Industrial Crops and Products 41 (2013) 319–323

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Industrial Crops and Products

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/indcrop

Optimisation of a method to extract the active coagulant agent from Jatropha

curcas seeds for use in turbidity removal
Zurina Z. Abidin a,b,∗ , Nur S. Mohd Shamsudin a , Norhafizah Madehi a , Shafreeza Sobri a
a
Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
b
Institute of Advanced Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: An improved and alternative method for the extraction of the active coagulant agent from Jatropha curcas
Received 30 January 2012 seeds was developed and compared with the conventional water extraction method (JCSC-DW). In the
Received in revised form 2 May 2012 new method, the seeds were extracted using different solvents in different concentrations, using NaCl
Accepted 5 May 2012
(JCSC-NaCl) and NaOH (JCSC-NaOH) to extract the active coagulant agent from the Jatropha. In addition,
ultrasound was investigated as a potential method to assist the extraction process. Batch coagulation
Keywords:
experiments were conducted to evaluate the performance of the extracted coagulant achieved through
Coagulation
various schemes. The effects of the dosage, pH and concentration of solvents were investigated for opti-
Coagulant
Jatropha curcas
mum turbidity removal at different values of initial synthetic wastewater turbidity from 50 to 500 NTU.
Turbidity JCSC-NaCl at 0.5 M was found to provide a high turbidity removal of >99% compared to JCSC-DW and
Extraction JCSC-NaOH at pH 3 using 120 mg/l of the coagulant agent. Among these three solvents, NaOH demon-
Wastewater strated the lowest performance in turbidity removal. The conventional extraction method of the active
coagulant agent by blending the seeds in solvents for 2 min alone sufficiently extracts most of the coag-
ulant component from the Jatropha seed and provides up to 99.4% turbidity removal. Blending assisted
by ultrasound demonstrated comparable turbidity removal in a shorter period of time and thus showed
a potential to be used on a larger scale. Analysis was undertaken to determine the protein content as this
is believed to be the coagulating agent. It was found that extraction of the coagulant agent using NaCl
yielded more protein compared to when using water and NaOH.
© 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction as acrylamide have neurotoxic and carcinogenic effects (Mallevialle

The application of a coagulation/flocculation process is applied
in water and wastewater treatment to remove turbidity, colour
and natural organic matter (Aboulhassan et al., 2006; Chang et al.,
2009). Inorganic coagulants (e.g. aluminium sulphate, ferric chlo-
ride and calcium carbonate) and synthetic organic polymers (e.g.
polyaluminium chloride (PACI) and polyethylene imine) are com-
mon coagulants used in this treatment. Among all the available
coagulants, including other inorganic and organic chemicals, alu-
minium salts are the most widely used worldwide because of their
effectiveness and competitive cost (Okuda et al., 1999). However,
the sludge obtained from treatments using aluminium salts leads
to disposal, problems, such as aluminium accumulation in the envi-
ronment (Pillai and Divakaran, 2002). Moreover, some studies have
reported that residual aluminium sulphate (alum) and polyalu-
minium chloride may induce Alzheimer’s disease (Flaten, 2001;
Martyn et al., 1989), whereas the synthetic organic polymers, such
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +60 3 8946 4371; fax: +60 3 8656 7120.
E-mail address: zurina@eng.upm.edu.my (Z.Z. Abidin).
et al., 1987).
One possible solution to these problems may be in the devel-
opment of new coagulants which are preferably extracted from
natural and renewable sources, such as microorganisms, animals
or plants. These coagulants must be safe for human health and
biodegradable. In recent years, numerous studies on a variety of
plant materials which can be used as sources of natural coagu-
lants have been reported. For example, natural coagulants from
Calostropis procera (Okonku and Shittu, 2007), Nirmali seed and
maize (Raghuwanshi et al., 2002), mesquite bean and Cactus lat-
ifaria (Diaz et al., 1999), Cassia angustifolia seed (Sanghi et al.,
2002), different leguminous species (Antov et al., 2010) and chest-
nut (Sciban et al., 2009) have been investigated. The material which
has received the greatest degree of attention is the seed of Moringa
oleifera (Antov et al., 2010; Ndabigengesere et al., 1995; Madrona
et al., 2011; Okuda et al., 1999; Nkurunziza et al., 2009).
Jatropha curcas is a shrub or tree belonging to the Euphorbiaceae
family. The seed and presscake (waste after oil extraction) are
believed to contain an active coagulant agent which can be used
in wastewater treatment (Abidin et al., 2011; Makkar et al., 1997).
This same coagulant agent derived from Jatropha carcas seed and
presscake has been reported to exhibit a strong coagulative as well

0926-6690/$ – see front matter © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2012.05.003
320 Z.Z. Abidin et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 41 (2013) 319–323
as a disinfectant effect, comparable to alum (Abidin et al., 2011;
Pritchard et al., 2009). Previous study reported a 99% turbidity
removal in synthetic wastewater when using J. curcas seed dis-
solved in distilled water at pH 3 at a dosage of 120 mg/l (Abidin et al.,
2011). These results support the ability of J. curcas as a potential
coagulant agent.
In this study, the aim is to improve the extraction process of
the coagulant agent from J. curcas. Since the active coagulant agent
in the J. curcas seed is believed to be a soluble cationic protein
(Abidin et al., 2011), it is of interest to investigate coagulant agent
extraction using different types of solvents, such as NaCl, NaOH
and water. In addition, previous research has also make use of ultra-
sound treatment in order to improve the extraction process (Sayyar
et al., 2011). Thus, the use of ultrasound-assisted extraction was
also employed in this study to improve the extraction efficiency.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Preparation of kaolin synthetic wastewater
In this study, samples of synthetic turbid water were prepared
by adding a stock kaolin suspension to tap water for all coagulation
experiments. The stock kaolin suspension was prepared by dissolv-
ing 10 g of kaolin powder in 1 L of distilled water. The suspension
was stirred slowly at 20 rpm for 1 h to achieve uniform dispersion of
the kaolin particles. The suspension was then permitted to stand for
24 h to allow for complete hydration of the kaolin. This suspension
was used as a stock solution for the preparation of water samples
of varying turbidity for the coagulation tests. Three groups of tur-
bidity were considered, namely; low turbidity (50 NTU), medium
turbidity (100 and 200 NTU) and high turbidity (500 NTU). The stock
kaolin suspension was diluted using tap water and the initial pH
was adjusted with 1 M sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or 1 M hydrochlo-
ric acid (HCl) to obtain the desired values of turbidity and pH for
the synthetic turbid water.
2.2. Preparation of J. curcas seed powder
The husk of the J. curcas seeds was removed manually. Good
quality seeds were selected and the kernels were ground to a fine
powder (63–500 ␮m) using an ordinary food processor. The J. curcas
powder was then used in each experiment.
2.3. Preparation of J. curcas seed coagulant
2.3.1. Conventional blending extraction method
5000 mg of J. curcas powder was blended with 100 ml of solvent
using an ordinary food processor (Model BL 333, Khind) for 2 min
to extract the active coagulation agent from the J. curcas seeds. The
solvents used were distilled water (DW), sodium chloride (NaCl) at
concentrations of 0.01 M, 0.05 M, 0.1 M, 0.5 M and 1.0 M and sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) at concentrations of 0.005 M, 0.01 M, 0.05 M and
0.1 M. The solvent concentration selection was based on prelimi-
nary laboratory results. The suspension was filtered through muslin
cloth and the filtrate solution was used in a subsequent jar floc
test. To prevent any ageing effects, such as changes in pH, viscosity
and coagulation activity due to microbial decomposition of organic
compounds during storage, fresh coagulant agent was prepared and
used immediately for each sequence of experiments.
2.3.2. Ultrasound-assisted extraction method
Similarly, 5000 mg of J. curcas powder was mixed with 100 ml of
solvent in a 250 ml beaker. These experiments were only performed
at the optimum concentration of the solvent (0.5 M NaCl, 0.05 M
NaOH and distilled water) which was determined in the earlier
part of the study. The powder and solvent mixture was immersed
in an ultrasonic cleaning bath (Model: Branson 1510) and simulta-
neously blended using a hand mixer (Moulinex) for 1 min, 2 min,
5 min, 10 min and 15 min. This experiment was conducted at 28 ◦ C
using an ultrasonic wavelength of 42 kHz. The resulting suspension
was collected at each time point (1, 2, 5, 10 and 15 min) and filtered
through muslin cloth. Again the filtrate was used in a subsequent
jar floc test.
2.4. Coagulation experiments
The jar test was performed to evaluate the performance of
the coagulant agent extracted from the various processes as
described above based on standard methods (Okuda et al., 1999;
Ndabigengesere et al., 1995; Abidin et al., 2011). Six 1 l beakers
were filled with 500 ml of kaolin suspension and placed in the slots
of a jar tester which was equipped with an illuminator. Various
dosages of J. curcas seed extract were added to each beaker and
agitated for 4 min at 100 rpm for rapid mixing. The mixing speed
was reduced to 40 rpm for another 25 min. All the suspensions were
then left for sedimentation. After 30 min of sedimentation, the clar-
ified samples were collected from the top of the beaker and filtered
using muslin cloth to remove any remaining sediment. The turbid-
ity of each clarified sample was then measured using a turbidimeter
(HachTurbidimeter Model 2100 N).
The coagulation experiments were investigated with respect to
the effect of pH, dosage, types of solvent used for extraction, initial
turbidity and also the use of ultrasound. The pH was varied from pH
1 to 12 while the dosages of Jatropha seed were studied from 20 to
160 mg/l. The initial turbidity was investigated from 50 to 500 NTU
and three types of solvent namely NaOH, NaCl and distilled water
were employed. The ultrasound treatment was varied from 1 to
15 min at a fixed wavelength of 42 kHz. These parameters were
varied one at a time to identify the optimum conditions for each
parameter. All the experiments were repeated at least twice for
consistency, and the results averaged.
2.5. Determination of protein content in coagulant extractant
The active coagulant agent was believed to be protein (Abidin
et al., 2011). Here, the active component was purified using the
method by Sevag and dialysis as described by Okuda et al. (1999).
5 ml of chloroform and butanol mixture (5:1) were added to 1 ml
of the extractant solution (obtained after blending and filtering
with muslin cloth). This mixture was shaken in a rotary shaker for
30 min. This was followed by centrifugation to separate the aqueous
layer from the gel and organic solvents. This process was repeated
until no gel was formed. Next the sample was subjected to a dial-
ysis process using cellulose tubing with a MW cutoff 12–14 kDa to
remove low MW impurities. Distilled water was used for the exter-
nal solution of the tube and changed during the dialysis period.
The protein content of the extract was estimated by the method
of Bradford using bovine serum albumin as a standard (Bradford,
1976).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Effects of using different solvents as the extracting agent of
the coagulant from J. curcas seeds
In order to study the improvement of the extraction process
and hence the amount of coagulant agent extracted from the seeds,
different molar concentrations of NaCl and NaOH were used.
Fig. 1 shows the effects of using different NaCl concentrations
on the turbidity percentage removal of synthetic wastewater. The
investigation was conducted at pH 3 and a dosage of 120 mg/l, as
determined in previous work (Abidin et al., 2011).
 Z.Z. Abidin et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 41 (2013) 319–323
Fig. 1. Effects of using different concentrations of NaCl for extracting the coagulant
agent from Jatropha seeds against the percentage turbidity removal of synthetic
wastewater at turbidity values of 50–500 NTU.
Turbidity removal was found to increase as the salt concentra-
tion increased until up to 0.5 M. Similar trends were also observed
for all other initial turbidity values of the synthetic wastewater
studied. This meant that as the concentration of NaCl increased,
more coagulant agent was extracted from the seed and thus dis-
solved in the extracting solvent. This phenomenon is known as
the salting-in effect (Nelson and Cox, 2008; Voet and Voet, 1990).
Since the coagulant agent is a protein, when the salt concentration
increased the solubility of the coagulant agent and hence its con-
centration in the solution also increased. More coagulant agent in
solution means more coagulation activity can occur, thus leading to
a higher percentage removal of turbidity. Above 0.5 M, the percent-
age turbidity removal started to decrease as the NaCl concentration
increased. This was attributed to the salting-out effect whereby the
solubility of proteins decreases with salt concentration (Nelson and
Cox, 2008; Voet and Voet, 1990). The percentage removal increased
as the initial turbidity increased. JCSC-0.5 M NaCl showed a greater
percentage reduction in turbidity (99.4%) at a higher initial tur-
bidity (500 NTU) of the wastewater. For a lower turbidity (50 NTU)
and in the medium range of 100 and 200 NTU, at 0.5 M, the percent-
age turbidity removal was approximately 96.8%, 97.9% and 98.9%,
respectively. The ability of the coagulant to work at higher turbid-
ity ranges reflected its versatility to treat various wastewaters. The
optimum concentration to enhance the solubility of the coagula-
tion agent from the J. curcas seeds was 0.5 M and this lead to an
improved coagulation activity.
Fig. 2 shows the percentage turbidity removal using different
concentrations of NaOH for extracting the coagulant agent from
seeds at different initial turbidity values of the synthetic wastewa-
ter. Here, the range of NaOH concentrations used was 0.005–0.1 M.
When the concentration of NaOH solution increased, the
Fig. 2. Effects of using different concentrations of NaOH for extracting the coagulant
agent from Jatropha seeds against the percentage turbidity removal of synthetic
wastewater at turbidity values of 50–500 NTU.
321
Fig. 3. Effects of Jatropha curcas seed coagulant (JCSC) extracted with 0.5 M NaCl
(JCSC-0.5 M NaCl), 0.05 M NaOH (JCSC-0.05 M NaOH) and distilled water (JCSC-DW).
coagulation efficiency of the wastewater also increased until it
reached an optimum level at 0.05 M. After that, the percentage
removal started to decrease. A similar behaviour was observed for
all turbidity values of wastewater studied. The decrease in coag-
ulation activity upon reaching the optimum level suggested that
some protein may be denatured at NaOH concentrations higher
than 0.1 M and hence this reduced the protein solubility in the crude
extract solution (Lestari et al., 2010). These results were similar to
those obtained when using NaCl as the extracting solvent.
Fig. 2 also shows that higher initial turbidity values gave better
percentages of turbidity removal. This again indicates its compati-
bility with a higher range of turbidity levels. Under the conditions
of JCSC-0.05 M NaOH, for an initial turbidity value of 500 NTU, the
percentage reduction was approximately 91.4%. However, at 50,
100 and 200 NTU, the percentage of maximum turbidity removal
decreased to 67.0%, 74.9% and 81.4%, respectively, using JCSC-
0.05 M NaOH. In this case, 0.05 M NaOH solution can be considered
as the optimum concentration to enhance the solubility of the
active coagulation agent from the J. curcas seeds for an improved
coagulation performance.
In the determination of the best solvent to be used for the extrac-
tion of the active coagulant agent from J. curcas seeds, the effects of
JCSC-0.5 M NaCl and JCSC-0.05 M NaOH were compared with JCSC-
DW. Fig. 3 shows the turbidity removal of synthetic wastewater
using these three types of coagulants. At 500 NTU, JCSC-DW and
JCSC-0.5 M NaCl could effectively coagulate more than 99% of the
initial turbidity, while the JCSC-0.05 M NaOH provided 91.4% tur-
bidity removal. Seeds extracted using NaCl demonstrated a greater
performance compared to the other solvents.
3.2. Effects of pH and coagulant dosage on JCSC-0.5 M NaCl and
JCSC-0.05 M NaOH
Fig. 4 illustrates the effects of pH on turbidity removal using
JCSC-0.5 M NaCl and JCSC-0.05 M NaOH in comparison to JCSC-DW.
As the pH increased, the percentage turbidity removal decreased.
The highest turbidity removal using JCSC-0.5 M NaCl, JCSC-0.05 M
NaOH and JCSC-DW was observed to occur at pH 3 with a percent-
age of turbidity removal of approximately 99.4%, 91.4% and 99%,
respectively. This is in agreement with a previous study (Abidin
et al., 2011) in which it was found that Jatropha coagulant agent
is efficient under acidic conditions, especially at pH 3. A significant
reduction in turbidity removal (<60%) was observed for JCSC-0.05 M
NaOH and JCSC-DW when the pH was increased beyond 4. In com-
parison, JCSC-0.5 M NaCl exhibits better turbidity removal under
alkaline conditions for which the percentage removal was on aver-
age greater than 80%.
322 Z.Z. Abidin et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 41 (2013) 319–323
Table 1
The effects of using conventional blending and ultrasound-assisted extraction methods on the coagulation activity of synthetic wastewater using pH 3 and 120 mg/l coagulant
dosage.
Extraction method Blending (no ultrasound)
Optimum blending time 2 min
Extracting solvent DW 0.5 M NaCl
Turbidity removal (%) 99.0 99.4
Sludge volume (ml sludge/ml treated wastewater) 0.0052 0.005
Sedimentation time (min)
Fig. 4. Effects of pH on turbidity removal at an initial turbidity value of 500 NTU
of synthetic wastewater using Jatropha curcas seed coagulant (JCSC) extracted with
distilled water (JCSC-DW), 0.5 M NaCl (JCSC-0.5 M NaCl) and 0.05 M NaOH (JCSC-
0.05 M NaOH).
Fig. 5 depicts the results for the effects of coagulant dosage
on turbidity removal at an initial turbidity of 500 NTU. It is clear
that the maximum turbidity removal for JCSC-0.5 M NaCl, JCSC-
0.05 M NaOH and JCSC-DW were observed when using a dosage
of 120 mg/l. This conforms to a previous study (Abidin et al., 2011).
Therefore, 120 mg/l can be considered to be the optimum coagulant
dosage for treating this type of synthetic wastewater regardless of
the type of solvent used.
3.3. Effects of using an ultrasound-assisted extraction method
Fig. 6 shows the effects of using combined blending and ultra-
sound for extracting the active coagulant agent from J. curcas seeds
with different solvents. The longer the seed was subjected to the
combination treatment, the less was the turbidity removal from
the synthetic wastewater. The maximum turbidity reduction for
JCSC-DW, JCSC-0.5 M NaCl and JCSC-0.05 M NaOH were observed
at minute 2, with percentages of turbidity removal of 99.1%, 99.4%
and 91.2%, respectively. When the treatment time was increased
Fig. 5. Effects of coagulant dosage on turbidity removal at an initial turbidity value
of 500 NTU of synthetic wastewater using Jatropha curcas seed coagulant (JCSC)
extracted with distilled water (JCSC-DW), 0.5 M NaCl (JCSC-0.5 M NaCl) and 0.05 M
NaOH (JCSC-0.05 M NaOH).
Blending (with ultrasound)
1 min
0.05 M NaOH DW 0.5 MNaCl 0.05 MNaOH
91.4 99.1 99.4 91.2
0.0036 0.0052 0.005 0.004
30
from 2 to 15 min, the percentage of turbidity reduction using the
JCSC-DW and JCSC-0.5 M NaCl solutions were between 97.0% and
98.9%, while the percentage of turbidity reduction using JCSC-
0.05 M NaOH was between 86.6% and 89.3%. Again, prolonged
exposure to the treatment may eventually destroy the structure
of the coagulant agent and hence its ability to function in the coag-
ulation process. The combined blending and ultrasound-assisted
extraction method generated a greater force for cell disruption to
occur and thus eased the pathway for the coagulant agent to emerge
from the seed and dissolve into the solution. The performance of
these two methods is tabulated in Table 1. One minute of blend-
ing using the ultrasound treatment yielded a similar coagulation
performance compared to the 2 min blending alone. The ability to
shorten the processing time and to achieve a similar coagulation
performance can have a great influence, especially when dealing
with larger quantities.
In addition, as given in Table 1, the sludge volume produced
from both JCSC-DW and JCSC-NaCl (around 0.005 ml sludge per ml
treated wastewater) is more than the sludge volume produced by
JCSC-NaOH (0.0036 ml/ml). This is as expected since more particles
are removed (high % turbidity removal) from the synthetic wastew-
ater using JCSC-NaCl and JCSC-DW compared to JCSC-NaOH. The
sedimentation time taken for the flocs to settle at the bottom is
30 min and this is shorter than the time taken by alum (Abidin et al.,
2011).
Since the active coagulant agent is believed to be cationic pro-
tein, the protein content of the extractant was analysed and the
results are shown in Table 2. The amount of protein extracted
by using 0.5 M NaCl is greater than the protein content extracted
using distilled water and 0.05 M NaOH as the solvent. NaCl suit-
ability to extract more coagulant agent to dissolve into the solution
may be due to the salt-in effect at low salt concentrations and
the salt-out effect at high salt concentrations that increase the
protein-protein dissociations and protein solubility in the solution
(Okuda et al., 1999; Voet and Voet, 1990) compared to other sol-
vents. Similar findings by several researchers (Okuda et al., 1999;
Ali et al., 2010; Madrona et al., 2011) have also been reported for
optimising the extraction of coagulant agent from Moringa oleifera.
Fig. 6. Effects of the duration of combined blending and ultrasound treatment on
the extraction of the active coagulation agent from Jatropha curcas seeds.
 Z.Z. Abidin et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 41 (2013) 319–323
Table 2
Concentration of protein extracted using different solvents and methods.
Extraction method Sample Protein
concentration
(mg/ml)
Blending 2 min (no ultrasound) JCSC-DW 2.058
JCSC-0.5 M NaCl 5.330
JCSC-0.05 M NaOH 1.44
Blending with ultrasound for 1 min JCSC-DW 2.118
JCSC-0.5 M NaCl 5.351
JCSC-0.05 M NaOH 1.56
Blending for 1 min (half the time from the conventional method)
with ultrasound assistance also gave a comparable amount of
protein and exhibited similar coagulation efficiency as com-
pared to the extractant obtained from the conventional blending
method.
Adopting the conventional extraction method for the extraction
of the active coagulant agent from J. curcas seeds was found to be
sufficient and effective to provide a good yield of extracted coagu-
lant and thus gave satisfactory coagulation performance, although
the process of extraction takes longer. The use of ultrasound may
incur extra operational cost in terms of energy usage and power
consumption and thus industry might not be so keen to invest in
the necessary equipment and running costs.
4. Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to improve the coagulant extrac-
tion method of the active coagulant agent from J. curcas seeds. JCSC
extracted using NaCl solution was found to extract more coagu-
lant agent and thus enhance turbidity removal in the coagulation
process compared to JCSC extracted by distilled water and NaOH.
The J. curcas demonstrated flexibility to cater for a wide range of
initial turbidity values and gave a reasonable turbidity percentage
removal. The utilisation of ultrasound assistance in the coagulant
extraction process resulted in a shorter extraction period to pro-
duce a comparable percentage turbidity removal in comparison
to the conventional extraction method. However, from the eco-
nomic point of view, the conventional extraction method is cheaper
than the ultrasound-assisted extraction method since less energy
is required for its operation.
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