Q What type of micro fauna and mesofauna is found in the rhizosphere/soil.

Their importance in soil fertility

Type of micro fauna:

>Protozoa:

Ciliates; largest of the protozoa and move by means of hair-like cilila

Amoebae; also large, move by means of a temporary foot (pseudopoda) and includes teatate amoebae(
with shell like covering), and naked amoeabae

Flagellates; smallest of protozoa and move by flagella

Importance in soil fertility

Protozoans play important roles in the fertility of soils. By grazing on soil bacteria, they regulate bacterial
populations and maintain them in a state of physiological youth—i.e., in the active growing phase as
they are bacteriovores. This enhances the rates at which bacteria decompose dead organic matter.
Protozoans also excrete nitrogen and phosphorus, in the form of ammonium and orthophosphate, as
products of their metabolism, and studies have shown that the presence of protozoans in soils
enhances plant growth.

>Nematodes

Nematodes are microscopic, wormlike organisms that live in water films and water-filled pore
spaces in the soil. Typically, they are most abundant in the upper soil layers where organic
matter, plant roots, and other resources are most abundant. They act as omnivores, herbivores,
bacteriovores, fungivores, predators in soil.

Importance in soil fertility

Soil nematodes, especially bacterial- and fungal-feeding nematodes, can contribute to

maintaining adequate levels of plant-available N in farming systems relying on organic sources
of fertility (Ferris et al., 1998). The process of converting nutrients from organic to inorganic
form is termed mineralization; mineralization is a critical soil process because plants take up
nutrients from the soil primarily in inorganic forms. Nematodes contribute directly to nutrient
mineralization through their feeding interactions. For example, bacterial-feeding nematodes
consume N in the form of proteins and other N-containing compounds in bacterial tissues and
release excess N in the form of ammonium, which is readily available for plant use. Indirectly,
nematodes enhance decomposition and nutrient cycling by grazing and rejuvenating old,
inactive bacterial and fungal colonies, and by spreading bacteria and fungi to newly available
organic residues. In the absence of grazers, such as nematodes and protozoa, nutrients can
remain immobilized and unavailable for plant uptake in bacterial and fungal biomass.
Bacterial-feeding nematodes are the most abundant nematode group in agricultural soils. Their
abundance closely follows that of bacterial populations, which tend to increase when soil
disturbances, such as tillage, increase the availability of readily-decomposable organic matter.
Nitrogen mineralization in the soil occurs at a higher rate when bacterial-feeding nematodes
are present than when they are absent. The contribution of bacterial-feeding nematodes to soil
N supply depends, in part, on the quality and quantity of soil organic matter fueling the system.
Net N mineralization from decomposing organic residues takes place when the carbon:nitrogen
(C:N) ratio of organic residue is below 20 (that is, 20 parts C to 1 part N). When the C:N ratio is
greater than 30, the rate of mineralization decreases because microbes compete for N to meet
their nutritional requirements. In this situation, N is immobilized in the microbial biomass.
Incorporation of manure, compost, and cover crops with intermediate C:N ratios (ranging from
10 to 18) may stimulate bacterial growth and the abundance of bacterial-feeding nematodes,
and increase soil N availability to plants.

Fungal-feeding nematodes are relatively more abundant in less-disturbed (e.g. notill systems)
and perennial systems, where conditions for fungal growth are promoted, than in disturbed
systems. Like bacterial feeding nematodes, fungal-feeding nematodes contribute to the process
of nutrient mineralization by releasing N and other plant nutrients from consumed fungal
tissue. However, in agricultural systems, bacterial-feeding nematodes typically release more
inorganic N than fungal-feeding nematodes.

Type of meso fauna:

Microarthropods such as pseudoscorpions, protura, diplura, springtails, mites, small myriapods

(Pauropoda and Symphyla) and the worm-like Enchytraeids

Importance in soil fertility (Microarthropods)

Microarthropods have a significant impact on the decomposition

processes in the forest floor and are important reservoirs of biodiversity in forest ecosystems.
Estimation of species richness is a difficult problem for many types of soil organisms
(fungi, bacteria, nematodes, for example, as well as microarthropods). Unlike the
macroarthropods, the mites and collembolans have little (by enchytraeids) or no effect on
soil structure. Their dimensions allow them to use existing spaces in soil structure thus can be
also termed as „Interstitial
animals‟. Even the large, soft-bodied members of the mite group Prostigmata do not
seem to create their own passageways. Some litter-feeding species do burrow into
substrates such as petioles of decaying leaves and create
tunnels, but these have no direct effect on soil structure per se. The microarthropods resemble
the microfauna in this characteristic. Microarthropods also form an important set of linkages
in food webs; many microarthropods feed on fungi and nematodes, thereby linking the
microfauna and microbes with the mesofauna. Microarthropods in turn are prey for
macroarthropods such as spiders, beetles, ants, and centipedes, thus bridging a connection to
the macrofauna. Even some of the smaller megafauna (toads, salamanders) feed upon
microarthropods.

Importance in soil fertility (Enchytraeids )

Enchytraeids, also called 'potworms', are small (1-30mm), unpigmented worms.

They are involved in the soil food web since they feed on bacteria, fungi and protists, and
decompose organic matter. They themselves are preyed upon by other soil organisms. Similar
to earthworms, they influence the soil structure due to their burrowing activity, faecal pellet
production and the mixing of mineral and organic matter. However, due to their size, they act
at smaller scales than earthworms.

Q What type of macro fauna is found in the soil. Their advantages and disadvantages

Type of macro fauna:

Earthworms, millipedes, centipedes, ants, Coleoptera (adults and larvae), Isopoda, spiders,
slugs, snails, termites, Dermaptera, Lepidoptera larvae and Diptera larvae.

Advantages

 Decomposition and nutrient cycles, hence organic matter dynamics.

 Soil structure: The activities of certain organisms affect soil structure, porosity and aggregation –
especially the “soil engineers” such as worms and termites – through mixing soil horizons and
organic matter and increasing porosity.
 Carbon sequestration and gas exchange: The activities of certain organisms determine the
carbon cycle – the rates of carbon sequestration and greenhouse gases (GHGs). Soil hydrological
processes, in relation to effects on soil structure and porosity (see above).
 Control of pests and diseases: Certain soil organisms can be detrimental to plant growth, e.g.
the buildup of nematodes under certain cropping practices. However, they can also protect
crops from pest and disease outbreaks through biological control and reduced susceptibility.
 Soil detoxification: Soil organisms can also be used to reduce or eliminate environmental
hazards resulting from accumulations of toxic chemicals or other hazardous wastes. This action
is known as bioremediation.
 Plant production: Plant roots, through their interactions with other soil components and
symbiotic relationships, especially Rhizobium bacteria and Mycorrhiza, play a key role in the
 uptake of nutrients and water, and contribute to the maintenance of soil porosity and organic
matter content, through their growth and biomass.

Disadvantages

Termites and ants are high in protein and fat and are consumed by humans in some
cultures, as well as by a large number of other mammals, birds, and reptiles. Earthworms
are also rich in protein and are consumed by many mammals and birds. In polluted
environments, soil macrofauna form a critical link in the transfer of toxic compounds from
the soil to the aboveground biota in a process known as bioaccumulation. In the course of
feeding on soil and litter residues, detritivores accumulate in their bodies any heavy metal
or chemical pollutants that may be present in low levels in the environment. The spiders,
centipedes, and small mammals that feed on these animals further concentrate these
compounds within their tissues. The birds and mammals that feed upon the soil animals
ingest these compounds in concentrations that greatly exceed those in the soil and are
frequently poisoned, or simply concentrate the compounds yet further and pass them along
to their predators and scavengers.

Q What do the rodents, snakes, vales and amphibians in the soil. Their
advantages and disadvantages
Rodents (Advantages)

Soil Aerators

Many rodents such as ground squirrels, pocket gophers and prairie dogs bury underground, digging
extensive burrows and tunnels.The tunnels allow water to flow deep into the soil rather than running
off, and also carry oxygen through sediment layers, aerating the soil to encourage root growth.

Snakes (Advantages)

 Snakes Maintain Balance in the Food Web. Snakes play an integral role in maintaining

balance in the ecosystem.
 Snakes are a Natural Form of Pest Control. As predators, snakes keep prey populations
in balance

Voles (Disadvantages)
Voles may cause extensive damage to orchards, ornamentals, and tree plantings by gnawing on the bark
of seedlings and mature trees (girdling). They eat crops outright and also cause damage by building
extensive runway and tunnel systems through crop fields.

Amphibians (Advantages)

The amphibian preys on crop pests and and reduce the application of pesticides. Amphibians can
affect ecosystem structure through soil burrowing and aquatic bioturbation and ecosystem functions
such as decomposition and nutrient cycling through waste excretion and indirectly through predatory
changes in the food web.

Q Explain Bacteriovores. Their benefit to our environment

 Bacterivores are free-living, generally heterotrophic organisms, exclusively microscopic, which

obtain energy and nutrients primarily or entirely from the consumption of bacteria. Many species of
amoeba are bacterivores, as well as other types of protozoans.

Examples

 Caenorhabditis elegans
 Ceriodaphnia quadrangula
 Diaphanosoma brachyura
 Vorticella
 Paramecium
 Many species of Protozoa and nematodes

They are a key component of soil biodiversity involved in

 soil fertility
 plant productivity
 Bacterivore-effects on soil N and P availability for plants, immobilization of N and P in
the bacterial biomass, and plant responses in nutrition and growth.

Q Who are soil microfauna

Microfauna are the smallest of the soil fauna and are less than 0.1 mm in size, and so need a
microscope to be seen. The two most important soil creatures are the nematodes and the
protozoa. Nematodes occur widely in soils, particularly in sandy soils. They depend on a thin
film of water around particles for their movement. Some species are parasites and can be a
problem for agricultural crops such as potatoes. Protozoa are small and variable in shape. They
are major consumers of bacteria. They are well suited to life in soil because they slide over
surfaces relatively easily, feeding on soil particles, roots and thin water films in the soil.
Microfauna form the link between the primary decomposers (i.e. microorganisms) and the
larger fauna in the detritus food-web in the soil. They are also important to the release of
nutrients immobilized by soil microorganisms. The main soil animals in this group are protozoa.