C HA P T E R 1
Current Herpetologic
Husbandry and Products
Husbandry techniques and equipment for captive reptiles and
amphibians have advanced at a rapid pace over the last several
decades to parallel the ever-growing popularity of these animals
as pets. Multiple books, journals, magazine articles, and booklets
discussing herpetologic husbandry and herpetoculture have been
published, not to mention the overwhelming amount of informa-
tion available on the internet. Additionally, a large number of
specialty companies and distributors furnish a wide and ever-
changing array of supplies and equipment specifically designed
for captive reptiles and amphibians, known colloquially as herps.
One of the major problems facing herpetoculture is that
no standard of care exists when it comes to herpetologic
husbandry. Most husbandry advice is subjective and based on
experience rather than scientific data. Information sources can
include professional herpetologists, herpetoculturists, hob-
byists, veterinarians, books and magazines, the internet, and
pet store employees. Obviously advice from such different
sources sometimes can be conflicting, which is frustrating for
a pet owner. Critical thinking must be used when assessing
husbandry recommendations. The advice of a professional
herpetologist or a herpetoculturist with years of experience
keeping and breeding hundreds of specimens may carry more
weight than that of someone without formal education or a pet
store employee who has never kept the species in question.
The adjective proper used to describe some aspect of herp hus-
bandry, as in proper cages, proper temperature, or proper diet, is
purely subjective and should not always be taken at face value.
Currently there is no government regulatory agency that moni-
tors products manufactured for reptiles for safety or efficacy. Thus
any manufacturer can make almost any claim they like without
providing evidence for that claim. Unfortunately many products
for herps may have questionable value and may be inappropriate
or even dangerous to the reptiles for which they are intended.
Likewise, with literally hundreds of species of reptiles with differ-
ing natural histories available in the pet trade, products intended
for one species could be potentially harmful for another species.
It is important to utilize all available information to best
care for reptiles in captivity. A great deal of published scien-
tific information is available concerning herpetologic natural
history, life histories, natural diets, and reproductive data.
However, this information is often in the professional herpe-
tologic literature, as opposed to veterinary or lay herpetologic
literature. These professional sources should be sought out.
Herpetologic husbandry still boils down to providing an
adequate enclosure, appropriate social groupings, temperature
2
Stephen L. Barten and Gregory J. Fleming†
gradients to allow thermoregulation, humidity, and ultraviolet
light sources and offering a balanced diet. These are the things
that herpetoculturists strive for, and when they fall short it
often results in medical conditions that can be resolved with
proper knowledge of husbandry and enclosure design.
Herpetoculture, like everything else, is an ever-growing and
expanding field. New products, new diets, and new techniques
are being developed every year. The herpetologic veterinarian
and herp keeper must keep abreast of new developments. The
purpose of this chapter is to discuss recent trends and develop-
ments in herpetoculture and is not intended to be a compre-
hensive discussion of herpetologic husbandry.
ENCLOSURE TYPE
Many keepers, especially novice ones, have metaphoric blind-
ers on and are only aware of what products they see on the
shelves of local pet stores. They must be advised that alterna-
tives to the traditional glass aquarium or terrarium exist for
housing herps. A variety of plastic and fiberglass cages and
tubs designed specifically to house captive reptiles are avail-
able from numerous manufacturers. Often these enclosures
come in much larger sizes for lower prices than glass aquari-
ums. Larger size allows for more aesthetically appealing dis-
plays. Additional advantages of plastic or fiberglass enclosures
can include larger space for the herp, better escape prevention,
better visual security, stackability, ease of attaching light and
heat sources, better heat and humidity retention, and better
thermoregulation on a vertical as well as horizontal axis. Like-
wise, plastic and fiberglass cages tend to be lighter in weight,
more durable, and easier to clean than glass aquariums.
Besides enclosures for snakes and lizards, plastic and fiberglass
tubs suitable for keeping aquatic and semiaquatic turtles are avail-
able. A number of manufacturers produce plain, round or rectan-
gular tubs in sizes from 0.5 gallons to 5000 gallons (1.9 to 18,927
L) (Figure 1-1). Waterland Tubs (www.waterlandtubs.com) is a
line of plastic tubs designed specifically for keeping aquatic and
semiaquatic turtles. These tubs have a water side and an access
ramp to a land side to allow for basking and egg laying. They
come in multiple sizes up to 200 gallons (757 L). Waterland tubs
are lightweight, can be placed outside, and can be modified to
add bulk heads and drains to make cleaning easier.
†Deceased.
 CHAPTER 1   •  Current Herpetologic Husbandry and Products
FIGURE 1-1 Large plastic and fiberglass tubs up to several
thousand gallons are available to house aquatic turtles. This
is a large Alligator Snapping Turtle (Macrochelys temminckii).
(Photo courtesy Dr. Stephen L. Barten, Vernon Hills Animal
Hospital, Mundelein, Ill.)
WATER FILTRATION
Often temperature and lighting are considered when keeping
captive reptiles; however, water filtration is commonly over-
looked. Poor water quality may be one of the main reasons that
aquatic reptiles and amphibians may not thrive in captivity
and are considered “dirty” or hard to keep.
Any amphibian or aquatic or semiaquatic reptile spe-
cies requiring something more than a water bowl for proper
husbandry should have filtration included in their enclosure
design. This can be as simple as an air pump and a sponge filter
or as complicated as a wet-dry filter for larger systems. In any
case, filtration has the goal of reducing biologic waste, includ-
ing ammonia and its toxic by-products, through mechanical,
biologic, and chemical filtration.
  
♦ Mechanical filtration—this includes pumps, canisters,
and air lifts. Mechanical filtration is the physical action
of moving water over media (e.g., protein skimmer foam
or filter media). Mechanical filtration removes the large
particulate matter in the water and also oxygenates the
water.
♦ Biologic filtration—within a high surface area filter, on
the gravel, and walls of the aquarium, live bacteria that
are responsible for breaking down ammonia (produced by
the reptile or amphibian) into nitrite and then nitrate, the
least toxic form of nitrogenous waste. This process is called
the nitrification cycle and takes about 21 days in most
aquariums to become established in a new setup. Aquatic
reptiles are not as sensitive to this cycle as fish and amphib-
ians, which are exquisitely sensitive to ammonia and its
by-products.
♦ Chemical filtration—activated carbon has great absorbency
and is used to remove harmful chemicals and color com-
pounds from water. Other examples are sodium hydroxy-
methylsulfinate and sodium thiosulfate, which remove
   ammonia and chlorine, respectively.
Most commercial filtration units combine all three filtration
methods, which makes for a very powerful filtration system.
Currently many fish filtration devices as well as specific reptile
and turtle filtration options are commercially available. The
3
reptile and turtle filtration units can work in shallow water,
which is usually not the case with most fish filters. These filters
are now easy to maintain and promote good health in aquatic
reptilian and amphibian species.
Filtration alone is insufficient for maintaining adequate
water quality in aquatic habitats. Frequent partial water chang-
es and regular complete water changes also are necessary.
Depending on the size of the aquarium and the number and
size of inhabitants, one third of the water might be changed
weekly, and all of the water should be changed once every
month or two. Dechlorination by either aging or chemical
means is important for amphibians and gilled inhabitants but
less so for reptiles. New water added to the aquarium should
be brought to the same temperature and pH as water already
in the aquarium to prevent shock caused by sudden, dramatic
differences.
Zoo Med Laboratories (3650 Sacramento Dr., San Luis
Obispo, CA 93401, http://zoomed.com) has a complete line
of terrariums, aquatic habitats, and filtrations for all species of
reptiles. Exo Terra (Rolf C. Hagen [USA] Corp, Mansfield, MA
02048, http://www.exo-terra.com) has many filters and acces-
sories for amphibian and aquatic reptile enclosures.
SPACE REQUIREMENTS
The once-popular practice, especially among snake and
gecko keepers, of keeping dozens to hundreds of specimens
in small, Spartan, laboratory-style cages with minimal space
and few cage furnishings is falling out of favor. Minimalist
cage design facilitates ease of maintenance for the keeper
but provides little for the welfare or behavioral well-being
of the animals. An important trend in herpetoculture is to
downsize collections and provide spacious cages for the
remaining specimens. Indeed, for observation and apprecia-
tion of a reptile’s natural behavior, a more natural enclo-
sure must be provided. An adult Cornsnake (Pantherophis
[Elaphe] guttatus) or Kingsnake (Lampropeltis getula) might
survive in a 20-gallon (76 L) aquarium but would thrive in a
cage measuring 4 × 2 × 2 feet high (1.2 × 0.6 × 0.6 m high).
Snakes and other reptiles in larger cages tend to be more
active and have better muscle tone (Figure 1-2). Larger
cages allow more cage furniture such as climbing branches,
multiple hides, and larger water sources. They allow for
wider thermal and humidity gradients and better thermo-
regulation. Larger cages allow for the use of ventilation fans
and misters. Larger cages usually are more aesthetically
appealing (Figure 1-3).
Some guidelines for cage size have been published.1,2 One
formula recommends that the length plus the width of a snake
cage should at a minimum equal the length of the snake; thus
a 4 × 2-foot (1.2 × 0.6 m) cage is the minimum size recom-
mended for a 6-foot (1.8 m) long snake. Likewise large lizards
should be housed in cages that are twice as long as the total
length of the lizard; thus a 4-foot (1.2 m) wide cage is accept-
able for a 2-foot (0.6 m) lizard (the minimum cage size should
be 1.5 times as long as the length of the lizard).3 The upper
range of cage size is limited only by the spatial and financial
restrictions of the owner. It is incorrect to assume that reptiles,
being ectothermic, are sedentary and inactive. In fact, with
adequate available space, most reptiles are highly active with
complex behaviors.4
4 SECTION I   •  ADVANCES IN REPTILE MEDICINE
A material for digging and other behaviors, hold moisture, and
B topping of dead leaves adds aesthetic appeal, and the leaves
FIGURE 1-2  A, “Cage potato” Kingsnake (Lampropeltis get-
ula) exhibiting poor muscle tone and obesity due to lack
of exercise and overfeeding. B, A wild Midland Rat Snake
(Pantherophis [Elaphe] spiloides) showing well-developed
musculature as a result of a large home range and more
frequent climbing and foraging than most captive snakes
undertake. (Photos courtesy Dr. Stephen L. Barten, Vernon
Hills Animal Hospital, Mundelein, Ill.)
FIGURE 1-3 This plastic cage by Habitat Systems Ltd. (Des
Moines, Iowa) located in a nature center measures 12 feet
wide by 3 feet deep and 4 feet high (3.7 × 0.9 × 1.2 m) and
houses a King Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah), a large, very
active species. Large reptile enclosures have many advan-
tages and are preferred over small, minimalist setups. (Photo
courtesy Dr. Stephen L. Barten, Vernon Hills Animal Hospital,
Mundelein, Ill.)
A number of companies produce plastic or fiberglass enclo-
sures in standard or custom designs for keeping reptiles and
amphibians. Most of these companies have Web sites, and
some offer free shipping. A variety of these products may be
viewed at many of the large reptile shows held periodically
around the country. A partial list of such companies in no
particular order are included in Box 1-1.
SUBSTRATE
Zoos and nature centers often use natural substrates to line
cages instead of newspaper, indoor/outdoor carpeting, bark
chips, or gravel. Natural substrates are aesthetic, provide
are absorbent. Materials that are small enough not to cause a
blockage if ingested are recommended; in other words, avoid
gravel and large bark and wood chips.
Natural substrates can be mixed and matched to meet the
needs of various species. Commonly used materials that can
be blended together in various combinations to meet the needs
of the reptile or amphibian include beach sand, peat, top soil
(with no insecticide or fertilizer), Eco Earth (compressed,
expandable coconut fiber bedding; Zoo Med Laboratories Inc,
San Luis Obispo, Calif, http://www.zoomed.com), and leaf
mulch. For instance, a desert species might be kept on a mix
with more sand and less soil, peat, and leaf mulch, while a
forest species requiring more moisture might be kept on a mix
with more leaf mulch, soil, and peat and less sand, if any. A
decompose and add to the soil mix.
The substrate should be spot cleaned as necessary but raked
weekly to aerate the mix. The entire mix should be replaced as
necessary when soiled or fouled with waste or uneaten food.
Natural substrates have better aesthetic appeal and can be
useful for maintaining environmental conditions, but they also
can be implicated in veterinary issues. Wood chips or bark are
not recommended because they often can be ingested or caught
in the mouth of a lizard or snake. Gravel is ingested by aquatic
turtles and can result in intestinal blockage. Sand substrates also
can be ingested, causing intestinal blockage in tortoises, Beard-
ed Dragons (Pogona vitticeps) and Leopard Geckos (Eublepharis
macularius). Most of these issues can be solved by providing bal-
anced nutrition, an appropriate temperature gradient, and ultra-
violet (UV) B light and by placing feed on large trays or bowls
that keep the food material away from the substrate. In the case
of large tortoises housed outside, small cement pads or flagstone
pieces are recommended to keep food from contacting soil or
sand. These feeding palates can be washed off or disinfected.
In some cases, large tortoises housed in sandy areas can be fed
psyllium that binds to the sand so that it is passed with the feces.
In the author’s (GJF) experience, a psyllium dose of 1 tsp/5 kg
daily for 5 to 7 days repeated once a month has been beneficial.
NATURAL BACKGROUNDS
Various companies manufacture natural-looking backgrounds
and cage furniture that make a cage more aesthetically appeal-
ing, provide more climbing and enrichment for the inhabit-
ants, are sturdy, and yet are easy to clean and disinfect (Figure
1-4). The use of such backgrounds can make an ordinary
enclosure a true showpiece and allow for visualization of
BOX 1-1  A PARTIAL LIST OF COMPANIES THAT PRODUCE PLASTIC
OR FIBERGLASS ENCLOSURES IN STANDARD OR CUSTOM DESIGNS
FOR KEEPING REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS
Habitat Systems Limited, 4489 NW 2nd Ave, Suite 3B, Des
Moines, IA 50313, http://www.habitatsystemsltd.com — reptile
and amphibian enclosures
Animal Plastics, 6220 NW Beaver Dr., #1, Johnston, IA, 50131,
http://www.animalplastics.com — reptile and amphibian
enclosures
Vision Products Plus, Inc., 7453 Deering Ave, Canoga Park, CA,
91303, http://www.visionproducts.us — large range of single
or stackable reptile enclosures and tortoise tubs
Neodesha Plastics, Inc. (NPI) Reptile and Snake Cages, P.O. Box
539, Neodesha, KS 66757, http://www.npicages.com — one-
piece molded cages with slanted fronts for maximum viewing
Boaphile Plastics, P.O. Box 394, Cannon Falls, MN 55009, http://
www.boaphileplastics.com — plastic reptile cages up to 8 feet
(2.4 m) wide with single cage, multiunit stacks and rack systems
Glasscages.com, http://www.glasscages.com — custom glass
and acrylic aquariums and terrariums, as well as backgrounds,
stands, and supplies for all species of reptiles
Waterland Tubs, http://www.waterlandtubs.com — aquatic and
semiaquatic turtle tubs with land and water sides and accessories
Pentair Ltd. (formerly Aquatic Eco-Systems, Inc.), 2395 Apopka
Blvd., Apopka, FL 32703, http://www.aquaticeco.com/topics/1/
Aquarium-Supplies — Plastic and fiberglass tubs and aquariums
for aquatic species, along with an expansive catalog of supplies

C D
FIGURE 1-4  A, Natural-looking backgrounds enhance the aesthetic appeal of a herp dis-
play cage. The background in this Water Monitor’s (Varanus salvator) large cage was cus-
tom made by Habitat Systems Ltd. (Des Moines, Iowa). B, This is a standard background
from Aqua Terra (Baldwin Park, Calif) cut to fit the cage housing a Sidewinder Rattlesnake
(Crotalus cerastes). C, A ventilation hole has been cut into this Aqua Terra natural back-
ground. The hole should be secured with mesh screen adhered to the back edge of the
hole with silicone adhesive to prevent the snake from getting behind the background. The
snake is an Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus). D, A fiberglass tree
allows climbing by this Jameson’s Mamba (Dendroaspis jamesoni). It looks natural yet can
be securely anchored and easily cleaned and disinfected. (Photos courtesy Dr. Stephen L.
Barten, Vernon Hills Animal Hospital, Mundelein, Ill.)
6 SECTION I   •  ADVANCES IN REPTILE MEDICINE
natural reptile behaviors (Figure 1-5). These backgrounds
should be adequately secured, and care must be taken to block
any access to the space behind the background. If a snake or
lizard were to disappear into that space it may be necessary
to tear down the entire enclosure to access the reptile. Any
holes through the background for tubing or ventilation can be
secured by affixing screen mesh over the hole using silicone
adhesive applied to the rear of the background around the
hole. Another potential hazard is improperly secured back-
grounds or cage furniture made of heavy material that can
fall and result in crushing injuries to enclosure inhabitants.
A partial list of companies that provide these products in no
particular order are included in Box 1-2.
AXIAL FANS TO IMPROVE VENTILATION
An important trend in herpetoculture is the use of ventilation
fans for solid-sided cages. A focal heat source in a cage lacking
FIGURE 1-5  Natural-looking backgrounds allow captive rep-
tiles to exhibit natural behaviors. The rock like shelves in this
exhibit allow the Timber Rattlesnakes (Crotalus horridus)
housed within to thermoregulate under the radiant heat panel
attached to the cage ceiling by moving to higher and lower
shelves. (Photo courtesy Dr. Stephen L. Barten, Vernon Hills
Animal Hospital, Mundelein, Ill.)
BOX 1-2  A PARTIAL LIST OF COMPANIES THAT MANUFACTURE
NATURAL-LOOKING BACKGROUNDS AND CAGE FURNITURE
Aqua Terra, Not Just Fish Inc., 14160 Live Oak Ave, Unit E, Baldwin
Park, CA 91706, http://www.aquaterra-intl.com/index.html
pr­oduces Naturalistic 3-D Backgrounds, a line of artificial back-
grounds that mimic various rock or tree designs, with eight
styles from which to choose. They are suitable for both aquari-
ums and terrariums and come in modular sections that can be
joined together to fit any size enclosure. They are easily cut to
fit or allow for ventilation or filter hoses and can be adhered
to the enclosure with silicone adhesive. An owner can install
these backgrounds at home. The company also has modular
rocks that can be used by themselves or joined with other
rocks or with backgrounds for decoration or for use as hides.
Habitat Systems Limited, 4489 NW 2nd Ave, Suite 3B,
Des Moines, IA 50313, http://www.habitatsystemsltd.com
ventilation eventually will heat the entire cage, minimizing
thermal gradients and the ability of the cage inhabitant to
thermoregulate. When ventilation is established, the focal
basking site remains but the rest of the cage is cooler, allowing
the reptile more thermoregulatory choices. In one case, three
Eastern Indigo Snakes (Drymarchon couperi) kept in three
identical cages were observed to bask under their heat lamps
for only an hour each morning. Four-inch (10.2 cm) ventila-
tion holes were cut in both ends of the 60 × 33 × 24 inch high
(1.5 × 0.84 × 0.60 m high) enclosures, the holes were screened,
and an axial fan was placed over the hole on the end with the
heat lamp in each cage (Figure 1-6). It was directed to blow air
out of the cage and pull air in from the far end. The fans were
connected to the same timer as the heat lamps in the cages,
so both fans and lamps were on the same 12-hour on/12-hour
off cycle. The snakes were observed to increase their basking
times to 4 to 5 hours daily after the addition of the axial fans
(Carmichael R: Pers. com., Aug 26, 2011).
Axial fans are small fans used to provide spot cooling for
electronics like computers, telephones, cameras, and copy
machines. They come in a variety of sizes based on voltage,
mounting hole diameter, and airflow. Airflow is measured in
cubic feet per minute (CFM), which is calculated by multiply-
ing the air speed in feet per minute by the area in square feet.
The strength of various fans can be compared by their CFM
rating.
In general, to supply clean air requires four to eight air
changes per hour. Kitchens can require 15 to 60 air changes
per hour.5 Presumably, heated reptile cages would require air
exchanges at the upper end of this range to be effective. In the
situation of a cage measuring 4 to 5 feet wide (1.2 to 1.5 m),
an axial fan with a CFM of 55 will provide more than enough
ventilation. A fan with a CFM of 105 is recommended for cages
measuring 7 to 8 feet wide (2.1 to 2.4 m) (Wismann K: Pers.
com., Aug 29, 2011). Fans with less power are recommended
for species that require higher humidity, such as chameleons
and tree frogs.
Axial fans are commercially available from a variety of
manufacturers. One such company is Grainger (Lake Forest,
Ill, http://www.grainger.com/production/info/axial-fans.htm).
Customers must choose the appropriate style for their needs;
choices include 115-volt AC, 230-volt AC and DC (battery)
­ anufactures natural-looking fiberglass branches, trees, and
m
logs, as well as hides and water bowls. They also produce
unique fiberglass backgrounds for cages that mimic rock walls
or other natural habitats.
Zoo Med Laboratories, 3650 Sacramento Drive, San Luis
Obispo, CA 93401, http://zoomed.com has a complete line of
terrariums, natural-looking backgrounds, aquatic habitats, and
feeding and water bowls for all species of reptiles.
Glasscages.com, www.glasscages.com has a complete line
of terrariums, artificial rocks, and backgrounds. The back-
grounds can be used in aquatic and terrestrial setups and can
be cut or drilled for custom applications.
 CHAPTER 1   •  Current Herpetologic Husbandry and Products
fans in a variety of diameters. Cord sets are ordered separately,
as are fan guards and filters.
Obviously, the enclosure ventilation holes must be screened
to prevent the cage inhabitants from contacting the fan blades.
ULTRAVIOLET METERS
Over the last several decades, our understanding of the
requirement for UV lighting to maintain healthy reptiles has
grown. Most reptiles utilize UV wavelengths in the 290 nm to
320 nm range (UVB) for the synthesis of vitamin D3, which is
necessary for calcium metabolism. Calcium, vitamin D metab-
olism, and UVB have been discussed in detail elsewhere.6-8
Likewise, much advice concerning the use of UVB lamps for
captive reptiles to stimulate vitamin D3 synthesis is available.
While most if that advice is anecdotal, more and more scien-
tific studies involving measurements of UVB irradiance and
blood levels of vitamin D3 in specific species are being com-
pleted every year.9-14
In general, four types of lamps are commonly used to pro-
vide UVB for captive herps. Fluorescent tubes provide diffuse
light and little heat. Compact fluorescent bulbs produce a
more concentrated area of UVB but also little heat. Fluores-
cent UVB lamps should be used in conjunction with another
heat source for thermoregulation. Mercury vapor spot lights
produce a focused beam of very bright light, strong UVB, and
significant heat. Finally, mercury vapor flood lamps provide
very bright light, strong UVB, and heat over a wider area than
do spot lamps.15
The UVB output of a lamp in μW/cm2 can be measured
with a UVB meter. A number of companies produce UV meters
for a variety of uses. UV meters are used to measure solar
radiation, erythema dose, window and acrylic UV transmis-
sion, solar panel irradiance and power calculation, and UVB
lamp intensity and aging. Specialized UVB lamps that might
be monitored with a UVB meter include lamps for captive
reptiles, aquariums, treatment of elevated bilirubin levels in
premature infants, acne treatment, skin rejuvenation, tanning
A B
7
beds, as well as germicidal lamps.16A variety of UV meters are
commercially available for different purposes and different
types of lamps; some models are manufactured for more gen-
eralized use and some are for very specific applications. Con-
sumers must research the specifications of a given UV meter
to ensure that it meets their needs. The Solarmeter models 6.2
and 6.4 (Solartech, Inc, Harrison Township, Mich, http://www.
solarmeter.com/) are manufactured specifically for use with
reptile lamps and are popular among herpetoculturists. Model
6.2 measures UVB output in μW/cm2, whereas Model 6.4 mea-
sures the specific UVB wavelengths that convert vitamin D3
in human skin in IU D3/min. The entire UVB spectrum does
not produce vitamin D3 equally, and peak production occurs
at 298 nm; production of D3 tapers off above and below this
wavelength.17,18 Because human skin is different than reptile
skin (and reptile skin varies tremendously between reptile spe-
cies), the amount of vitamin D3 actually produced in a given
reptile may differ from the meter reading. Because Solarmeter
models 6.2 and 6.4 measure different variables, a given lamp
with high output within the UVB range (290 to 320 nm) but
lower output in the vitamin D3 converting range (around 298
nm) could have a higher relative reading with a model 6.2
meter than a model 6.4 meter. However, because specific UVB
requirements for various reptile species are unknown, these
differences are more theoretical than practical.
UVB meters have a number of uses pertinent to reptile
husbandry. The UVB output of the lamp being used should
be measured to verify that it meets the targeted requirements
of the species being kept. UVB measurements can be taken
at varying distances and angles for a given lamp to produce a
graph of the effective range of that lamp and help determine
the best placement of basking perches.19 The UVB output of
a lamp degrades over time and drops below therapeutic levels
before the lamp burns out. It is recommended that UVB lamps
be replaced when their output drops below 70% of the initial
readings for that lamp.20 Finally, a UVB meter can be used to
determine how much UVB is reaching a captive reptile through
various cage materials, such as glass, plastic, acrylic, or screen,
FIGURE 1-6  A, Indigo Snake
(Drymarchon couperi) in a cage
with ventilation holes on both ends
and an axial fan to increase air
flow over the basking site. B, The
axial fan attached to the outside of
one ventilation hole on the Indigo
Snake cage. Note the screen mesh
between the fan and the ventilation
hole that keeps the snake out of the
fan. (Photo courtesy Dr. Stephen
L. Barten, Vernon Hills Animal
Hospital, Mundelein, Ill.)
8 SECTION I   •  ADVANCES IN REPTILE MEDICINE
all of which absorb or reflect some UVB. These readings can
be used to make appropriate adjustments in lamp strength and
distance and can determine the need for reflectors.
Instructions for using a UV meter with captive reptiles are
available from the manufacturer and online sites targeting
reptile husbandry.21 It is recommended that users wear UV
eye protection and avoid looking directly into the lamp when
taking measurements. Lamps should be allowed to warm up
for a minimum of 5 minutes before readings are taken. Other
lamps in the cage should be turned off as they may affect the
readings. Readings should be taken at the same distance every
time to allow accurate comparisons. A standard distance of 12
inches (30 cm) is commonly used, although using the recom-
mended basking distance for mercury vapor lamps will give
a more accurate reflection of the UV available to the reptile
when the output of those lamps is measured. The recom-
mended basking distance for mercury vapor lamps varies by
the product but often is 24 inches (60 cm) or more. The meter
is aimed directly at the lamp and moved slowly back and forth
with tiny adjustments to find the highest reading, which is the
number to record. Two or three readings are recommended
to ensure that the alignment was as precise as possible. Dif-
ferent manufacturers or models of UVB meters can vary in
their sensors, spectral sensitivity, or calibration and can thus
produce different results from the same lamp.17,22,23 Therefore,
the readings from different models of UVB meter cannot be
compared directly.
All reptiles need vitamin D. Some species may utilize oral
sources of vitamin D3, but most probably benefit from expo-
sure to some amount of UVB. Species whose natural history
involves basking in strong sunlight for hours every day almost
certainly need more UVB than species that are normally noc-
turnal or crepuscular. Growing juveniles and gravid females
may need more UVB than nonreproductive adults. Most rep-
tiles avoid direct sunlight in the heat of midday, which can
reach UVB levels of 350 to 450 μW/cm2 in tropical settings.24
However, even the shady areas to which these animals retreat
have reflected UVB that can reach 30 to 50 μW/cm2.25 In gen-
eral an attempt should be made to copy the UV exposure in
nature for the species in question, and a UVB gradient should
be provided to allow the animals themselves to determine their
own UVB exposure. Panther Chameleons (Furcifer pardalis)
regulate their exposure to UVB with great precision depend-
ing on dietary vitamin D3 status; those with low D3 intake
bask in available UVB significantly more than those with high
D3 intake and through that behavior are able to maintain
adequate D3 levels.26 Conversely, excessive amounts of UVB
have been shown to cause disease. High levels of full spectrum
light resulted in dermatitis and keratoconjunctivitis in a Blue-
tongued Skink (Tiliqua sp.) and a Ball Python (Python regius),
which resolved once the new lights were removed from the
enclosures.27
Examples of basking species with high UVB requirements
include Bearded Dragons, Uromastyx (Uromastyx sp.), Chuck-
wallas (Sauromalus obesus), and many tortoises.24 Bearded
Dragons given a UVB gradient were observed to spend most
of their time basking in the range of 30 to 150 μW/cm2 but
occasionally would bask at 200 to 300 μW/cm2.24 It is recom-
mended that Green Iguanas (Iguana iguana) be provided with
75 to 150 μW/cm2 UVB in their basking areas for a minimum
of 6 hours a day25, longer if a UVB gradient and the ability to
move out of the lamp beam is available. Mercury vapor lamps
are needed to achieve such high UVB output.
Chameleons appear to have more sensitive skin and require
lower levels of UVB; higher levels resulted in reduced egg
hatchability in Panther Chameleons. It was recommended that
species be provided with a gradient of 15 to 33 μW/cm2 for 12
hours a day.17 Another keeper recommended UVB gradients
up to 30 μW/cm2 for chameleons in general.24
Nocturnal and crepuscular species such as Leopard Geckos
anecdotally thrive in captive environments with no UVB
sources if supplemented with oral sources of vitamin D3 but
also will bask when given the opportunity. Low levels of UVB
for brief periods of time might be useful in geckos with low
dietary levels of vitamin D3.24
Most snakes are kept successfully with only dietary sources
of vitamin D3 and no UVB, but some herpetoculturists recom-
mend low levels of UVB for Diamond Pythons (Morelia spilota
spilota) and various North American colubrid snakes including
Indigo Snakes, Watersnakes (Nerodia sp.), and Greensnakes
(Opheodrys spp.).24,28,29 These recommendations are based
on subjective keeper observations, and it is often stated that
full spectrum light including UVB is not required but is rec-
ommended for these species. A recent study has shown that
captive Cornsnakes exposed to UVB exhibited significant
increases in plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 over Cornsnakes
that did not have UVB exposure.13
MISTING SYSTEMS
Reptile and amphibian species with high humidity require-
ments present unique challenges to their keepers. Good
ventilation is important with high humidity levels to prevent
buildup of harmful bacteria and fungi. However, this neces-
sitates the frequent replacement of moisture lost to evapora-
tion, especially when supplemental heat also is used. Daily
misting with a handheld plant sprayer often is not enough to
meet the needs of such species and often is too infrequently
utilized by the owners. Misting and fogging systems designed
specifically for use with captive herps are available from
many manufacturers to maintain humidity in enclosures
(Figure 1-7).
In general, fogging machines increase humidity with low
volumes of water and are designed for smaller cages (10 to 30
gallon; 38 to 114 L), whereas misting systems can provide high
volume “rainlike” environments and are generally preferred
for larger enclosures. With the advent of misting and fogging
systems, keeping habitats damp is a more realistic goal. Cur-
rently, there are a number of products on the market that are
designed for use with both single and multiple cages, and new
products are introduced every year. Foggers and misters can be
controlled with timers to spray for a preset number of minutes
at preset intervals or with a humidistat (like a thermostat for
humidity) connected to a hygrometer probe to spray as needed
to maintain a preset humidity level.
♦ Most larger units have direct plumbing (Figure 1-8) or
large water reservoirs. Water used in the reservoirs should
be deionized or obtained by reverse osmosis if the residen-
tial water supply is rich in calcium or other minerals that
result in water line and spray tip blockage. Sprayer tips
also may be removed and soaked in vinegar to remove
hard water scale.
 CHAPTER 1   •  Current Herpetologic Husbandry and Products 9

C
FIGURE 1-7  A, An Emerald Tree Boa (Corallus caninus) in an enclosure with a misting
system. Note the white misting nozzle protruding from the back wall, the drops of water
on the snake, and the radiant heat panel attached to the ceiling of the cage. B, This misting
nozzle is in an enclosure for amphibians. Note the multiple ventilation holes to account
for the high humidity levels, the radiant heat panel attached to the top of the cage, and
the temperature probe wire that is attached to the thermostat that regulates the heat
panel output. C, A different style of misting head. (Photos courtesy Dr. Stephen L. Barten,
Vernon Hills Animal Hospital, Mundelein, Ill.)

♦ 
It also is important that the water reservoirs and lines
be cleaned and disinfected on a routine schedule. There
have been reports of disease in amphibian colonies and
large herpetologic collections resulting from bacterial
overgrowth in misting systems. Clean water in the reser-
voirs may foul over time and be a prime breeding zone for
Aeromonas spp., Pseudomonas spp., and other pathogenic
organisms. A 1:10 bleach solution or a 1% chlorhexidine
solution can be used to flush the system, followed by
thorough rinsing with clean water to prevent these dis-
infectants from coming into contact with live reptiles,
amphibians, or plants.
♦ 
Large systems may also introduce large volumes of water
into an enclosure, so adequate drainage must be provided.
This may include a hole drilled into the enclosure with an
   attached drainage tube or an overflow bucket.
A partial list of companies providing misting products in no
particular order are included in Box 1-3.
THERMOSTATS
Technological advances have resulted in ever more complex,
precise, reliable, and safe environmental control units for
herpetologic enclosures. Thermostats act as a regulator of
power to heating devices such as lamps, heat tiles, and under-
enclosure heat mats and come in three basic types.
Rheostat Thermostat
This most basic thermostat acts like a dimmer on a light
source, regulating the power output to the heating devices.
This thermostat allows you to dial the power to a specific heat
source up or down. Units with dials or sliders have less precise
control than digital units.
Thermostat
This device has a temperature setting and a temperature probe
that monitors the environmental temperature. When the tem-
perature rises above or falls below the set temperature, this type
of thermostat turns the heating devices on or off at full power.
Proportional Thermostat
This most advanced type of thermostat works by continuously
adjusting the amount of power delivered to the heater based
on the set temperature and the reading from the attached
temperature probe, as opposed to simply turning it on and
off. This results in a more constant thermal environment and
10 SECTION I   •  ADVANCES IN REPTILE MEDICINE
FIGURE 1-8  This mister is connected directly to a water line and
mists several cages in the bank of enclosures. It normally is kept
out of sight in the cabinet under the cages. (Photo courtesy Dr.
Stephen L. Barten, Vernon Hills Animal Hospital, Mundelein, Ill.)
BOX 1-3  A PARTIAL LIST OF
COMPANIES THAT MANUFACTURE
MISTING SYSTEMS
Zoo Med, www.zoomed.com. This catalog lists a variety
of misting options for the pet sector, including Habba
Mist Automatic Misting Machine, Repti Fogger Terrarium
Humidifier, The Big Dripper, Ultrasonic Humidifying Fogger,
and the Misty Mountain Volcano.
Exo Terra, http://www.exo-terra.com. Products include the
Monsoon RS 400 Rainfall System and an ultrasonic fog
generator.
Mist King, Jungle Hobbies Ltd, www.mistking.com. A com-
plete line of misting systems, nozzles, timers and controllers,
pumps, valves, drains, tubing, and accessories is available.
Pro Products, www.pro-products.com. The Pro Mist microfine
misting system includes four models to cover both small
and large collections.
is reported to increase the life of heating devices, as the power
is slowly modified versus constantly turning on and off. Many
proportional thermostats have digital controlling units and
have multiple settings that allow for specific control of day and
night temperatures that can be user-set for any species.
Control displays for various thermostats can vary from
simple dials to precise digital controls. It is important to
consider where in the cage the temperature probe is placed.
If the probe is placed near the focal hot spot or basking
perch (Figure 1-9), the thermostat setting controls the hot-
test part of the cage. Conversely, if it is placed away from
the heat source, the thermostat setting controls the back-
ground temperature and the hot spot may reach much higher
temperatures.
FIGURE 1-9 This temperature probe is connected to the
thermostat that controls the output of the radiant heat panel
in the background. (Photo courtesy Dr. Stephen L. Barten,
Vernon Hills Animal Hospital, Mundelein, Ill.)
FIGURE 1-10  The control unit of the Spyder Robotics Herpstat
4 four-channel thermostat. (Photo courtesy Dr. Stephen L.
Barten, Vernon Hills Animal Hospital, Mundelein, Ill.)
In some instances, thermostats have been combined with
other functions. One such high-end unit is the Spyder Robotics
Herpstat 4, (Spyder Robotics, LLC., Rochelle, Ill) a professional
thermostat with four channels to control any combination of
heating, cooling, lighting, and humidity of up to 400 watts per
channel (Figure 1-10). This unit is a proportional thermostat
but also can be set to nonproportional (on/off) mode. A number
of special features exist including a safety relay that disconnects
power to the outlets in the event of a system error to prevent
overheating; an audible alarm in case of system error; tempera-
ture control between 40°F and 150°F (4°C and 65°C) within
0.1°; temperature and light ramping allowing user-set gradual
warming and brightening of light over any set period of up to
several hours to mimic sunrise and gradual cooling and dim-
ming at night to simulate sunset; humidity settings controlling
attached misters to run at set times or to match a preset humid-
ity level with an optional humidity sensor; night temperature
drop settings with built-in timers on all four channels; a cool-
ing function controlling cooling equipment; and the ability to
record high and low temperatures and time to allow tracking.
 CHAPTER 1   •  Current Herpetologic Husbandry and Products
BOX 1-4  A PARTIAL LIST OF
THERMOSTAT SUPPLIES
Spyder Robotics, http://spyderrobotics.com/products/herpstat_4.
html. A multichannel, multidevice proportional thermostat
is available.
Helix Controls, Inc, www.helixcontrols.com. Proportional ther-
mostats, heating devices, and axial fans are available.
Zoo Med, www.zoomed.com. The catalog offers several mod-
els of both rheostat and on/off thermostats as well as the
HygroTherm Humidity & Temperature Controller, an on/off
thermostat with a humidity controller.
BOX 1-5 THERMAL/TEMPERATURE
GAUGING PRODUCTS
TempGun, http://tempgun.com — infrared remote tempera-
ture sensor manufactured for use with captive reptiles
Zoo Med, www.zoomed.com — compact handheld reptile
enclosure temperature gun
Rayteck, www.rayteck.com — complete range of industrial
handheld thermal sensing units
The use of a thermostat is recommended for every enclosed
herpetologic habitat. Most thermostats are rated for a safe
maximum wattage for the heating devices they control; care
must be taken not to overload the device. Larger units can
control power to multiple enclosures. In any case, thermo-
stat function should be checked on a routine basis with a
thermometer or an infrared temperature sensor to compare
set temperatures verses actual cage temperatures. Besides pro-
viding specific thermal habitats, thermostats also reduce the
potential for overheating, and many have an internal power
cutoff feature if they sense overheating or short circuit. A par-
tial list of thermostat supplies is included in Box 1-4.
INFRARED REMOTE TEMPERATURE SENSORS
For years small thermometers have been placed at the upper
corner of a reptile aquarium to indicate the temperature of
the enclosure; however this is not an accurate portrayal of
the thermal conditions in that enclosure. To better monitor
temperatures across the thermal gradient of an enclosure and
best meet the thermal needs of the inhabitants, other methods
are now preferred. The use of noncontact infrared temperature
sensors, with their compact size and inexpensive price, are
now the gold standard for thermal environment monitoring
in herpetoculture. The herp community refers to these devices
as temp guns.
Infrared temperature guns measure the temperatures of
objects, including substrates, basking perches, and animals
themselves, through the emissivity (the relative ability of an
object to emit energy from its surface by radiation) of an object
or reptile. Water has low emissivity; thus measurements of
water temperatures with infrared temp guns are not accurate.
These devices can read a large range of temperatures; a typical
range is −27°F to 428°F (−33°C to 220°C). Most units have a
specific target area and the farther away from the target the
device is held, the less precise the temperature reading. For
11
example, a device with an infrared cone distance to spot ratio
(D:S) of 6:1 means that at a distance of 6 inches (15 cm), the
device is reading an area just 1 inch (2.54 cm) in diameter, and
at a distance of 2 feet (61 cm), an area of just 4 inches (10 cm).
Because infrared temp guns allow the specific temperature of
any part of an enclosure to be measured, herpetoculturists can
directly monitor and thus manipulate the environmental con-
ditions of any enclosure (Box 1-5).
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