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The Structure of Shear-Related, Vein-Type Gold Deposits" A Review
The Structure of Shear-Related, Vein-Type Gold Deposits" A Review
C. JAY HODGSON
Department of Geological Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston, Ont. K7L 3N6 (Canada)
(Received July 29, 1986; revised and accepted November 12, 1987)
Abstract
Hodgson, C.J., 1989. The structure of shear-related, vein-type gold deposits: A review. Ore Geol. Rev., 4: 231-273.
The structure of vein-type gold deposits is defined by the shapes and geometrical relationships of mineralizedbodies,
the form of the mineralization making up these bodies, and the sequence of vein-forming events. Most mineralized
zones occur within, or are spatially associated with shear zones, especially shear zones in larger systems of intersecting
shear zone sets. They range in shape from tabular to linear, and in form from disseminated, to breccia, to stockwork
or sheeted veinlet zones, to single veins. There typically is a complex history of mineral deposition which overlaps,
and is genetically related to, the deformation that generated the host structural zone. The purpose of this paper is to
consider the structural features of vein-type deposits in relation to the geometrical properties and evolution of vein-
hosting fractures, particularly shear zones. The evidence indicates that veins are localized by tectonically-generated
dilatancy in an environment of low mean stress caused by high fluid pressure. It is proposed that a major cause of
tectonic dilation of shear zones is the interference between intersecting shears during bulk, inhomogeneous flattening
by movement on systems of intersecting shear zone sets.
C.J. Hodgson obtained the degrees of B.Sc. in 1957 and M.Sc. in 1960 from McGill Uni-
versity, Montreal, and was awarded the degree of Ph.D. by the University of California,
Berkeley, in 1965. Until 1972 he worked in mineral exploration in the northwestern Cana-
dian Cordillera with the Anaconda Company and Amax Exploration, Ltd. He joined Queen's
University, Kingston, Ontario, in 1972 and is an associate professor in the Department of
Geological Sciences.
233
some mechanical principles of rock deforma- minimum shortening (or maximum elonga-
tion which are relevant to the discussion. tion) (X axis). Change in shape can be caused
by rotation, defined by the angular rotation of
Stress and strain markers in the body, and termed simple shear,
Strain, or the change in shape of a body, can or by irrotational strain, termed pure shear, or
be described in terms of a strain ellipse with by a combination of the two. In naturally de-
orthogonal axes of maximum shortening (Z formed rocks, we see only the end result of the
axis), intermediate shortening (Y axis) and deformation process, the finite strain. The state
compression
0-1~ 0.2 ~ if'3
0'3
!' 0"3
0"1
I / '7
//
torsion
f i t > 0"2 ~ 0.3 /
i
f
_i
~ 0.3
extension 0" 1
--V
relative = = = --
ductility brittle transitional ductile
Fig. 2. Schematic representation of the transition in behaviour from brittle fracture to ductile flow for different loading states
and conditions of mean stress (pressure), pore fluid pressure (a2), strain rate and temperature. Sequence of five figures on
each row in top part of diagram show diagrammatically the shape-distortion and fractures developed in laboratory test
specimen as a result of experimental deformation under the indicated conditions. In lower part, stress is plotted on the
vertical axis and strain on the horizontal; the vertical ruling in the right three diagrams indicates the range of typical stress-
strain curves (Heard, 1976).
234
of stress in a body can be described in terms of that the distinction between fracturing (or
three, mutually perpendicular principle stress brittle behaviour) and flow (or ductile behav-
axes, termed the axes of maximum stress (al iour) is scale-dependent, and in this case refers
axis), intermediate stress (a2 axis) and mini- to the mechanical behaviour of the materials on
m u m stress (a3 axis), respectively. A principle the laboratory test-specimen scale. Even the
stress is defined as the force, per unit area, act- deformation of ductile metals, if viewed on a
ing normal to a plane in the body across which small enough scale, can be seen to be made up
there is no resolved shear stress. of minute, discrete, catastrophic (i.e., brittle)
The general patterns of deformation which movements of individual dislocations within the
result when rocks are experimentally deformed metal grains (Gordon, 1976).
are summarized in Fig. 2. If the mean stress and In perfectly homogeneous, mechanically iso-
temperature are low, or if pore pressure or strain tropic materials, the inclination of shear frac-
rate are high, rocks normally fail by the devel- tures to principle axes of applied stress, and the
opment of extension fractures oriented parallel specific conditions of differential stress under
to the maximum principle stress, al. As the which shear and extension fractures will form,
mean stress or pore presure a n d / o r tempera- can be predicted from the material properties
ture are increased, or the pore pressure and/or and the mean stress at the time of deformation,
strain rate are decreased, tensile fracturing gives according to the Coulomb or to the Griffith fail-
way to shear fracturing and this, ultimately, to ure criteria. These relationships can be illus-
ductile flow. It should be emphasized, however,
trated, for the case of two-dimensional or plane shears is common in shear zone systems
strain, on the Mohr diagram (Fig. 3a). The (Reches, 1978).
Mohr construction predicts two shear planes
inclined at about 30 ° to al, and intersecting in The role of mechanical heterogeneities and
a2. anisotropy
In the field, shear zones consisting of schist Most rock bodies are mechanically inhomo-
(brittle-ductile or ductile shears; see classifi- geneous and anisotropic, due either to the de-
cation, below) tend to be inclined at about 60 ° formation process (e.g., deformation-induced
to the normal to the observed plane of maxi- zones of softening), or to previous deforma-
mum flattening, and inferred maximum prin- tions or other rock-forming processes (e.g., ear-
ciple causative stress (Ramsay, 1980), not 30 ° lier-formed fabrics, bedding). Mechanical het-
like brittle shears in experiments and as pre- erogeneities range in scale from: lattice
dictedby the Coulomb failure criteria (Fig. 3a). dislocations at the submicroscopic scale; to dif-
Wilson et al. (1985) have suggested that under ferences in the strength, solubility, orientation,
etc., of grains at the microscopic scale; to dif-
conditions of high mean stress, above some
ferences in the mechanical properties of beds,
critical value, materials fail at lower values of
bedding planes and fabrics at the mesoscopic
shear stress than they do at low mean stress and,
scale; and to differences in the mechanical
in addition, the angle of shear fracture intersec-
properties of map units at the macroscopic scale.
tion about al increases above ninety degrees.
Therefore, it is pertinent to consider the con-
They concluded that shears inclined at a high
ditions for shear and extension fracture devel-
angle to a~ are formed under high mean stress
opment, in anisotropic and inhomogeneous rock
conditions. However, Cobbold et al. (1971), and
bodies.
Harris and Cobbold (1984) noted that shears
The problem has been addressed by Blot
form at a low angle to the layering in experi-
mentally deformed, mechanically anisotropic XA
materials and analogous foliated rocks under A
a.
line o f a c t i o n o f
maximum compressive
~' maximum principal stress
compres.,sive
~'~ -96~ ~",. /('~ matrix
1 /"
l
1
I
0° 30° 45 ° 60 ° 90o
l ( ~ f o r formation of band
~" higher /as brittle shear zone
Brittle..shearsBI
related to O~1 ~ lower in band
S=Plane °f flattening \~t~'\~ I .............. ~u,;:'~;;~
in band \ \ possible orientations of oi[Mif
Matrix \ ~:i!~i:::~ b a n d pre-existing
15 ° -% ,\, ~'/~ \ / 15
Band
( 1965 ), Cobbold et al. (1971), Cobbold (1977), deformation process, there is a relationship be-
Casey (1980) and Treagus (1983). They have tween: (1) the mechanical properties of the
shown that in any equilibrium (i.e., reversible ) material being deformed; (2) the magnitude and
237
orientation of the strain; and (3) the magni- types of fabrics and small scale structures
tude and orientation of the principle stresses. (cleavages, lineations, small folds, etc.) and
In mechanically inhomogeneous bodies con- certain rock types (fault gouge, mylonite-series
sisting of parts with different mechanical prop- rocks, schists, etc.). They commonly occur in
erties, the state of strain will vary in the me- systems comprising systematic sets of shear
chanically different parts. However, in order for zones. A three-fold division can be made of the
strain to be compatible across the boundary be- geometrical features of shear zones and shear
tween adjacent parts with different mechanical zone systems: (1) internal features of shear
properties, and in order for the stresses to be in zones, comprising the microscopic to meso-
equilibrium across such boundaries so that all scopic fabrics and structures, visible in thin
moments and forces are in balance in the body, section and handspecimen, developed inter-
the stress must also vary from part to part, gen- nally within shears; (2) external form of shear
erally in both orientation and magnitude. Trea- zones, comprising the macroscopic shear and
gus (1983), for example, has shown how the related fractures, visible on the hand specimen
phenomenon of refraction of cleavage in lay- to map scale, which in aggregate make up a sin-
ered rocks, where the layers have mechanically gle shear zone; and (3) external form of shear
different properties, is a requirement of strain zone systems, comprising patterns displayed by
compatibility between the layers (Fig. 4). Casey sets of intersecting shear zones of a shear zone
(1980) has applied the same reasoning to mod- system, visible on the detailed to regional map
eling the orientation and magnitude of the scale.
stresses within a mechanically weak zone in a The geometrical patterns of structures inter-
matrix of stronger material (Fig. 5). These nal to shear zones (1 and 2, above), and the
principles are applied below to the understand- patterns of shear zones in a shear zone system
ing of the geometrical features of mineralized (3, above), are commonly similar. At all scales,
structures. the characteristic pattern is anastomosing do-
mains of high deformation separating rhom-
The role of fluids boid domains of low deformation (Bell, 1985 ).
Fluids have a major influence on deforma-
tion. High fluid pressure tends to neutralize load Classification
pressure so that brittle deformation styles de- Ramsay (1980) has classified shear zones into
velop in rocks buried at great depth. This is the brittle, brittle-ductile and ductile types on the
effect of fluids referred to in Fig. 2, and is termed basis of the shear zone or fault rocks, and the
the effective stress effect (Terzaghi and Peck, nature of the offset across the zone (Fig. 6).
1948). Increase in ductility can be caused by Brittle shears are characterized by gouge and
metamorphic or metasomatic mineral reac- fault breccia, and displacement markers show
tions which depend on fluids. Dynamic recrys-
tallization of strained grains, a ductile process,
is strongly catalyzed by water. Fluid flow
through dilatant zones generated by deforma-
tion can also transport heat into a deformed *\\< \
x \x .
zone, promoting ductility-enhancing mineral
reactions. These effects are termed hydrolytic
weakening ( Griggs, 1967).
BRITTLE BRITTLE- DUCTILE
DUCTILE
Classification and characteristics of shear zones
abrupt offset across the zone. Brittle-ductile (Mitra, 1978) is characteristic of ductile and
shears are zones of schist or mylonite-series brittle-ductile shear zones developed in mod-
rocks across which there is both continuous and erate- to coarse-grained crystalline rocks. The
discontinuous offset of external markers, resulting rocks are generally referred to as pro-
whereas ductile shear zones are characterized tomylonites, mylonites or ultramylonites, de-
by mylonite series rocks and continuous offset pending on the degree of grain size reduction
of external markers. The discontinuous offset involved (Fig. 7), although the use of these
in brittle-ductile shears is along discrete slip terms is controversial (Wise et al., 1984).
surfaces. In the schists of ductile and brittle-ductile
shears, there is typically one dominant fabric
Internal features of shear zones which bends from about 45 ° to the shear zone
A recently suggested terminology of fault or boundary at its margin, to subparallel to the
shear zone rocks is given in Fig. 7. Grain-size zone in its central part (Ramsay and Graham,
reduction due to syntectonic recrystallization 1970; and see Fig. 8). This fabric is parallel to
associated with ductile strain or crystal-plastic the plane of flattening of the rocks (as indi-
processes (Wise et al., 1984) and grain fractur- cated by strain markers like clasts in fragmen-
ing where dislocations pile up along glide planes tal rocks), and is commonly termed the "S"
HERENT BUT UNFOLIATED ROCKS PRODUCED BY MICRO- AND/OR MACRO-FRACTURING AND SHOWING LITTLE OR NO
ALLY PRODUCED THERMAL EFFECTS.
Z
T ICED BY SYNTECTONIC CRYSTAL-PLASTIC
SHOWS PERVASIVE RECOVERY, POSSIBLY
NSIVE ANNEALING. SURVIVOR MEGACRYSTS
: LESS THAN tO% OF THE ROCK. MATRIX
ARE LESS THAN O-SMM IN DIAMETER.
b--
o5 ~
-'~
STICK-SLIP FAULT
MOTION (SEISMIC)
STABLE SLIDING
(ASEISMIC)
RATE OF RECOVERY )
Fig. 7. Terminology of fault- and shear zone-related rocks. Horizontal and vertical scales are variable, depending on com-
position, grain size and fluids (Wise et al., 1984).
239
fabric. Mechanisms, such as pressure solution tensional pure shear at the other end, of each
and recrystallization, and rotation of individual side of a simple shear zone of finite length.
inequant mineral grains into the plane of finite Therefore, if shear zones form by propagation
flattening, are generally considered the causes of their ends outwards from some localized point
of S fabrics. A second fabric in the form of dis- of instability, they will migrate through these
crete, spaced zones of mineral alignment and end zones of pure shear so that when viewed in
reduced grain size (due to mylonitization) par- their developed state, components of both pure
alleling the shear zone boundary is common in and simple shear strain will be observed (Cow-
shear zones (Berthe et al., 1979a; and see Fig. ard, 1976). To the extent that there is a com-
8). These spaced zones are small slip surfaces ponent of pure shear in shear zones, the Ram-
within the larger shear zone, and are termed "C" say and Graham (1970) method for determining
shears, from the French word ciscaillement, displacement across ductile shear zones by
which means shear. The C and S fabrics do not measuring the rotation of S will give displace-
normally show cross-cutting relationships; ment values that are too high.
rather, the S fabric bends into the C over a nar- Overprinting the C and S fabrics in many
row transition zone (Fig. 8). shear zones are multiple sets of extensional
The bending of S into C has been interpreted crenulation cleavages (Platt, 1984); also re-
as the result of progressive rotational or simple ferred to as C' fabrics or shear bands (Berthe
shear strain, and to the extent that this inter- et al., 1979b). These cleavages form at a low
pretation is valid, the integrated amount of angle to the S and C fabrics in the shear zone,
bending of S across a shear zone is a function and the sense of movement on them is such that
of the simple shear displacement across the the rock is extended parallel to the C fabric (Fig.
zone, if no displacement discontinuities are 8). Geometrically similar structures have been
present (Ramsay and Graham, 1970; Ramsay, generated by the experimental deformation of
1980). Strain in shear zones of ideal infinite layered materials in which the shear strength
length and perfectly parallel sides must neces- parallel to the layering is low, relative to the
sarily involve only simple shear parallel to the shear strength normal to the layering (Cobbold
walls and/or volume change normal to the walls et al., 1971; Harris and Cobbold, 1984). Shear
(Ramsay, 1980). However, as pointed out by bands may be small-scale analogues of larger-
Coward (1976), there is commonly a zone of scale R and R' shears, discussed below.
compressional pure shear at one end, and ex- In many shear zones there is a strong linear
fabric due to the intersection of C and S fabrics.
multiple Kinematically, such a lineation is usually inter-
sets of ecc preted as forming normal to the direction of
simple shear or rotational strain in the rocks,
and to the direction of elongation of grains and
clasts drawn out by the simple shear process
(Fig. 9a; e.g., Berthe and Brun, 1980). How-
ever, in some areas, the intersection of C and S
fabrics is parallel to the direction of elongation
boundary ecc 2 of strain markers in the rocks (Fig. 9b; e.g.,
Fig. 8. Diagrammatic representation of the orientations and Lister and Price, 1978; Choukroune and Ga-
mutual relations of foliations in shear zones. S -- schistosity pais, 1983 ). It may be, in such areas, that a lin-
or flattening or shape fabric; C = shear fabric; ecc 1 and ecc
2 = conjugate sets of extensional crenulation cleavages (C'
ear anisotropy generated in the rock by earlier
shears or shear bands, by the terminology of Berthe et al., increments of ductile strain constrained the
1979b), (Platt, 1984). orientation of later increments of brittle-duc-
240
shear
••rot• "
Fig. 9. Mechanisms for generating lineations in mylonites in an orientation (a) parallel and (b) perpendicular to the direc-
tion of simple shear strain. Lines on block top surfaces (C plane) are intersection of S on C. Modified slightly from Lister
and Price (1978).
tile strain in which the C fabric developed (Fu- In this regard it is significant that Reches and
chter and Hodgson, 1986). In such cases, the Dieterich (1983) found experimentally that the
finite strain can be considered to comprise maximum and intermediate stress axes inter-
strain increments in which the axis of maxi- changed orientations periodically during pro-
m u m elongation for the first increment is the gressive brittle yielding by shear in triaxial
axis of intermediate elongation for the second. compression experiments designed so that the
241
rate of strain along the axes of minimum and shears. Shears which are parallel to the zone are
intermediate strain in the specimen was termed C shears. P, R and C shears have the
constant. same sense of offset of markers across them as
Slickensides recording a late, brittle phase of the larger shear zone of which they form a part,
movement are common on discrete slips sur- whereas R' shears have the opposite sense of
faces in brittle and brittle-ductile shears. In the offset. The fifth type of fracture is the extension
Sigma mine of the Val d'Or area, Quebec, the fracture, symbolized T. These are oriented such
orientation of slickensides indicates subverti- that they approximately bisect the angle be-
cal movement on shears, consistent with other tween the low- and high-angle Riedel shears,
kinematic indicators such as the long axes of and do not have displacement across them.
boudinaged veins, the direction of opening of Riedel, P and C shears were first identified in
extension veins, and the line of intersection of the now famous experiment by Riedel (1929)
C and S fabrics (Robert et al., 1983 ). Other fea- in which he put a clay cake on two boards placed
tures which can be used to determine the sense in contact, then moved one board past the other
of simple shear are asymmetric augen struc- in small increments, and observed the fractures
tures and pressure shadows; displaced broken which progressively developed (Fig. 10). In the
grains; oblique, elongate, recrystallized grains initial stages of movement, the clay deformed
and subgrains; and crystallographic fabric homogeneously, then R and R' shears formed
asymmetries, as reviewed by Simpson and in an en-echelon system along a band over the
Schmid (1983). Unfortunately, strain markers join in the boards. With more movement, P and
of this type are uncommon in the fine-grained then C shears developed. In a more recent series
volcanic and sedimentary rocks which host most of experiments on clays in a shear box appara-
gold deposits. tus, Tchalenko (1968) noted that clay particles
became aligned at about 45 ° to the border of the
External form of shear zones shear zone within the shear lenses or lithons
Most shear zones comprise an array of differ- formed by the intersection of R and P shears
ently-oriented segments such that as a whole, (Fig. 11). This mineral alignment Tchalenko
they have a complex, anastomosing geometry termed compression texture, and he likened it
with many associated branching shears and to the schistosity formed in ductile shear zones
fractures. Five main types of fractures have been in rocks. The fracture pattern produced exper-
recognized in complex shear zones. These were imentally by Riedel (1929) has been identified
initially recognized in brittle shear zones (Fig. by Tchalenko and Ambraseys (1970) in an ac-
10), but some are similar to structures identi- tive brittle fault zone in Iran.
fied in brittle-ductile and ductile shears (com- The formation of Riedel shears and compres-
pare Figs. 8 and 10). sion texture, as described above, can be under-
Fractures inclined typically at about 15 ° and stood in terms of the reorientation of stress axes
75 ° to the general trend of the shear zone, and which occurs in a planar zone of weak material
for which the acute angle of the fractures to the (the weakening in this case being due to the ef-
zone points in the direction of movement of the fects of the deformation), in a matrix of stronger
block in which they occur, are called low angle material, as described by Casey (1980) (Fig. 5).
Riedel (R) and high angle Riedel (R') shears, re- The R and P shears show a similar relationship
spectively. A set of fractures inclined at about to foliation as shear bands (Fig. 10), and their
15 ° to the shear zone, but for which the acute experimental analogues (Cobbold et al., 1971;
angle of intersection with the zone points in the Harris and Cobbold, 1984). These fractures
opposite direction to the movement of the block correspond in orientation to the individual
in which they occur are termed "pressure" or P shears which intersect in an acute angle about
242
R
a 100%~ ~ _ _
~ l l l W "
D = 8.9 mm
b
100% 1 aa ,m
0 ° 4 ° 8°12a16 °
D= 12.3 mm c P
,°°, 1 .
-10 ~ 4° 8° 1~6°
D= 19.5 mm 10 mm
-10 o 0 o 4° 8 ° 1Lf-~16o
D= 27.2 mm
• 100%~_
mm
-lO ° o o 4 ° 8 ° 12016 °
D= 3 6 . 0 mm
RI , T
pC
Fig. 10. Riedel experiment. Left hand set of diagrams shows fracture system which is progressively developed in clay cake
lying over join in two plates as one plate is moved in increments, relative to the other (total movement shown below each
diagram, e.g., 8.9 mm, 12.3 ram, etc. ). Right hand set of diagrams are histograms showing the inclination of fractures to the
join in the plates. Note histogram peaks at certain orientations. These correspond to R (Riedel), P (pressure) and C (dis-
placement) shears, as shown on the diagram at the bottom of the figure, and discussed in the text. T and R' on this diagram
are extension fracture and high angle Riedel shear orientations, respectively. The angle ~ has the same significance as in Fig.
3 (a) (Wilcox et al., 1973).
al (in the case of R) and the individual shears principle strain axes, it is interesting that in
which intersect in an obtuse angle about al (in Tchalenko's experiment (Fig. 11), the R frac-
the case of P), and which are: ( 1 ) expected from tures (having the orientation of brittle shears),
the orientation of the principal stress axes developed first, before significant softening and
within the weak zone; and (2) are those shears when the compression texture was not well de-
of each set which have the same sense of rota- veloped, whereas the P shears (having the ori-
tion as the zone as a whole (Fig. 5). With regard entation of ductile shears), developed later,
to the problem, discussed above, of the effect of after the compression texture had formed.
anisotropy on the inclination of shears to the
243
.... $1 . . . .
500
Fig. 11. Structures formed in clay in a direct shear test in a shear box. P--pressure shears, R=Riedel shears, hatch-
ings = particle orientation in the zone of compression texture, white areas = particles in initial fabric attitude, shown by $1.
(Tchalenko, 1968).
n~MIN6NTI V R I M P L I= R H ~ A R
Fig. 12. Strain model showing plane strain pattern due to bulk shortening in the vertical direction and bulk stretching in the
horizontal direction by a combination of simple shear on conjugate shear zones and pure shear in the areas where the zones
intersect. Note that for three-dimensional strain, four sets of shears would be required (Fig. 3 (c)), (Bell, 1981 ).
A B
b.
t
Fig. 13. (a) and (b) Vertical cross sections showing intersecting shear zone systems in the massive granodioritic batholith
of the Grass Valley-Nevada City gold district, California. The schistosity in the area is subvertical, which, with the dominant
trend and dip of the veins, indicates the kinematic interpretation shown for the vein-bearing fractures on the stress ellipse
in (a) with the shears intersecting in an acute angle to the direction of maximum shortening. Note, however, that the
anastomosing pattern of veins in plan on both the regional (c) and vein (d) scale indicates some component of N N W - S S E
extension, along the intermediate stress and strain axes. From Johnston, 1940.
245
0 150 300
LEGEND
Quartz veins
[ ~ Feldspar
porphyry dykes
'oi
oQ: I Andesitic lava flows
¢2,.
I and Porphyritic diorite
J -7,
Pyroclastic rocks
3 q
...... Faults and
shear zones
,q
UJ
O
<
< 7 Z{
=J
"-I" Section
X
'. ,,,.,:.
O '\ "~'\
Z ~ ',"
VERTICAL
',
',
\ a}f---: . . . .
CROSS SECTION
Fig. 14. Vertical N-S cross section through shaft, and surface map of the Sigma mine, Yal d'Or (Robert et al., 1983). Small
strain ellipses show, in plan and section, relation of dominant steeply south-dipping shear veins and dikes, subordinate
moderately north-dipping shear veins and faults, and subhorizontal extension veins (all in solid lines) and possible conjugate
shear sets, not developed in the mine (in dashed lines). Note that the anastomosing pattern of veins and dikes in plan
indicates a component of strain along Y (see Fig. 3(c) ).
in the areas where the zones intersect (Fig. 12). When conjugate shear zones are developed
The space problem at the ends of domains of along a linear or planar zone, they may be dif-
bulk, inhomogeneous shortening are most eas- ficult to distinguish from R, R', P and C shear
ily resolved if the maximum finite elongation fractures developed in a purely rotational strain
plunges down the dip of the foliation, since the field. The key difference is that the most com-
resulting vertical elongation of the zone can be mon shear fractures in simple shear zones are
neutralized by surface erosion (Bell, 1981). R, C and P shears, and these will have the same
246
c
I 19o_
" ~'~'O I
GOLD DEPOSITS GEOLOGY
Fig. 16. Distribution of gold deposits and deposit clusters in relation to fault zones in the western Wabigoonsubprovince of
the Canadian Shield in Ontario. Only deposits with more than 1000 ounces ( ~ 31 kg) past production are shown. The fault
zones intersect in an obtuse angleto the inferred north-south direction of maximumshorteningin the area (Poulsen, 1983).
environment, as well as the rheological char- tral gouge zone (Fig. 7). If a structure passes
acteristics of the host rock. Host rock theology, from an incompetent lithology into a compe-
in turn, depends on previous deformation his- tent lithology along its length, then brittle de-
tory, and original lithology. The interaction of formation features commonly will occur in the
these variables, both spatially in a shear zone competent unit and ductile features in the in-
system at any one time in its development, and competent unit.
temporally as conditions change at any one Sibson (1977) has constructed an idealized
place with time, may be complex. Some general depth-profile of a shear zone by comparing shear
patterns are briefly reviewed as a background zones formed in different depth-zones of re-
to the consideration of the spatial and temporal gional metamorphism (Fig. 18). Note t h a t the
patterns of mineralization in shear zones. transition from brittle to ductile features coin-
A common spatial pattern in shear zones is cides approximately with the temperature and
an increase in the intensity of deformation to- depth of the transition from sub-greenschist to
wards the center of the zone (Ramsay and Gra- greenschist facies metamorphism.
ham, 1970 ). In ductile shear zones, this p a t t e r n Higgins (1971) has noted a tendency for the
is manifest by a zoning in structural facies from superposition of an earlier and more widely dis-
normal country rocks outside the zone, through tributed, higher pressure-temperature ductile
an outer zone of protomylonite, to an interme- strain by a more restricted development of a
diate zone of mylonite, to an inner zone of ul- later, lower pressure-temperature ductile or
tramylonite (Fig. 7). In the case of brittle brittle strain. The later strain effects are com-
shears, the progression will be from a rock laced monly, but not necessarily, localized in the zone
with small fractures, to a fault breccia, to a cen- of most intense earlier strain. The hypothetical
248
+ + + ++++ + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + +
1. Cochenour Mine [~ Felsic Intrusive Rocks GRAVES ' + + + + + McDONOUGH/ BATEMAN
2. Campbe M'ne . . . . +++++TP+++++++++++++++++~:TP ~f. ~P
I I Volcanic & Seolmentsry HOCKS ~ =+ + ~ + + + / • --. +/
3. A.W. White Mine +++~./~f~--~-~ "~..~ ~/~/~/ / +
4• Howey Mine ~_ _ _ D.Z. Deformation Zone + ~
+ ~ , / ~" J/ 4"+
+ + +
" ~ ' ~ 1 ~ ~ ~ .~--~ KILLALA: ~" `% +J~+\ B A I R OX'>~ F"~- L"-~--:~'~ ~"- HEYSON ~\\\\\\\'~z~ O. ~ - - BYSI'~i
/ ~" ~ + + + + + + + +\ Bay --
/ /~ - / k + + + + + + '
.a~ / K~llata.Baipd ~ ~ +~ ++ + + +~, x ~"~'-- FLAT LAKE - / ~ c.J,~
/
/
//~ Bathoiith
~ ~ ~ ~
+)% +~ + + + + + + + + '+\~ ,~'~ HOWEYBAY D.Z. /" ~'¢~,.x'~]
Fig. 17. Largescale intersectingshear zone systems,Red Lake area, northwestern Ontario. The shears intersect in an obtuse
angle to the inferred north-south direction of maximumshortening in the area. Inset map shows less intense style of defor-
mation which occurs in "undeformed"blocks between the main shears (Andrewsand Durocher, 1983, as modifiedby An-
drews and Lavigne, 1984).
Fig. 18. Conceptual model of a major fault zone (Sibson, To a large degree, mineral exploration in-
1977). volves recognizing familiar patterns in incom-
plete data sets. The objective of the following
history of typical fault-related rocks, in terms section is to describe some of the common pat-
of the variables rate of strain and rate of recov- terns of mineralization related to shear zones
ery, as conceived by Wise et al. (1984), is shown and shear zone systems. Considered first are the
in Fig. 19. Note t h a t in this conceptualization, patterns of mineralization within single frac-
249
4y/i 'EY
SIGMOIDAL i'~i~ -
/
~'ll# / li ,,f(,z, Z
J i
/ ,,,' ,2V,'o.
S-TYPE SECONO OROER
/.~i¢ 2" . ~ ....... SHEAR CENTRAL
/ ~ / / ~ I~AII~N~IUN VEIN ' ,('
,'if I~ Iff. / ..
CONJUGATE
ARRAY
I , ~jr,,/Z-TYPE t/i~,//' / ¢FV"
/..,~/P'Y OBLIQUE /#;4~'Y~" j .fjlPi/ ~,,./-
i. 2, & EXTENSION Y f/f r/L _-~ t
/ ~ . ~Z'c#NEIPEDE VEIN'> ~./,~ -~"
~ - ' ~ , . ~ / ] ~ . SECOND ORDER
/~I ~t~ ~.. / ~ / j / SHEAR, OBLIQUE
//,7//:/ ".~N. " VEINS
,-/z, - - ARRAY <-'~.
Fig. 20. Common vein and vein array geometries in shear zones.
250
J
eL
va.z ~
0 ~m.
ROCKS
lOOm.
lOOm.
Cross section.
Fig. 22. Geological plan and section of Madsen mine, Red Lake area, northwestern Ontario, showing oblique shear veins.
The deposit is in a major (left-handed in plan, reverse in cross section ) shear zone (Andrews and Durocher, 1983 ). Simplified
from McIntosh (1948).
en-echelon arrays aligned so as to define a shear dipping limbs of chevron folds in the Ballerat
zone, or in the walls immediately bordering a area of Victoria state, Australia (Fig. 24). Sim-
shear zone. What may be a conjugate system of ilar structures related to thrusts, and involving
arrays of this type, in part hosted by dikes which extension perpendicular to the steeply dipping
occur in shear fractures, constitute the ore in fabric in the Grass Valley area of California have
the Perron mine near Val d'Or, Quebec, Canada been called centipede veins by Farmin (1941);
(Fig. 23 ). Auriferous, en-echelon extension vein (Fig. 25). Centipede veins appear to comprise
arrays, locally known as leather jacket forma- an en-echelon array of extension gash veins on
tions (because of their resemblance to the dec- the shear border linked by short, oblique shear
orative fringes on leather jackets) are aligned veins within the shear, and so are termed Z-type
along limb thrust faults localized on the east- oblique + extension veins in Fig. 20.
252
cator
:es
0 50 100 150
METRES
Fig. 24. Extension vein arrays associatedwith reverse,limb
thrust faults in the Ballerat district of Victoria, Australia.
The mineralized zones are known locally as "leather jacket
formations" (Baragwanath, 1953).
• Quartz
Ej------~Dyke
~Greenstone 0 50 100
~Sheer zone metres
Fig. 23. Vertical cross section of the Perron mine, Val d'Or,
Quebec, showing conjugate extension vein arrays, shear
veins and dikes dominantly in, or associated with, reverse
shear zones related to a subhorizontally directed maximum
principle stress (kinematic interpretation shown in stress
ellipse in center). Note, however, that the orientation of
some of the dikes, shear zones and extension veins is con-
sistent with a subvertically directed maximum principle
stress (stress ellipse at top of diagram) (Ames, 1948).
.=='g
-f ."
rientation
schistosil
O 50 100 m.
LEGEND
Massive to slightly
schistose greenstone
Shear zone, chlorite schist
Shear zone, sericite schist
M i n e r a l i z e d z o n e s < . 2 5 oz. A u / t o n
Ore>.25 oz. A u / t o n
Fig. 28. Plan and two cross sections showing simple shear zones intersecting in a zone of dominantly pure shear (see Fig.
12 ), and gold mineralized zones in the Giant mine, Yellowknife area, N.W.T., Canada
Cana (Boyle, 1961).
Mineralization in systems of shear zones and However, in the latter case, high grade zones
related [ractures may occur at the intersection of the mineral-
ized and unmineralized structures, suggesting
As emphasized in the first part of this paper, that both were present at the time of minerali-
shear zones tend to occur in systems compris- zation, but one dilated and the other did not
ing differently oriented sets of shears separat- (e.g., Kalgoorlie, Australia; Finucane and Jen-
ing diamond-shaped lozenges or lithons of less sen, 1953).
deformed rock (Figs. 13-18). A very similar An important aspect of mineralized fracture
pattern of mineralized zones is evident in many and shear zone systems is the distribution of
gold deposits, with the mineralization occur- gold within them. Typically, the economically
ring as shear veins in the highly deformed zones best mineralization occurs as ore shoots (also
and extension veins in the less deformed lith- termed chutes) which are highly elongate in one
ons (Figs. 13-15). In some cases, only one set direction within a larger planar to curviplanar
of intersecting shears is well developed (Fig. 14 ) mineralized body. In most cases, ore shoots in
or is economically mineralized (Fig. 15b). vein deposits are localized at the intersection of
255
/// ~ / J.J?.
0 5km _ ~J~ll,', bends in bedding, as in the hinges of chevron
folds (Ballerat area, Victoria, Australia: Bar-
agwanath, 1953; and see Fig. 27), also com-
monly control linear ore shoots.
Form of mineralization
TABLE 2
event. A particularly common combination is into zones of multiple veinlets, and veinlets into
zones of disseminated mineralization in altered lenticular trains of disseminated sulfides and
wall rock forming envelopes on veins or zones gangue minerals.
of veinlet mineralization, the two forms of min-
eralization generally appearing to have formed Layering
synchronously (e.g., Robert and Brown, 1987). Most mineralized veins show some type of
In the case of massive, essentially monominer- layering. Crusts on vein contacts with wall rocks
alic veins and veinlets, the small contrast in are particularly common (Figs. 30c and 31).
colour between the later- and earlier-formed Progressive infilling of open fractures by suc-
vein material may make the recognition of mul- cessive layers of texturally a n d / o r mineralogi-
tistage origin difficult. Gradations between the cally different precipitate results in crustified
major forms are common, with veins grading veins (Fig. 32a). Vugs, or cavities filled with late
257
] ': /I
:..~. 7". "<: °" ":
. . . . . --P"---I I I J, . b,_ ^
~ ~ I I /I I, ,
Fig. 30. Breccia vein textures: (a) zone of wall rock inclu-
sions on the bottom of a gently dipping, homogeneous, sin-
gle-stage shear vein; (b) wall rock inclusions in various Fig. 32. (a) Crustiform vein texture. Hatched, wall rock;
stages of replacement by carbonate and sericite, but not by clear, cyclic units of banded dolomite-ferrodolomite, each
quartz; (c) early breccia vein phase in the development of band consisting of sheaf-like crystal aggregates flaring to-
a shear vein system. Stippled is crust of fibrous quartz on wards vein center and generally zoned from iron-poor at
vein wall, intermediate zone is compositionally zoned (par- their base to iron-rich at their ends. However, within each
allel to vein wall) fibrous dolomite-ferrodolomite and vein band, there are numerous, varve-like minor reversals and
centre (interior zone in lower left cavity) is very fine grained discontinuities in the compositional zoning which can be
"cherty" quartz: (d) brecciated white quartz cemented by matched on either side of the central zone. Vein center is
later dark quartz. (a) (b) and (d), from photographs of filled with angular fragments of dark coloured, sulfidic, ear-
veins hosted by granodiorite the Grass Valley area, Califor- lier vein center fill (black) and polycrystalline bodies of
nia in Johnston, 1940; (c) from photograph of a sample of coarse carbonate (=pattern), which are, in part, of the vein
the A-F-South C Vein system in the Campbell Red Lake wall zone, in a matrix of very fine grained quartz (stippled).
and Dickenson mines, Red Lake, Ontario, in MacGeehan All the gold and sulfides occur in the siliceous central zone;
and Hodgson, 1982. (b) Crustified orbicular structure in dolomite-ferrodolom-
ite vein. Orbicules are finely banded as in a, and are nu-
cleated on siliceous or coarsely crystalline carbonate aggre-
gates. Last-filled interstices are fine grained quartz
(stippled) and coarse carbonate crystal aggregates ( = pat-
tern). South C-Zone, Dickenson mine, Red Lake area, On-
tario (From photographs in MacGeehan and Hodgson,
1982).
m i n e r a l s a n d lined with i n w a r d - p r o j e c t i n g
crystals, are typical o f crustified veins (Fig.
32b). Crustified t e x t u r e s are p a r t i c u l a r l y c o m -
m o n in e p i t h e r m a l vein s y s t e m s f o r m e d at shal-
low c r u s t a l levels, b u t also o c c u r in veins w h i c h
a p p e a r to have f o r m e d at relatively deep c r u s t a l
levels; for example, t h e gold veins of the C a m p -
bell a n d D i c k e n s o n m i n e s o f the R e d L a k e area
Fig. 31. Ribbon quartz-ankerite vein cut by en-echelon of O n t a r i o ( M a c G e e h a n a n d H o d g s o n , 1982)
phantom quartz veinlets (black). Chloritized wall rock a n d t h e a n k e r i t e veins o f the D o m e mine, T i m -
laminae (clear), which are crusted, and partly replaced by
m i n s ( i n t e r p r e t e d b y F r y e r et al., 1979, as sea
ankerite (dash pattern), are separated by quartz layers
(stippled). Monument Hill mine, Bendigo, Victoria, Aus- floor c h e m i c a l s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s ) .
tralia (Chace, 1949). L a y e r i n g c a n also be c a u s e d b y o p e n i n g a n d
258
SHEAR
mm mm mm mm m mmm m m m Immmm m m m m l m mm mm i
15 cm
I I
NO G O U G E \
( ~,~,,~L CRUSHED
CRINKLY ~X
BANDING ~'/'~ \ \~. ~. FAULT WITH
GOUGE
I lm I
t
RIBBON QUARTZ
Fig. 33. Relationship of ribbon banding to vein margins, Fig. 34. (a) "Magpie (replacement) texture", Bendigo area,
and crinkly (stylolitic) banding to ribbon banding. Note Victoria, Australia. Massive coarse-grained quartz with
that ribbons are truncated against vein walls which appear scattered fragments of slate (clear) replaced by chlorite
to be "sealed", but may have been early faults which shuf- (=pattern) which in turn is partly replaced by quartz
fled vein segments. Vein sub-parallel faults in many areas (stippled); (after photograph in Chace, 1949); (b) sheeted
double vein thicknesses. "Crinkly banding" is commonly veinlet to book textured vein. Stippled is quartz, clear is
developedin structurally complexareas like that in the lower wall rock. No. 16 Vein, 2500 foot level, McIntryre mine,
sketch, suggesting it originated by tectonically-induced Timmins, Ontario; (c) ribbon textured vein. Black is wall
pressure solution of the vein. Alleghany district, California rock, clear is quartz. No. 3 Vein, 1625foot level, McIntryre
(Ferguson and Gannett, 1932). mine, Timmins, Ontario. (b) and (c) from photographs in
Hurst (1935).
filling of new fractures within a vein. Such sec-
ond generation veins most commonly form crustal origin is layering of the types termed
either sub-parallel (Fig. 31 ) o r sub-normal (Fig. book texture and ribbon texture, as well as crinkly
26 ) to the old vein walls, and often are respon- banding. The term laminated texture has been
sible for the bulk of the gold (Campbell and applied to these types of layering, to distinguish
Dickenson mines, Red Lake, Ontario: Mac- them from crustification-type layering (Chace,
Geehan and Hodgson, 1982; Bendigo, Victoria: 1949). Lamination is typically slightly trans-
Chace, 1949; Sigma mine, Val d'Or, Quebec: gressive to the vein walls (Fig. 33). Book tex-
Robert and Brown, 1987; Erikson mine, Cas- ture is gradational into ribbon texture with de-
siar, British Columbia: Anderson and Hodgson, crease in the thickness of wall rock septa
in preparation). Chace (1949) has used the included in the vein, and into sheeted veinlet
term phantom veinlets for second generation zones with increase in the thickness of wall rock
veinlets which are difficult to see because they septa (Fig. 34b,c). Crinkly banding is ribbon
are mineralogically similar to the first genera- texture with a stylolitic form (Fig. 33).
tion veins they cut. The septa of laminated veins commonly show
Very common in veins of moderate to deep slickensides which are cut across by unde-
259
formed vein minerals (McKinstry and Ohle, crinkly banding, not favoured by them at the
1949). This textural feature establishes that the time, may be the correct one.
septa boundaries were once through-going shear
fractures, and were incorporated into the vein
after the slickensides developed. Breccia
In much of the older literature, the favoured Breccia veins may contain fragments of wall
mechanism for the formation of wall rock septa rock (Fig. 30a,b,c), or previously-formed vein
in veins was progressive replacement out from (Fig. 30d), or both. In a very common type of
fractures (McKinstry and Ohle, 1949). How- breccia vein, aptly termed domino veins (Chace,
ever, some geologists argued for the inclusions 1949), rectangular- to parallelogram-shaped,
being fragments of vein wall torn off in succes- tabular wall rock blocks are only slightly dis-
sive episodes of vein accretion by a crack-seal placed from each other, such that if the matrix
process localized at the vein wall (Hulin, 1929; material were removed, the blocks would fit
Ferguson and Gannett, 1932). Modern opinion back together again (Fig. 30c).
favours the the crack-seal mechanism (Ram- The matrix of breccia veins may be massive
say and Huber, 1983 ). It is common for the first- or show crustiform layering. Crustiform tex-
formed septa in vein centers to be thinner and tures are evidence that the interclast space of
more discontinuous than the last-formed septa breccia veins remained open for the length of
near vein walls (Fig. 26), which is attributed to time required for the vein minerals to be pre-
progressive replacement of septa by vein min- cipitated, which limits the probable mecha-
erals with increased time of exposure to vein- nisms for generating dilatancy in vein deposits,
forming fluids (Hurst, 1935). Crusts of wall rock as discussed below.
minerals lining wall rock septa in laminated
veins are evidence that the successively-formed Oriented mineral growth textures
cracks filled in each of the crack-seal events A second dimension in the classification of
may have had widths in the order of the spacing the form of mineralization involves orientated
between the septa. mineral growth fabrics. Fibrous veins consist of
Ferguson and Gannett (1932) interpreted elongate mineral grains, and have been classi-
crinkly banding as the result of the continua- fied into syntaxial, antitaxial and stretched crys-
tion of the replacement process which caused tal veins by Ramsay and Huber (1983; and see
the progressive development of ribbon from Fig. 35 ). Syntaxial veins are filled with mineral
book texture. They also pointed out, however, grains which are attached to, and in optical
that crinkly banding may have formed by the continuity with like mineral grains in the vein
same process of solution and recrystallization walls, and which grew inwards to the vein
as stylolitic banding, which, they noted, implies centre. The vein minerals are characteristically
that the internal textures of veins containing free of wall rock inclusions. In contrast, anti-
such banding would have to be interpreted as taxial veins are filled with minerals which are
the result of this recrystallization process, not different from those in the wall rocks, and
primary, vein forming processes. In fact, in the growth occurs by a cyclic process of cracking
light of the recognition in recent years of the and subsequent sealing by vein material at the
importance of pressure solution and recrystal- vein-wall contacts, resulting in bands of rock
lization processes in the generation of meta- minerals aligned parallel to the walls being in-
morphic tectonites, and the recognition that cluded in the growing vein. Stretched crystal
moderate to deep crustal level mineralized veins veins form like antitaxial veins, but the crack-
are syntectonic, it seems likely that Ferguson's seal process occurs internally in the vein, which
and Gannett's alternative explanation for consists of one crystal linking the broken parts
260
A Syntaxlal B Antltaxlal B C
f " ~s
b. lOOm ~~I~~~F
I ore~~,~
Hard
Rock~ ~ "1
Porp~
Cm
metawack~==~
, ~
300m
Fig. 37. F-Zone ore body of the McLeod-Cockshutt and Consolidated Mosher mines, Geraldton area, Ontario. The miner-
alization consists of veinlets and disseminated mineralization, as shown in (a) (from a photograph in Horwood and Pye,
1955), in a saddle reef-form mineralized zone localized on the folded contact of an albite porphyry with clastic metasedi-
ments, as shown in longitudinal section (b) and cross section (c) (Ferguson, 1967 and MacDonald, 1983 ).
Replacement textures and disseminated tions and veinlets (Fuchter and Hodgson,
mineralization 1986).
Intensity of replacement is gradational, from The primary textural characteristics of veins
zones of disseminated mineralization in only formed by open space filling are commonly
slightly chemically modified host rocks, to zones modified by recrystallization and progressive
of pervasive replacement consisting entirely of replacement of wall rock inclusions and adja-
introduced sulfide and gangue minerals. There cent wall rocks by vein minerals. Replacement
are also all gradations from zones consisting typically proceeds outwards from contacts and
entirely of fissure-fillings to zones consisting from irregularly-distributed patches within wall
entirely of replaced wall rocks. For example, at rock inclusions, resulting eventually in the
the Blanket mine, Gwanda, Zimbabwe, the clasts being defined by the distribution of scat-
Quartz Reef, a fissure-filling vein, grades over tered whispy remnants of alteration minerals
a narrow transitional zone at about 300 m depth, (e.g., Chace, 1949). Ultimately, the only evi-
into a zone of veinlets in altered rock, and this dence of replacement may be the occurrence of
into a zone of massive, replacement-type mi- discrete domains in the vein of a slightly differ-
neralization. The replacement-type minerali- ent colour, due to inclusions of insoluble min-
zation is zoned in terms of the intensity of re- erals like rutile (Robert and Brown, 1987).
placement, comprising a massive core of quartz- Ghost bands defined by a dusting of minerals
carbonate rock with disseminated arsenopy- refractory to replacement can be replaced wall
rite, an intermediate zone of weakly foliated, rock septa. The amount of replacement in veins
biotitic quartz-carbonate rock, and an outer is difficult to determine, and has long been the
zone of streaky, foliation-parallel impregna- subject of considerable controversy (Mc-
262
Kinstry and Ohle, 1949). Certainly the irregu- (e.g., Butte, Montana: Meyer et al., 1968; E1
lar shape of many massive vein bodies strongly Salvador, Chile: Gustafson and Hunt, 1975;
suggests that pervasive replacement played a Hollinger-McIntyre mine, Timmins, Ontario:
major role in their formation (Fig. 34b). Mason and Melnik, 1986).
The gold-bearing saddle reefs of the Austra-
lian slate belt are dominantly large quartz veins, Developmental sequences in multistage
whereas the large F-Zone saddle reef gold ore- mineralized zones
body at the McLeod-Cockshutt and Consoli-
dated Mosher mines in the Geraldton area of Most vein-type gold mineralized zones show
Ontario consisted of a complex of small veinlets a complex developmental sequence. Scattered
and altered rock (Fig. 37). Replacement, as well evidence suggests a common theme to this evo-
as open space filling was important in the de- lution. In some mineralized ductile and brittle-
velopment of the Bendigo saddle reefs, accord- ductile shear zones, the earliest form of miner-
ing to Chace (1949), and this also appears to alization is highly folded, small, gold-barren
have been the case at Geraldton. veinlets which are confined to shear zones
{Sigma mine, Val d'Or, Quebec: Robert et al.,
Spatial patterns of mineralization 1983 ). These veinlets appear to have been em-
placed before most of the strain in the host
Spatial variations in the form of mineraliza- shears and at a high angle to the shear zone fab-
tion which are related to the nature of host rocks ric. It is possible that they formed as en-echelon
or structure are extremely common in vein-type extension gash vein arrays aligned along the
gold deposits. For example, in the Hollinger trace of the shear zone, such as are illustrated
mine at Timmins, Ontario, "vein ore" in schist in Fig. 20, and the shear zone subsequently grew
zones in basalt passes along strike into dissem- outwards to envelope them.
inated, replacement-type, "sulfide ore" in The main stage of shear vein-formation in
"dacite" (bleached and strongly carbonatized most deposits appears to have occurred after the
basalt; see Jones, 1948). At depth in the same host shear zone was established as a zone of high
deposit, the width of the zone of altered rock strain, judging from the state of deformation
enveloping veins decreases, as does the amount and orientation of the veins (Red Lake, On-
of gold in the alteration envelopes, relative to tario: MacGeehan and Hodgson, 1982; An-
that in the veins (P. Walford, pers. commun., drews et al., 1986; Timmins, Ontario: Wood et
1983; Wood et al., 1986). In the Red Lake area, al., 1986; Allegeny, California: Ferguson and
Andrews and Wallace (1983) have suggested Gannett, 1932). A common sequence of shear
that there is a regional zoning from dissemi- vein-formation involves the progression from:
nated replacement-type and parallel veinlet- (1) discontinuous breccia vein; to (2) compos-
type mineralization in the mines showing the ite vein, commonly laminated or crustiform; to
highest metamorphic grade mineral assem- (3) late rebrecciation, emplacement of phan-
blages and closest to the granitoids surround- tom veinlets and ladder veins. For example, in
ing the greenstone belt, to large veins and vein- the Campbell and Dickenson mines (Mac-
let stockwork mineralization in the mines with Geehan and Hodgson, 1982; Rigg and Helm-
the lowest metamorphic grade mineral assem- steadt, 1982), the first event in the opening of
blages, and farthest from the granitoids. In vein structures was the formation of discontin-
many vein-type deposits, veins occur outwards uous, irregular zones of breccia vein. This was
and upwards, and commonly slightly post-date, followed by the formation of laterally-continu-
stockwork mineralization spatially and geneti- ous crustiform veins in which the initial filling
cally related to a central "porphyry" intrusion was mainly carbonate, and the final, vein-cen-
263
ter filling was carbonate and very fine-grained regime, and the transition of ductile to brittle
quartz with sulfides and gold. In many areas of regime of strain.
these mines, fracturing and brecciation of the
early carbonate vein-fill preceded the deposi- Mechanisms for generating dilatancy
tion of the auriferous, fine grained quartz fill,
and a siliceous, gold-rich mineralization occurs Introduction
as wide replacement zones which are superim-
posed on the rock fabric and crustiform veins. Most vein-type gold mineralized zones are
The best gold mineralization is commonly, but hosted by shear fractures, and to a lesser extent
not invariably (e.g., Hollinger-McIntyre mine: by associated extensional fractures. As well,
Wood et al., 1986) associated with late-stage there is abundant evidence that the minerali-
ladder and phantom veinlet-formation. For ex- zation formed synchronouslywith, although late
ample, approximately 85% of the gold at the in, the deformation in which the shear zone was
Sigma mine occurs in association with late formed. Yet the stress across a shear fracture is
phantom veinlets of quartz, calcite and pyrite always greater than the stress across a tensile
formed following a period of ductile deforma- fracture in the stress regime in which they are
tion of the main-stage quartz veins (Robert and formed. Therefore, why is the mineralization
not dominantly in tensile fractures, rather than
Brown, 1987).
shear fractures?
In laminated veins formed by the crack-seal
Hypotheses explaining this enigma are of two
mechanism, probably the most common main-
types: those attributing an active role to tecton-
stage type of auriferous shear vein, the grada-
ism in opening structures; and those attribut-
tion outwards from relatively massive vein cen-
ing a passive role to tectonism, i.e., tectonic
ters, to ribbon texture vein, to book texture vein,
forces generate mechanically weak zones which
to sheeted veinlet zones in the vein walls (e.g.,
then are pumped open by excess pressure of the
Hurst, 1935) can be viewed as a progressive in-
vein-forming fluid. The following evidence fa-
crease in the width of the slab of wall rock which
vours an active role for tectonism:
remains stuck to the vein wall. This textural
(1) Vein deposits show a very close spatial
zoning also implies a progressive increase in the
relationship to shear zones. If the only signifi-
spacing between cracks formed in each succes- cance of shear zones is that they represent weak
sive stage of opening and sealing. These pat- zones, why are not other types of weak zones,
terns may have something to do with increase like weak rock units (shale beds, etc.) more
in the extent of wall rock alteration during vein commonly dilated?
growth, the effect of alteration being to (2) The temporal overlap of deformational
strengthen the altered zone and so favour and mineralizing processes is difficult to ex-
cracking outside of it. plain if the role of deformation is passive.
Comparing the temporal and spatial rela- (3) It seems unlikely that fluid over-pres-
tionship of vein deposits to host shear zones, sures could persist for the time required for ma-
the general pattern appears to be that miner- jor volumes of fluid to pass through fracture
alization, and igneous rocks temporally and systems and deposit the thick, and in some cases
spatially associated with mineralization, are delicately banded, veins seen in many deposits.
emplaced into shear zones in association with (4) As noted above, unless the differential
later phases of deformation in the zones, pre- stress is zero at the time of vein formation, it is
sumably during their exhumation. The condi- difficult to understand why a shear fracture
tions most commonly associated with emplace- should open, no matter how little cohesion there
ment of mineralization correspond to the brittle is between the walls, relative to an extension
264
fracture. Yet most veins are in shear fractures. the operation of the hydrofracturing process, do
This is assuming, as the evidence indicates, that not mean (as is commonly assumed, e.g., Wood
both types of fractures existed in the rocks at et al., 1986) that shear fracture dilation was
the time of fluid migration, and therefore the caused and maintained by high fluid pressure,
cohesive strength of the rocks was not signifi- without directed tectonic forces playing an ac-
cantly different across shear and extension tive role. In the writer's opinion, the weight of
fractures. the evidence indicates that shear zone dilation
Several features of deposits indicate that fluid depends critically on tectonic forces operating
pressure must have been high, and at least tem- in a high fluid pressure environment. Accord-
porarily at, or very close to, lithostatic pressure ingly, the rest of the discussion will be con-
during the mineralizing process: cerned only with structurally generated
(1) Extension veins are widespread (even dilatancy.
though in most deposits they are not the dom- At least six principal deformational mecha-
inant source of ore), and fluid inclusion and nisms can cause dilatancy, and are discussed in
mineralogical data indicate that in at least some the following paragraphs: (1) opening of exten-
deposits, the fracturing and vein formation oc- sion fractures; (2) rotation, during the progress
curred at considerable depths in the earth's of deformation, of fractures formed at < 45 ° to
crust (Colvine et al., 1984; Smith et al., 1985). the axis of maximum shortening; (3) simple
However, extension fractures can only form shear along non-planar surfaces; (4) variable
under conditions of low effective mean stress external rotation of mechanically effective lay-
([al-a3/2]-pore fluid pressure; Fig. 3a). ering; (5) dilation on the convex side of bent
Therefore, the fluid pressures in the environ- layers; and (6) dilation as a component of bulk,
ment of fracture and vein formation must have inhomogeneous shortening.
been close to the lithostatic, so that the effec-
tive mean stress was close to zero. Many geol-
ogists consider hydrofracturing, due to fluid Opening of extension [ractures
pressure exceeding mean stress by an amount
equal to the tensile strength of the rock, an im-
portant process of vein formation (Phillips, Some veins, although not the majority, form
1973). by dilation of extension fractures, i.e., fractures
(2) In order for an economic mineralized sys- formed parallel to the Z Y plane of the strain
tem to form, there must be enormous volumes ellipse representing the deformation. Such veins
of auriferous fluids available at a relatively lo- require no special explanation, since a stress re-
calized site. It is unreasonable to expect that gime which will generate extension fractures
tectonically generated dilatancy could in itself will also cause them to dilate. This is because
"attract" such high fluid volumes, which im- for extension fractures to form, the normal
plies that the fluids collected at a site indepen- stress across the fracture must be less than the
dantly of the tectonic dilation mechanism. Once least compressive stress for the deformation
localized in a fluid reservoir, the difference in (Fig. 3a). Veins of the "centipede" type (Fig.
density between the fluids and rocks will tend 25 ) probably form by dilation in the extension
to cause the fluids to escape upwards to the direction, as outlined by Ramsay and Huber
surface. (1983; and see Fig. 36). This model could be
It should be emphasized, however, that the tested by measuring the amount of displace-
existence of high fluid pressures (even fluid ment across such a structure, which should be
pressures which temporarily exceed lithostatic approximately equal to the length of the vein
pressure) during the ore-forming process, and segments bounded by P shears (Fig. 36).
265
~-ORIENTATION OF
FRACTURES SUBJECTED
the grain-scale penetrative permeability which TO SHORTENING,AND THUS
EXTENSION NORMAL
results in the formation of pervasively altered TO THEIR WALLS
and mineralized zones (Mitra, 1978) (Fig. 39). Fig. 39. Drawing from photomicrograph of outer part of a
Soula (1984) has illustrated the phenomenon ductile deformation zone in coarse quartz monzonite, from
with clay cake experiments in a shear box, photograph in Mitra, 1978. Note the control of the orien-
tation of grain-scale fractures in feldspar by the anisotropy
showing that fractures cut in the cake so they of the feldspar, with shear (C, C') and extension (Tc,acks)
are oriented between 0 ° and 90 ° to the shear fractures preferentially forming in the two, orthogonal
box boundary in the quadrants containing the cleavages and at about 45 ° to the cleavages, respectively.
direction of maximum shortening (e.g., R and The bulk strain of the rock, on the other hand, is indicated
by the orientation ofthe quartz fibresin the fractures (T~b~s
R' shears) will dilate as they rotate. A possible
on strain ellipse, dash lines between feldspar grains in pho-
tomicrograph). As a result of the difference in the orien-
tation of the grain-scale and bulk strain ellipse, shear frac-
grainsto
~c r a c k s grow tures in the grains are in the quadrant of bulk infinitesimal
shortening, and will therefore tend to dilate as they rotate
towards the planes of no infinitesimal longitudinal strain
(c.f. Ramsay, 1967, p. 119). This phenomenon will result
in a pervasive increase in the permeability of ductile shear
W
W zones, at least in the initial stages of their formation, allow-
eL_ ing ingress of fluids which cause metasomatic alteration of
u) shear zone rocks (Beach, 1976).
catastrophic
~..~ failure
~¢p--~ dislo cat ion s example is the vein system in the Sigma mine
multiply
(Fig. 14). The dominantly south-dipping vein
system lies in a block between unmineralized,
"new" dislocations
move vertically dipping shears comprising the North
Shear on the north and a number of parallel
Strain shears on the south of the mine (Robert et al.,
Fig. 38. Schematic diagram showing the relationship be- 1983; and see Fig. 14). The shears hosting the
tween dislocation behaviour and grain-scale fracturing to
macroscopic stress-strain curve in the steps leading to veins have the orientation of R shears, relative
macroscopic fracture (Sujata and Conrad, 1961, in Mitra, to the bounding shears (Fig. 10). South-block-
1978). up movement on the bounding shears, then,
266
would tend to rotate the block between t h e m in cess, a composite vein is formed (Fig. 40). The
a counter-clockwise sense (as seen in Fig. 14) non-planarity may be due to the overall shear
and dilate the R shears within the block, allow- fracture being made up of different types of
ing access of the vein-forming fluids and the fractures along its length (e.g., R, C, or P shears:
feldspar porphyry magma. Figs. 10 and 11; P shears and extension frac-
tures: Fig. 36), or to refraction of the shear
where it passes across the contact of rocks with
Movement on non-planar shear surfaces
different mechanical properties (e.g., Knopf,
1929, his fig. 12). This model predicts that the
Probably the most popular explanation for opening vector of shear veins will be parallel to
dilation of shear fractures involves opening on the portion of the fracture on which the blocks
the lee side of asperities when there is move- are sliding. The vector will be close to parallel
ment along non-planar shear surfaces (Robert to the length of the overall fracture in cases
and Brown, 1987; Guha et al., 1983; Johnston, where the differently-oriented segments are in-
1940). The lenticular openings fill with vein clined at a low angle. This geometrical require-
material as they form. Further movement on ment is clearly fullfilled in the case of the fi-
the fracture then forces open the zones between brous shear veins described by Ramsay and
the initial lenses, and by a repetition of the pro- Huber (1983; and see Fig. 36). However, as de-
A B
C D
E F
G H
Fig. 40. How a thick vein may be formed by alternating episodes of simple shear on an irregular fracture, and filling of the
dilatant zones which develop on the lee side of asperities after each increment of movement. Note, however, that if a fibrous
or crustiform vein forms continuously as open space is generated by this mechanism, the fibres will be inclined sub-parallel
to the vein boundary, and the crustiform bands will be inclined at a high angle to the vein boundaries (c.f., Fig. 36), which
appears rarely to be the case in mineralized veins (Johnston, 1940).
267
,
t
/I I Ii1~
'1 I~/~._x..~, I
[
,, ,,,
i
• III I t
fl/z// /~
: I/,'1,(
A. NO DILATION B. DILATION
Fig. 43. Two ways in which bulk, inhomogeneous shortening can be achieved by successive, alternating increments of move-
ment on sets of intersecting shears. Note that method B can lead to the development of a crack-seal ribbon vein in which
each ribbon is slickensided before being incorporated into the vein, as is commonly the case in such veins (McKinstry and
Ohle, 1949). With method B, all of the movement occurs on the same two shears, with movement on one of the shears
consisting only of simple shear, and on the other shear, of alternating increments of simple shear parallel to, and dilation
sub-normal to, the shear fracture. Method A requires that after each increment of movement on one of the shears, a new
shear fracture must be propagated through one of the blocks before movement can occur on the other shear. As a result, the
body being strained by this process becomes progressively disaggregated into increasingly smaller, diamond-shaped, un-
strained domains separated by increasingly closer-spaced high strain domains, as the deformation proceeds.
Dilation on the convex side of bent layers show slickensides. The mechanism would op-
erate equally well for conjugate shears devel-
Another effect associated with folding de- oped in homogeneous media, or shear sets de-
pends on the tendency for strong layers to be- veloped as a consequence of limb thrusting in
have as isolated sheets. Most folds form by a the final stages of chevron folding. An addi-
combination of simple shear on bedding sur- tional feature explained by the mechanism is
faces, and both pure and simple shear within the common occurrence of mineralization in
beds. To the extent that slip occurs on bedding, only one set of an intersecting shear system
individual beds will have a tendency to act like (Fig. 15b).
isolated sheets, and be subjected to extensional
stresses on the outer, and compressional
stresses on the inner arc of any folds in them Conclusions
(Fig. 42). This can result in the development
of extension a n d / o r shear fractures (which type Vein-type mineralization most commonly
depends on the mean stress), and the genera- occurs in brittle and brittle-ductile shear zones,
tion of dilatant zones, which can become min- and less commonly in extension veins in the
eralized, on the outer hinge of the fold. The di- walls of shear zones or between shear zones in
latancy will be best developed in the most a shear zone system. It also occurs in bedding-
competent beds and where the curvature of the controlled dilational zones on the hinges, or on
fold hinge is maximal. A possible example is the the limbs of folds, commonly in association with
F-Zone orebody at Geraldton, Ontario (Fig. 37 ). limb-thrusts. Vein textures indicate that vein
filling and the deformation which caused the
Dilation as a component of bulk, vein-hosting shear zones developed synchro-
inhomogeneous flattening nously in overlapping stages under conditions
of low mean stress due to high fluid pressure.
Dilation may arise as a consequence of bulk, The mechanical anisotropy and inhomogeneity
inhomogeneous flattening on intersecting sets of most natural rocks have a strong control on
of shear planes. Flattening can occur by alter- the distribution of shear zones, which are me-
nating increments of movement on first one, chanically weak zones, relative to their host en-
and then the other set of shears by two possible, vironment. But once localized, the rotation of
end-member mechanisms (Fig. 43). No dila- the maximum principle stress axis to approxi-
tancy is developed by the first mechanism, mately 45 ° to the boundary of a mechanically
which involves the breaking through of new homogeneous weak zone, and approximately
segments of fractures on one shear set after each 90 ° to the foliation in a mechanically aniso-
increment of movement on the other shear set tropic weak zone, results in the internal struc-
(Fig. 43a). In the second mechanism, all the ture of most shear zones, including the struc-
successive increments of movement take place ture of any contained veins, being similar.
on the same fractures, but for this to happen, Brittle shear zones are characterized by ca-
there must be dilation across one of the shear taclasite fault rocks, and commonly consist of
sets during each increment of movement on the a variety of shear fracture types, termed R, R',
other (Fig. 43b). An integral aspect of the pro- P and C shears, as well as extension fractures.
cess is that an increment of slip occurs on one Experiments indicate that conjugate brittle
wall of the dilating shear fracture between each shears intersect in an acute angle, commonly
increment of dilation. This mechanism readily ~-60 °, about al. However, brittle deformation
explains the common laminated texture of shear of mechanically anisotropic, layered materials
veins, and the fact that the ribbons commonly in which the weak layering is normal to al, re-
270
sults in shear fractures intersecting in an ob- geneity of distribution, of the introduced min-
tuse angle about al. R and R' shears correspond eral aggregates. The laminations of laminated
in orientation, and sense of movement to con- veins locally show stylolitic crinkling, due to
jugate shear fractures developed at an acute an- pressure solution and recrystallization. Exten-
gle about a s , the reoriented attitude of maxi- sion veins may occur as ladder vein arrays lo-
m u m principle stress expected in a mechanically calized in competent beds, or dikes, or earlier
weak zone within a stronger matrix. P shears veins, or they may occur as large veins in the
correspond to the shear of the shear set inter- unsheared domains lying between shears in a
secting in an obtuse angle about a s, and with a shear zone system, or they may form a fringe on
sense of movement which is the same as the shear veins. Extension veins may show breccia
overall zone it occurs within. Ductile shears are and crustiform textures, but apparently do not
characterized by mylonite series rocks and show lamination, nor are extension vein zones
schists, and where in conjugate sets, the con- of disseminated mineralization known to the
jugate shears typically intersect in an obtuse writer, except zones of disseminated minerali-
angle about the normal to the plane of tectonic zation in extension vein envelopes. Many veins,
flattening in the host rocks. or ore shoots in veins, are localized at the inter-
At all scales, shear zones and shear zone sys- section of sets of shear zones. Geometrically
tems are characterized by an anastomosing ge- similar zones, commonly associated with con-
ometry, in m a n y cases three-dimensional, in jugate limb thrusts, occur in the hinges of folds,
which a network of high strain zones surrounds and are termed saddle reefs.
low strain rhomboids. The boundaries of these Vein mineralization changes in its geometri-
rhomboids may comprise a complex system of cal and mineralogical character both during the
intersecting shear zone sets, e.g., the P, R, R' evolution of the mineralized area, and from
and C shears of brittle shear zones. To the ex- place to place within the area as conditions
tent that the sense of movement on any inter- change. A common pattern is early, gold-bar-
secting set of shears is opposite (e.g., R and R' ren, en-echelon extension vein arrays, perhaps
shears), there will be a component of bulk aligned along a brittle fracture zone, which are
shortening or pure shear across the rock body then incorporated as highly folded veins in a
containing the shears. If this pure shear is three- superimposed zone of ductile shearing. Then,
dimensional, at least four sets of intersecting late in the history of ductile shearing, the zone
shears are necessary to effect pure shear by dilates, and shear vein-type mineralization is
movement on the component shears. This emplaced. The last phase of mineralization is
probably accounts for the three-dimensional, commonly ladder and p h a n t o m veinlets, local-
anastomosing geometry of shear zones. ized in the previously-formed shear veins. In
Most veins within shears are oriented sub- most deposits, the bulk of the gold, and in m a n y
parallel to the shear zone length, most com- cases the associated sulfides, are late in the par-
monly in zones of en-echelon veins inclined to agenesis. Within a single vein, different forms
the shear zone boundaries in the same sense as of mineralization may be developed where the
P shears are. The most common forms of min- vein crosses mechanically different rock types,
eralization are breccia, with homogeneous or perhaps being a breccia vein in the most com-
crustiform filling, and banded, with crustiform petent, a laminated vein in the next most com-
banding, or a laminated form which ranges from petent, and a zone of disseminated mineraliza-
ribbon texture, to book texture, to sheeted vein- tion in the least competent of the host rocks.
let zones. Sheeted veinlet zones grade into zones The same progression of forms may be related
of streaky disseminated mineralization with to changes in the mechanical properties of a
decrease in the size, and increase in the homo- single rock type with change in the pressure and
271
temperature environment of vein emplace- ticularly indebted to John Summers for intro-
ment, with the disseminated mineralization ducing him to the world of modern structural
forming in deeper and hotter environments than geology, and for many hours of intense and
the breccia and banded vein mineralization. stimulating discussion about structural pro-
It is proposed that the dilatancy which re- cesses in shear zones. A National Engineering
sults in the development of vein mineralization and Sciences Research Council Operating Grant
is caused by tectonic forces, and not primarily provided financial support, which is gratefully
by pumping open pre-existing weak zones by acknowledged.
excess fluid pressure, even though fluid pres-
sure in gold vein-forming environments must
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