earth for
millions of years until it loses its radioactivity.
 Mixing of uranium and thorium (used as fuel for reactors) can cause serious problems
in environment.
 Radon and dust blown out to atmosphere during mining, increases levels of radon
concentrations in air thereby causing serious health hazards.
 Increased incidences of thyroid cancer and some severe health issues accompany a
nuclear meltdown.
 Crops grown and fish populations are greatly affected with high levels of radioactive
elements in underground water.
SELECTION OF SITE
The following factors have to be considered while selecting site for nuclear power plant:
1. Availability of water: Ample quantity of water should be available because water is

the secondary working fluid.
2. Distance from populated area: Nuclear power station should be as far as possible
from vicinity of human population in view of danger of radioactivity.
3. Nearness to load centre: In order to reduce the cost of transmission, it is preferred to
have nuclear stations at load centers.
4. Disposal of waste: The wastes produced in such plants are very minimal, yet care
should be taken for safe disposal, as it is highly radioactive. The waste should be
either buried in deep pits or disposed off into the sea.
5. Accessibility by rail or road: As heavy equipment will have to be transported to the
site especially during erection of site, it should be easily accessible.

WORKING OF NUCLEAR REACTOR BASED POWER PLANT
Nuclear furnace is termed as reactor or pile. A mass of fissile material such as uranium is
brought together in the form of fuel rods and inserted into core of reactor. This energy from
fission heats the core and heat is taken to a heat exchanger which removes the heat to a
separate system, which is then used to generate steam. This steam which runs turbines in turn
drives electric generator.
COMPONENTS OF NUCLEAR REACTOR
A nuclear reactor is shown in figure 11 with all essential components. The main components
are, Fuel rods, Shielding, Moderator, Control rods, Coolant, Steam separator and
Containment.
Fig. 11 Basic components of nuclear reactor
1. Fuel rods: Zinc alloy tube filled with pellets of uranium and can be lifted into and out of
the reactor. Mechanically, allowing fuel replenishment while reactor is in operation.
2. Shielding: Protection against α, β, γ radiations during fission process.
3. Moderator: To slow down the neutrons released during fission. Graphite, heavy water or
beryllium can be used as moderator for natural uranium; however ordinary water is used
with enriched uranium.
4. Control rods: To prevent melting of fuel rods, destruction of reactor due to excessive
energy release and to control chain reaction at steady state value during operation in
reactors, it is necessary to have control. Chain reaction can be controlled either by
removing fuel rods or by inserting neutron absorbing material. Boron carbide, cadmium

or hafnium is inserted from bottom of core to control. Also additional rods are inserted
from top to provide automatic, manual or emergency control.
5. Coolant: Coolants are used for transferring heat from reactor to heat exchanger. Gas
(helium, air, carbon dioxide, hydrogen), water, heavy water, liquid metals (sodium or
potassium) and some organic liquids are examples of coolants.
6. Steam separator: Steam (heat energy) from heated coolant is fed to turbine to produce
mechanical and there by electrical energy. 95% of heat from fission is transferred from
coolant.
7. Containment: The reactor core located in a concrete lined cavity acts as a radiation
shield. The upper shield is made of steel and supports fuel rod assemblies.
SAFETY OF NUCLEAR POWER STATIONS
Two major accidents in the of nuclear power generation in history are:
 Three mile island, US in 1979, where reactor was reversely damaged but no adverse
health or environmental consequences reported, as radiations were contained.
 Chernobyl, Ukraine in 1986, reactors involved an intense fire without provision for
containment and killed more than 30 people. In this incident severe health and
environmental consequences were observed.
 Another known incident was in Fukushima, severely tested the containment, allowing
some release of radioactivity.
Safety is a prime concern for those working in nuclear plants. Radiation doses can be
controlled by following procedures:
 Handling of equipment via remote in core of reactor.

 Physical shielding.
 Limit on time a worker spends in areas with significant radiation levels.
 Monitoring of individual doses and of the work environment.
To achieve optimum safety, nuclear power plants operate with multiple safety systems
includes:
 A series of physical barriers between the radioactive core and environment.

 Provision of multiple safety systems, each with backup and designed to accommodate
human error.
 Along with control rods and backup cooling systems, most reactors are designed with
an inherent feature called ‘negative void coefficient’ meaning that beyond an optimal
level, as temperature increases, the efficiency of reactor decreases, i.e., reaction slows
down automatically.
 Another physical feature to enhance safety includes fuel in the form of pellets. These
are placed in zirconium alloy tubes which forms fuel rods. Theses rods are inside a
large steel pressure vessel with 20cm thick wall which in turn is enclosed inside a
robust concrete containment with a meter or thicker wall.
Safe Disposal of Nuclear Waste
After fission process when the fuel rods are said to be ‘spent’, they are shielded with water
and thick lead walls, as they are highly radioactive and emit γ radiations. Highly radioactive
waste are usually enclosed in graphite box and then buried deep in the earth under the deep
sea. After fission process when fuel rods go through a process to remove the radiation, the
outer cladding is dissolved in nitric acid and radioactive debris is stored in liquid form in
large carbon or stainless steel drums. After it solidifies it is permanently buried in repository.
Waste of lower radioactivity is either buried in dirt trenches or pumped out to sea.
DIESEL ELECTRIC STATIONS
A diesel electric station (also known as stand-by power station) uses diesel engine as prime
mover for the generation of electrical energy. This kind of power stations can be used to
produce limited amounts of electrical energy. The mechanical power required for driving
alternator comes from combustion of diesel. As diesel costs high, this type of power station is
not suitable for producing power in large scale.
ADVANTAGES
 Capital cost per kW is low.
 Design and installation are simple and cheap.
 Less space is required.
 Starting and stopping time are very less.

 Small diesel generators can be portable and can be put near any load requirement.
 Simpler operation.
DISADVANTAGES
 High operating cost as diesel is costlier.
 Repair and maintenance costs are high.
 Usual life is less (say 5-10years).
 Limited overload capacity.
 Noise and pollution is high.
APPLICATIONS
 Mobile plants: Mobile diesel plants mounted on trailers are used for temporary and
emergency purposes.
 Emergency plants: Number of industries has diesel electric plants installed in their
premises to maintain essential services.
 Peak load plants and stand-by plants.
 Can also be used for starting auxiliaries in thermal power plant.
SELECTION OF SITE FOR DIESEL STATION

 Distance from load centre.
 Availability of land and water.
 Foundations.
 Transport of fuel.
 Local conditions.
 Neighborhood noise and nuisance.
MAIN COMPONENTS OF DIESEL ELECTRIC PLANTS: Figure 12 shows the

different parts of diesel engine.

Fig. 12. Diesel electric plant
The essential components of diesel electric plants are:
1. Engine.
2. Engine fuel system.
3. Engine air intake system.
4. Engines exhaust system.
5. Engine cooling system
6. Engine lubrication system.
7. Engine starting system.
Engine: It is main component of the plant coupled with generator to develop power.
Engine fuel system: It includes fuel storage tanks, fuel transfer pumps, strainers, heaters and
connecting pipe system. Fuel transfer pumps are required to transfer fuel from delivery point
to storage tanks and then to engine. To eliminate impurities, strainers are used.
Engine air intake system: It includes air filters, ducts and supercharger. Air filters are
required to remove dust from air to be supplied to the engine. Supercharger is an integral part

which increases the pressure of air supplied to the engine so that it could develop an
increased power output.
Engine exhaust system: It includes silencers and connecting ducts. Oil or air is supplied to
engine is heated by utilising high temperature exhaust gases. The silencer reduces noise.
Engine cooling system: It includes coolant pumps, cooling towers or spray ponds, water
treatment or filtration plant and connecting pipe system. The purpose of cooling system is to
carry heat from engine cylinder within safe limits by circulating water through cylinder.
Usually a water source, pump and place of disposal is enough, however the same water is
recirculated by cooling it in devices such as radiators, evaporative coolers, cooling tower,
spray ponds, etc.
Engine lubrication system: It includes lubricating oil pumps, oil tanks, filters, coolers,
purifiers and connecting pipe. To reduce the friction of moving parts and to reduce the wear
and tear of the engine parts, proper lubrication is required.
Engine starting system: It includes storage battery, compressed air tanks, self starter, etc. Its
function is to start engine from cold by supplying compressed air. This system enables the
engine to rotate initially while starting until firing starts and runs on its own power.
CHOICE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF DIESEL ENGINE
Following points are to be considered while choosing a diesel engine:-
1. Frame: Both horizontal and vertical frames are available. When size is small,
horizontal is preferred. In large sizes, vertical frames with multi cylinder construction
are preferred.
2. Speed: Low and medium speed engines (200 to 1200rpm) are commonly employed in
central stations (500-1000rpm being more common). Higher rotational speed means a
greater degree of compactness resulting in both engine and alternators cost to be low.
3. Number of cylinders: Depending on the power required, the number of cylinders can
be chosen (6-8), these are employed in power stations and are arranged in a line.
Usually vertical cylinders are employed. For large engines, a cylinder is normally
designed for maximum power of about 75kW to 110kW.

4. Capacity of engine: Diesel engines are available in various sizes ranging from 75kW
to 3750kW. Capacity of generator and power required to drive auxiliaries have to be
determined for proper choice of engine.
5. Rating of engine: It is the net output in kW developed continuously at the crankshaft
coupling by the engine in good operating condition at the height of less than 450mts
at a temperature of 320C and a barometric pressure of 717.5mmHg. The rating of
engine should be such that it is capable of delivering atleast 10% in excess of its
standard sea level rating and must be able to take overload for atleast 2 hours with
safe operating temperatures.
6. Supercharging: It means pumping supply of air into the cylinder at a pressure greater
than atmospheric. If an increased amount of air is supplied in the cylinder at the
beginning of combustion, it is possible to burn quantity of fuel thus increasing power
output of engine. The purpose of supercharger is to simply make available a greater
weight of air to effect combustion. Supercharging is employed to increase the rated
power output capacity of a given engine. It offers advantages of an increased power
output, fuel economy, better mechanical efficiency, better scavenging action( in case
of 2 stroke engines) and reduces possibility of knocking in diesel engines.he Types of
supercharging generally employed are:
 Positive displacement type
 Centrifugal type and Exhaust turbo charger
7. Floor requirements: Some of the important specifications to be considered are:

 Capacity of engine in kW.
 Rating constant or intermittent
 Type of fuel
 Limitations of speed
 Height above sea level.
 Type and speed of governing.
Also it is required to know the type of service for which engine is to be used and
capacity, electrical and mechanical characteristics of generator which the engine would
be required to drives.

AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT FOR DIESEL POWER PLANT
Following are the auxiliary equipments to be considered:
1. Fuel storage, supply and injection system.

2. Air supply system.
3. Exhaust system.
4. Cooling system.
5. Lubrication system.
6. Starting system.
7. Governing system.
Plant layout and maintenance
The design of building of diesel electric plant is simple rectangular blocks to accommodate
engine-generator sets. Underground tanks to be provided for oil storage. Heaters are required
in cold countries. To decide floor area requirement approximate dimensions are to be known.
Next are its location and minimum clearances between its parts and future extensions with
minimum changes also have to be taken into consideration. Location of switchboard, station
auxiliary, transformers, battery room, fuel oil tank, compressors, lubricating oil circuits and
cooling arrangements etc for engine should be given due consideration.

Fig. 13 Layout of diesel electric plant
It is also preferable to arrange all engine-generator units parallel to each other so that
length for the electrical connections between generators to switchboards or switchgear is
shortest. Doors of ample dimension to be provided for bringing in the equipment. Short
air intakes and exhaust lines to be provided on engine side. Also suitable spaces need to
be provided for a small workshop, stores, office and wash rooms etc as shown in diagram.
Layout of diesel electric plant is shown in figure 13.

Maintenance: It is required to maintain:
1. All instrument readings and conditions of operation at regular intervals, say every
half an hour.
2. Temperatures, pressures, electrical load etc have to be recorded.
3. Temperature and flow of fuel oil has to be checked periodically.
4. It also includes cleaning of fuel oil from dirt and other impurities by means of
filters.
5. All the fuel should be drained occasionally and to clean fuel tank thoroughly.
6. Temperature and flow of coolant, lubricating oil and exhaust gases should be
checked at regular intervals.


Module 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Module 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Electrical Power Generation & Transmission

Electrical Power Generation

WIND ENERGY SYSTEM

Wind power plant:

Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (EE406) Page 1

Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (EE406) Page 2

There are two types of solar plants:

1. Solar Thermal power plants 2. Solar PV cell.

Solar Thermal power Plants :

Fig. 2: Electrical Power Generation using Solar Thermal.

Battery Inverter AC Load

Fig. 3: Electrical Power Generation using Solar Photovoltaic Systems

 Water heating for domestic,

Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (EE406) Page 4

Advantages of hydroelectric plants:

Disadvantages of hydroelectric plants

Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (EE406) Page 5

Selection of hydro electric power plants depends on following factors:

Classification of hydro eclectic plants

a. Quantity of water available

Classification on Hydro electric plants based on quantity of water available: According to

Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (EE406) Page 6

Classification of Hydro Electric plants according to available head:

Hydro – electric plants may be classified into

1. Low head plants (below 30 mts)

Low head plants

Fig.4 Low head plant.

Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (EE406) Page 7

Medium Head plants

Fig.5 Medium head plant.

High head plants

Fig.6 High head plant.

Classification of Hydro –electric plants according to nature of load

Fig.7 Pumped storage plant.

General arrangement of hydroelectric plants

Fig.8 General Layout of hydroelectric power plant.

Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (EE406) Page 10

Functions of different components in storage reservoir plants

Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (EE406) Page 11

Principle of working/ operation of hydroelectric plant

There are basically two types of turbines

Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (EE406) Page 12

Layout of power house

The selection of layout of electrical equipments in a hydel station largely depends on

Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (EE406) Page 13

THERMAL POWER PLANT

Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (EE406) Page 14

The plant can be divided into four main circuits:

1. Fuel and ash circuit.

Air and gas circuit

Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (EE406) Page 15

Feed water and steam circuit

Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (EE406) Page 16

Cooling water circuit

Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (EE406) Page 17

The boilers may be classified as follows:

Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (EE406) Page 18

Economisers: An economiser is a mechanical device which is used as a heat exchanger by

Superheaters and reheaters: Their function is to superheat steam to desired temperature by

Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (EE406) Page 19

 Increases efficiency of plant.

Steam prime mover

Two types of steam turbines are: