Journal of the Philippine Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society

Date: 25 September 2015

Volume 1 Issue No. 1

Landslide and debris flow susceptibility mapping of

Leyte Province, Philippines using remote sensing,
numerical modelling, and GIS
RN Eco1,2 , DT Aquino1 , AMF Lagmay1,2 , I Alejandrino1 , AA Bonus1,2 , CM Escape1,2 , R Felix1,2 , PK
Ferrer1,2 , RC Gacusan1,2 , J Galang1 , F Llanes1,2 , PK Luzon1, , KR Montalbo1,2 , IJ Ortiz1,2 , M Rabonza1 ,
V Realino1,2 , JM Sabado1,2 , JJ Sulapas1,2 , H Ariola1 , J Obrique1 , C Quina1 , MK Alemania1 , M
Magcamit1 , S Salvosa1 , and NL Timbas1,3
1
Nationwide Operational Assessment of Hazards, Department of Science and Technology, Philippines
2
National Institute of Geological Sciences, University of the Philippines Diliman
3
Now at Agricultural Systems Cluster, University of the Philippines, Los Baños

Correspondence to: R.N. Eco

neco@noah.dost.gov.ph

Abstract. When Super Typhoon Haiyan struck the Philippines in November 2013, the province of Leyte was
among the most heavily damaged. Detailed hazard susceptibility maps for Leyte–including storm surge, flood,
and landslide hazard maps–that could have mitigated the damage by providing crucial information on possible
hazards and their extent were not available to communities prior to Haiyan. To aid future disaster prevention
and mitigation efforts, we produce landslide susceptibility maps downscaled to the community-level for the
entire Leyte province. We integrate remote sensing, numerical modelling, and GIS tools to maximize the use
of a high-resolution digital terrain model of the province. The detailed landslide susceptibility maps are useful
for identifying safe and unsafe areas for rehabilitation and reconstruction efforts for Haiyan devastated areas,
as well as for community disaster planning and preparedness efforts.

1 Introduction PhP89.6 (USD 1.94) billion worth of damages to property,

agriculture, and infrastructure (NDRRMC, 2013).
One of the hardest hit provinces was Leyte. Attention then
was mostly focused on the devastating effects of storm surges
Typhoons are a common occurrence in the Philippines;
to the lives and properties of people living in coastal commu-
about 20 typhoons enter the Philippine Area of Respon-
nities (Mori et al., 2014; Lagmay et al., 2015) and medium-
sibility (PAR) each year (David et al., 2013). Effects of
term to long-term effects to groundwater quality (Cardenas
these typhoons such as floods, storm surges and landslides
et al., 2015). The potential risks to landslides and debris flows
can be disastrous to exposed communities. This was made
went largely understated. Nevertheless, past disasters, e.g.
even more glaring when Supertyphoon Haiyan (local name
1999 Cherry Hills landslide (Punongbayan et al., 2002), 2006
Yolanda) arrived in the Philippines on 7 November 2013 at
Guinsaugon landslide (Catane et al., 2007; Lagmay et al.,
0400H local time. It packed maximum sustained winds of
2008), Mayon and Pinatubo lahars (Rodolfo, 1989; Umbal
235 km/h and gusts of 275 km/h making initial landfall at
and Rodolfo, 1996; Paguican et al., 2009), 2012 New Bataan
Guiuan, Eastern Samar. By 0700H of the same day it tra-
debris flows (Lagmay et al., 2013b), are testaments to the de-
versed through Tacloban, Leyte. After passing through sev-
structive effects of landslides and debris flows. Hence, the
eral provinces in central Philippines, Haiyan exited the PAR
need to identify areas susceptible to landslides.
on 9 November (Fig. 1a). The National Disaster Risk Re-
Unfortunately, the only available hazard susceptibility
duction Management Council reported 6,300 people dead,
maps prior to the Haiyan disaster were drawn to a 1:50,000
28,689 injured and 1,601 missing. It also caused about
54 R.N. Eco: Landslide and debris flow susceptibility mapping of Leyte Province, Philippines

Figure 1: a) Track of Supertyphoon Haiyan (Track from IBTrACS https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/ibtracs). b) Physiographic and
geographic setting of Leyte Province

scale. This is insufficient to capture the hazard susceptibility
details at the community level and were therefore not useful
at all for detailed planning and emergency response. Large-
scale detailed hazard susceptibility mapping can be tedious
and time-consuming to create, even more so in regions with
extensive rugged terrains as Leyte.
Given the urgency of the reconstruction and rehabilitation
efforts of the Haiyan-affected areas, downscaled and accurate
hazard susceptibility maps that can be produced rapidly are
needed to help communities identify safer areas for rehabil-
itation. More importantly, the next event may come before
maps from traditional field surveys are finished and may re-
sult in yet another preventable disaster.
It is therefore incumbent to find a way to produce land-
slide susceptibility maps with the least amount of time possi-
ble without sacrificing accuracy, and still be able to identify
safe zones. The complexities in the geophysical mechanisms
of landslides make it difficult to rely on one methodology. In
this study, we account for shallow translational landslide sus-
ceptibility caused by pore-pressure instability of soil grains,
structurally-controlled planar and wedge failure susceptibili-
ties induced by the presence of discontinuities from geologic
structures, and debris flow susceptibility within alluvial fans.
We also produce a landslide inventory to determine at the
spatial distribution of landslides and see where they mostly
occur.
These analyses were made using deterministic numerical
modelling tools, remote sensing and GIS. We take advantage
of the 5-m pixel resolution digital terrain model (DTM) pro-
vided by the National Mapping and Resource Information
Authority (NAMRIA), the national mapping agency of the
Philippines. For shallow landslide susceptibility, primary in-

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R.N. Eco: Landslide and debris flow susceptibility mapping of Leyte Province, Philippines 55

Figure 2: (A) Geologic map of Leyte showing geological units (ages), active faults and volcanoes (adapted from MGB, 2004).
R to PG1 are sedimentary rocks while BC is for pre-Jurassic basement complex of undifferentiated amphibolites, mics schists,
quartzofeldspars and phylliste-slates. NI to UC are intrusive rocks while QVP to N1 are volcanic rocks. Map modified from
the Phivolcs active faults map and MGB geological map. (B) Lithological map of Leyte (adapted from BSWM, 2014)

put were geotechnical soil parameters and topographic data.
For structurally-controlled landslide susceptibility we map
out discontinuities from geologic structures such as faults
and correlate these with slope data to determine the chances
of failure at specific locations. Debris flow susceptibility was
determined by simulating them over the DTM using known
geophysical fluid characteristics. Alluvial fans were mapped
by geomorphic analysis using GIS tools. Landslide loca-
tions were mapped by visual interpretation of high-resolution
satellite imagery.
is bounded to the north by the Biliran Strait separating it from
Biliran island, to the south by Southern Leyte, to the west
by the Camotes Sea and to the northeast by the San Juanico
Strait, which separates Leyte with the island of Samar. The
latter is the easternmost island in the Visayas and forms the
barrier between the Visayan Sea and the western portion of
the Philippine Sea. East of Leyte is the Leyte Gulf (Fig. 1b).
1.2 Geomorphology
1.2.1 Relief and Topography

1.1 Geographic Setting
Leyte is one of the largest provinces in the Eastern Visayas
Region. It is one of two provinces in island of the same name,
the other being Southern Leyte. In this paper, references to
Leyte will be to the province, otherwise references to the is-
land and municipality of Leyte will be explicitly stated. Leyte
Leyte is generally mountainous and broken by steep slopes,
especially in the central portion (Fig. 1b). These are expres-
sions of a chain of volcanoes trending NNW-SSE, straddling
the trace of the Philippine Fault (Fig. 2a). This also gives the
island well-expressed linear depressions, including elongated
lakes, displaced and offset rivers. In the Tongonan area, a
volcanic cone is observed to be displaced left-laterally (Lag-

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56 R.N. Eco: Landslide and debris flow susceptibility mapping of Leyte Province, Philippines
may et al., 2003), and deep escarpments along sag ponds and
pressure ridges are also seen to align with the orientation of
the fault (Aurelio et al., 1994). Where there are no moun-
tain ranges, the topography of the island is generally flat to
slightly undulating. To the east and west of these are narrow
plains that transition to hilly and rugged terrains going to the
coasts on both sides of the island (Fig. 1b).
1.2.2 Drainage Patterns
The drainage system is largely influenced by the geology and
topography of the province having a volcanic central high-
land flanked on both sides by large plains. The valley in cen-
tral Leyte is drained into the Leyte Gulf by the Binahaan,
Daguitan, Guinaroma, and Marabang Rivers. The headwa-
ter of Binahaan River is Lake Danao. The drainage patterns
are generally either subparallel or dendritic, with most of the
streams on the central part being offset along the traces of
the Philippine Fault. Subparallel streams on the western side
drain toward the Visayan Sea (Fig. 1b). Other areas have gen-
erally dendritic patterns following the slope of the terrain
and implying a homogeneous underlying rock material. The
rivers are usually short and intermittent. Radial drainage pat-
terns are also evident especially on volcanic edifices. Streams
on the eastern side merge with the Pagsangahan River and
empty into Ormoc Bay. Steep slopes in the area contribute
to its highly unstable state and high channel failure potential.
The transition from a high to a moderate inclination of side
slopes along its channel indicate a continuous and progres-
sive downflow of water towards Ormoc City.
1.3 Geologic Setting
1.3.1 Regional Geology
The basement rocks of western Leyte are an ophiolitic se-
quence that includes serpentinized harzburgite, minor dunite,
cumulate and isotropic gabbro, diabase dike complex, pil-
low basalts, and pelagic sedimentary rocks. Overlying this
sequence are conglomerates, sandstones, siltstones, tuff, and
limestones. Occurrence of a turbidite sequence composed of
sandstone, siltstone, and mudstone was also reported (Corby
et al., 1951; Pilac, 1965; Jurgan, 1980; Florendo, 1984).
Central Leyte is mostly underlain by igneous rocks ow-
ing to the presence of the volcanic chain (Fig. 2b). Diorite,
andesite, basalt, dacite and pyroclastic rocks were reported
to occur in this area. In addition, sedimentary rocks such as
conglomerate, sandstone, shale, and limestone were present.
Intruding and covering older volcanics are late Pliocene to
Holocene andesitic volcanic cones and flows (Pilac, 1965;
Cabantog and Escalada, 1989; Aguilar, 1995; MGB, 2004).
A Cretaceous-aged ophiolite sequence characterized by
serpentinized harzburgites, dunites, gabbro, sheeted dikes,
basalts, pillow basalts, and pelagic sedimentary rocks can be
found in Eastern Leyte (Fig. 2a). Early Miocene sedimen-
tary rocks, composed of conglomerates, sandstones, shales
Journal of the Philippine Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society
and fine tuffaceous sequences with intercalations of vol-
canic flows, overlie older volcanic rocks. Middle Miocene
limestone interbeds have also been noted to occur within
the area, along with Late Miocene-Pliocene sandstones and
marly tuffaceous shales with basal conglomerates (Pilac,
1965; Balce and Cabantog, 1998; MMAJ-JICA, 1990; MGB,
2004).
1.3.2 Tectonic Setting
Leyte Province is transected by the Central Leyte Fault
(CLF), a segment of the Philippine Fault (PF) (Fig. 2a). The
PF is a 1,200-km-long left-lateral strike slip fault which cuts
across the Philippines. The fault was delineated by identi-
fying morphostructural and neotectonic features interpreted
from aerial photographs (Kimura et al., 1968; Aurelio, 1992;
PHIVOLCS, 2008; Tsutsumi and Perez, 2013). It is typically
manifested in fault scarps, elongated depressions, sag ponds
and compressive ridges. Mountain range offsets and drainage
system patterns also present evidence that the fault move-
ment is left-lateral although a vertical component has been
noted as well. The vertical component is evident in the north-
western Luzon segment of the fault. It is a left-lateral wrench
fault upthrust to the west by 400 meters (Allen, 1962; Rut-
land, 1968; Nakata et al., 1977; Barcelona, 1981; Pinet and
Stephan, 1990). There are 2 to 3 well-defined branches with
a curvilinear trace convex to the northeast, and striking N25-
30W (MGB, 2004). West of the CLF, the trends range from
28◦ to 42◦ , whereas east of the Philippine Fault in Leyte, the
trends have a 298◦ to 318◦ range. These are not similar to the
regional trend of the Philippine fault in Leyte which is 326◦ ,
due to the behavior of faults in a volcanic setting, in this case,
the Ancestral Mount Bao volcano. Analog sand cone exper-
iments show that a volcano displaced by a basal strike-slip
shear structure produces reverse faults, normal faults, a sum-
mit graben, and sigmoid forms, as the structures propagate
through the volcano edifice. Faults observed on the surface
of the volcano converge downwards toward the main strike-
slip fault (Lagmay et al., 2003).
Folds are also notable in Leyte, with highly folded, well-
foliated, and crenulated schists with schistose planes verg-
ing steeply to the east and to the west in the eastern Leyte
(Pilac, 1965). There is also a sedimentary sequence com-
posed of two thrust slabs that are erosional remnants of an
antiform structure having a NE trend in western Leyte (Flo-
rendo, 1987).
According to PHIVOLCS (2008), there are 18 volcanoes
within the province, although only one is potentially active–
Cancajanag–and the rest are inactive (Fig. 2a). The nearest
active volcano is Cabalian, found in the southeasternmost tip
of the island, outside the province. PHIVOLCS defines active
volcanoes as those that have historical records of eruptions
or those with eruption deposits dated in the Holocene. Poten-
tially active volcanoes are morphologically young-looking,
with well-defined and morphologically-prominent edifices,
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R.N. Eco: Landslide and debris flow susceptibility mapping of Leyte Province, Philippines
but have no historical records of eruption or Holocene-dated
eruption deposits, whereas inactive volcanoes are those that
have no historical records of eruption or Holocene-dated
eruption deposits.
1.4 Soil Series
The soils of Leyte have varied compositions, ranging from
clayey, loamy and sandy (Fig. 2b). These are categorized as
poorly drained flat lowland, moderately drained flat lowland,
well-drained flat lowland, and well-drained undulating up-
land terrain (Barrera et al., 1954).
The poorly drained soils in Leyte found in the low-lying
areas belong to the Pawing series. This soil series extends
to the inner regions at the foot of the central mountains near
Jaro and Dagami, Alangalang and Barugo to the north, and in
Abuyog to the south (Barrera et al., 1954). Pawing series is
classified as Fluventric Eutrudents, where the soil is a recent
deposit and an evidence of immature development of the soil
profile found in short meanders of rivers. The water table is
very shallow, ranging from 10 to 50 cm. Although the sub-
stratum is loose sand, the drainage is not facilitated because
of the high water table and its landscape. The surface soil,
down the depth of 10-15 cm is dark brown to reddish brown
of fine sandy loam. Soil layer reaching down of 150 cm are
found gray in color, coarse, structureless, very loose and wet
(Carating, 2014).
The moderately drained flat lowland soils belong to the
soil series of Umingan, Dagami, Mandawe, and Bantog se-
ries. These soils are found in Babatngon, Palompon, Hilon-
gos, in the alluvial soil formation on Western Leyte from Or-
moc to Baybay, in the municipality of Dagami, on the river-
banks along the Hilongos and Bangerahan Rivers, and in the
municipality of Villaba. Umingan series is moderately well-
drained deep soils with a distinct substratum of river washed
gravels with a thickness of 10 to 15 cm. It is also classified as
Fluventric Eutrudents. Its surface soils varies from pale gray
to dark gray silt loam (Carating, 2014). Dagami series is a
clay loam layer unerlain by massive sandy clay with grav-
els. The Mandawe and Bantog series are classified as fine
clayey consists of very thick and poorly drained fine clays.
The plowed surface soil layer is very dark gray with reddish
brown mottles. They also exhibit moderate soil profile devel-
opment to nearly level topography (Barrera et al., 1954).
Under well-drained flat lowland soil are the Obando,
Umingan, and Taal series. These series are developed from
marine deposition. These are found on the eastern shores
of Leyte, occupying the narrow coast from Palo to Abuyog.
These soil series has low organic matter content and a texture
that ranges from coarse sand to fine sandy loam allowing wa-
ter to freely percolate through the layer (Barrera et al., 1954).
The well-drained undulating upland terrain are divided into
noncalcareous and the calcareous soils. The noncalcareous
soils include the Guimaras, Tacloban, Guimbalon, Luisiana,
Palompon, Malitbog, and Maasin soil series. Most of these
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57
series are residual soils developed from shale and are com-
monly found in in the foothills of the eastern slope of Palo
to Babatngon range. The calcareous soil are found in Lugo
series which include the mountains of Ormoc, small areas of
Capoocan and the municipalities of Villaba, San Isidro and
Calubian (Barrera et al., 1954).
2 Methodology
2.1 Landslide Inventory
Figure 3: Landslide inventory process flow.
Mapping locations of past landslides is an important part
of landslide susceptibility mapping (Wieczorek, 1984). A
landslide inventory map gives us an idea of the distribu-
tion, type, size and morphology of landslides (Guzzetti et al.,
2012). It can be done by field mapping of landslides or a
thorough interpretation of aerial or satellite imagery. Ideally,
a landslide inventory map should also show the recurrence of
landslides which would allow for probabilistic computation
of landslide susceptibility.
For this study, we used high-resolution satellite imagery
freely accessible through Google Earth, with data provided
by Landsat, Digital Globe, NASA, SIO, NOAA, U.S. Navy,
NGA, GEBCO, CNES/Astrium, and Terrametrics. The im-
ages were manually interpreted to identify landslides, each
one marked with a point, delineated and labelled with the im-
age’s acquisition date and the type of landslide. The points
are the approximate source of the landslide based on ex-
pert interpretation. Unfortunately, the spatial and temporal
distribution of the images are not uniform throughout the
province, as such, our analysis was limited to the spatial dis-
tribution of the landslide events. These data were then used to
compare with and validate the results of the numerical mod-
els.
The recognition of deep-seated versus shallow landslides
using satellite images had been the subject of numerous stud-
ies because the principles behind them are modern, powerful
58 R.N. Eco: Landslide and debris flow susceptibility mapping of Leyte Province, Philippines
tools for landslide inventory mapping (Guzzetti et al., 2012).
The difference between shallow and deep-seated landslides,
is that fresh shallow landslides could be easily delineated us-
ing color differences between the vegetation and the land-
slide itself and they are less likely to be reactivated, therefore
they pose less risk. On the other hand, although deep-seated
landslides are usually more than 10-m deep and have very
prominent head with clearly defined main body, (Lin et al.,
2013), they can be difficult to recognize especially if they
occur at densely forested areas. Deep-seated landslides can
also be reactivated during intense events where they mobi-
lize the bedrock. Therefore, the huge landslides where the
bedrock was exposed were classified as deep-seated land-
slides while small landslides that only involved movement
of soil and weathered materials were classified as shallow
landslides (Fig. 4).
2.2 Shallow landslide susceptibility
Shallow landslide susceptibility was computed using SIN-
MAP (Stability Index MAPping), an ArcView extension de-
veloped by Pack et al. (1998) for application in a geographic
information system (GIS). It computes a factor of safety (FS)
based on the infinite-slope stability model with wetness ob-
tained from a topographically steady state hydrology model
(Hammond et al., 1992; Pack et al., 1998). The FS values
represents the ratio of destabilizing components of gravity
force against a stabilize components of cohesion and friction
on a failure plane to the surface. The model is represented by
the infinite slope equation:
h   i
C + cosθ 1 − min TR sinθ
a
, 1 r tanφ
FS = (1)
sinθ
where:
FS = factor of safety
a = topographic surface area
C = dimensionless cohesion = (Cr + C s )/hρ s g
Cr = root cohesion
C s = soil cohesion
h = soil thickness
ρ s = soil density
g = gravity constant
R = recharge
r = water density (ρw ) to soil density (ρ s ) ratio
T = soil transmissivity = soil hydraulic conductivity x h
φ = soil internal angle of friction
Journal of the Philippine Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society
θ = slope
The variables θ and a are obtained from the topography.
Topographic parameters are automatically computed from
the digital elevation model (DEM) data. Other parameters,
C (cohesion), φ (soil angle of friction), T/R (transmissivity
divided by recharge), and r (the ratio of water and soil den-
sity) are manually estimated in the model. These are the more
uncertain parameters and are set in terms of lower and up-
per bound values. The smallest C and tanφ together with
the largest R/T define the most conservative scenario within
the assumed variability in the input parameters (Pack et al.,
1998).
The factor of safety of the area defined as the Stability
Index (SI). It is the probability that a given area is stable or
unstable given the paramaters distributions and ranges of val-
ues. A FS index <1 indicates failure conditions, whereas a FS
>1 indicates stable conditions. The SINMAP model assigns
the Stability Index based on the computed factor of safety.
The SI is the numerical representation of terrain stability.
It does not predict if shallow translational slope movements
will occur, but it forecasts where they are more likely to ini-
tiate given the assumptions and input parameters used in the
analysis. The computed value of the model ranges between 0
(most unstable) and 1 (least unstable). Stability Index Table
(Table 1) is presented as broad stability classes.
According to SINMAP, areas that should not fail given the
most conservative parameter used are classified as “stable,”
“moderately stable,” and “quasi-stable.” Moreover, the terms
lower threshold and upper threshold are used for areas where,
as computed by the model, the probability of instability is
less than or greater than 50%, respectively. To induce insta-
bility in these areas, external factors are not required. Failure
may simply occur due to a combination of parameter val-
ues within the specified range. The term “defended slope” is
used to classify regions where the model is not appropriate,
or such slope are held in place by forces not represented in
the model (e.g. bedrock outcrops, man-made slope protec-
tion) (Pack et al., 1999).
For mapping purposes in Leyte province, these 6 classes
are reduced to 3 major susceptibility ratings with correspond-
ing interpretations. Class 3 (1.25 >SI 1.0) in Table 1 are clas-
sified as zones of Low Susceptibility. Class 4 (1.0 >SI >0.5)
are classified as zones of Moderate Susceptibility. Class 5
(0.5 >SI >0.0) are categorized as High Susceptibility.
In modelling process, geotechnical data are incorporated
as input parameters for the upper and lower limit values.
These are recharge of shallow groundwater system, soil
transmissivity, and other soil properties (i.e., unit weight,
depth of landslide, effective internal friction angle, and effec-
tive cohesion). Based on soil classification of Bureau of Soils
and Water Management and direct shear test from Philippine
Geo-Analytics, the dominant soil type of Leyte province is
clay and clay loam. To represent the soil type in Leyte, the
values for cohesion and φ from Hamazaki et al. (1990) corre-
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R.N. Eco: Landslide and debris flow susceptibility mapping of Leyte Province, Philippines 59

Figure 4: Example of (A) shallow landslides and (B) deep-seated landslides identified in the inventory (Image credit:
Google/Digital Globe).

Table 1: Stability Class Definitions based on computed SI

Possible Influence of factors

Condition Class Predicted State Parameter Range
not Modeled
Significant destabilizing factors
SI >1.5 1 Stable slope zone Range cannot model instability
are required for instability
Moderate destabilizing factors
1.5 >SI >1.25 2 Moderately stable zone Range cannot model instability
are required for instability
Minor destabilizing factors
1.25 >SI >1.0 3 Quasi-stable zone Range cannot model instability
could lead to instability
Lower threshold slope Pessimistic half of range Destabilizing factors are not
1.0 >SI >0.5 4
zone required for instability required for instability
Upper threshold slope Optimistic half of range Stabilizing factors may be
0.5 >SI >0.0 5
zone required for stability responsible for stability
Stabilizing factors are required
0.0>SI 6 Defended slope zone Range cannot model instability
for stability

sponding to clay to clay loam (0.606 to 1) and (18 to 26) were
adopted as an estimate. The reasonable recharge rates used in
this study have been derived from lower and upper precipita-
tion limits (i.e., 50 mm/day and 200mm/day). A 50 mm/day
rain rate was chosen as minimum rate and 200 mm/day was
used as the maximum (i.e., an extreme example of the pre-
cipitation that can produce shallow translational movement).
This range matches the maximum accumulated rainfall of
440 millimetres for a 72-hour period or 147 mm/day on av-
erage.
The outline for evaluating the landslide susceptibility map
generated by SINMAP is shown in the schematic diagram
in Figure 5. Landslide inventory data from 2002 to 2012 are
added to compare locations of predicted instability with areas

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60 R.N. Eco: Landslide and debris flow susceptibility mapping of Leyte Province, Philippines
Figure 5: Process flow of shallow landslide susceptibility
mapping using SINMAP
of actual instability and use to evaluate the accuracy of the
SINMAP model results.
2.3 Structurally-controlled landslide susceptibility
2.3.1 Lineament pattern analysis
Lineament patterns are manually delineated through mor-
phostructural interpretation of the topographic data. These
lineaments were also viewed in COLTOP-3D, a pseudo-
3D topographic analysis software that enables better visu-
alization of lineament patterns. This simultaneously repre-
sents slope aspect and dip using classical Hue Saturation
Journal of the Philippine Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society
Parameters Clay
Lower 20
T/R
Upper 200
Lower 0
Cohesion
Upper 0.8
Lower 25
Phi
Upper 35
soil 1900
Table 2: Calibration parameters used as input to SINMAP.
Value with a Schmidt-Lambert projected stereonet. Using
COLTOP-3D, preferred trends could be isolated and plotted
as rose diagrams to explain the frequency of the given ori-
entation. The resulting rose diagrams are subjected to field
validation if possible, or compared to existing literature of
the area.
2.3.2 Identification of rockslide and runout propagation
zone
Rockslide zones are the unstable slopes which are the sources
of the landslides. These were identified using Matterock-
ing software version 2.0 (2002), created by the Centre de
Recherche Sur L’environnement Alpin (CREALP). Using
the DTM of the study area and discontinuities identified in
COLTOP-3D (see subsection 2.3.1 Lineament Pattern Anal-
ysis), Matterocking locates unstable slopes that fall under
specified failure conditions (Wyllie and Mah, 2004). Fail-
ure can either be planar, from single discontinuity sets, or
wedge, from paired discontinuity sets. For planar sliding to
occur; (1) slope >dip of discontinuity, (2) orientation of slope
is within ± 20◦ of the discontinuity’s dip direction , and (3)
slope >critical 45◦ angle of failure (Baillifard et al., 2003).
Wedge failure could occur if (1) slope >dip of the line of in-
tersection of two discontinuities, (2) normal of the slope is
within ± 10◦ the direction of two discontinuities’ angle bi-
sector, and (3) slope >critical 45◦ angle of failure. Planar and
wedge failures detected by Matterocking were combined to
produce the Potential Rockslide Zone map.
Conefall is a supplementary software to Matterocking
used to determine extent and direction of the runout of the
rockslide zones. Conefall makes use of the DTM and the
rockfall sources detected by Matterocking to estimate the po-
tential propagation area of each source cell (Jaboyedoff et al.,
2003). The structural landslide propagation extent modeled
in Conefall uses the cone method and the concept of an en-
ergy line, a line that is drawn from the rockslide source to the
farthest observable deposit from the source. The energy line
makes an energy line angle or cone slope angle (φ) relative
to the horizontal, which can be computed using the equation
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R.N. Eco: Landslide and debris flow susceptibility mapping of Leyte Province, Philippines
tanφ = ∆/L, where ∆z is the elevation difference, and (L) is
the run-out distance. Conefall is governed by the relation-
ship:
0 < ∆x2 + ∆y2 − (tg(π/2 − φ))2 × (z0 − z)2 (2)
where ∆x and ∆y are the horizontal distances between the
source point and any point in the topography, and z0 and z
are the initial and final elevations. The 20◦ cone slope value
used for the computation of rock mass propagation extent
in Conefall is modelled after data gathered on an actual land-
slide event last 2006, in Guinsaugon, Southern Leyte (Catane
et al., 2007).
2.4 Alluvial fan mapping
Figure 6: Process flow of alluvial fan delineation using
IfSAR
Alluvial fans were delineated in Esri ArcGIS 10 using a
digital elevation model (DEM). Topographic features includ-
ing contour lines,watershed, slope and stream networks were
automatically generated from the DEM. Alluvial fans were
identified by slope topography from the fan apex to the fan
lateral extent, as depicted by increasing contour line spac-
ing located directly downstream of watersheds. Detected al-
luvial fans were delineated with polygons by outlining the
visible fan pattern. The assigned polygons were saved as vec-
tor files.
2.5 Debris flow simulation
Debris flows are one of the most destructive mass wasting
phenomena capable of flowing with speeds ranging from 2
to 40 kilometers per hour. It is a mixture of water and de-
bris carried by a finer matrix of mostly sand-sized sediments.
Often, it is described to have a slurry texture similar to that
of a wet concrete (Varnes, 1978; Hutchinson, 1989). Criti-
cal combination of terrain slope, water input and sediment
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61
availability is significant for the initiation of a debris flow
(Takahashi, 1981; Rickenmann and Zimmermann, 1993). In
this study, the potential extent of debris flows were simu-
lated using Flow-R, a routing software used extensively in
mud and debris flow modelling (Horton et al., 2013). A dig-
ital terrain model and its corresponding flow accumulation
data, calculated using a GIS software, are used as input for
the simulation.
For this study, we implement a modified version of the
Holmgren (1994) algorithm to compute for the flow direc-
tion. The Holmgren algorithm adds a parameter to the multi-
ple flow direction algorithm as an exponent x, as shown in the
equation below which allows the control of the divergence:

(tan βi ) x tan β > 0

pif d = P8

∀ (3)
 x ∈ [1; +∞[
j=1 (tan β j )
x 
where i, j are the flow directions, pif d the susceptibility pro-
portion in direction i, tan βi the slope gradient between the
central cell and the cell in direction i, and x the variable ex-
ponent. This algorithm was modified by changing the height
of the central cell by a factor dh. This alters the gradient val-
ues to allow smoothing of DEM roughness and production
more consistent spreading of simulated debris flows(Horton
et al., 2013). For high resolution data, a dh value of 2 m is
suggested. The spreading is similar to the multiple flow di-
rection when x=1, and as x → ∞, the divergence results into
a single flow direction (Horton et al., 2013). We use the value
x=4 for debris flows based on field and laboratory measure-
ments (Claessens et al., 2005).
The inertial algorithm used for implementing the flow pro-
portion in direction i according to the persistence of simu-
lated debris flows is proportional to weights w of the angle
between the previous direction and the direction from the
central cell to the cell i (Fig. 7). This distribution avoids
backward propagation to save on computing time. The im-
plemented weights used are the values suggested by Horton
et al. (2013) which have spreading values of 1, 0.8, 0.4, 0,
and 0 for the angles 0, 45, 90, 135, and 180, respectively.
Figure 7: Modified image from Horton et al. (2013)
illustrating the spreading of susceptibility value to the
neighboring cells.
62 R.N. Eco: Landslide and debris flow susceptibility mapping of Leyte Province, Philippines
Calculation of the runout distance follows the simplified
friction-limited model. This model is based on the maximum
possible runout distance, which is characterized by a min-
imum travel angle that connects the source area to the far-
thest point reached by the debris flow (Horton et al., 2013).
A value of 3◦ was chosen for travel angle as it best fits
the event that happened during the 2012 New Bataan, Com-
postela Valley debris flow event during Typhoon Bopha (lo-
cal name Pablo). With an estimated maximum velocity of de-
bris flow in New Bataan being 17 m/s (Lagmay et al., 2013a),
we choose a limit of 20 m/s for the simulations in this study.
3 Results
3.1 Landslide inventory
There were 280 landslides identified in Leyte between 2002
to 2014. Landslides were concentrated mostly in the elevated
regions of the province. These are at the central highlands in
Ormoc City and Jaro and the hilly terrains of San Isidro, Ta-
bango, and Leyte to the west, and Tacloban City and Tanauan
to the east. Landslides at the southern end are present in mu-
nicipalities of Mahaplag, Hindang, and Abuyog (Fig. 8).
Figure 8: Landslide inventory map of Leyte.
Journal of the Philippine Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society
In the municipalities of San Isidro and Tabango, most were
located on undulating hills that had been modified for farm-
ing and/or had experienced vegetation loss. In Merida and
Tacloban, landslides were observed on slopes near roadcuts.
Often, these roadcuts have very steep slopes, and with the
Philippine Fault and its splays cutting through most of Leyte,
the underlying rocks are often fractured and unstable. As a
result, road blockages due to landslides during typhoons may
be a recurring problem.
3.2 Shallow landslides
Results of the SINMAP model shows that the total land of
Leyte, with an area of 5,562.1 km2 , has 2.8% of the total land
area with high landslide susceptibility, 30.5% with moderate
and 8.5% with low landslide susceptibility. High suscepti-
bility areas are found mostly on the central mountain range
area. Unstable areas are concentrated in the western part of
Villaba, San Isidro and Merida which are dominantly hilly.
Low to moderate susceptibility are observed on moderately
inclined areas of the whole province. Flat areas did not reg-
ister as susceptible to landslides (Fig. 9).
3.3 Structurally-controlled landslides
3.3.1 Lineament pattern analysis
The Philippine fault traverses the central mountain ranges
of Leyte province. Along this line are conjugate shears and
corresponding splays. Manually demarcated lineaments in-
terpreted from the Leyte DTM represent these morpholog-
ical features (Fig. 10a). Location of the prominent trends
are the slopes considered as discontinuities controlling struc-
tural failure. Stereoplots of the identified sets show observ-
able similarity to a study of 44 established sinistral strike
slip fault’s rose diagram (Fig. 10b) (Abbassi and Shabanian,
1999).
3.3.2 Potential rockslide zones and propagation
Failure zones generated by Matterocking are classified as
highly susceptible areas to structurally-controlled landslide
(Fig. 11). High activity of the PF segment in the province,
with 0.55 cm/yr (Cole et al., 1989) up to 3.5 cm/yr move-
ment (Duquesnoy, 1997) tracks the line of high susceptibil-
ity in the mountain ranges of the province. Generally steep
slopes and presence of discontinuities are the main factors
that cause instability, as specified in the model. It is the case
of wedge failure that could trigger most rockslides. This is
due to the persistence of intersecting discontinuity sets. A
total of 5% of the province’s area is classified as poten-
tially unstable slopes. Large portions of the municipalities of
Leyte, Capoocan, Carigara, Jaro, Ormoc, Dagami, Albuena,
Burauen, La Paz, Baybay City, Javier, Inopacan, Mahaplag,
Abuyog, Hindang, Babatngon and Tacloban are susceptible
areas. These slopes are used as source points to propagate in
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R.N. Eco: Landslide and debris flow susceptibility mapping of Leyte Province, Philippines 63

Figure 9: Shallow Landslide Susceptibility Map of Leyte (A) with close up view on an area with identified landslides (B).
Stability Index Classification: High Susceptibility (FS = 0 to 1.0); Moderate (FS = 1.0 to 1.25); Low (FS = 1.25 to 1.5).
Susceptibility classifications based on Pack et al. (1999) default SINMAP classifications wherein the ‘Defended’ category
(bedrock outcrop) is removed, and all FS <1 is categorized as high susceptibility. FS = 1 corresponds to equilibrium of
stabilizing and destabilizing forces.

the digital terrain model. Rock mass propagation extent gen-
erated by Conefall (Fig. 11) have increased the susceptible
areas due to structural failure to 21% of the total area of the
province.
3.4 Alluvial fans and debris flows
Thirty-two alluvial fans were identified in Leyte. The largest
fan identified was located in Brgy. Taghuyan, Burauwen and
covers a total area of 24.66 km2 (Fig. 12b). This is followed
by an alluvial fan in Brgy Culasian, Capoocan with an area
of 14.96 km2 , and then the Ormoc Bajada located in Ormoc
City and Albuera covering 14.54 km2 (Fig 12a). Other fans
are located in the municipalities of Babatngon, Capoocan,
Leyte, Ormoc City, Merida, Albuera, Baybay City, Abuyog,
La Paz, and Burauwen.
The alluvial fan shapefiles together with the watershed ex-
tracted from the DTM were used to simulate debris flows
from selected catchments using Flow-R (Fig. 12). The result-
ing debris flow susceptibility map coincides with delineated
alluvial fans. The map indicates that in the event of a debris
flow, the areas covered in red will most likely be hit by one.
As Flow-R only computes for the potential flow direction and
extent, the possible volume of the debris flow cannot be esti-
mated.

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64 R.N. Eco: Landslide and debris flow susceptibility mapping of Leyte Province, Philippines

It is also important to note that the results of the simula- To have a better sense of the overall susceptibility of the area,
tion are continuously being validated in the field. Field as- we then overlay the runout extent map from Conefall with
sessment is necessary to ensure the accuracy of the debris the Unstable Slopes Map, with the runout extent superced-
flow boundaries. ing all other susceptibility levels. For brevity and also taking
Based on simulation, ten out of the 32 alluvial fans are into consideration language nuiances, we designate this sim-
susceptible to debris flows. The cities and municipalities that ply as “Landslide Hazard Map” (Fig. 14b). Both maps are
may be affected by debris flow hazards, indicated in red, are publicly accessible in the Project NOAH portal (currently at
Albuera, Baybay, Burauen, Capoocan, and La Paz (Fig. 12). http://beta.noah.dost.gov.ph).
Debris flows have significantly different mechanism than
slides. In addition, these can occur in relatively lower slopes
4 Discussion than slides; often, but not always, in alluvial fans. That there
are other hazards that can occur within alluvial fans, includ-
The inherent complexities in landslide failure and mobiliza- ing debris flows, hyper-concentrated flows, and sheet and
tion mechanisms limit the scope of what different numerical flash flooding. We merge the alluvial fan map with the de-
models can capture. For instance, SINMAP gives a good ap- bris flow susceptibility map to visualize whch part of alluvial
proximation of the overall extent of possible landslide hazard fans are most susceptible to debris flows.
areas in a given area. However, the model only takes into ac-
count susceptibility to shallow translational slides. Compar-
ing SINMAP to the landslide inventory, majority of the land-
slides in the inventory (61%) plot within the moderate sus-
ceptibility level, ony 36% are within high hazard areas. The
remaining 3% landslides were within areas with low land-
slide susceptibility (Fig. 13a).
Matterocking, on the other hand, only targets susceptibil-
ity induced by the presence of geologic structures, in this
case planar and wedge failures. Susceptibility to other types
of slides are thus not taken into account in the results. This
is reflected as well when we cross-reference the landslide
points from the inventory with the results from Matterock-
ing with 60% of the landslide points plot outside the hazard
areas (Fig. 13b). These are most likely shallow translational
slides caused by soil instability.
To address these limitations, we combine the results from
SINMAP and Matterocking to better depict the level of land-
slide susceptibility present in the area. This takes advantage
of the strengths of each model, at the same time complement-
ing what the others cannot capture. First, we designate all po-
tential rockslide zones (PRZ) from Matterocking as high sus-
ceptibility areas. Engineering interventions for structurally-
controlled instabilities can difficult and expensive, and often
deep-seated similar to the 2006 Guinsaugon rockslide-debris
avalanche (Catane et al., 2007). We then overlay the PRZ
map with the SINMAP stability index (SI) map. For overlap-
ping areas, the PRZ supercedes the moderate and low suscep-
tible areas from the SI map. Since both SINMAP and Mat-
terocking depict potential initiation points of slope failure,
we designate this map as “Unstable Slopes Map” (Fig. 14a).
With this map, more landslide points plot within high hazard
areas (Fig. 13c).
Conefall describes another dimension of landslides as it
depicts the potential runout extent of materials. This is cru-
cial since there are other areas that have lower or even no sus-
ceptibility based on SINMAP and Matterocking but may still
be in danger from falling or sliding landslide materials. We
therefore designate these areas as having high susceptibility.

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R.N. Eco: Landslide and debris flow susceptibility mapping of Leyte Province, Philippines 65

Figure 10: (A) Lineament analysis of Leyte Province (C) Coltop and Rose Diagrams of Leyte Province.

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R.N. Eco: Landslide and debris flow susceptibility mapping of Leyte Province, Philippines

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Journal of the Philippine Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society
Figure 11: (A) Potential rockslide zones identified by Matterocking and (B) rock mass propagation extent delineated by Conefall. Inset is zoomed in view of the
results with potential rockslide zones in red and mass propagation extent colored orange.
66
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R.N. Eco: Landslide and debris flow susceptibility mapping of Leyte Province, Philippines

Figure 12: Alluvial fans identified with debris flow susceptibility map in Leyte. Most of the delineated alluvial fans are susceptible to debris flow. The municipalities

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67

that may be affected by debris flows are Capoocan (B), Ormoc City and southern part of Albuera (D), Baybay City (E), Burauen and La Paz (F). Results for
Babatngon and Tacloban City (A), Merida and Isabel (C), and northern part of Albuera (D) suggest that they may not susceptible to debris flows.
R.N. Eco: Landslide and debris flow susceptibility mapping of Leyte Province, Philippines

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Journal of the Philippine Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society
Figure 13: Percentage and number of landslide points from the inventory per susceptibility level (SINMAP, Matterocking, and SINMAP+Matterocking). Most
points fall under moderate susceptibility (61% and 49% for SINMAP and SINMAP+Matterocking, respectively). All identified points are within susceptible areas
and none in stable ones except for the Matterocking model which only classifies high susceptible areas
68
R.N. Eco: Landslide and debris flow susceptibility mapping of Leyte Province, Philippines 69

Figure 14: (A) Unstable Slopes Map and (B) Landslide Hazard Map of Leyte as seen on the Project NOAH website. Insets
show a zoomed in view of the maps.

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70 R.N. Eco: Landslide and debris flow susceptibility mapping of Leyte Province, Philippines
5 Conclusions
The results derived from the high-resolution shallow land-
slide, debris flow, alluvial fan and deep-seated landslide
models enabled the identification of areas that are safe from
landslide hazards. Integrating different landslide susceptibil-
ity models improved the amount of actual landslides cap-
tured, but at the same time still identifying safe areas. In this
study, we found that not all landslides occur at high suscepti-
bility areas. Many of these events were located in areas iden-
tified as having moderate and low susceptibility. These may
be areas where the slope can be stabilized so as to minimize
the chances of slope failure.
Landslide hazard maps, when combined with other haz-
ard maps such as flood and storm surge maps, can be used to
identify locations that are favorable for development. Criti-
cal facilities such as hospitals and evacuation centers should
be situated in areas that are accessible and least likely to be
affected by hazards. The use of these maps can facilitate the
visualization and deeper understanding of possible disaster
scenarios and serve as a guide in hazard preparedness and
mitigation. Incorporating more observations from field sur-
veys will help improve characterization of landslide suscep-
tibility in the area.
6 Acknowledgements
We would like to thank NAMRIA for the high-resolution
topographic data, BSWM for the soil data and map. Criti-
cal comments from Tatum Miko Herrero, Hillel Cabria and
Claudia Corazzato vastly improved the manuscript.
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