Electronic Media

Unit 1: Radio
Radio as a Medium of Mass Communication:
Mass communication means transferring or sharing of data, information, thoughts, grievances, ideas etc. to a
large number of scattered populace and by which is understood by the audience.
Mass Communication also refers to the public communication transmitted through electronic or mechanical
means of communication.
Radio is the technology of signaling and communicating and communicating through radio waves. Radio waves
are electromagnetic waves of frequencies between 300 hertz and 300 gigahertz. These frequencies are generated
by and electronic device called transmitter connected to an antenna which radiated the waves, and received by a
radio receiver connected to another antenna. This whole process is carried out electronically and hence Radio is
categorized as an electronic device.
Now Radio is used to transmit data and information to a large number of scattered populaces for a long time. It
is one of the cheapest and most effective medium of mass communication. Radio Broadcasting was commenced
in India in 1921 and after that it kept evolving day by day. Radio transmission has its reach to the most
backward rural areas where is no TV or power supply making it as one of the most prominent medium of Mass
Communication.
Radio has several advantages over other mediums of Mass Communication. It is too handy, light weighted, cost
effective that you can have it and carry it to your office, car, home, streets, beaches, ghats, or anywhere you
want. Radio is also considered as the fastest medium of Mass Communication because in comparison to other
mediums like television or newspaper, it takes less time for the reporter to record the information and transmit it
publicly than to live telecast it on the television or to print it in the newspaper and share it. Radio has its own
advantages for people with disabilities like if a person isn’t able to see, Radio is helpful for it to study, to gain
knowledge, to get entertained and to listen to the news.
Radio is effective not only in transmission of information but also in spreading awareness regarding any social
issue and need for social reformation, initiating actions or developing interests. Radio is also considered as one
the most prominent medium of Mass Communication in accordance to spread education. Radio listening is so
widespread that it is proposed as an advertising medium for reaching local audience. It also serves small highly
targeted audience and with its penetration to the rural most areas, it has also become one of the most powerful
mediums for advertisers. Radio gets 3 percent of the National Advertising Budget.
AIR presently has 199 Radio station including 184 full fledged stations, 10 relay centers and 3 exclusive Vividh
Bharati commercial centers. AIR currently have 313 transmitters; 142 medium waves, 55 short waves and 11
FM transmitters and provide coverage to a population of 98.8 percentage of the population spread over 90
percent of the area of our country. (India 2001)

Characteristics of Radio:
(1). Radio makes pictures: Whenever you listen to a commentary of a cricket match or a football match or
commentary of a parade on Republic Day on Radio, your mind automatically starts drawing images of it or
what we can say, mind starts visualizing the seen. It works as like when we say the word ‘apple’, a 3D image of
a red object shaped like an apple automatically forms inside our mind. The same happens while listening to the
Radio. This is also termed as Ticker taping. You use your power of imagination as you follow the broadcasting
of a running commentary or a breaking news.
(2). The speed of Radio: Radio is considered as the fastest medium among all of the Mediums of Mass
Communication. As things happens in studio or outside, message can be broadcast. These messages can be
picked by anyone of any age and gender who has a radio set or receiver which is tuned into a radio station.
Nowadays, if you have a television set and cable or satellite connection, you can also receive various AIR
stations on the television and turn your television into a Radio to listen to news and information about things
which have happened just before. Radio is considered to be fastest because it has a very simple method of
functioning where it requires only a transmitter and receiver to transmit and receive the electromagnetic wave.
Although this has several more steps like modulation and demodulation in transreceiving of an electromagnetic
but this process happens so quickly that it doesn’t requires more than 5 minutes to deliver a news happened just
before. While broadcasting on television is a much more complex process than broadcasting on Radio because
it requires various gears like cameras, lights, recorder etc. and it also has count on human error of broadcasting
so as to maintain the reputation of the news channels. While newspaper delivers the news of Yesterday so it is
one of the slower ones.
(3). Simplicity: Compared to all other media, Radio is the most user-friendly, and easy to broadcast; medium of
mass communication. All you have to do is buy a Radio device, tune in to a channel of broadcasting, and start
listening to the Radio. Mechanism of radio broadcast is also simpler than of Television. Radio works by
transmitting and receiving electromagnetic waves. The radio signals are electronic currents moving back and
forth very quickly, A transmitter radiates this field outwards via an antenna; a receiver then picks up the field
and translate it to sound through the radio. In AM (Amplitude Modulation) radio, the strength amplitude) of the
signal is changed (demodulated) to make the sounds. In FM (Frequency Modulation) radio, it is the speed
(frequency) of the signal that is changed.
(4). Inexpensive: As it is simple, it is also one of the cheapest mediums of mass communication. The cost of
production of a radio is so low that a small radio can easily be bought under Rs.100.
(5). Efficient: Radio is one of the most efficient mediums of mass communication because it doesn’t require a
generator or electric power supply to operate, it can easily work by using dry battery cells. So, in country like
ours where poverty is one of the major problems, literacy rate is low and electricity and power generators
haven’t reached to rural most areas, Radio is a blessing.
(6) Portability: this is one the most important characteristics of radio. The size of radios nowadays is too small
and the weight of an average radio is so light that you can carry it to your office, in your car, to your club, in
your kitchen, in your trench coat and in your joggers. Mechanism of radio is so simple that it doesn’t require
huge and costly machines. Nowadays mobiles and tablets are there but radio has its own advantages like mobile
and tablets are portable but too expensive in comparison to radio. And hence it has been considered as almost
the perfect medium of mass communication.
(7) Reach: Radio is so cheap and efficient that even the most economically backward sections of our country
can afford. And hence for a majority of rural areas, where electricity isn’t available, radio is the only source of
news, education and entertainment.

Historical Perspective of Radio in India:

Initiative to undertake experimental transmission and establish broadcasting services had however been
underway since 1921 when the Times of India, in collaboration with the Post and Telegraph Department
broadcast a special program of music from its Bombay office. In June 1923, the Radio Club of Bombay made
the first ever broadcast in the country. His broadcast was followed by the formation of Calcutta Radio Club 5
months later. Later then, Radio broadcasting was commenced in India on July 23, 1927 with two privately
owned transmitters at Bombay and Calcutta under Indian Broadcasting company. The company went into
liquidation on March 1, 1930 and with the help of the liquidator of the IBC, the government took 0ver the
transmitters on April 1, 1930 and started operating as Indian State Broadcasting Service (ISBS). The service
was continued by the liquidator of the company at the expense of the govt. of India. A separate office of the
Controller of Broadcasting was created in March 1935 and Lionel Fielder of the BBC assumed charge as the
first Controller of Broadcasting. The opening of the Delhi station on January 1, 1936 was an important
landmark in the history of broadcasting of India. The same year the name of the Indian Broadcasting was
changed to All India Radio (AIR).
The development and growth from 1936 onwards, was steady but slow. At the time of independence, there were
nine AIR stations pf which- Delhi, Kolkata, Bombay, Madras, Lucknow and Tiruchi came to India, the Lahore,
Peshawar and Dacca went to Pakistan.
The All India Radio came to be known as Akashvani from 1957. With the passage of time AIR and Akashvani
have become synonym for radio broadcasting in India. AIR presently has 199 radio stations including 184 full
fledged stations, 10 relay centers and 3 exclusive Vividh Bharati commercial centers. AIR presently has 313
transmitters: 142 medium wave, 55 short wave and 116 FM transmitters and provide radio coverage to a
population of 98.8% spread over 90% of the country. (India 2001)
The concept of Green Revolution and White Revolution could not have been popularized but for the continuous
efforts made by the AIR to make these programs acceptable to its country-wide audience.
The Radio broadcasting, over the years, has expanded not only in terms of numbers of radio stations and
transmitters which has made the reach easier, but also in terms of introduction of programmes to suit the
changing socio-economic requirements of developing nation. The National Channel was introduced as a
comprehensive setup for programmes to be available across the country during those hours when most of others
stations were silent. The birth of local radio stations was a new phenomenon in the country which was received
very well. These stations were meant to meet specific requirements of a defined small zone without much of the
formal atmosphere of a normal broadcasting station.

Types of Ownership
There are four major types of ownership of mass media. Chain, cross media, conglomerate and vertical
integration.

Chain Ownership
Chain ownership means the same media company owns numerous outlets in a single medium, a chain of
newspaper, a series of radio stations, a string of television stations or several book publishing companies. Chain
ownership in India applies mostly to newspapers. There are many publishing groups in India which fall into this
category such as the group headed by the Times of India, Hindustan Times, Indian Express, Statesman, Ananda
bazar Patrika, Hindu, Telegraph and living media foundations.
Cross Media Ownership
Cross media ownership is when the same company owns several along with newspaper, magazines, musical
labels, and publishers and so on. cross-media ownership across the various carriers such as television, radio or
print; consolidation, including vertical integration among media operations of content, carrier and distributor
within a media segment such as television or radio; and market share dominance in a given geography within
each media segment.
Conglomerate Ownership
Conglomerate ownership means the ownership of several business one of which a media business. For example,
when a publishing company owns a newspaper along with chemical, fertilizer, cement rubber or plastics
factories, or a liquor brewery or distillery or a major corporation has controlling shares in a number of media
related business, the pattern is conglomerate. In a conglomerate, there will be interlocking of directorships,
which means the same persons will be director of a media company as well as of manufacturing industries or
financial corporations. Several transport or lorry company directors are directing the destiny of newspaper,
television or film production companies. Their main business will be a high profit industry, but they run a media
company for prestige or to exercise social and political influence on decision makers in the private or public
sector and in the government of the day. Such a conglomeration may not always support an unbiased or
dispassionate presentation of events, issues and personalities. However, there are already at least six states
where a single media house has a clear and growing dominance. These are media groups that are emerging as
national conglomerates. They are all in the news business as well as in entertainment, media distribution and
network business. They own newspapers, magazines, radio, cable TV and television channels, to name their key
businesses.

Vertical Integration
Vertical integration indicates that a media company monopolizes the production of the ingredients that go into
the making of media products. For example, a newspaper publisher may own several hundred areas of forests
where the major components of a newspaper namely wood for newsprints cultivated. Some other newspaper
company may own a factory that produces the bulk of the printing ink or processed used in the industry. Certain
film companies may own studies or industrial units producing film stocks or even a chain of theatres where the
films are exhibited.
If the present trend of cross media, conglomerate and vertical integration ownership continues, monopolization
will result which will ultimately lead to the phenomenon of suppression not only of media freedom but also of
the unbiased presentation of various points of view. Most media companies in India and abroad are integrating
vertically to sell cross-media, often acquiring or building multimedia platforms.

For the sake of simplicity, the different types of media ownership can be summarized thus:

1. Public or state-owned media:

A very large proportion of the world's media - especially radio and television - are owned by the public or the
state. Three different terms are used that, in principle at least, have very different meanings:
a. Public media use public money to broadcast in the interests of the public as a whole. They are not partisan
towards any particular party, including the incumbent ruling party.
b. State media are owned by the state (although of course the state is financed out of public money) and directly
controlled by it.
c. Government media are owned by the government of the day (but still using that same public money) and are
controlled by the government of the day.
Public service broadcasting was founded on a belief that still holds true in most of the world: the private sector
alone cannot guarantee pluralism in broadcasting. The trouble is that government media have largely failed to
do that too. In many countries, the advent of private broadcasting has made governments even more determined
to cling onto editorial control of the public broadcaster.
Public or state media may be financed out of one or all of three main sources:
a. A license fee paid by television viewers
b. The government budget.
c. Commercial advertising.
In a few cases this may be supplemented by other income, such as the sale of programmes. These different
revenue sources have potential implications for the broadcaster's day-to-day independence. A license fee or
commercial advertising may make it easier for the broadcaster to maintain a distance from government,
although it will still depend on government mechanisms (often the postal service) to collect the fee.
2. Private broadcasters:
There is a wide range of different types of private broadcaster - from giant multinational corporations run by
some of the richest and most politically powerful men in the world to small, local FM stations. The category is
artificial, since what divides them is as great as what unites them.
They are owned by private interests - usually a company that seeks to make a profit, though sometimes a non-
profit making trust. In most cases, broadcasting will be under the terms of a license granted on a periodic basis
by a public authority. How prescriptive or restrictive are the terms of that license will also vary. Sometimes a
broadcasting license will expressly prohibit the broadcasting of news. This is the case with the license granted
to the South African multinational M-Net, for example. M-Net is happy to provide pure entertainment channels,
so elections, with their turmoil and debate, pass it by entirely.42
More often, a broadcasting license will lay down certain terms under which news or current affairs can be
broadcast. Sometimes this will include prescriptions as to what election coverage should be carried. There may
also be an explicit public service component to the license - for example, obliging the licensee to carry public
education programmes.
3. Predominantly privately-owned print media:
The print media display the greatest diversity of all, in both ownership and content. They range from daily to
weekly newspapers, from news magazines to a range of special interest publications. Even in situations where
the state retains a large stake in broadcasting, the print media are usually in private hands. The main exceptions
are likely to be authoritarian or dictatorial systems under which free elections are unlikely to be on the agenda.
But there are also countries, such as some in northern Europe, where a public subsidy is paid to newspapers to
ensure the political diversity of the press. In countries emerging from dictatorship, aid donors sometimes
subsidize private newspapers with a similar aim. By and large, however, newspapers derive their income from
advertising and sales revenue (with the former usually much more significant than the latter).
The ideal of the 'Fourth Estate' - the media keeping a check over government - is perhaps more effective in the
print media than broadcasting. At least some newspapers in any country are likely to conduct serious news
investigations and comment in a reasonably sophisticated manner on political developments. The same is not
always true of broadcasters.
But newspapers still have their own political agenda, which may not necessarily be a democratic one. A
notorious example was the Chilean newspaper El Mercurio, which campaigned against the elected government
in 1973 and in favor of a military coup - a clear case where the press dismally failed to promote political
pluralism.
4. Community media:
In many parts of the world, community media are a rapidly growing phenomenon. Usually, the definition
includes something about being produced by the community, for the community. In other words, it is not just
enough for it to be aimed at a small local area; it should be produced with the involvement of that community.
Traditionally it has been assumed to refer to a geographical community. But in South Africa, for example, with
one of the widest networks of community radio in the world, the term is also used to refer to a community of
interest, especially among disadvantaged sectors of society. Thus, there might be a 'women's community', a 'gay
community' or a 'community of people with disabilities'. There may also be community media aimed at people
of a certain religious faith.
The media themselves will also vary. Community newspapers have a long history, but the last 20 years have
seen the emergence of lower cost broadcasting technologies, accompanied by a liberalization of licensing
regimes. This has facilitated the emergence in some countries of a vibrant community radio sector (and to a
lesser extent television).
The significance of this for elections is immediately apparent. Community media, almost by definition, have a
small but highly loyal audience. For purposes of voter education, community media will be very important,
especially since they can reach sections of society that may be bypassed by more traditional media.
5. Media directly owned by political parties:
Media that are directly owned and controlled by political parties are likely to be the most concerned about the
outcome of an election - and at the same time fall entirely outside most systems of media regulation. If a
newspaper is simply a campaigning sheet for the party that owns it, it is not effectively bound by any of the
professional or legal standards that govern the behaviour of the media as a whole.
In many countries, political parties are not allowed to own broadcasting stations, since this is deemed to be an
unfair allocation of a national resource - the frequency spectrum - to a narrow political interest.
Essentially, political party media will fall into one of three categories. It will be for the regulatory authority to
decide which:
a. Propaganda sheets that do not fall under a media regulator, but may be monitored if, for example, they
constitute campaign spending, which may be limited by law.
b. Conventional private media that just happen to be owned by a party. In that case, they will have to conform to
the prevailing standards or regulations for other private media.
c. Government media, in a situation in which the ruling party and government has been intertwined. In that case,
media using public funds should conform to the same standards as any other public media - which in practice
probably means that they cannot campaign for the party at all.

Audience:
“The crucial failure of radio has been to perpetuate the fundamental separation between radio producers and
their audiences, a separation that is at odds with its technological basis [...] audiences must be transformed into
witnesses in interviews and conversations and must have the opportunity to be heard”.
Walter Benjamin, the German philosopher and literary critic wrote these words in 1930, conceiving radio as a
tool to bridge the distance between the radio host and the listener. More than seventy years later, his words
could perfectly describe what has happened to radio with the advent of social media.
Today, a radio station's audience must be understood as the sum of its listeners and those who follow it on
social networks. While the first kind of audience still receives radio in a traditional way, members of the second
set are connected to each other and to the host within a network. The intersection of radio and social media
heavily modifies both the vertical relationship between the host and the audience, and the horizontal
relationship between individual listeners.
The network of friends/fans of a radio programme on Facebook, for example, constitutes its specific social
capital. While the FM or digital radio audience, measured through traditional audience rating systems,
constitutes the economic capital of the station, the social media audience represents its true social capital – one
that is very ‘tangible’ and visible.
A wide social network is of great importance for the future of radio stations. Even if the fans’ network does not
generate a tangible economic value like radio audiences do, it generates a significant amount of reputational
capital. The crisis in traditional mass advertising will lead to a future increase and refining of tools for the
capitalization of the wealth of these networked audiences.
Social media has helped to extend the reach of radio, it has also made it possible to give listeners a voice outside
broadcast times. At major political and social events, listeners can now transform into citizen reporters – using
their smartphones to make audio and video recordings, and sending them to radio stations, or sharing them via
Twitter or YouTube.
In fact, listeners have become full-fledged contributors to their radio stations. Listeners can now send audio
messages recorded on WhatsApp, the free messaging service, to stations. Radio hosts then filter, select, curate
and edit these contents before including them into the flow of their programmes. Listeners are more articulate
today and “noisier” than in the past, producing more content than ever in the form of audio, video and text
messages.

Commercial Radio:
Otherwise known as private broadcasting, or independent radio, Commercial Radio refers to the channels on
your radio set that use advertising for monetization.
For some parts of the world, the arrival of commercial radio was a natural progression after we discovered the
benefits of broadcasting to hundreds, thousands, or even millions of people at a time. For instance, in the US,
commercial stations began to launch in the 1920s. However, in other parts of the world, government groups
were keen to avoid the commercialization of the airwaves. In the UK, the desire to keep radio ad-free led to the
BBC being given a monopoly over broadcasting.
Until the early 1970s, only the BBC had the right to broadcast radio legally throughout Britain. We didn’t see
the first examples of commercial radio until decades after advertising had become a standard part of the
airwaves elsewhere in the world.
While many people were concerned that the arrival of the #RadioCommercial would lead to frustrated listeners,
people responded very well to the appearance of promotional materials around their favorite shows. Today,
commercial radio is responsible for some of the most popular stations around the world.
Commercial radio derives its operating budget from selling advertising. Since they attract those advertising
dollars based on ratings, commercial radio stations need consistently large numbers of listeners. These ratings
are used by the station to demonstrate to potential advertisers that buying a commercial spot on the station will
reach a significant number of people and is a worthwhile investment. These numbers are also used to price
advertising. The more listeners a station has, the more it can charge for ad spots and the more money it will
have in its operating budget.

Educational radio:
Radio is to play a significant part in expansion as well as qualitative improvement of education. There are some
inaccessible areas in our country where expansion of education has faced difficulties. To a large number of
socially disadvantaged children, education is neither meaningful nor interesting.
There has been a growing awareness about the inadequacy of the traditional or formal system of education not
only for expansion, but also for improving the standards of education. The need for alternative mass-media is
gradually felt along- with non-formal system of education.

School Broadcast Project:

School Broadcast Project was the first educational radio project. It was commissioned in 1937, and started from
Delhi, Calcutta, Madras and Bombay. This program for for school students.
Adult education and community development project (Radio Forum):
This radio project was started in 1956. With the help of UNESCO, this project was first tried on the Villagers of
144 villages in Pune. This was agriculture-based project, and was named as 'Radio forums Project'. This
program was AIR's first successful educational program.
Farm and Home Broadcast Project:
This project was commenced in 1966 and was targeted at Farmers and villagers. The aim was to educate the
farmers and provide them assistance in adopting innovative practices in their fields as per the local relevance.
University broadcast project:
This project was started in 1965 to target the higher education students. The Programme consisted of two types-
'General' & 'enrichment'. The general programmes included topics of public interest and enrichment
programmes supported correspondence education offered by universities in their respective jurisdictions. School
of Correspondence studies, University of Delhi and the Central Institute of English and Foreign Languages,
Hyderabad is well known for preparation and broadcast of their programmes through AIR.
Language Learning Programme:
In 1979, AIR and Department of Education Government of Rajasthan joined hands to teach Hindi to 500
primary school students Jaipur & Ajmer districts. This project as called 'Radio Pilot project', since it was on
experimental basis. The project was successful and was repeated in Haushangabad district of Madhya Pradesh.
IGNOU-AIR Broadcast:
AIR collaborated with IGNOU to broadcast major IGNOU programmes in January 1992. Initially, the AIR
stations of Mumbai, Hyderabad and Shillong started this service. This program still continues to be broadcasted
in Mumbai and Hyderabad.
IGNOU-AIR Interactive Radio Counselling (IRC):
IGNOU in collaboration with AIR, Bhopal started Interactive Radio Counselling (IRC) in 1998. This program
was mainly for students of Open / Conventional Universities. Soon after its huge success, AIR expanded to
other cities: Lucknow, Patna, Jaipur, Shimla, Rohtak, Jalandhar, Delhi and Jammu. As of now, Interactive
Radio counseling (IRC) is being provided on every Sunday for one hour (4:00 PM - 5:00 PM) from 186 radio
stations of All India Radio.
Gyan-Vani (Educational FM Radio Channel of India):
Launched in 2001, to target the students of Open / Conventional Universities, is the only dedicated educational
radio channel of India. Gyan literally means Knowledge and Vani means aerial broadcasting. Gyan Vani
stations operate as media cooperatives, with day-to-day programmes contributed by different Educational
Institutions, NGO's and national level institutions like IGNOU, NCERT, UGC, IIT, DEC etc. Each station will
have range of about 60-KM radius, covering the entire city /town plus the surrounding environs with extensive
access.
Gyan Vani also deal with awareness programmes including the ones for Panchayati Raj Functionaries, Women
Empowerment, Consumer Rights, Human Rights, the Rights of the Child, Health Education, Science Education,
Continuing Education, Extension Education, Vocational Education, Teacher Education, Non-formal Education,
Adult Education, Education for the handicapped, Education for the down trodden, education for the tribal and
lots more.
Conclusion
Even though internet users in India are growing at a very rapid pace, various government agencies at the level
of conventional and distance universities are making use of radio for broadcasting their educational content as a
cheap local supplementary alternative.

FM Broadcasting:
FM broadcasting is a method of radio broadcasting using frequency modulation (FM). Invented in 1933 by
American engineer Edwin Armstrong, wide-band FM is used worldwide to provide high fidelity sound over
broadcast radio. FM broadcasting is capable of higher fidelity—that is, more accurate reproduction of the
original program sound—than other broadcasting technologies, such as AM broadcasting. Therefore, FM is
used for most broadcasts of music or general audio (in the audio spectrum). FM radio stations use the very high
frequency range of radio frequencies.
Broadcast Band: Throughout the world, the FM broadcast band falls within the VHF part of the radio spectrum.
Usually, 87.5 to 108.0 MHz is used. The frequency of an FM broadcast station (more strictly its assigned
nominal center frequency) is usually a multiple of 100 kHz.
Modulation:
Frequency modulation or FM is a form of modulation which conveys information by varying the frequency of a
carrier wave; the older amplitude modulation or AM varies the amplitude of the carrier, with its frequency
remaining constant. With FM, frequency deviation from the assigned carrier frequency at any instant is directly
proportional to the amplitude of the (audio) input signal, determining the instantaneous frequency of the
transmitted signal. Because transmitted FM signals use more bandwidth than AM signals, this form of
modulation is commonly used with the higher (VHF or UHF) frequencies used by TV, the FM broadcast band,
and land mobile radio systems.
The maximum frequency deviation of the carrier is usually specified and regulated by the licensing authorities
in each country. For a stereo broadcast, the maximum permitted carrier deviation is invariably ±75 kHz,
although a little higher is permitted in the United States when SCA systems are used. For a monophonic
broadcast, again the most common permitted maximum deviation is ±75 kHz. However, some countries specify
a lower value for monophonic broadcasts, such as ±50 kHz.
Pre-emphasis and de-emphasis:
Random noise has a triangular spectral distribution in an FM system, with the effect that noise occurs
predominantly at the higher audio frequencies within the baseband. This can be offset, to a limited extent, by
boosting the high frequencies before transmission and reducing them by a corresponding amount in the receiver.
Reducing the high audio frequencies in the receiver also reduces the high-frequency noise. These processes of
boosting and then reducing certain frequencies are known as pre-emphasis and de-emphasis, respectively.
The amount of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis used is defined by the time constant of a simple RC filter circuit.
In most of the world a 50 µs time constant is used. The use of pre-emphasis becomes a problem because of the
fact that many forms of contemporary music contain more high-frequency energy than the musical styles which
prevailed at the birth of FM broadcasting. Pre-emphasizing these high-frequency sounds would cause excessive
deviation of the FM carrier. Modulation control (limiter) devices are used to prevent this.
Stereo FM:
Long before FM stereo transmission was considered, FM multiplexing of other types of audio level information
was experimented with.[8] Edwin Armstrong, who invented FM, was the first to experiment with multiplexing,
at his experimental 41 MHz station W2XDG located on the 85th floor of the Empire State Building in New
York City.
These FM multiplex transmissions started in November 1934 and consisted of the main channel audio program
and three subcarriers: a fax program, a synchronizing signal for the fax program and a telegraph "order"
channel. These original FM multiplex subcarriers were amplitude modulated.
Quadraphonic FM:
In 1969, Louis Dorren invented the Quadraplex system of single station, discrete, compatible four-channel FM
broadcasting. There are two additional subcarriers in the Quadraplex system, supplementing the single one used
in standard stereo FM.
The normal stereo signal can be considered as switching between left and right channels at 38 kHz,
appropriately band-limited. The quadraphonic signal can be considered as cycling through LF, LR, RF, RR, at
76 kHz.
Noise reduction:
Various attempts to add analog noise reduction to FM broadcasting were carried out in the 1970s and 1980s. A
commercially unsuccessful noise reduction system used with FM radio in some countries during the late 1970s,
Dolby FM was similar to Dolby B but used a modified 25 µs pre-emphasis time constant and a frequency
selective companding arrangement to reduce noise. The pre-emphasis change compensates for the excess treble
response that otherwise would make listening difficult for those without Dolby decoders.
A similar system named High Com FM was tested in Germany between July 1979 and December 1981 by IRT.
It was based on the Telefunken High Com broadband compander system, but was never introduced
commercially in FM broadcasting.
Yet another system was the CX-based noise reduction system FMX implemented in some radio broadcasting
stations in the United States in the 1980s.
Broadcasting in India: FM broadcasting began on 23 July 1977 in Chennai, then Madras, and was expanded
during the 1990s, nearly 50 years after it mushroomed in the US. The country first experimented with private
FM broadcasts in the small tourist destination of Goa and the large metropolitan areas of Delhi, Kolkata,
Mumbai and Chennai. These were followed by private stations in Bangalore, Hyderabad, Jaipur and Lucknow,
but boomed after 2001 when the privatization of FM broadcasting began. AIR's, FM & LRS (Local Radio
Station) was inaugurated on 1 July 2001 at 14:28 hours in Kodaikanal in the frequency 100.5 MHz. The Two
Radio Persons Dr. Musiri and B. Rajaram made 100.5 popular and the LRS was upgraded to a " METRO FM "
Channel in just two months. The channel covered a radius of about 200 km due to its location at 2200 meters
above MSL at Kodaikanal. Later, the stalwarts like Supra (K. Natarajan) in 2002 and Maha
Somaskandamoorthy in 2003 have joined KODAI FM, as it is popularly known. It is the biggest individual FM
channel in India in both area coverage and listenership.
Radio City Bangalore, started on July 3, 2001, is India's first private FM radio station. It launched with
presenters such as Vera, Rohit Barker, Seetal Iyer, Jonzie Kurian, Geeta Modgil, Suresh Venkat, and Chaitanya
Hegde and Priya Ganapathy on the weekends.[6] The Times Group rebranded their radio operations,
establishing the Radio Mirchi brand. The first Radio Mirchi station began broadcasting on October 4, 2001 in
Indore.
Indian policy currently states that these broadcasters are assessed a one-time entry fee (OTEF), for a license
period of 10 years. Under the Indian accounting system, this amount is amortized over the 10-year period at
10% per annum. The annual license fee for private broadcasters is either 4% of revenue share or 10% of reserve
price, whichever is higher. India's earlier attempts to privatize its FM channels ran into rough weather when
private players bid heavily and most could not meet their commitments to pay the government the amounts they
owed.
As of December 2018, there are more than 369 operational private radio stations in more than 101 cities and
towns across India. The Government of India-owned All India Radio has about 450 FM stations covering 39%
of the area and 52% of the population of India.

Language of Radio:
The International Radiotelephony Spelling Alphabet, commonly known as the NATO phonetic alphabet, NATO
spelling alphabet, ICAO phonetic alphabet or ICAO spelling alphabet, is the most widely used radiotelephone
spelling alphabet. The ITU phonetic alphabet and figure code is a rarely used variant that differs in the code
words for digits.
To create the code, a series of international agencies assigned 26 code words acrophonically to the letters of the
English alphabet, so that the names for letters and numbers would be distinct enough to be easily understood by
those who exchanged voice messages by radio or telephone, regardless of language differences or the quality of
the connection. The specific code words varied, as some seemingly distinct words were found to be ineffective
in real-life conditions. In 1956, NATO modified the then-current set of code words used by the International
Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO); this modification then became the international standard when it was
accepted by the ICAO that year and by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) a few years later.
Spelling alphabets are often inaccurately called "phonetic alphabets", but they do not indicate phonetics and
cannot function as phonetic transcription systems like the International Phonetic Alphabet.
The 26 code words are as follows: Alfa, Bravo, Charlie, Delta, Echo, Foxtrot, Golf, Hotel, India, Juliett, Kilo,
Lima, Mike, November, Oscar, Papa, Quebec, Romeo, Sierra, Tango, Uniform, Victor, Whiskey, X-ray,
Yankee, Zulu. Numbers are read off as English digits, but the pronunciations of three, four, five, nine and
thousand are modified.
Usage:
A spelling alphabet is used to spell parts of a message containing letters and numbers to avoid confusion,
because many letters sound similar, for instance "n" and "m" or "f" and "s"; the potential for confusion increases
if static or other interference is present. For instance the message "proceed to map grid DH98" could be
transmitted as "proceed to map grid Delta-Hotel-Niner-Ait". Using "Delta" instead of "D" avoids confusion
between "DH98" and "BH98" or "TH98". The unusual pronunciation of certain numbers was designed to reduce
confusion as well.

In addition to the traditional military usage, civilian industry uses the alphabet to avoid similar problems in the
transmission of messages by telephone systems. For example, it is often used in the retail industry where
customer or site details are spoken by telephone (to authorize a credit agreement or confirm stock codes),
although ad-hoc coding is often used in that instance. It has been used often by information technology workers
to communicate serial or reference codes (which are often very long) or other specialized information by voice.
Pronunciation of code words:
The final choice of code words for the letters of the alphabet and for the digits was made after hundreds of
thousands of comprehension tests involving 31 nationalities. The qualifying feature was the likelihood of a code
word being understood in the context of others. For example, football has a higher chance of being understood
than foxtrot in isolation, but foxtrot is superior in extended communication.[10]
The pronunciation of the code words varies according to the language habits of the speaker. To eliminate wide
variations in pronunciation, recordings and posters illustrating the pronunciation desired by the ICAO are
available.[10][11] However, there are still differences in pronunciation between the ICAO and other agencies,
and the ICAO has conflicting Latin-alphabet and International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) transcriptions. Also,
although all codes for the letters of the alphabet are English words, they are not in general given English
pronunciations. Pronunciations are somewhat uncertain because the agencies, while ostensibly using the same
pronunciations, give different transcriptions, which are often inconsistent from letter to letter.

Different Formats of Radio Programmes:

A Radio format can be split into three parts:
(a)Spoken Word or Human Voice
(b)Music
(c)Sound
SPOKEN WORD
1.Announcements: These are specifically written clear messages to inform. They can be of different types. For
example, station/programme identification. These mention the station you are tuned into, the frequency, the
time and the programme/song you are going to listen to. As mentioned already you find in today’s commercial
radio channels, these announcements have become informal and resemble ordinary conversation. There can be
more than one presenter in some programmes like magazines.
2.Radio talk:
The radio talk probably is the oldest format on radio. There has been a tradition in India and Britain to invite
experts or prominent persons to speak for 10 or 15 minutes on a specific topic. These talks have to go through a
process of being changed into radio’s spoken word style. Over the years, these long radio talks have become
unpopular. Instead, today, shorter duration talks are broadcast. Of course, you can listen to these talks only on
public service broadcasting stations.
3.Radio interviews:
In the media, be it the newspaper, magazine, radio or television, journalists use this technique of asking
questions to get information. There can be different types of interviews in terms of their duration, content and
purpose. Firstly, there are full-fledged interview programmes. The duration of these may vary from 10 minutes
to 30 minutes or even 60 minutes depending upon the topic, and the person being interviewed. Most of such
interviews are personality based. Secondly, there are interviews which are used in various radio programmes
like documentaries. Here the interviews are short, questions specific and not many. The purpose is to get a very
brief, to the point answer. Thirdly there are a lot of interviews or interview based programmes in news and
current affairs programmes. With phone-in-programmes becoming popular, you might have heard live
interviews with listeners. These interviews have been made interactive. There is another type of interview based
programme. Here generally just one or two questions are put across to ordinary people or people with
knowledge on some current topic to measure public opinion. Their names and identity may not be asked. Such
programmes are called ‘vox pop’ which is a Latin phrase meaning ‘voice of people’. You have to be very
inquisitive and hard working to be a radio interviewer with good general awareness and communication skills.
4.Radio discussions:
Through a discussion we can find out a solution to problems. In any discussion there are more than 2 or3 people
and then ideas can be pooled to come to some conclusion. In radio, this technique is used to let people have
different points of view on matters of public concern. Radio discussions are produced when there are social or
economic issues which may be controversial. So, when different experts meet and discuss such issues, people
understand various points of view.
5.Radio documentaries/features:
If you see a film in a movie hall, it is generally a feature film, which is story based and not real. But there are
also documentary films which are based on real people and issues. A lot of programmes you see on television
are educational and public service documentaries. Radio also has this format. Unlike documentary films, radio
documentaries have only sound – i.e., the human voice, music and sound effects. So, a radio documentary is a
programme based on real sounds and real people and their views and experiences. Radio documentaries are
based on facts presented in an attractive manner or dramatically. Radio documentaries are radio’s own creative
format. The producer of a documentary needs to be very creative to use human voice, script, music and sound
effects very effectively. Radio documentaries are also called radio features.
6.Radio drama:
A Radio drama or a radio play is like any other play staged in a theatre or a hall. The only difference is that
while a stage play has actors, stage, sets, curtains, properties movement and live action, a radio play has only 3
components. They are the human voice, music and sound effects. Radio of course uses its greatest strength for
producing radio plays and that is the power of imagination. For example, if you want to have a scene in a radio
play of a north Indian marriage, you don’t have all physical arrangements made. All that you have to do is to
use a bright tune on the shehnai and excited voices of people to create in a listeners’ imagination, a wedding
scene. The voice of the actors, music and sound effects can create any situation in a radio play.
7.Running commentaries:
If you can’t go to see a football or cricket match in a stadium, you may watch it on television. But for that you
have to be at home or at some place where there is a television. But if you are travelling or outside, then you
may listen to radio for a running commentary of the match. A commentator would give you all the details of the
match such as the number of players, the score, position of the players in the field etc. So, by listening to the
running commentary, you get a feeling of being in the stadium and watching the match. The commentator needs
good communication skills, a good voice and knowledge about what is going on. Running commentaries on
radio can be on various sports events or on ceremonial occasions like the Republic Day Parade or events like
festivals, melas, rath yatras, swearing in ceremony of ministers, last journey (funeral procession) of national
leaders etc. Today radio running commentaries especially of cricket and other sports can be heard on your
mobile phones.
8.Magazine programmes:
Radio also has magazine programmes like those in the print media. A radio magazine is broadcast at a particular
time on a particular day of a week or a month. That means it has periodicity. Similarly, it has plenty of variety
in contents. Some or many formats of radio are included in a radio magazine. These may be talks, discussions,
interviews, reviews, music etc. Likewise, the duration of each programme or item in a magazine programme
also vary. Another characteristic of a radio magazine is that it has a signature tune. A signature tune is an
attractive piece of music which is specific to a programme. It can be like the masthead (title) of a magazine. A
magazine programme also has a name and one or two presenters or anchor persons who link the whole
programme. In the beginning, the titles of the day’s programme will be given by the presenters after the
signature tune. They also give continuity and link the whole magazine. Magazine programmes are generally
broadcast for a special or specific audience. As the name suggests, a specific audience refers to listeners with
specific needs as mentioned in the beginning.
9.NEWS:
Among all the spoken word formats on radio, news is the most popular. News bulletins and news programmes
are broadcast every hour by radio stations. In India, only All India Radio is allowed to broadcast news. Duration
of news bulletins vary from 5 minute to 30 minutes. The longer news bulletins have interviews, features,
reviews and comments from experts.
MUSIC
Music is the main stay in radio. There is no radio without music. Music is used in different ways on radio. There
are programmes of music and music is also used in different programmes. These include signature tunes, music
used as effects in radio plays and features. India has a great heritage of music and radio in India reflects that.
Let us understand the different types of music.
Classical Music
There are 3 types of classical music in India. They are:
 Hindustani classical
 Carnatic classical
 Western classical
There are also vocal and instrumental music forms. There are also light classical music forms like, Thumri and
Dadra. Instrumental music forms include string (sitar, sarod etc.) wind (like flutes, shehnai) and percussion
(drum) instruments.
You may know of a large variety of devotional and folk music in your area and across the country. Which are
broadcast on radio. But which is the most popular form of music? You would most probably say ‘film music.’
While there are film songs in different languages, the one with a national appeal and popularity is Hindi film
songs. On most radio stations, be it public service or commercial, Hindi films songs are heard everywhere.
Light western and pop music are also popular among some groups of listeners and there is a large section of
young people listening to western pop music.

SOUND EFFECTS
Let us see how sound can be used in radio formats.
 Sound can play a major role in evoking interest.
 Sound can be used for comic effects to evoke laughter.
 Sound can be used to create certain moods or enhance them.

Information technologies Based formats

India has taken giant leaps in the field of information technology and radio as a medium, has taken a lead in
applying information technology in its broadcasts. Some of these formats are:
1.Phone in programme:
In this age of technological development, phone-in is the most important format. This is called interactive
programming where the listener and the presenter talk to each other. Their talk goes on air instantly. The
listener has the satisfaction that his voice is being listened to and replied immediately. Other listeners also listen
to him. Such presentations need advance publicity so that the listeners get ready to air their grievances/queries
or requests. They dial up the announced telephone number at a stipulated time and get their problems discussed
with experts in the studio. Initially this format was introduced for playing the listeners’ request based film
songs. Now it is being used for health related programmes, rural broadcasts, complaints against the government/
administrative machinery etc.
2.Radio bridge:
Radio bridge means connecting different stations throughout the length and breadth of the country. In this
technique, for example, an expert sitting at Chennai can interact with the common man in the studio in Delhi.
This format was first used by All India Radio during elections.
3.Radio on internet:
Radio on internet is a growing phenomenon with thousands of radio stations operating through computer
modems. It is altogether a new format that removes the restrictions of frequency or license. It is relatively cheap
to set up.

Unit 2: Television
Television as a Medium of Mass Communication:
Amongst all the mass media today, television attracts the largest number of viewers. Its audience is greater in
size than any of the other media audiences. This is because television is able to attract the audiences of all age
groups, literate and illiterate and of all the strata of the society.
Television brings the eye and the ear together and thus makes the experiences concrete, real and immediate. A
telecast provides real-life experiences and as a mass media of communication it serves as a means by which all
shares a common experience. As in Television, the visual images appear on a small screen area, it provides a
sort of visual verbal short-hand.
Television is now considered as the most powerful and exciting means of communication ever devised by man.
In its working, television converts a living sense into an electronic image in the same way as original sound is
converted into electronic audio signals in the radio broadcasting. This sends images like audio signals is sent
through space. It is picked upon an antenna and translated into the original scene on the surface of a picture tube
located in the television set.
One cannot deny that technology has given us a major tool on television. It is a very persuasive mass
communication medium. Through its programmes, televisions present a composite national picture and
perspective of India's rich cultural heritage and diverse thinking. They represent various religions and cultural
expressions of people, reflecting the Indian society.
Television has been able to influence people living in remote areas of our country. Its outreach has covered the
several remote villages and tribal pockets and is ushering information explosion. The growth in television both
in technology as well as reach in the last three decades has been unbelievably phenomenal. It was basically
conceived as a mass medium and a mass educator because of its large population scattered in culturally diverse
and remote areas.
Television has more flexibility and mobility in its coverage due to the audio-visual presentation. Due to this
reason, it has become a family medium. It can show what happened and how. It can show landing of a man on
Mars, the functioning of the heart or division of cell through animation. Above all, it provides entertainment
too. In short, television as a mass medium informs, educates, inspires and motivates. The small screen has
indeed turned out to be large enough to compress India's tremendous cultural diversity within itself.

The television in India began modestly on September 15, 1959 by a UNESCO grant to study the use of T.V. as
a medium of education, rural uplift and community development. In 1959 an experimental television
programme was started to train personnel and particularly to discover what television would achieve in
community development and formal education. Philips (India) demonstrated its use at an exhibition in New
Delhi. The range of the transmitter was 40 kilometers and the audience comprised members of 180 tele-clubs
which were provided free sets by UNESCO. The year 1961 witnessed educational television programmes on
science for teachers. In the year 1965 entertainment programmes were introduced under pressure from
manufacturers and the public. In the year 1967, Indian TV went into rural programmes and ‘Krishi Darshan’
programme for farmers in 80 villages tele-clubs in Delhi and Haryana were started. The year 1975-76 beamed
educational programmes to villages through SITE. Commercial telecast for the first time was introduced in
1976. In 1977 terrestrial transmitters were put up at selected centres to extend television coverage. On 15th
August, 1982, the national programme was inaugurated. In 1983 INSAT-IA India’s first communication
satellite was placed in geostationary orbit but failed in its operation. In 1983 INSAT-IB was successfully
launched in orbit by the American Shuttle Challenger. Recently government has launched a channel known as
Kisaan Channel specially for the farmers.
The transfer of science to rural people in India and gradual inoculation of scientific attitude in their everyday
life, need to demonstrate in the language which will be understood and appreciated by the rural people.
Television as an audio-visual medium of communication offers immense potential for disseminating the
technological information to remote corners of the country through the nationwide TV network. Television is
also considered very strong as the first stage of awareness. Apart from that, it speeds up entire process of
adoption. It is considered as a credible source of information and is taken as authentic, trustworthy and
prestigious medium of communication.
TV is one of the most sophisticated means of mass communication media. It serves the people by disseminating
the information in areas of agriculture, national integration, health and hygienic, entertainment programmes,
advertisement etc. TV is an ideal medium to convey information to illiterate and literate in urban and rural areas
on whom it would have profound impact. As an instrumental device it is being used in variety of ways such as
for direct teaching for supplementing formal education, for developing psychomotor skills, for adult education
and for diffusion of agricultural know-how from etc. It is expected that the rural oriented TV programmes can
solve the problems of inaccessibility, illiteracy and shortage of skilled persons in India. In rural development
nothing is more important than the transfer of useful ideas from one person to another. The researches in
agricultural sciences are of no use, unless they are communicated to the farmers in an effective manner in the
shortest possible time. TV has emerged as a powerful medium of communication. Television is providing
information and entertainment even to the people of far-flung areas. While it provides sound, vision and
movement, it can reach the largest number of people in the shortest possible time.

Characteristics of Television:
This makes it an ideal medium to transmit messages to a large audience. In a country like ours, with a huge
illiterate population, this characteristic of television makes it an ideal instrument for transmitting social
messages. Television also has a very wide output, range and reach.
An audio-visual medium
Television as a medium includes both sound and visuals which helps it to create vivid impressions in our minds
which in turn leads to emotional involvement.
Mass Medium
Television is an ideal medium to transmit messages to a large audience. In a country like India, where there is
so much difference in literacy and knowledge level, television becomes an important medium to convey social
messages to larger audiences.
The Swachh Bharat Abhiyan was launched by the Government of India in October 2014. The high visibility of
the campaign in the mass media has brought cleanliness to the center stage of the public discourses in India.
Television became a key player in the campaign, in taking the message to the people, and created a positive
impact on the public attitude towards cleanliness.
Educational Medium
In India, television has always been perceived as an efficient tool of education and development. In 1975,
Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) was conceived to inform and educate the rural population
about health, hygiene, farming, education, and national integration, etc.
UGC started the Countrywide Classroom Programmes in the year 1984. In 1993, the Consortium for
Educational Communication (CEC) was set up as a nodal agency to facilitate educational program production
through its Media Centers which is presently 22 in numbers and known as Educational Multimedia Research
Centers (EMRCs) working under various universities.
Features of other media
It has borrowed movement from the stage, camera from the film, and the microphone from the radio and
integrate all these into a whole that makes TV a uniquely new medium.
Wide reach and high credibility
TV has turned the world into a global village. It has broadened the mental horizon and turned society into an
information society. We feel more connected to less known things; as seeing is believing. Because of its reach
and believability, it becomes the tool to project different ideas like politics, sports, arts, personalities, events,
and persuasion.
A glamorous medium
It shows glittering personalities, fashion shows, rich and famous people, etc., and all this sitting back at home
which adds to its glamour. Because of this TV has also been called the magic box, which fascinates the
millions. However on the bad side, the glamour and magic of TV have the potential of attracting people to the
point of addiction.
A medium of the close-up
Because of small screen, it is ideal for close up of human faces, expression, reaction and interaction between
people, for presenting an interview and discussion etc.
Domestic Medium
Unlike other visual medium of Mass Communication like Cinema, we do not need to leave our home to watch
television. Rather we watch television in the comfort of our home with our family. This domestic nature of
television influences the content to deliver a sense of closeness to the viewers and makes it an intimate medium.
A Democratizing Medium
It is a democratizing medium as it is available to all the people. It democratizes information, informal education
and literature etc. by catering to all sections of society. Most of the TV programs are for the common man.
A medium of Immediacy
TV is a supreme reporter and it captures the events as they are happening. The live nature of television allows it
to transmit visuals and information almost instantly. This capacity of the medium makes it ideal for transmitting
live visuals of news and sports events.
Advertisers Influence
TV is a great salesman of modern times. The businessman sells his product and services through TV and it
allows them to reach out to a vast no. of potential and actual customers.

Media Ownership in Television:

Concentration of media ownership is a process whereby progressively fewer individuals or organizations
control increasing shares of the mass media. Contemporary research demonstrates increasing levels of
consolidation, with many media industries already highly concentrated and dominated by a very small number
of firms.
Media ownership is generally something very close to the complete state control over information in direct or
indirect ways. Media mergers occur when one media company buys another. An oligopoly is when a few firms
dominate a market.
There exist some very basic ownership Patterns.
Individual Ownership Pattern – In this kind of partnership, the Individual has control, which allows him to
take decisions for the company. Therefore, he takes responsibility for all the Policy – making decisions and is
also accountable for them. It is best suited for small-scale media houses, be it newspaper or news channel. An
example of this are the Local Evening Newspapers that usually follow this kind of ownership control. The
News Today is a daily English Newspaper that is printed out of Chennai. It covers news, politics, economy and
travel.
[Advantages] In this kind of ownership, power comes in the form of individual and absolute control, which
gives the person more secrecy in options. Along with it, the individual can make decisions at his own pace
(which is usually fast) and is naturally more connected with the content and the newspaper.
[Disadvantages] However, the secrecy stops the employees from any kind of democratic participation. The
owner becomes liable for the debts and losses and the rate of success depends entirely on his ability. There is
less scope for expansion and unlimited responsibility.

Partnership Ownership Pattern - As per the Partnership act 1932, Partnership is defined as ‘the relationship
between persons who have agreed to share profits of a business carried on by all or any of them acting for all.
The minimum limit is 2 partners while the maximum is set to 20 partners. There are 2 kinds of partnership –
General and Limited. In India, Red Chilies Entertainment is an example of Partnership. It is a motion picture
production and distribution company, it is headed by Shah Rukh Khan and Gauri Khan and operates under
various divisions like Film Production, VFX, Television shows, TVC production and the IPL Team, KKR.
Sanjiv Chawla is the executive producer while SRK and Gauri are the chairman and chairwoman respectively.
Venky Mysore took over the CEO a few years back.
[Advantages] In this kind of partnership, responsibility, maintenance and operation cost can be divided. People
with different talents come together and pitch in their ideas and solutions which helps in the growth of the
company and also sets a democratic environment for all.
[Disadvantages] In a partnership, selfish motives of a partner might harm the firm. Lack of unity and
misunderstandings might lead to losses after which each partner will have to incur and pay back his share of
debt. Also, there are chances of a partnership/ business getting discontinued after the death of any partner.

Corporation – It is the one of the most common forms of ownership pattern. The minimum numbers that can
be a part of it are 5. It is an association of individuals under the authority of the law, which has a continuous
existence independent of the existence of its members and powers and liabilities distinct of its members. The
BBC group is an example of a corporation. They are spread across web portals, television and radio. Increasing
capital can easily expand operations and transfer of control is flexible. However, cooperation taxes are imposed

Group/ Chain Ownership – This form of ownership is when two or ore same mediums are handled by the
same organization. They are formed without a common holding but with a chain of command. Hindustan has
13 editions that are printed in Hindu, under HT Media. Aaj Tak and Headlines Today are two different channels
but are held under the same organization i.e. India Today group. The advantages of this kind of partnership are
that financial, administrative and human resources can be centrally managed. Because of this cost of production
becomes low due to best possible utilization of resources – this adds to better training, work environment and
more facilities being provided. However, permanence of management is always in question because
management is divided.
Employee Ownership Pattern - In this form of Partnership, employees own a major part of the share. They are
also responsible for the decision- making. E.g.: Community Media like the Bangalore based advocacy group
VOICES organized a gathering of community radio stakeholders. During the inception 1996, a group of radio
broadcasters, policy planners, media professionals, and non-profit groups joined hands to study how community
radio could be relevant to India and what policies were needed. They wanted All India Radio to allocate an hour
of airtime each day to community broadcasting.
[Advantages] In this, Employee issues can be solved faster and it becomes easier to break interdepartmental
barriers. Also, the sense of ownership that the employees own helps the organization to grow faster.
[Disadvantages] However, it gets difficult to induct new people and employees tend to get more preference than
the benefit of the organization. It also becomes difficult to take quick decisions.

Vertical Ownership Pattern- In this, an organization owns or operates different media enterprises or some
other enterprise under the same ownership. e.g., India Today Group, Living Media or Big Media-Reliance
group. The India Today Group has Mail Today, Business Today, Aaj Tak and Headlines Today under itself –
making it a combination of magazines, newspapers and TV Channels, yet they still fall under the same
ownership i.e., the India Today Group.
[Advantages] It helps to promote different enterprises at the same time and reduced general expenses but
[Disadvantages] in this management may not be able to devote sufficient time to any one particular media.
Also, since the capital is invested in all media forms, a particular media form might not get the attention that it
ought to.
Prevalent Ownership Pattern- The 3 types of prevalent ownership patterns are Conglomerate, Company and
Trust.
1. Conglomerate ownership Pattern – It is a combination of two or more companies engaged in different
business that fall under one corporate structure. A Media Conglomerate is a multi-industry company that owns a
large number of companies in various media such as TV, Radio, and Internet etc.
Examples are Viacom, Living Media Ltd., The Walt Disney Company, Bennett Coleman & Co. Ltd. Etc.
Viacom is the fourth largest conglomerate in the World after the Walt Disney, News Corporation and Time
Warner. Viacom has its assets in Nickelodeon, Paramount pictures, MTV, Comedy Central, VH1 etc. Reliance
Industries Limited are also an example of one of the most famous conglomerates in India.
[Advantages] – The Diversification results in reduction of investment risk and creates an internal capital market.
Also, the downturn suffered by one subsidiary can be counterbalanced by another.
[Disadvantages] However a lack of focus and culture clashes can destroy the value. This form tends to have
extra layers of management, which increases the cost.
2. Company Ownership Pattern - In this type of ownership, the company owns the media. The same company
tends to have listed shares in the share market. For eg: HT media has shares in BSE, NSE, KK Birla Group has
69% stake in HT Media, HT manages newspaper, radio etc. similarly, Reliance has a stake in GBN (Global
Broadcast News) which operates the English-channel CNN-IBN and Hindi channel IBN7.
3. Trust ownership Pattern - A trust is a relationship whereby property (real or personal, tangible or intangible)
is held by one party for the benefit of another. An example of this is The Tribune Trust. It was founded on 2nd
February 1881 by Mr. Sardar Singh Majithia and is run by a trust comprising of 5 trustees. It enjoys worldwide
circulation and publishes 2 other newspapers also – The Punjabi Tribune and Dainik Tribune. This kind of
partnership focus more on welfare and not on profit making. Advantages of this ownership pattern are that it
focuses on real news rather than sensationalizing it. There are also not too many people which result in lesser
clashes and more harmony. However, they might face a shortage of funds. Sometimes, it also takes time to
reach the masses, as they don’t indulge in promotional activities.
Concentration of Media Ownership:
Concentration of media ownership (also known as media consolidation or media convergence) is a process
whereby progressively fewer individuals or organizations control increasing shares of the mass media.
Contemporary research demonstrates increasing levels of consolidation, with many media industries already
highly concentrated and dominated by a very small number of firms.
Mergers:
Media mergers occur when one media company buys another.An oligopoly is when a few firms dominate a
market.
Risks for media integrity:
Media integrity is at risk when small number of companies and individuals control the media market. Media
integrity refers to the ability of a media outlet to serve the public interest and democratic process, making it
resilient to institutional corruption within the media system, economy of influence, conflicting dependence and
political clientelism.

Elimination of net neutrality

Net neutrality is also at stake when media mergers occur. Net neutrality involves a lack of restrictions on
content on the internet, however, with big businesses supporting campaigns financially they tend to have
influence over political issues, which can translate into their mediums. These big businesses that also have
control over internet usage or the airwaves could possibly make the content available biased from their political
stand point or they could restrict usage for conflicting political views, therefore eliminating net neutrality.
Issues:
Freedom of the press and editorial independence:
Johannes von Dohnanyi, in a 2003 report published by the Organization for Security and Co-operation in
Europe (OSCE)'s Office of the Representative on Freedom of the Media, argued market concentration among
media—whether driven by domestic or foreign investors—should be "closely monitored" because "Horizontal
concentration may cause dangers to media pluralism and diversity, while vertical concentration may result in
entry barriers for new competitors."[10] Von Dohnanyi argues that to "safeguard free and independent print
media and protect professional journalism as one of the cornerstones of constitutional democracy" there should
be standards for editorial independence, better labor protections for professional journalists, and independent
institutions "to monitor the implementation and observance of all laws and regulations regarding concentration
processes, media pluralism, content diversity and journalistic freedoms."[10]

Deregulation:
Robert W. McChesney argues that the concentration of media ownership is caused by a shift to neoliberal
deregulation policies, which is a market-driven approach. Deregulation effectively removes governmental
barriers to allow for the commercial exploitation of media. Motivation for media firms to merge includes
increased profit-margins, reduced risk and maintaining a competitive edge. In contrast to this, those who
support deregulation have argued that cultural trade barriers and regulations harm consumers and domestic
support in the form of subsidies hinders countries to develop their own strong media firms. The opening of
borders is more beneficial to countries than maintaining protectionist regulations.
Critics of media deregulation and the resulting concentration of ownership fear that such trends will only
continue to reduce the diversity of information provided, as well as to reduce the accountability of information
providers to the public. The ultimate consequence of consolidation, critics argue, is a poorly informed public,
restricted to a reduced array of media options that offer only information that does not harm the media
oligopoly's growing range of interests
Media pluralism:
The concentration of media ownership is commonly regarded as one of the crucial aspects reducing media
pluralism. A high concentration of the media market increases the chances to reduce the plurality of political,
cultural and social points of views.[14] Even if ownership of the media is one of the main concerns when it
comes to assessing media pluralism, the concept of media pluralism is broader as it touches many aspects, from
merger control rules to editorial freedom, the status of public service broadcasters, the working conditions of
journalists, the relationship between media and politics, representation of local and regional communities and
the inclusion of minorities' voices. Also, it embraces all measures guaranteeing citizens' access to diversified
sources so to allow the formation of a plurality of opinions in the public sphere without undue influence of
dominant powers.
Furthermore, media pluralism has a two-fold dimension, or rather internal and external. Internal pluralism
concerns pluralism within a specific media organization: in this regard, many countries request public broadcast
services to account for a variety of views and opinions, including those of minority groups. External pluralism
applies instead to the overall media landscape, for instance in terms of the number of media outlets operating in
a given country.
Media ownership can pose serious challenges to pluralism when owners interfere with journalists' independence
and editorial line. However, in a free market economy, owners must have the capacity to decide the strategy of
their company to remain competitive in the market.

Organizational Structure of Doordarshan:

About Doordarshan
• Doordarshan is a Public Service Broadcaster under ‘Prasar Bharati’.
• It provides Television services in the country in Terrestrial as well as satellite mode.
• Television was separated from the All India Radio (AIR) in 1976.
• Doordarshan is one of the media units of the Ministry Information and Broadcasting, Government of India.
• Doordarshan was established with a motive of public service broadcasting, whose main aims were to inform,
to educate and to entertain the masses.
Motto of Doordarshan
The motto of Doordarshan is “Satyam Shivam Sundaram” which translates as: The Truth is The God and The
God is Beautiful’.
Fundamental of Doordarshan
Doordarshan is headed by a Director General (DG), who is an ex-officio member of Prasar Bharati Board.
Currently, Supriya Sahu is posted as the Director-general of Doordarshan. Engineering activities in
Doordarshan are supervised by Engineer-in-Chief (E-in-C), assisted byAdditional Director Generals (ADGs).
Doordarshan is an Indian public service broadcaster, a division of Prasar Bharti. It has a 3 tier programme
services- National, Regional and Local. Doordarshan is presently operating 26 channels.
Three-tier programs service of Doordarshan
• It has three-tier programme service- National, Regional and Local.
• The National Programmes include news, current affairs, services, culture magazines, sports, music, dance,
drama, serial, culture magazines, sports, music, dance, drama, serial and feature films.
• The regional programmes are produced in the language and the idiom of the particular state.
• The local programmes are area specific and cover local issues featuring local people.
Explanation of organizational structure of doordarshan
• Director General of Doordarshan is responsible for the overall administration of the Doordarshan network.
• Doordarshan is divided into four wings: Programme, News, Engineering and Administration and Finance.
•• Programme using deals with all aspects relating to programme conception, production and procurement at the
national, regional and local level.
• News wing puts out news bulletins and other current affairs programmes at the national and regional level.
• Engineering wing deals with all the hardware requirements of the entire network including the space segment
and the studios, transmitters etc.
• Administration and Finance using deals with the administrative and financial aspects including general
administration, personal management, budget and plan coordination.
• The overall head of all the departments in doordarshan is Director General.
• The rank of the Director General of Doordarshan is equivalent to that of the Director General of All India
Radio, while earlier it was not the case.
• In Doordarshan, the Director General heads the Department of programme and Administration.
• His main job is to supervise, guide, govern and control the entire functioning of the department.
He is assisted by
• Additional Director General and Deputy Director General (Development)
Deputy Director General (News and current affairs)
Deputy Director General (Communication and film)
Director (Finance and Personnel control).
Deputy Director general (Production and Transmission)
In addition to that there is a large number of staff in Doordarshan which are directly associated with pre-
production, production and post production. These staff members are- Programme producer, programme
executive, video engineer, vision control operator, Lighting engineer, cameraman, vision mixer, studio
engineers, Make-up supervisors, script designer, program Assistant, production assistant, Audio control
manager, MIC boom operator, script writer etc.

Satellite Television:
Satellite television is a service that delivers television programming to viewers by relaying it from a
communications satellite orbiting the Earth directly to the viewer's location. The signals are received via an
outdoor parabolic antenna commonly referred to as a satellite dish and a low-noise block downconverter.
A satellite receiver then decodes the desired television program for viewing on a television set. Receivers can be
external set-top boxes, or a built-in television tuner. Satellite television provides a wide range of channels and
services. It is usually the only television available in many remote geographic areas without terrestrial television
or cable television service. Satellite television (satellite TV) is a particular kind of broadcast delivery based on
using space satellites to deliver signals. Companies make use of satellites that have been sent out of the Earth's
atmosphere by beaming a signal up to the satellite and delivering it to individual customers via the use of
receiving equipment.
The basic setup for a satellite TV involves a satellite dish, also called a "parabolic reflector antenna," along with
a "low-noise block down converter" and a receiver. Satellite TV helps deliver signals in areas where customers
may not be served by cable television or "terrestrial" broadcasting.
Satellite TV generally uses two different frequency sets to deliver signals. One is the Ku band, a dedicated
channel for satellite TV communications. A type of satellite TV known as direct-broadcast satellite TV
(DBSTV) often uses the Ku band. Other analog "big dish" systems use the lower C band, which is also used for
certain other kinds of technologies. Although the Ku band is the dedicated channel for satellite TV, the C band
can help signals withstand some interruptions, such as signal disruption from inclement weather.
The satellite TV channels flow to your TV through a satellite placed into orbit course on the curved path of the
axis of gravitation around the earth. The axis is the imaginary reference line which is fixed around the earth
through which it rotates once every 24 hours. This is why enterprises curve the dish, or the parabola to gravitate
the waves of signals from the satellite to flow through it to the receiver and then the receiver transmits them to
the TV.
So, the satellite is a space station, or a space capsule, which is an artificial celestial body that works technically
for this effect to take place. However, it effects in other different matters, such as the development of sciences
and spaying, which effects our lives daily.
The use of satellites has exceeded nowadays everything they are supposed to do. Some of them are placed on
that spot for observing, tracking and predicting. Others are for optimizing performance of many scientific
elements. Some are for computers and televisions.
Technology:
The satellites used for broadcasting television are usually in a geostationary orbit 37,000 km (23,000 mi) above
the earth's equator. The advantage of this orbit is that the satellite's orbital period equals the rotation rate of the
Earth, so the satellite appears at a fixed position in the sky. Thus, the satellite dish antenna which receives the
signal can be aimed permanently at the location of the satellite, and does not have to track a moving satellite. A
few systems instead use a highly elliptical orbit with inclination of +/−63.4 degrees and orbital period of about
twelve hours, known as a Molniya orbit.
Satellite television, like other communications relayed by satellite, starts with a transmitting antenna located at
an uplink facility. Uplink satellite dishes are very large, as much as 9 to 12 meters (30 to 40 feet) in diameter.
The increased diameter results in more accurate aiming and increased signal strength at the satellite. The uplink
dish is pointed toward a specific satellite and the uplinked signals are transmitted within a specific frequency
range, so as to be received by one of the transponders tuned to that frequency range aboard that satellite. The
transponder re-transmits the signals back to Earth at a different frequency (a process known as translation, used
to avoid interference with the uplink signal), typically in the 10.7-12.7 GHz band, but some still transmit in the
C-band (4–8 GHz), Ku-band (12–18 GHz), or both. The leg of the signal path from the satellite to the receiving
Earth station is called the downlink.
Direct-to-home and direct broadcast satellite
Direct-to-home (DTH) can either refer to the communications satellites themselves that deliver service or the
actual television service. Most satellite television customers in developed television markets get their
programming through a direct broadcast satellite (DBS) provider. Signals are transmitted using Ku band (12 to
18 GHz) and are completely digital which means it has high picture and stereo sound quality.
Programming for satellite television channels comes from multiple sources and may include live studio feeds.
The broadcast center assembles and packages programming into channels for transmission and, where
necessary, encrypts the channels. The signal is then sent to the uplink where it is transmitted to the satellite.
With some broadcast centers, the studios, administration and up-link are all part of the same campus. The
satellite then translates and broadcasts the channels.

Cable Television:
Cable television is a system of delivering television programming to consumers via radio frequency (RF)
signals transmitted through coaxial cables, or in more recent systems, light pulses through fibre-optic cables.
This contrasts with broadcast television (also known as terrestrial television), in which the television signal is
transmitted over-the-air by radio waves and received by a television antenna attached to the television; or
satellite television, in which the television signal is transmitted over-the-air by radio waves from a
communications satellite orbiting the Earth, and received by a satellite dish antenna on the roof. FM radio
programming, high-speed Internet, telephone services, and similar non-television services may also be provided
through these cables.
The abbreviation CATV is often used for cable television. It originally stood for Community Access Television
or Community Antenna Television, from cable television's origins in 1948. In areas where over-the-air TV
reception was limited by distance from transmitters or mountainous terrain, large "community antennas" were
constructed, and cable was run from them to individual homes.
Cable-television systems originated in the United States in the late 1940s and were designed to improve
reception of commercial network broadcasts in remote and hilly areas. During the 1960s they were introduced
in many large metropolitan areas where local television reception is degraded by the reflection of signals from
tall buildings. Commonly known as community antenna television (CATV), these cable systems use a
“community antenna” to receive broadcast signals (often from communications satellites), which they then
retransmit via cables to homes and establishments in the local area subscribing to the service. Subscribers pay a
specified monthly service charge in addition to an initial installation fee.
Distribution:
To receive cable television at a given location, cable distribution lines must be available on the local utility
poles or underground utility lines. Coaxial cable brings the signal to the customer's building through a service
drop, an overhead or underground cable. In the most common system, multiple television channels (as many as
500, although this varies depending on the provider's available channel capacity) are distributed to subscriber
residences through a coaxial cable, which comes from a trunkline supported on utility poles originating at the
cable company's local distribution facility, called the "headend". Many channels can be transmitted through one
coaxial cable by a technique called frequency division multiplexing. At the headend, each television channel is
translated to a different frequency. By giving each channel a different frequency "slot" on the cable, the separate
television signals do not interfere with each other. At an outdoor cable box on the subscriber's residence, the
company's service drop cable is connected to cables distributing the signal to different rooms in the building. At
each television, the subscriber's television or a set-top box provided by the cable company translates the desired
channel back to its original frequency (baseband), and it is displayed onscreen. Due to widespread cable theft in
earlier analog systems, the signals are typically encrypted on modern digital cable systems, and the set-top box
must be activated by an activation code sent by the cable company before it will function, which is only sent
after the subscriber signs up. If the subscriber fails to pay their bill, the cable company can send a signal to
deactivate the subscriber's box, preventing reception.
Modern cable systems are large, with a single network and headend often serving an entire metropolitan area.
Most systems use hybrid fiber-coaxial (HFC) distribution; this means the trunklines that carry the signal from
the headend to local neighborhoods are optical fiber to provide greater bandwidth and also extra capacity for
future expansion. At the headend, the electrical signal is translated into an optical signal and sent through the
fiber. The fiber trunkline goes to several distribution hubs, from which multiple fibers fan out to carry the signal
to boxes called optical nodes in local communities. At the optical node, the optical signal is translated back into
an electrical signal and carried by coaxial cable distribution lines on utility poles, from which cables branch out
to a series of signal amplifiers and line extenders.
Other Cable Based Services:
Coaxial cables are capable of bi-directional carriage of signals as well as the transmission of large amounts of
data. Cable television signals use only a portion of the bandwidth available over coaxial lines. This leaves
plenty of space available for other digital services such as cable internet, cable telephony and wireless services,
using both unlicensed and licensed spectrum. Broadband internet access is achieved over coaxial cable by using
cable modems to convert the network data into a type of digital signal that can be transferred over coaxial cable.
Another feature offered by more and more cable operators is two-way channel capability, which enables
subscribers to communicate with programming facilities or information centers within the system. Using the
cable connection, home viewers can, for example, participate in public-opinion polls or call up various kinds of
written and graphic materials (e.g., citations from reference books, concert schedules, and recipes). The latter
feature is offered by systems called videotex.
Cable TV penetration in India:
The TAM Annual Universe Update – 2012 indicates that India has over 148 million households (out of 231
million) with TVs, of which over 126 million have access to CATV or Satellite TV, including 42 million
households which are digital subscribers. In Urban India, 88 per cent of all households have a TV and over 70
per cent of all households have access to satellite, cable or DTH services. Households with TVs have been
growing between 8 to 10 per cent, while growth in satellite/cable homes exceeded 9 per cent and DTH
subscribers grew 63 per cent. CATV households could be higher because of unaccounted for or
informal/unregistered cable networks that aren't taken into consideration during mainstream surveys. India now
has over 500 TV channels covering all the main languages spoken in the nation

Educational Television:
Educational television or learning television is the use of television programs in the field of distance education.
It may be in the form of individual television programs or dedicated specialty channels that is often associated
with cable television in the United States as Public, educational, and government access (PEG) channel
providers. There is More... There are also adult education programs for an older audience; many of these are
instructional television or "telecourse" services that can be taken for college credit.
Many children's television series are educational, ranging from dedicated learning programs to those that
indirectly teach the viewers. Some series are written to have a specific moral behind every episode, often
explained at the end by the character that learned the lesson.
In the social aspects of television, several studies have found that educational television has many advantages.
The Media Awareness Network, explains in its article, The Good Things about Television, that television can
be a very powerful and effective learning tool for children if used wisely. The article states that television can
help young people discover where they fit into society, develop closer relationships with peers and family, and
teach them to understand complex social aspects of communication.
Since the beginnings of television, educators have endeavored to harness its power to educate a mass audience.
This entry examines educational television programs with a particular focus on how to maximize their
effectiveness. Researchers have generally defined educational television programs as those programs that
focused on academic content areas that are taught in schools, such as reading, mathematics, science, and social
studies. In contrast, prosocial television programs have been considered to be those that taught positive social
interaction skills, self-control and achievement behaviors, and creative fantasy and imaginative play. Some
researchers, however, have defined educational content broadly to include both educational and prosocial
programs.
Role of Television in Education:
Television is adaptable and can follow different approaches when used in the different educational situations.
The medium is used for formal, non-formal and informal education. To support formal education, television
usually function as supportive and reinforcement tool. Television can be attached with school curriculum and
time tables. When systematically organized it takes the form of school broadcast. In non-formal education,
television has a more specific role to play. When used as a part of multi-media communication tool, television
can directly or indirectly teach the subject matter.
Role of television is neither fixed nor easily tangible and measurable. The role is directly related to the question
of how the planners are serious and determined to use television. The role could either be enormous or, on the
contrary very meager depending upon the specific tasks and available resources. Generally, television can help
to achieve the following objectives:
a) Social quality in education
b) Enhance quality in education
c) Reduce dependency on verbal teaching and teachers
d) Provide flexibility of time and space in learning.
e) Stimulates learning
f) Provide mass education opportunities.
The history of “Education Television” in India
When the lockdown happened for the first time, government, public and private schools eventually felt the need
for online classes. It was more comfortable for the private schools to ask students to buy gadgets to attend
online classes. On the other hand, asking the same to the students from lower-income families would not have
been apt for the government schools. At that time, Doordarshan and Swayam Prabha came to the rescue.
The concept of Educational Television is not new in India. It dates back to 1975 when Satellite Instructional
Television Experiment (SITE) started transmitting programs to the special satellite-linked TV sets installed in a
few villages and towns. Under the program, the common man got access to a range of television programs in
different categories, including environment, agriculture and school education. Entertainment was also an
important part of the TV programs since the beginning.
Though the response to the set of educational programs was enthusiastic, lack of funding combined with
irregular power transmission and lack of proper equipment or trained staff resulted in shelving the project by the
end of 1976. TV started to gain popularity among the masses, and eventually, in 1987-88, it reached the peak of
popularity at that time due to the telecast of Ramayana serial.
At that time, the demand for education programs rose again. Educational Media Research Centre (EMRC)
telecasted educational programs between 1 PM to 2 PM. The programs mainly targeted college students and
covered several subjects. These programs were not only loved by the students at home, schools and colleges
also held special sessions on their premises where students can watch the programs. Some institutes started to
run the programs during break time.
Gyan Darshan channel
Gran Darshan is a joint venture of the Ministry of Education (Previously named as Ministry of Human Resource
Development (MHRD)), Ministry of Information & Broadcasting (I&B Ministry) Prasar Bharti, and Indira
Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU). The 24-hour educational channel was launched in 2000. The
programs on the channels cater to the needs of pre-school, primary, secondary and higher secondary students,
college or university students, youth seeking career opportunities, homemakers and working professionals.
In 2016, Doordarshan and IGNOU signed an agreement to telecast four Gyan Darshan channels. Webcast of
Gyan Darshan channel is also available on IGNOU’s website. Doordarshan not only has channels for school
and college students, but DD Kisan is also among the most popular channels for information related to
agriculture.
Swayam Prabha:
Launched on 10th July 2017, Swayam Prabha is a Ministry of Education initiative that provides 32 high-quality
educational channels via Direct to Home (DTH) services 24×7. The course content of the programs covers
diverse disciplines of distance education. The main aim of these channels is to provide quality learning
resources across the country’s length and breadth. Though online classes are happening in every corner of the
country, some remote areas do not have access to the high speed or even 2G internet.
Every day Swayam Prabha Channels broadcast new content for at least four hours. The rest of the day, they
repeat the previous programs to watch the program as per their convenience. The content on these channels is
provided in association with NPTEL, IITs, UGC, CEC, IGNOU, NCERT and NIOS.
Swayam Prabha channels cover content in various disciplines, including arts, science, commerce, performing
arts, humanities, technology, engineering, medicine, agriculture, law, social sciences and more for under-
graduate and post-graduate levels.
The state-specific education channels
Doordarshan has regional channels such as DD Uttar Pradesh, DD Chandana (Karnataka), and DD Bihar,
among others, that beam educational programs for the children. Some of the channels stream the programs live
on YouTube as well so that the students can see them any number of times as per their convenience. These
channels are just indictive, and other states, including Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Punjab are doing exceptionally
well in providing television-based education to the students.

Commercial Television:
Commercial TV stations are owned privately. They get their money by selling advertising time. TV stations
broadcast commercials every ten minutes. Commercial TV focuses on entertainment, like soap operas, dramas,
game shows and reality television. Many of them have their own talk shows, where guests appear and discuss
certain topics. Most commercial TV stations offer short news summaries of the day’s events.
Public television stations are owned either by the government or by non-profit organizations. They get their
money by collecting fees from their viewers. But they have commercials as well. These stations offer their
viewers a wide range of programs – documentaries, current affairs programs, cultural and other information
programs. They show concerts and other big events.
Commercial broadcasting is primarily based on the practice of airing radio advertisements and television
advertisements for profit. This is in contrast to public broadcasting, which receives government subsidies and
usually does not have paid advertising interrupting the show. During pledge drives, some public broadcasters
will interrupt shows to ask for donations.
While commercial broadcasting was unexpected in radio, in television it was planned due to commercial radio's
success. Television began with commercial sponsorship and later transformed to paid commercial time. When
problems arose over patents and corporate marketing strategies, regulatory decisions were made by the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) to control commercial broadcasting.
Commercial broadcasting overlaps with paid services such as cable television, radio and satellite television.
Such services are generally partially or wholly paid for by local subscribers and is known as leased access.
Other programming (particularly on cable television) is produced by companies operating in much the same
manner as advertising-funded commercial broadcasters, and they (and often the local cable provider) sell
commercial time in a similar manner.
Impact of Commercial Television on our Society:
Between the 1980s and 2000s, commercial television had a profound and wide-ranging impact on our society
and culture. It influenced the way that people think about such important social issues as race, gender, and class.
It played an important role in the political process, particularly in shaping national election campaigns.
Commercial Television helped the society to build its living standards and to maintain their lifestyles. Finally,
television helped to spread Indian culture around the world.
At some point, Commercial TV doesn’t have that much of a great impact because after some time, gaining TRP
due to the nice and appreciable contents, most of the TV channels starts focusing more on the paid broadcasting
and money making through commercials and less on the matter of the subject and content, which results in
negative reviews.
Also, now a days Commercial News Channels are having a negative impact on the society because they are
mainly focused on money making aspects of the business and less on the real reason of their work, which is to
provide knowledge to society with truce in it. This commercialization has also led the news channels to be
biased with the news and to alter the news if its not in the favor of their Wallets.

Television Script Writing

Television writing is the art of writing a TV show. Television is an exciting medium for writers because they
get to control everything from the stories that are told to how the sets are built. TV writers develop stories, write
scripts, make edits and revisions, and help determine what an episode looks like. The TV script is applied in
television such as the news, commercials, television sitcoms, and infomercials.
Scriptwriting is the art and craft of writing scripts for mass media such as television productions. It is often a
freelance profession.
Scriptwriters are responsible for researching the story, developing the narrative, writing the script, screenplay,
dialogues and delivering it, in the required format, to development executives. Scriptwriters therefore have great
influence over the creative direction and emotional impact of the screenplay and, arguably, of the finished film.
A freelance television writer typically uses spec scripts or previous credits and reputation to obtain a contract to
write one or more episodes for an existing television show. After an episode is submitted, rewriting or polishing
may be required.
A staff writer for a TV show generally works in-house, writing and rewriting episodes. Staff writers—often
given other titles, such as story editor or producer—work both as a group and individually on episode scripts to
maintain the show's tone, style, characters, and plots.
Television show creators write the television pilot and bible of new television series. They are responsible for
creating and managing all aspects of a show's characters, style, and plots. Frequently, a creator remains
responsible for the show's day-to-day creative decisions throughout the series run as showrunner, head writer or
story editor.
As in the land of features, if you want to break in, you’ll need a “spec” script. This is a script written
“speculatively” that showcases your talents and can be used as a calling card.
In TV, there are two main types of spec script:
• “Spec episode” for an existing TV show
In the world of TV script writing, a “spec” usually means a sample episode of an existing show. It’s also known
as a “TV spec”, “sample episode” and “spec episode.”
A spec script is a TV script written speculatively, meaning it was not commissioned by a network. Writers use
spec scripts to demonstrate talent and creativity. An easy way to write a spec script is to choose a current TV
show you’re familiar with and write a sample episode.
Writing a spec episode is the traditional way writers use to break into television writing. But it’s less in vogue
now than a few years ago. This entails writing an episode of an existing TV series that showcases your ability to
write current characters that people know and love. In a way that feels real and familiar, yet fresh.
It means writing characters with pre-set voices and personalities in order to demonstrate that you’re a powerful
writer with imagination. But also one who can follow the rules. This means following the show’s formatting
structure and overall “voice” of the show.
• “Spec pilot” for an original TV show
This is a TV script written on spec for an original show you’ve created from scratch and is also known as an
“original spec”, “sample pilot” or simply a “pilot.”
It’s easy to imagine that writing a TV show that’s compelling and original is as simple as writing a feature
screenplay, but shorter. Unfortunately, you’d be wrong on two counts. Not only is writing a feature about as
difficult as it gets but writing a television pilot is in some ways even more difficult.
Sure, the page count is slimmer. But the reality is a pilot functions as a seed for the series it’s jumpstarting. And
in order to write a pilot that works as both a writing sample and a potentially saleable series, you have to
consider the rest of the tree before you even plant the seed.
There are three things you’ll need in order to pitch it to network executives:
A treatment. A treatment is a document that provides an explanation of your TV show’s setting, main
characters, and storyline. Every treatment should include a title, logline, synopsis, summary of episodes, and
character bios.
A pilot script. A pilot is the first episode of a TV series. Your TV pilot needs an opening that is going to grab
your viewers and says something important to your audience about the show they are going to watch. Without a
compelling pilot, you don’t have a TV show. Pilots are crucial for hooking an audience and setting up your
characters and storyline for an entire season.
The pilot script is the building block for your entire series. People have to read it and be able to see the potential
moving forward. The best pilot scripts set incredible expectations for what is to come from a series.
You have to be an incredibly skilled writer to craft a well-written pilot. TV studios buy hundreds of shows a
year, but only a handful make it to air, and even less make it past the first season.
A pilot script is a valuable tool. Not only can you use it to get an agent or manager, but you can also use it as a
sample when staffing season comes around.
You’ll need to write an outline —a breakdown of the story and characters—but a bible can wait until you’ve
garnered some interest in the pilot TV show. When you really need to give people something more concrete.
A show bible. A show bible, also called a story bible or a series bible, is a document that contains the history of
your characters, an outline of every episode in the first season, and how you see the show expanding into future
seasons. Writing a show bible forces you to think beyond the pilot episode and can help you see the bigger
picture of your show idea.
A bible, also known as a show bible or pitch bible, is a reference document used by screenwriters for
information on characters, settings, and other elements of a television or film project. Bibles are updated with
information on the characters after the information has been established on screen.
Ultimately, the show bible is a selling document, and you need your bible to stand out from all the rest. Most
bibles are text heavy, too long, and are fairly boring to read. Use your bible as an opportunity to express your
writing skills, to excite the reader about your idea as much as you are, and to leave them wanting more.

Writing a TV comedy, or sitcom, is a different process from writing a TV drama.

Tone: TV sitcoms are funny, tackle lighthearted topics, and intend to make viewers laugh. Dramas are more
serious and take time to develop a story rather than telling jokes.
Story Arc and Pace: Sitcoms have a quick narrative pace, they focus on the build to the climax, have less act
breaks, and introduce the conflict before the end of act one. The more time the characters spend solving a
problem, the less room there is in the script for humor. Dramas are paced slower, have more act breaks, and
spend more time developing the story, building to a climax, and arriving at a conclusion.
Run Time: Sitcoms run for approximately 21 minutes without commercials, while dramas run for about 43
minutes without commercials. One page of a script in Final Draft equals about one minute on air, so a 21-
minute sitcom script should be around 20 pages long, and a script for a 43-minutes long drama should be about
40 pages long.

Basics of TV Production:
TV production involves various elements that come together to create a successful TV show.
The Production Team: This team includes: producer, writer, director, actors along with the technical crew.
Each member of the team and crew has various responsibilities. For instance, a producer is responsible for
developing and executing the idea for a show along with planning the budget. The production manager on the
other hand is responsible for production elements including handling of equipment and crew. While the
production designer, is responsible for constructing the set innovatively.
Pre-production: Pre-production formally begins once a project has been greenlit. At this stage, finalizing
preparations for production go into effect. Financing will generally be confirmed and many of the key elements
such as principal cast members, director and cinematographer are set. By the end of pre-production, the
screenplay is usually finalized and satisfactory to all the financiers and other stakeholders.
During pre-production, the script is broken down into individual scenes with storyboards and all the locations,
props, cast members, costumes, special effects and visual effects are identified. An extremely detailed shooting
schedule is produced and arrangements are made for the necessary elements to be available to the makers at the
appropriate times. Sets are constructed, the crew is hired, financial arrangements are put in place and a start date
for the beginning of principal photography is set. At some point in pre-production, there will be a read-through
of the script which is usually attended by all cast members with speaking parts, the director, all heads of
departments, financiers, producers, and publicists.

Production:
Production is the actual taping of the TV show or shoot. Cast and crew are assembled, and the director will
orchestrate the taping and work to shoot as quickly as possible. Production may take place in a studio or on
location. Location shooting is almost always more work, as production equipment needs to be brought to the
location along with the cast and crew. Most TV shows prefer to use established sets since this makes the
production process easer.
Photography: Television shows are generally shot using two basic methods of photography:
Single film production: Single camera production is a mode of production where one camera operates at a time
and the shots are done in the most economically efficient order. Single camera productions are not live and
include a lot of editing and takes. • "The single-camera setup, or single-camera mode of production, is a method
of filmmaking and video production. A single camera—either motion picture camera or professional video
camera—is employed on the set and each shot to make up a scene is taken individually. • As its name suggests,
a production using the single-camera setup generally employs just one camera. Each of the various shots and
camera angles is taken using the same camera, which is moved and reset to get each shot or new angle. The
lighting setup is typically reconfigured for each camera setup."
Multiple camera tape production: The multiple-camera setup, multiple-camera mode of production, multi-
camera or simply multicam is a method of filmmaking and video production. Several cameras—either film or
professional video cameras—are employed on the set and simultaneously record or broadcast a scene.
Generally, the two outer cameras shoot close-up shots or "crosses" of the two most active characters on the set
at any given time, while the central camera or cameras shoot a wider master shot to capture the overall action
and establish the geography of the room.[1] In this way, multiple shots are obtained in a single take without
having to start and stop the action. This is more efficient for programs that are to be shown a short time after
being shot as it reduces the time spent in film or video editing.
The first one is generally used for dramatic series and the latter is used to produce talk shows, game shows or
news.
Post-production: It begins with the completion of filming and continues until the project is delivered to the
network for airing. The most important aspect of post-production is editing. The director, producer and the
networker view the film from the daily shoot. These films, also called as ‘dailies’, are then broken down and
assembled into scenes by the editors.
The post-production phase of creating a film usually takes longer than the actual shooting of the film and can
take several months to complete because it includes the complete editing, color correction, and the addition of
music and sound. The process of editing a movie is also seen as the second directing because through post-
production it is possible to change the intention of the movie. Furthermore, through the use of color grading
tools and the addition of music and sound, the atmosphere of the movie can be heavily influenced. For instance,
a blue-tinted movie is associated with a cold atmosphere and the choice of music and sound increases the effect
of the shown scenes to the audience.
Television Production Process
There are many equipment and machines required for the production of TV programmes.
 Camera: The most basic equipment in any and every production is the camera. The camera is principally
designed to convert the optical image, as projected by the lens, into an electrical signal, often called the video
signal.
 Lights: lighting is done for the following achievements.
• To provide the television camera with adequate il lumination for technically
acceptable pictures.
• To show the viewers what the objects shown on screen actually look like
• To establish the general mood of the event.
 Microphone: Microphone converts sound waves into electrical energy or the audio signals.
 Sound Recorder: The sound recorder essentially re cords the sound picked up by the microphone. With a
sound recorder, you can:
• select a specific microphone or other sound input
• amplify a weak signal from a microphone or other audio source for further
processing
• Control the volume and ensure the quality of sound
• Mix or combine two or more incoming sound sources
 Videotape recorder: While the sound i.e., audio is recorded on sound recorders, visuals are recorded on video
tape in a videotape recorder. Most of the tele vision programmes that we see are recorded on videotape or
computer disk before they are actually telecast.
 Post Production Editing Machine: The post production editing equipment/machine helps to edit the
programme after it is recorded.
Key Professionals Involved in Television Production
• Producer: He is the production head who is in charge of the whole process. The producer manages the budget
and coordinates with the advertising agencies, actors and writers. The producer is also responsible for all the
people working on the pro duction front and for coordinating technical and non-technical production elements.
• Director: The Director is ultimately responsible for transforming a script into effective audio and video
messages.
• Production Assistant: Assists producer and director. He facilitates all that is required for the smooth execution
of the television production.
• Script Writer: A script writer is the person who writes the script for the programme. The script gives all the
details of the programme such as the dialogues, the list of actors, details of the costumes, the mood required to
be created for each scene and their respective locations.
• Actors: Actors are the personnel who perform dif ferent roles according to the requirement of the script.
• Anchor: A person who presents a programme on TV.
• Cameraperson: Camerapersons operate the cam eras. They often do the lighting also for smaller pro
• Ductions. They are also called videographers.
• Sound Recordist: Records complete sound & give background music.
• Art Director: In charge of creative designs like set works and graphics.
• Property Manager: Maintains and manages the various sets and properties used.
• Floor manager: In charge of all activities of the floor. Also called floor director.
• Costume Designer: creates various costumes re quired for the shoot.

Television Reporting:
Television reporting refers to disseminating current events via the medium of television. A "news bulletin" or a
"newscast" are television programs lasting from seconds to hours that provide updates on international, national,
regional, and/or local news events. It also includes additional material such as sports coverage weather
forecasts, traffic reports, commentary, and other material that the broadcaster feels is relevant to their audience.
Television reporting is very visually-based, showing video footage of many of the events that are reported; still
photography is also used in reporting news stories, although not as much in recent years as in the early days of
broadcast television. Television channels may provide news bulletins as part of a regularly scheduled news
program. Less often, television shows may be interrupted or replaced by breaking news reports ("news flashes")
to provide news updates on events of great importance.
Television reporting organizations employs several anchors and reporters to provide reports (as many as ten
anchors, and up to 20 reporters for local news operations or up to 30 for national news organizations). They
may also employ specialty reporters that focus on reporting certain types of news content (such as traffic or
entertainment), meteorologists or weather anchors (the latter term often refers to weather presenters that do not
have degrees in meteorology earned at an educational institution) who provide weather forecasts – more
common in local news and on network morning programs – and sports presenters that report on ongoing,
concluded, or upcoming Packages will usually be filmed at a relevant location and edited in an editing suite in a
newsroom or a remote contribution edit suite in a location some distance from the newsroom. They may also be
edited in mobile editing vans, or satellite vans or trucks (such as electronic news gathering vehicles), and
transmitted back to the newsroom. Live coverage will be broadcast from a relevant location and sent back to the
newsroom via fixed cable links, microwave radio, production truck, satellite truck, or via online streaming.
Roles associated with television news include a technical director, floor director audio technician, and a
television crew of operators running character graphics (CG), teleprompters, and professional video cameras.
Most news shows are broadcast live.

News Bulletin:
The news bulletin is a short piece of information about breaking news.
Some TV stations may make overuse the news bulletin format for breaking news, sometimes every hour. But,
according to the Associated Press (AP) the BULLETIN is usually 1 to 2 sentences announcing breaking news.
There are three classifications for important, breaking news: URGENT, BULLETIN and FLASH.
• A good, short bulletin might include:
• 2-3 local or national stories
• 1-2 international stories
• something quirky or light, like an odd-spot, to balance out all the bad news
• 2-3 very brief sports stories (with a variety of sports, local and international)
• a gossip or entertainment news story
• today’s weather, with a brief forecast for the week
• a quick traffic report (road or public transport)
TV shows with bulletins on the hour will often include headlines on the half hour. Give people the gist, usually
just the first sentence from each of your stories. Don’t treat this like a teaser – people aren’t going to stay tuned
for another half an hour just to hear you read the full news.
 UNIT-3
FILM
A film, also called a movie, motion picture or moving picture, is a work of visual art used to simulate
experiences that communicate ideas, stories, perceptions, feelings, beauty, or atmosphere through the use of
moving images. These images are generally accompanied by sound, and more rarely, other sensory
stimulations. The word "cinema", short for cinematography, is often used to refer to filmmaking and the film
industry, and to the art form that is the result of it.
Film, also called motion picture or movie, series of still photographs on film, projected in rapid succession onto
a screen by means of light. Because of the optical phenomenon known as persistence of vision, this gives the
illusion of actual, smooth, and continuous movement.
The moving images of a film are created by photographing actual scenes with a motion-picture camera, by
photographing drawings or miniature models using traditional animation techniques, by means of CGI and
computer animation, or by a combination of some or all of these techniques, and other visual effects.
Traditionally, films were recorded onto celluloid film stock through a photochemical process and then shown
through a movie projector onto a large screen. Contemporary films are often fully digital through the entire
process of production, distribution, and exhibition, while films recorded in a photochemical form traditionally
included an analogous optical soundtrack (a graphic recording of the spoken words, music and other sounds that
accompany the images which runs along a portion of the film exclusively reserved for it, and is not projected).
Films are cultural artifacts created by specific cultures. They reflect those cultures, and, in turn, affect them.
Film is considered to be an important art form, a source of popular entertainment, and a powerful medium for
educating—or indoctrinating—citizens. The visual basis of film gives it a universal power of communication.
Some films have become popular worldwide attractions through the use of dubbing or subtitles to translate the
dialog into other languages.
The individual images that make up a film are called frames. In the projection of traditional celluloid films, a
rotating shutter causes intervals of darkness as each frame, in turn, is moved into position to be projected, but
the viewer does not notice the interruptions because of an effect known as persistence of vision, whereby the
eye retains a visual image for a fraction of a second after its source disappears. The perception of motion is
partly due to a psychological effect called the phi phenomenon.
The name "film" originates from the fact that photographic film (also called film stock) has historically been the
medium for recording and displaying motion pictures. Many other terms exist for an individual motion-picture,
including picture, picture show, moving picture, photoplay, and flick. The most common term in the United
States is movie, while in Europe film is preferred. Common terms for the field in general include the big screen,
the silver screen, the movies, and cinema; the last of these is commonly used, as an overarching term, in
scholarly texts and critical essays.
Film is a remarkably effective medium in conveying drama and especially in the evocation of emotion. The art
of motion pictures is exceedingly complex, requiring contributions from nearly all the other arts as well as
countless technical skills (for example, in sound recording, photography, and optics). Emerging at the end of the
19th century, this new art form became one of the most popular and influential media of the 20th century and
beyond.
As a commercial venture, offering fictional narratives to large audiences in theatres, film was quickly
recognized as perhaps the first truly mass form of entertainment. Without losing its broad appeal, the medium
also developed as a means of artistic expression in such areas as acting, directing, screenwriting,
cinematography, costume and set design, and music.

Nature:
The question that dominated early philosophical inquiry into film was whether the cinema—a term that
emphasizes the institutional structure within which films were produced, distributed, and viewed—could be
regarded as an artform. There were two reasons why cinema did not seem worthy of the honorific designation
of an art. The first was that early contexts for the exhibition of films included such venues as the vaudeville
peep show and the circus side show. As a popular cultural form, film seemed to have a vulgarity that made it an
unsuitable companion to theater, painting, opera, and the other fine arts. A second problem was that film
seemed to borrow too much from other art forms. To many, early films seemed little more than recordings of
either theatrical performances or everyday life. The rationale for the former was that they could be disseminated
to a wider audience than that which could see a live performance. But film then only seems to be a means of
access to art and not an independent art form on its own. The latter, on the other hand, seemed too direct a
reproduction of life to qualify as art, for there seemed little mediation by any guiding consciousness.
In order to justify the claim that film deserves to be considered an independent art form, philosophers
investigated the ontological structure of film. The hope was to develop a conception of film that made it clear
that it differed in significant ways from the other fine arts. For this reason, the question of film's nature was a
crucial one for theorists of film during what we might call the classic period.
Hugo Münsterberg, the first philosopher to write a monograph about the new art form, sought to distinguish
film by means of the technical devices that it employed in presenting its narratives (Münsterberg 1916).
Flashbacks, close-ups, and edits are some examples of the technical means that filmmakers employ to present
their narratives that theater lacks. For Münsterberg, the use of these devices distinguished film from the theater
as an artform.
Münsterberg went on to ask how viewers are able to understand the role that these technical devices play in the
articulation of cinematic narratives. His answer is that these devices are all objectifications of mental processes.
A close-up, for example, presents in visual form a correlate to the mental act of paying attention to something.
Viewers naturally understand how such cinematic devices function because they are familiar with the workings
of their own minds and can recognize these objectified mental functions when they see them. Although this
aspect of Münsterberg's theory links him to contemporary cognitive philosophers of film, he does not explain
how viewers know that what they are looking at are objectified mental functions.
Münsterberg was writing during the silent era. The development of the simultaneous sound track—the
“talkie”—changed film forever. It is not surprising that this important innovation spawned interesting
theoretical reflections.
The well-known psychologist of art, Rudolph Arnheim, made the surprising claim that the talkie represented a
decline from the highpoint of silent cinema. (Arnheim 1957) Relying on the idea that, in order to be a unique
artform, film had to be true to its own specific medium, Arnheim denigrates the sound film as a mixture of two
distinct artistic media that do not constitute a satisfying whole.
For Arnheim, the silent film had achieved artistic status by focusing on its ability to present moving bodies.
Indeed, for him, the artistic aspect of cinema consisted in its ability to present abstractions, an ability completely
lost when films began to employ simultaneous soundtracks. Writing near the dawn of the talkie, Arnheim could
only see what we now recognize as a natural development of the artform as a decline from a previously attained
height.
André Bazin, though not a professional philosopher or even an academic, countered Arnheim's assessment in a
series of articles that still exert an important influence on the field. (Bazin 1967; 1971) For Bazin, the important
dichotomy is not that between the sound and the silent film but rather between films that focus on the image and
those that emphasize reality. Although editing had emerged for many such as Sergei Eisenstein as the
distinctive aspect of film, Bazin returns to the silent era to demonstrate the presence of an alternative means of
achieving film art, namely an interest in allowing the camera to reveal the actual nature of the world. Relying on
a conception of film as having a realist character because of its basis in photography, Bazin argues that the
future of cinema as an artform depends on its development of this capacity to present the world to us “frozen in
time.”
In making his argument, Bazin valorizes the film style he dubs realism, characterized by extended shots and
deep focus. Jean Renoir, Orson Welles, and the Italian neo-Realists are the filmmakers whom Bazin sees as
culminating this imagist tradition of filmmaking that has realized the true potential of the medium.
In his pathbreaking study of what he called “classical film theory,” Noël Carroll (1988) argued that there were
many illicit presuppositions at play in the classical theorists' attempts to define film's nature. In particular, he
accused them of confusing particular styles of filmmaking with more abstract claims about the nature of the
medium itself. His accusations seemed to spell the end of such attempts to justify film styles by their grounding
in the medium's nature.
Recently, however, Bazin's claim about film's realism has received new life, albeit without the extravagances of
Bazin's own writing. Kendall Walton, in an extremely influential paper (1984), argued that film, because of its
basis in photography, was a realistic medium that allowed viewers to actually see the objects that appear on
screen. The transparency thesis has been the subject of a great deal of debate among philosophers and
aestheticians. Gregory Currie, for example, rejects the transparency thesis while still defending a form of
realism. He argues that film's realism is the result of the fact that objects depicted on screen trigger the same
recognitional capacities that are used to identify real objects.
The discussion of the realist character of film continues to be a topic of heated debate among philosophers of
film. Most recently, the emergence of digital technologies for fashioning the image raise very basic questions
about the plausibility of this view.

History of World Cinema:

The history of world movies goes back to the end of the 1800’s. No one person invented cinema. However, in
1891 the Edison Company successfully demonstrated a prototype of the Kinetoscope, which enabled one person
at a time to view moving pictures. The first public Kinetoscope demonstration took place in 1893. By 1894 the
Kinetoscope was a commercial success, with public parlours established around the world. It is now more than
200 years that the world of cinema has had the chance to develop through many experiments and innovations.
Technology has been one of the major contributing factors to the development of world cinema. From the very
start of world cinema the hearts of millions have been captured by its magic.
The world cinema journey began in silence. Movies were created without sound as the technology of sound was
not available at the beginning. A device did not exist that could synchronise sound with the picture. Cinema
remained silent for the first thirty years until sound technology was developed late in the 1920’s.
The world of cinema was quite unorganized in the first ten years of its life although gradually over a short time
the industry established itself. Movies that contained one shot and produced by just one person began to be
taken over by movies that were a few minutes long, had various scenes and were produced by larger companies
with professional methods.
Probably the most successful movie making company was in the USA. They had the largest production group
until 1900. This company produced a lot of peep show kind of movies which was done with the help of a
machine called Mutoscope. France was the next country to show its caliber in the world cinema field. France
was home to one of the first companies to shoot scenes for a movie outside of the studio and they also sent
cameramen to shoot films all over the world. The biggest producer in France was Georges Meilies who started
to use trick effects in 1898.
The first camera used in movies were tied or fixed to a tripod. All the early movie cameras were completely
fixed whilst taking film shots. Camera movements were done by mounting the movie camera onto a moving
vehicle.
The history of world cinema has undergone a long course of research, creation and application of new
techniques. Numerous methods have been tested and applied to give film making a place in the finest of
performing arts across the globe.

History of Indian Cinema:

Silent films (1890s–1920s)
In 1897, a film presentation by Professor Stevenson featured a stage show at Calcutta's Star Theatre. With
Stevenson's encouragement and camera Hiralal Sen, an Indian photographer, made a film of scenes from that
show, namely The Flower of Persia (1898). The Wrestlers (1899) by H. S. Bhatavdekar, showing a wrestling
match at the Hanging Gardens in Bombay, was the first film to be shot by an Indian and the first Indian
documentary film.

The first Indian film released in India was Shree Pundalik, a silent film in Marathi by Dadasaheb Torne on 18
May 1912 at Coronation Cinematograph, Bombay. Some have argued that Pundalik was not the first Indian
film, because it was a photographic recording of a play, and because the cameraman was a British man named
Johnson and the film was processed in London.
The second full-length motion picture in India was produced by Dadasaheb Phalke, Phalke is seen as the
pioneer of the Indian film industry and a scholar of India's languages and culture. He employed elements from
Sanskrit epics to produce his Raja Harishchandra (1913), a silent film in Marathi. The female characters in the
film were played by male actors. Only one print of the film was made, for showing at the Coronation
Cinematograph on 3 May 1913. It was a commercial success. The first silent film in Tamil, Keechaka Vadham
was made by R. Nataraja Mudaliar in 1916.
The first chain of Indian cinemas, Madan Theatre was owned by Parsi entrepreneur Jamshedji Framji Madan,
who oversaw production of 10 films annually and distributed them throughout India beginning in 1902.
Raghupathi Venkaiah Naidu from Machilipatnam was an Indian artist and a film pioneer. From 1909, he was
involved in many aspects of Indian cinema, travelling across Asia. He was the first to build and own cinemas in
Madras. In 1927, the British Government, to promote the market in India for British films over American ones,
formed the Indian Cinematograph Enquiry Committee.
Talkies (1930s–mid-1940s)
Ardeshir Irani released Alam Ara, the first Indian talkie, on 14 March 1931. Irani later produced the first south
Indian talkie film Kalidas directed by H. M. Reddy released on 31 October 1931. Jumai Shasthi was the first
Bengali talkie. Chittor V. Nagaiah, was one of the first multilingual film
actor/singer/composer/producer/directors in India. He was known as India's Paul Muni.
In 1933, East India Film Company produced its first Telugu film, Savitri. Based on a stage play by Mylavaram
Bala Bharathi Samajam, the film was directed by C. Pullaiah with stage actors Vemuri Gaggaiah and Dasari
Ramathilakam. The film received an honorary diploma at the 2nd Venice International Film Festival. On 10
March 1935, another pioneer film maker Jyoti Prasad Agarwala made his first film Joymoti in Assamese. Jyoti
Prasad went to Berlin to learn more about films. Indramalati is another film he himself produced and directed
after Joymoti. The first film studio in South India, Durga Cinetone was built in 1936 by Nidamarthi Surayya in
Rajahmundry, Andhra Pradesh.
Swamikannu Vincent, who had built the first cinema of South India in Coimbatore, introduced the concept of
"Tent Cinema" in which a tent was erected on a stretch of open land to screen films. The first of its kind was in
Madras, called Edison's Grand Cinemamegaphone.
The Indian Masala film—a term used for mixed-genre films that combined song, dance, romance etc.—arose
following World War II. During the 1940s cinema in South India accounted for nearly half of India's cinema
halls and cinema came to be viewed as an instrument of cultural revival.
Golden Age (late 1940s–1960s)
The period from the late 1940s to the early 1960s is regarded by film historians as the Golden Age of Indian
cinema.
his period saw the emergence of the Parallel Cinema movement, mainly led by Bengalis, which then accounted
for a quarter of India's film output. The movement emphasised social realism. Early examples include Dharti Ke
Lal (1946, Khwaja Ahmad Abbas), Neecha Nagar (1946, Chetan Anand), Nagarik (1952, Ritwik Ghatak) and
Do Bigha Zamin (1953, Bimal Roy), laying the foundations for Indian neorealism and the Indian New Wave.
The Apu Trilogy (1955–1959, Satyajit Ray) won major prizes at all the major international film festivals and
firmly established the Parallel Cinema movement. Pather Panchali (1955), the first part of the trilogy, marked
Ray's entry in Indian cinema. The trilogy's influence on world cinema can be felt in the "youthful coming-of-
age dramas that flooded art houses since the mid-fifties", which "owe a tremendous debt to the Apu trilogy".
Commercial Hindi cinema began thriving, including acclaimed films Pyaasa (1957) and Kaagaz Ke Phool
(1959, Guru Dutt) Awaara (1951) and Shree 420 (1955, Raj Kapoor). These films expressed social themes
mainly dealing with working-class urban life in India; Awaara presented the city as both a nightmare and a
dream, while Pyaasa critiqued the unreality of city life.
Epic film Mother India (1957, Mehboob Khan), a remake of his earlier Aurat (1940), was the first Indian film to
be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film.
Multiple films from this era are included among the greatest films of all time in various critics' and directors'
polls.
Birth of a New Era
The number of films being produced saw a brief decline during the World War II. Basically, the birth of modern
Indian Film industry took place around 1947. The period witnessed a remarkable and outstanding
transformation of the film industry. Notable filmmakers like Satyajit Ray, and Bimal Roy made movies which
focused on the survival and daily miseries of the lower class. The historical and mythological subjects took a
back seat and the films with social messages began to dominate the industry. These films were based on themes
such as prostitution,
In the 1960s new directors like Ritwik Ghatak, Mrinal Sen, and others focused on the real problems of the
common man. They directed some outstanding movies which enabled the Indian film industry to carve a niche
in the International film scenario.
Songs are an integral part of Indian movies. Presence of songs has given Indian films a distinctive look as
compared to international films. The Indian film industry has produced many talented lyricists, music directors
and artists.
Bollywood – The Pioneer of Masala Movies
The 1970s saw the advent of Masala movies in Bollywood. The audiences were captivated and mesmerised by
the aura of actors like Rajesh Khanna, Dharmendra, Sanjeev Kumar, Hema Malini, and many others.
The most prominent and successful director, Manmohan Desai was considered by several people as the father of
Masala movies. According to Manmohan Desai, “I want people to forget their misery. I want to take them into a
dream world where there is no poverty, where there are no beggars, where fate is kind and god is busy looking
after its flock.”
Sholay, the groundbreaking film directed by Ramesh Sippy, not only got international accolades but also made
Amitabh Bachchan a ‘Superstar’. Several women directors like Meera Nair, Aparna Sen and others showcased
their talents in the 1980s. How can we forget the extraordinary and splendid performance of Rekha in the film
Umrao Jaan in 1981?
The 1990s saw a whole new batch of actors like Shah Rukh Khan, Salman Khan, Madhuri Dixit, Aamir Khan,
Juhi Chawla, Chiranjivi, and many more. This new genre of actors used new techniques to enhance their
performances which further elevated and upgraded the Indian Film Industry. 2008 was a notable year for the
Indian film industry as A.R. Rahman received two academy awards for best soundtrack for Slumdog
Millionaire.
Indian cinema is no longer restricted to India and is now being well appreciated by international audiences. The
contribution of the overseas market in Bollywood box office collections is quite remarkable. Around 30 film
production companies were listed in National Stock Exchange of India in 2013. The multiplexes too have
boomed in India due to tax incentives.
Indian cinema has become a part and parcel of our daily life whether it is a regional or a Bollywood movie. It
has a major role to play in our society. Though entertainment is the key word of Indian cinema it has far more
responsibility as it impacts the mind of the audiences.
Technical Aspects of Film Making:
Filmmaking or film production is the process by which a film is made. Filmmaking involves a number of
complex and discrete stages including an initial story, idea, or commission, through screenwriting, casting,
shooting, sound recording and pre-production, editing, and screening the finished product before an audience
that may result in a film release and an exhibition. Filmmaking takes place in many places around the world in a
range of economic, social, and political contexts, and using a variety of technologies and cinematic techniques.
Stages of Production:
Filmmaking consists of five major steps:
Development:
This stage has both general and specific components. Every year, each Film Studio has a retreat in which their
top Creative Executives meet and discuss a variety of areas and subject matters they wish to explore through
collaborations with Producers and Screenwriters and then ultimately Directors and Actors/Actresses. They
choose trending topics from the media and real life, as well as many other sources to determine their yearly
agenda. In a year when Action is a hot topic they may wish to explore that area in a movie. At times, they
purchased the rights to articles, bestselling novels, plays, remaking older films, stories with some basis in real
life through a person or event, a video game, fairy tale, comic book, graphic novel.
Studios do take general meetings from Producers and Screenwriters about original story ideas. Once a producer
and or a writer has sold their approach to the desired subject matter, they begin to work. However, many
writers, producers and years usually pass before a particular concept is realized in a way that is awarded a
"Green Light ' to production. Writers have different styles and creative processes; some have stronger track
records than others. So how the development process proceeds from there and how much detail a writer returns
to the studio to divulge before beginning writing can vary greatly. Next, a screenwriter writes a screenplay over
a period of several months, or however long it takes. Deadlines are in their contracts but there is no pressure to
adhere to them. The screenwriter may rewrite the script several times to improve dramatization, clarity,
structure, characters, dialogue, and overall style.
Script Coverage, a freelance job held by recent University graduates, does not feed scripts into the system that
are ready for production nor already produced. "Coverage" is a way for young screenwriters to be read and their
ideas might make their way up to an executive or famous producer and result in "Meet and Greets" where
relations with up and comers can be formed.
The studio is the film distributor who at an early stage attempts to choose a slate of concepts that are likely to
have market appeal and find potential financial success. Hollywood distributors consider factors such as the
film genre, the target audience and assumed audience, the historical success of similar films, the actors who
might appear in the film, and potential directors. All these factors imply a certain appeal of the film to a possible
audience. Once a screenplay is "Green Lit" directors and actors are attached and the film proceeds into the pre-
production stage. Although; very often the Development stage and the Pre-Production stage overlap.
Pre-Production:
In pre-production, every step of actually creating the film is carefully designed and planned. This is the phase
where one would narrow down all the options of the production. It is where all the planning takes place before
the camera rolls and sets the overall vision of the project. The production company is created and a production
office established. The film is pre-visualized by the director and may be storyboarded with the help of
illustrators and concept artists. A production budget is drawn up to plan expenditures for the film. For major
productions, insurance is procured to protect against accidents. Pre-production also includes working out the
shoot location and casting process. The Producer hires a Line Manager or a Production Manager to create the
schedule and budget for the film.
The nature of the film, and the budget, determine the size and type of crew used during filmmaking. Many
Hollywood blockbusters employ a cast and crew of hundreds, while a low-budget, independent film may be
made by a skeleton crew of eight or nine (or fewer). These are typical crew positions:
Storyboard artist: creates visual images to help the director and production designer communicate their ideas to
the production team.
Director: is primarily responsible for the storytelling, creative decisions and acting of the film.
Assistant director (AD): manages the shooting schedule and logistics of the production, among other tasks.
There are several types of AD, each with different responsibilities.
Film producer: hires the film's crew.
Unit production manager: manages the production budget and production schedule. They also report, on behalf
of the production office, to the studio executives or financiers of the film.
Location manager: finds and manages film locations. Nearly all pictures feature segments that are shot in the
controllable environment of a studio sound stage, while outdoor sequences call for filming on location.
Production designer: the one who creates the visual conception of the film, working with the art director, who
manages the art department which makes production sets.[2]
Costume designer: creates the clothing for the characters in the film working closely with the actors, as well as
other departments.
Makeup and hair designer: works closely with the costume designer in order to create a certain look for a
character.
Casting director: finds actors to fill the parts in the script. This normally requires that actor’s part-take in an
audition, either live in front of the casting director or in front of a camera, or multiple cameras.
Choreographer: creates and coordinates the movement and dance – typically for musicals. Some films also
credit a fight choreographer.
Director of photography (DOP): the head of the photography of the entire film, supervises all cinematographers
and Camera Operators.
Production sound mixer: the head of the sound department during the production stage of filmmaking. They
record and mix the audio on set – dialogue, presence and sound effects in mono and ambience in stereo.[3][4]
They work with the boom operator, Director, DA, DP, and First AD.
Sound designer: creates the aural conception of the film,[2] working with the supervising sound editor. On
Bollywood-style Indian productions the sound designer plays the role of a director of audiography.
Composer: creates new music for the film. (usually not until post-production)
Production:
In production, the film is created and shot. In this phase it is key to keep planning ahead of the daily shoot. The
primary aim is to stick to the budget and schedule, this requires constant vigilance. More crew will be recruited
at this stage, such as the property master, script supervisor, assistant directors, stills photographer, picture
editor, and sound editors. These are just the most common roles in filmmaking; the production office will be
free to create any unique blend of roles to suit the various responsibilities possible during the production of a
film. Communication is key between the location, set, office, production company, distributors and all other
parties involved.
A typical day shooting begins with the crew arriving on the set/location by their call time. Actors usually have
their own separate call times. Since set construction, dressing and lighting can take many hours or even days,
they are often set up in advance.
The grip, electric and production design crews are typically a step ahead of the camera and sound departments:
for efficiency's sake, while a scene is being filmed, they are already preparing the next one.
While the crew prepares their equipment, the actors do their costumes and attend the hair and make-up
departments. The actors rehearse the script and blocking with the director, and the camera and sound crews
rehearse with them and make final tweaks. Finally, the action is shot in as many takes as the director wishes.
The assistant director (AD) calls "picture is up!" to inform everyone that a take is about to be recorded, and then
"quiet, everyone!" Once everyone is ready to shoot, the AD calls "roll sound" (if the take involves sound), and
the production sound mixer will start their equipment, record a verbal slate of the take's information, and
announce "sound speed", or just "speed", when they are ready. The AD follows with "roll camera", answered by
"speed!" by the camera operator once the camera is recording. The clapper, who is already in front of the
camera with the clapperboard, calls "marker!" and slaps it shut. If the take involves extras or background action,
the AD will cue them ("action background!"), and last is the director, telling the actors "action!". The AD may
echo "action" louder on large sets.
A take is over when the director calls "Cut!" and the camera and sound stop recording. The script supervisor
will note any continuity issues, and the sound and camera teams log technical notes for the take on their
respective report sheets. If the director decides additional takes are required, the whole process repeats. Once
satisfied, the crew moves on to the next camera angle or "setup," until the whole scene is "covered." When
shooting is finished for the scene, the assistant director declares a "wrap" or "moving on," and the crew will
"strike," or dismantle, the set for that scene.
At the end of the day, the director approves the next day's shooting schedule and a daily progress report is sent
to the production office. This includes the report sheets from continuity, sound, and camera teams. Call sheets
are distributed to the cast and crew to tell them when and where to turn up the next shooting day. Later on, the
director, producer, other department heads, and, sometimes, the cast, may gather to watch that day or
yesterday's footage, called dailies, and review their work.
With workdays often lasting 14 or 18 hours in remote locations, film production tends to create a team spirit.
When the entire film is "in the can", or in the completion of the production phase, it is customary for the
production office to arrange a wrap party, to thank all the cast and crew for their efforts.
For the production phase on live-action films, synchronizing work schedules of key cast and crew members is
very important, since for many scenes, several cast members and most of the crew, must be physically present
at the same place at the same time (and bankable stars may need to rush from one project to another). Animated
films have different workflow at the production phase, in that voice actors can record their takes in the
recording studio at different times and may not see one another until the film's premiere, while most physical
live-action tasks are either unnecessary or are simulated by various types of animators.
Post Production:
This stage starts when principal film production ends, but they may overlap. The bulk of post-production
consists of reviewing the footage and assembling the movie and taking it to the next step that is editing. Here
the video/film is assembled by the film editor. The shot film material is edited. The production sound (dialogue)
is also edited; music tracks and songs are composed and recorded if a film is sought to have a score; sound
effects are designed and recorded. Any computer-graphic visual effects are digitally added by an artist. Finally,
all sound elements are mixed into "stems", which are then married to the picture, and the film is fully
completed.
Without the film post production process, there is no finished product—you simply have raw footage that may
or may not tell the story you want to tell. In fact, raw footage is often not shot in the order it is meant to be
presented in, but rather, the order that was most efficient for the actors, location, and other factors. Presenting
unedited footage likely wouldn’t make sense, let alone tell a compelling story.
Every element of postproduction works to enhance the overall story of the film. Background music, for
example, sets the mood and tone of the piece—which is further enhanced by color grading. With skillful
editing, a movie or video can reach its full potential.
Post-production consists of many different processes grouped under one name. These typically include:
◊When content is shot on film it is typically transferred to video, DPX, or Open EXR with a telecine or a more
modern motion picture film scanner.
◊Editing the content of the film or television program.
◊Writing, (re)recording, and editing the soundtrack.
◊Adding visual effects – mainly computer-generated imagery (CGI) which is then composited into the frame.
◊Sound design, sound effects, ADR, foley, and music, culminating in a process known as sound re-recording or
mixing with professional audio equipment.
◊Stereoscopic 3D conversion in the case of content that was shot in 2D which is scheduled to have a 3D release
◊Color grading (and color correction) in a color suite.
The post-production phase of creating a film usually takes longer than the actual shooting of the film and can
take several months to complete because it includes the complete editing, color correction, and the addition of
music and sound. The process of editing a movie is also seen as the second directing because through post-
production it is possible to change the intention of the movie.
Distribution:
This is the last stage, where the film is released to cinemas or, occasionally, directly to consumer media (VHS,
VCD, DVD, Blu-ray) or direct download from a digital media provider. The film is duplicated as required
(either onto film or hard disk drives) and distributed to cinemas for exhibition (screening). Press kits, posters,
and other advertising materials are published, and the film is advertised and promoted. A B-roll clip may be
released to the press based on raw footage shot for a "making of" documentary, which may include making-of
clips as well as on-set interviews. Separate from those of the production company or distributor. For major
films, key personnel are often contractually required to participate in promotional tours in which they appear at
premieres and festivals and sit for interviews with many TV, print, and online journalists. The largest
productions may require more than one promotional tour, in order to rejuvenate audience’s demand at each
release window.
Since the advent of home video in the early 1980s, most major films have followed a pattern of having several
distinct release windows. A film may first be released to a few select cinemas, or if it tests well enough, may go
directly into wide release. Next, it is released, normally at different times several weeks (or months) apart, into
different market segments like rental, retail, pay-per-view, in-flight entertainment, cable, satellite, or free-to-air
broadcast television. The distribution rights for the film are also usually sold for worldwide distribution. The
distributor and the production company share profits and manage losses.

Film Industry in India

Hindi cinema, often known as Bollywood and formerly as Bombay cinema, is the Indian Hindi-language film
industry based in Mumbai (formerly Bombay). The term is a portmanteau of "Bombay" and "Hollywood". The
industry is related to Cinema of South India and other Indian film industries, making up Indian cinema—the
world's largest by number of feature films produced.
In 2017, Indian cinema produced 1,986 feature films, with Bollywood as its largest filmmaker, producing 364
Hindi films the same year. Bollywood represents 43 percent of Indian net box-office revenue; Tamil and Telugu
cinema represent 36 percent, and the remaining regional cinema constituted 21 percent in 2014. Bollywood is
one of the largest centers of film production in the world. In 2001 ticket sales, Indian cinema (including
Bollywood) reportedly sold an estimated 3.6 billion tickets worldwide, compared to Hollywood's 2.6 billion
tickets sold. Bollywood films tend to use vernacular Hindustani, mutually intelligible by people who self-
identify as speaking either Hindi or Urdu, and modern Bollywood movies increasingly incorporate elements of
Hinglish.
The most popular commercial genre in Bollywood since the 1970s has been the masala film, which freely mixes
different genres including action, comedy, romance, drama and melodrama along with musical numbers.
Masala films generally fall under the musical film genre, of which Indian cinema has been the largest producer
since the 1960s when it exceeded the American film industry's total musical output after musical films declined
in the West; the first Indian musical talkie was Alam Ara (1931), several years after the first Hollywood musical
talkie The Jazz Singer (1927). Alongside commercial masala films, a distinctive genre of art films known as
parallel cinema has also existed, presenting realistic content and avoidance of musical numbers. In more recent
years, the distinction between commercial masala and parallel cinema has been gradually blurring, with an
increasing number of mainstream films adopting the conventions which were once strictly associated with
parallel cinema.
(Parallel cinema, or New Indian Cinema, was a film movement in Indian cinema that originated in the state of
West Bengal in the 1950s as an alternative to the mainstream commercial Indian cinema.
Inspired by Italian Neorealism, Parallel Cinema began just before the French New Wave and Japanese New
Wave, and was a precursor to the Indian New Wave of the 1960s. The movement was initially led by Bengali
cinema and produced internationally acclaimed filmmakers such as Satyajit Ray, Mrinal Sen, Ritwik Ghatak,
Tapan Sinha and others. It later gained prominence in other film industries of India.
It is known for its serious content, realism and naturalism, symbolic elements with a keen eye on the
sociopolitical climate of the times, and for the rejection of inserted dance-and-song routines that are typical of
mainstream Indian films.)
Collectively, India has been on a consistent growth curve with the number of feature films produced and
distributed in a year, making it one of the largest industries for cinema worldwide. Indian movie-goers throng
cinema halls, be it the modernized multiplexes or the old-school single screen theaters. The steady rise of
streaming platforms has made this consumption easier to access. Although the numbers have started to dwindle
down over the years, the country still houses many single screen theatres. This also makes the Indian cinema
lover an ideal target for advertisers.
In addition to advertising, music in Indian film is a significant revenue generator, often creating more buzz
about the film than its trailers. Music distributors like T-Series and Zee Music found success in recent years via
YouTube, making Indian music rank high in terms of views and subscriptions. The popularity of these songs
has led to playback singers being revered and becoming some of the highest earners in the business. Arguably,
the most popular was Grammy-award winning A.R. Rahman.

Regional Cinema:
India is home to one of the largest film industries in the world. Every year thousands of movies are produced in
India. Indian film industry comprises of Hindi films, regional movies and art cinema. The Indian film industry
is supported mainly by a vast film-going Indian public, though Indian films have been gaining increasing
popularity in the rest of the world, especially in countries with large numbers of emigrant Indians.
India is a large country where many languages are spoken. Many of the larger languages support their own film
industry. Some of the popular regional film industries in India are Bengali, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam
and Punjabi. The Hindi/Urdu film industry, based in Mumbai, formerly Bombay, is called Bollywood. Similar
neologisms have been coined for the Tamil film industry Kollywood and the Telugu film industry. Tollygunge
is metonym for the Bengali film industry, long centered in the Tollygunge district of Kolkata. The Bengali
language industry is notable as having nurtured the director Satyajit Ray, an internationally renowned
filmmaker and a winner of many awards.
Kannada film Samskara (1970), Pattabhirama Reddy and Singeetam Srinivasa Rao), pioneered the parallel
cinema movement in south Indian cinema. The film won Bronze Leopard at the Locarno International Film
Festival.
Malayalam cinema experienced its own Golden Age in the 1980s and early 1990s. Acclaimed Malayalam film
makers industry, included Adoor Gopalakrishnan, G. Aravindan, T. V. Chandran and Shaji N. Karun.
Vanaprastham was screened at the Un Certain Regard section of the Cannes Film Festival. Commercial
Malayalam cinema began gaining popularity with the action films of Jayan, a popular stunt actor the first ever
action-adventure superstar of South Indian Cinema who died while filming a helicopter stunt.
Telugu cinema has a history of producing internationally noted fantasy and mythological films such as the 1933
film Savitri having received an honorary diploma at the 2nd Venice International Film Festival, as well as
works such as Nartanasala, Mayabazar, and the Baahubali series having won the American Saturn Award for
Best International Film. Daasi and Matti Manushulu (directed by B. Narsing Rao) won the Diploma of Merit
award at the Moscow International Film Festival in 1989 and 1991 respectively. Swati Mutyam was selected by
India as its entry for the Best Foreign Language Film for the Academy Awards in 1986. The film was screened
at the Moscow Film Festival, the Asian and African film festival in Tashkent, the 11th International Film
Festival of India in the inaugural mainstream section, and the Asia-Pacific Film Festival where it won awards
for "Best Film" and "Best Actor" categories.
Salim–Javed were highly influential in South Indian cinema. In addition to writing two Kannada films, many of
their Bollywood films had remakes produced in other regions, including Tamil, Telugu and Malayalam cinema.
While the Bollywood directors and producers held the rights to their films in Northern India, Salim-Javed
retained the rights in South India, where they sold remake rights, usually for around ₹1 lakh (equivalent to ₹31
lakh or US$ 43,000 in 2019) each, for films such as Zanjeer, Yaadon Ki Baarat and Don. Several of these
remakes became breakthroughs for Rajinikanth, who portrayed Bachchan's role for several Tamil remakes.
By 1996, the Indian film industry had an estimated domestic cinema viewership of 600 million viewers,
establishing India as one of the largest film markets, with the largest regional industries being Hindi and Telugu
films. In 2001, in terms of ticket sales, Indian cinema sold an estimated 3.6 billion tickets annually across the
globe, compared to Hollywood's 2.6 billion tickets sold.

Future Aspects of Cinema:

For decades virtual reality (VR) has been prophesied as the future of filmmaking, capable of offering
experiences infinitely more immersive than traditional cinema and television. In an essay written in 1955, titled
The Cinema of the Future, the cinematographer Morton Heilig predicted that filmmaking would advance to the
point where it can “reveal the new scientific world to man in the full sensual vividness and dynamic vitality of
his consciousness.” Heilig outlined many of the properties of virtual reality – but didn’t use those words, given
they hadn’t been coined yet.
Now, as the saying goes, the future has arrived – though filmmaking has a long way to go before it incorporates
the mind-bending technology popularized in movies and TV shows such as The Lawnmower Man and Star
Trek. With many filmmakers having swapped traditional cameras for 360 cameras (that capture views from all
angles), the current moment is comparable to the intensely experimental early years of motion pictures during
the late 1800s and early 1900s.
In short: we are in the early stages of a new filmmaking revolution. An array of rapidly developing technologies
offer thrilling potential for the future of motion pictures – such as the rise of AR (augmented reality), AI
(artificial intelligence) and the ever-increasing capacity for computers to power detailed digital worlds.
But COVID-19 has done something two world wars were not able to achieve. It closed cinemas. But to borrow
from Mark Twain, reports of the death of cinema have always been greatly exaggerated. First it was television,
then home video, then computer games, interactive movies, downloading and virtual reality that spelled the end
of the big screen.
There will always be people who want to get out of the house (a desire made more keen by COVID lockdown),
buy popcorn and experience the communal magic of the picture palace. Still, that doesn’t mean the new normal
will look like the old one. There are three probable scenarios:
Scenario 1: more ‘day-and-date’ new releases to stream at home
The previous “cinema-killers” didn’t finish off the industry, in part because it has a history of reacting well to
threats. When television arrived, it was small and black-and-white, so feature films became all-colour and
cinemascope. When torrenting (largely illegal downloading) emerged, cinema responded with the return of 3D
— and now 4DX.
Cinemas do not have bottomless pits of money to support their platforms. Most of the battles pre-COVID were
concerned with “windows”: the period of time between a cinema and home release. Currently in the US, it’s 70
days.
COVID has changed all that, as the recent deal between Universal and American Multi-Cinema demonstrates.
In July, a historic deal saw the 70-day window cut to just 17 days with the companies agreeing an undisclosed
profit-sharing deal.
So, we’ll see short windows or “day-and-date” releases (meaning audiences can see a film at home the same
day as in the cinemas) for most new films. You’ll likely be able to see a new release online or on a streaming
service on opening day, just with a large premium compared to the cinema ticket price.

Scenario 2: a studio system with some new (familiar) owners

In this take, cinema chains can’t make it work financially, and begin to close venues. Regional areas will
certainly be affected, potentially less so in cities. But even if the big chains fail, it is highly possible they will be
bought out by those disruptive streamers. Indeed, Netflix bought its first cinema in 2019.
This could see a return to the old studio system of vertical integration, where production, distribution and
exhibition is owned by one company. Theatres then run at cost or as “loss leaders” where new material can be
showcased with the profits coming largely from home sales and merchandising.
Scenario 3: just like old times
In this scenario, film exhibitors survive the massive financial hit from the loss of attendance and production
and, once pandemic restrictions are lifted, it’s business as usual.
Business is even better than before, due to a glut of high-end product hitting the screen and a highly motivated
audience. Unfortunately, this third scenario is highly unlikely.

Language and Grammar of Film

Film and video programs are efforts at communicating and just like speaking English, tapping out Morse code,
or waving semaphores, there is a whole language that can be learned including words, phrases, grammar,
punctuation, rules, and common practices. And like any other language, the more thoroughly you master it, the
more effectively you can communicate.
While the writer conceives the story, and the director realizes it, it is you, the editor who is the storyteller; given
the task of organizing the thoughts and ideas and transmitting the intended message to the audience.
Communication is both an art and a craft. Part inspiration and part perspiration. Effective editing requires both
aspects, and while you can't necessarily be taught the art of eloquence, you can study and practice the rules of
the language, and hone your craft so you can edit quicker, more efficiently, and communicate more effectively
because of it.
Camera Work
Just as words are the building blocks of a written language, individual shots are the building blocks of the film
language. And different shots can be thought of as different parts of speech, serving different purposes and
answering different questions.

You are undoubtedly very familiar with the questions: who, what, where, when, why and how. These questions
are deeply ingrained in all of our brains because we are constantly asking them-consciously or unconsciously-
about everything we see and do in the world. The answers to those questions are precisely the elements our
brains use to make sense of the world. And coincidentally, the are the basic components of story.
Who
In the film language, the who question is typically answered with the close-up (CU). The primary point of focus
in any close-up is the subject's face. This framing typically mimics the experience of what you would see in real
life if you were conversing with a person. A close-up is an intimate portrait of someone, more intimate than you
would ever get with a stranger. This is part of why fans inherently feel as though they "know" famous actors
What
If you want to communicate what is going on, you probably need to show a subject performing an activity, and
typically, this is conveyed in a medium shot (MS). To clarify, dramatic events are broken down into hundreds
of discrete actions that can be described by active verbs (to lift, to threaten, to save, to give, to arrest, and so on.)
While sometimes such actions might be subtle and internal enough to be conveyed in a CU, or complex enough
to require a sequence of shots, very often the MS provides enough distance from the subject's eyes to move the
focus off of their identity, but is still close enough to emphasize what it is they're doing.
Where
The location of an event is critical. Sometimes this element is deliberately omitted for a while to emphasize
suspense or disorientation, but if you go too long without answering this question, the audience will likely grow
weary and eventually disengage from your story. The where question is nearly always answered with a Long
Shot (LS) though depending on the nature of the scene, sometimes a medium long shot (MLS) or a shot even
further away than an LS such as a wide shot (WS) might do the trick.
When
The when question can seem tricky, especially when trying to simplify it to a single shot type. When can mean
what period in history, how long before or after an important story event, or it can mean at what point in the
overall story arc. The quintessential when shot is the extreme-long shot (ELS or XLS), which illustrates the
subject traversing such a vast space that there is a sense of how much time it will take. This could be a car
traversing an endless stretch of highway, camels crossing the desert, or a ship in a huge swath of ocean.
Why
This question points to the internal decision making of your subject, and when you want to delve into someone's
thoughts, the classic shot to use is an extreme close-up (ECU or XCU or sometimes BCU for big close-up).
It's interesting that while a close-up gives the viewer the sense that they are in an intimate relationship with the
subject, when you get even closer, it's like moving right inside the subject's head. The audience goes from
relating to the subject as other to identifying with the subject his or herself. Some why questions may require a
more complex approach, using a sequence of shots to explain a bit of backstory or perhaps a close-up on an
object or detail that carries emotional significance in the context of the story.
How
While the why is usually a very internal aspect of the story requiring suggestive shots and editing techniques,
the how is just the opposite. This question is very external and is usually answered using either medium close-
ups (MCU) of a subject performing a physical action (opening a door, lifting a manhole cover, packing a
suitcase, etc.) or a series of CUs or ECUs of specific actions (pulling a trigger, snapping a latch closed,
operating a piece of machinery, etc.)
Denotation and connotation
These are two important words concerned with the way an audience understands the meaning of a media text.
Denotation is the basic, literal meaning of what is in the picture or scene. Connotation means different
interpretations suggested by the text, often associated with additional meaning, values, or ideology. The
connotation depends less on the facts as shown in the picture, and more on our interpretation of the scene
depending on our cultural knowledge and the signs shown.
Expanding Vocabulary
As you increase your cinematic vocabulary, you learn to recognize how different shots answer different
questions. And there are more than just those six basic questions but that's where it all starts. You can also think
about how certain shots can be used for different purposes. For example, certain shots can serve as Establishing
shots, Reaction shots, Inserts, Cutaways, POVs, and so on.
Establishing Shots are used to identify a location and have traditionally been used to introduce a scene. While
most commonly they are Wide Shots or Long Shots, sometimes a small familiar detail can serve as an
establishing shot. For example, if you cut to a new scene, and begin on a CU of a blinking "Code Blue" light,
you quickly inform the audience that you're in a hospital.

In film, film grammar is defined as follows:

◊ A frame is a single still image. It is analogous to a letter.
◊ A shot is a single continuous recording made by a camera. It is analogous to a word.
◊ A scene is a series of related shots. It is analogous to a sentence. The study of transitions between scenes is
described in film punctuation.
◊ A sequence is a series of scenes which together tell a major part of an entire story, such as that contained in a
complete movie. It is analogous to a paragraph.
The term film grammar is best understood as a creative metaphor, since the elements of film grammar described
above do not stand in any strict relation of analogy to the components of grammar as understood by philology
or modern linguistics.
D. W. Griffith has been called the father of film grammar. Griffith was a key figure in establishing the set of
codes that have become the universal backbone of film language. He was particularly influential in popularizing
"cross-cutting"—using film editing to alternate between different events occurring at the same time—in order to
build suspense. He still used many elements from the "primitive" style of movie-making that predated classical
Hollywood's continuity system, such as frontal staging, exaggerated gestures, minimal camera movement, and
an absence of point of view shots. Some claim, too, that he "invented" the close-up shot for filming.

FTII
The Film and Television Institute of India (FTII) is an autonomous civil service training institute for Indian
Information Service cadre under the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting of the Government of India and
aided by the Central Government of India. It is situated on the premises of the erstwhile Prabhat Film Company
in Pune. Since its beginning in 1960, FTII has become India's premier film and television institute, with its
alumni becoming technicians, actors and directors in the film and television industry.
FTII is a member of the International Liaison Centre of Schools of Cinema and Television (CILECT), an
organization of the world's leading schools of film and television.
History
The Film and Television Institute of India (FTII) was set up by the Government of India in 1960, in the
premises of the erstwhile Prabhat Studios in Pune.
The FTII Campus currently stands on the grounds of the erstwhile Prabhat Studio. Prabhat Studio was a pioneer
in the business of filmmaking and shifted to Pune from Kolhapur in 1933. The archaic studios of the time,
which were the production grounds for the films of Prabhat are still present and are being used at FTII. The old
Studios of Prabhat are now heritage structures and FTII students continue to work at the world's oldest
functioning film shooting studios.
The Film and Television Institute of India (FTII) was established in the year 1960 and was formerly known the
'Film Institute of India'. It was a department of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting of the Government
of India.
In 1971, FTII came to be known as the 'Film and Television Institute of India' (FTII) and soon started in-service
training programs for Doordarshan, India's public broadcaster. The Television Training wing, which was earlier
functioning in New Delhi, shifted to Pune in 1974. Thereafter, the institute became fully aided by the Ministry
of Information and Broadcasting.
Along with the name change, FTII became an Autonomous Society under the Ministry of Information and
Broadcasting, run by a Governing Council and its appointed Director.
FTII Today
Today, FTII is recognised as a centre for excellence in audio visual media across the world and one of the best
film institutes in India. Our alumni work everywhere: from Los Angeles, Paris, and London to Mumbai,
Hyderabad, Trivandrum, Chennai, and Kolkata. They have gained popularity and have earned various laurels as
accomplished technicians and superstars. The alumni have also won popular film and television awards from
the ‘National Film Awards’ to ‘Oscars’, to the ‘Dada Saheb Phalke award’ to the prestigious ‘Padma Awards’.
From its original five courses, FTII has grown to offer eleven full-time courses in various disciplines of film
and television as well as a host of short-term courses. These courses are held on-campus in Pune as well as off-
campus at across centers all over India.
Courses
The Institute offers three-year post-graduate diploma courses in film direction, editing, cinematography and
audiography; two-year courses in acting and art direction; a one and a half year course in computer graphics and
animation; a one-year course in feature film scriptwriting. One-year post-graduate certificate in direction,
electronic cinematography, video editing and audiography are also part of the courses offered.
Management
The FTII is registered under Societies' Registration Act of 1860. The Society is headed by a President, who also
functions as the Chairman of the Governing Council, the Academic Council and the Standing Finance
Committee. The Governing Council is constituted by election from among the members of the Society. The
Governing Council is the apex body of the FTII and is responsible for making all major policy decisions of the
Institute. The council, in turn, appoints the Academic Council and the Standing Finance Committee, members
of both of which are responsible for advising the FTII in policy matters related to academic affairs and financial
matters.
Wisdom Tree
The Wisdom Tree inside the campus of FTII almost has a mythical quality about it. It is a place that all students
seemingly gravitate to without any protocol or a purpose. Stories say that many great filmmakers and artists of
the time have given wisdom and life lessons beneath this very tree. It has become a point of conversation,
music, intellectual discussions and casual rendezvous over the past many years and still continues to attract
them with its historical pull.