Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 20 (2014) 1727–1731

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Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry

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Removal of turbidity from drinking water using natural coagulants

G. Muthuraman *, S. Sasikala
Department of Chemistry, Presidency College, Chennai 600 005, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: The ability of three plant materials, seeds such as Moringa oleifera, Strychnos potatorum and Phaseolus
Received 16 March 2013 vulgaris, to act as natural coagulants was tested using synthetic turbid water formulated to resemble the
Accepted 19 August 2013 drinking water. An improved and alternative method for the extraction of the active coagulant agent M.
Available online 30 August 2013
oleifera, S. potatorum, P. vulgaris seeds was developed and compared with the conventional water
extraction method. In the new method the seeds were extracted using different solvents of NaCl and
Keywords: NaOH to extract the active coagulant agent from natural coagulants. In addition, ultrasound was
Coagulation
investigated as a potential method to assist the extraction process. Batch coagulation experiments were
Moringa oleifera
Strychnos potatorum
conducted to evaluate the performance of the extracted coagulant achieved through various schemes.
Phaseolus vulgaris The optimum turbidity removal at different values of initial synthetic wastewater turbidity from 100 to
Turbidity 500 NTU was investigated. Sodium chloride at 0.5 M was found to provide a high turbidity removal of
>99% compared to NaOH and distilled water extract. Among these three coagulant M. oleifera seed
extracts is the highest performance in turbidity removal. The optimum coagulant dosage showed the
coagulation with blended coagulant M. oleifera, S. potatorum and P. vulgaris. The study was carried out for
initial turbidity of the sample such as 100 NTU (low), 250 NTU (medium) and 500 NTU (high). For the
natural coagulant dosage was found to be 250–1000 mg/L respectively. It was found that the percentage
of removal is highest in M. oleifera.
ß 2013 Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of The Korean Society of Industrial and Engineering
Chemistry.

1. Introduction
A great problem in many developing countries is to get clean
drinking water at low price. This can be normally solved by adding
chemical coagulants such as aluminum sulfate which is generally
at a high cost. The application of a coagulation/flocculation process
is applied in water, wastewater treatment to remove turbidity,
color and natural organic matter [1,2]. Inorganic coagulants such as
aluminum sulfate, ferric chloride and calcium carbonate and
synthetic organic polymer (polyaluminium chloride (PACl) poly-
ethylene imine) are common coagulant used in this treatment.
However the sludge obtained from treatments using aluminum
salts leads to disposal problems such as aluminum accumulation in
the environment [3]. Moreover, some studies have reported that
residual aluminum sulfate (alum) and polyaluminium chloride
may induce Alzhemier’s disease [4,5]. Whereas the synthetic
organic polymers, such as acrylamide, have neurotoxic and
carcinogenic effects [6]. One possible solution to these problems
may be natural coagulants which are preferably alternative
excellent method for removal of turbidity from drinking water.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +90 044 28544894; fax: +90 044 28510732.
E-mail address: ramam.gm@gmail.com (G. Muthuraman).
These coagulants must be safe for human health and biodegrad-
able.
In recent years, numerous studies on a variety of plant materials
which can be used as source of natural coagulants have been
reported. For example natural coagulants from Moringa oleifera
(drumstick) [7], common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) [8] and Nirmali
seed (Strychnos potatorum) [9,10] have been investigated. The
material that has received the greatest degree of attention is the
seed of M. oleifera [11–13]. M. oleifera seeds contain between 30%
and 35% (w/w) of vegetable oil known as Behen (or) Ben oil. M.
oleifera (drumstick) treatment due to the presence of water soluble
cationic coagulant protein is able to reduce the turbidity of the
water treated [14]. The seed extracts of S. potatorum (Nirmali)
contain the anionic polyelectrolyte [15]. The crude extracts of
common bean (P. vulgaris) seed showed ability to act as a natural
coagulant [16].
The common bean seed has a food grade nature and contains no
oil [17]. The three agro based seeds M. oleifera (drumstick), S.
potatorum (Nirmali), and P. vulgaris (common bean) are non-toxic
and effective coagulant aids useful for removing turbidity and
bacteria from water. In this study the aim is to improve the
coagulant agent from M. oleifera, P. vulgaris and S. potatorum. Since
the active coagulant agent in the M. oleifera seed is believed to be a
soluble cationic protein [18–20], it is of interest to investigate

1226-086X/$ – see front matter ß 2013 Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of The Korean Society of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2013.08.023
1728 G. Muthuraman, S. Sasikala / Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 20 (2014) 1727–1731
coagulant agent extraction using the different type of solvent, such
as NaCl, NaOH and water. In addition previous research has also
made use of ultrasound treatment in order to improve the
extraction method [21]. The advantage of selectivity of natural
coagulants used is having antimicrobial properties [22,23]. The
natural coagulants is the low cost method for removal of turbidity
from drinking water. In the present study we collected pond water
and used various naturally available seeds for removal of turbidity.
2. Experiments
2.1. Materials
Sulfuric acid (98%), glycerol (95%), hydrochloric acid (35.4%),
ethyl alcohol (95%), and silver nitrate (99.5%) were obtained from
Merck (India).
2.2. Apparatus and measurements
Turbidity was measured using a turbidity meter (ELICO CL 52D
NEPHELOMETER) and it was expressed in nephelometric turbidity
units (NTU). pH is measured using a pH meter (ELICO LI 120 pH
metre). Analytical instrument (ELICO PE 135 DO Analyser) was
used to determine the dissolved oxygen. Conductivity meter
(ELICO CM 180) was used to measure the water conductivity,
sulfate and chloride concentration was determined according to
standard titrimetric methods (APHA-2012), using (ELICO SL 159)
UV–Vis spectrophotometer.
2.3. Preparation of kaolin synthetic wastewater
In this study, synthetic turbid water was prepared by adding
kaolin a stock kaolin suspension to distilled water for all
coagulation experiments. The stock kaolin suspension was
prepared by dissolving 10 g of kaolin powder in 1 L of distilled
water. The suspension was stirred slowly at 20 rpm for 1 h to
achieve uniform dispersion of the kaolin particles. The suspension
was then permitted to stand for 24 h to allow for complete
hydration of the kaolin. This suspension was used as a stock
solution for the preparation of water samples of varying turbidity
for the coagulations tests. The initial pH was adjusted with 0.1 M
NaOH (or) 0.1 M HCl to obtain desired values of turbidity and pH
for the synthetic turbid water.
2.4. Preparation of natural coagulants seed powder
Sample 1: M. oleifera.
Sample 2: S. potatorum.
Sample 3: P. vulgaris.
These husks of the three seeds were removed manually. Good
quality seeds were selected and the kernels were ground to a fine
powder (63–500 mm) using an ordinary food processor. The seed
powder was then used in each experiment.
2.5. Extraction of active component from seed
Natural coagulants were obtained from three types of seed:
Sample 1: M. oleifera.
Sample 2: S. potatorum.
Sample 3: P. vulgaris.
Seeds were ground and sieved through the sieve pore size of
0.4 mm. 250 mg of seed powder was blended with 1000 mL of
solvent using an ordinary food processor (Model BL333, Khind) for
2 min to extract the active coagulation agent from the seeds. The
solvents used were distilled water (DW), sodium chloride (NaCl)
and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution. The solvent concentration
selection was based on preliminary laboratory results. The
suspension was filtered through a filter paper and the filtrate
solution was used in a subsequent jar floc test. To prevent any
aging effects, such as pH and coagulation activity due to microbial
decomposition of organic compounds during storage, fresh
coagulants agent was prepared and used immediately for each
sequence of experiments.
2.6. Coagulation experiments
The jar test was performed to evaluate the performance of the
coagulants agent extracted from the various processes as described
above based on standard methods. Six 500 mL beakers were filled
with 200 mL of turbidity water and placed in the slots of a jar tester
which was equipped with an illuminator.
Various dosages of seed extracts were added to each beaker and
agitated for 4 min at 100 rpm for rapid mixing. The mixing speed
was reduced to 40 rpm for another 25 min. All the suspensions
were then left for sedimentation; the clarified samples were
collected from the top of the beaker and filtered using filter paper
to remove any remaining sediment. The turbidity of each clarified
sample was then measured using turbidity meter. The initial
turbidity was studied from 100 to 500 NTU and three types of
solvent namely NaOH, NaCl and distilled water were employed.
These parameters were varied one at a time to identify the
optimum conditions for each parameter. All the experiments were
repeated at least twice for consistency and results averaged.
2.7. Settling column test
Settling column tests is carried out using the optimum dosage
of coagulants to see the turbidity removal efficiency at different
settling time. Also the effect of different types of coagulants used
for the effective sedimentation and settlement characteristics of
the turbid water of different type of initial turbidity samples,
diameters of settling columns are studied. The settling column test
was carried out for no coagulant and for different types of
coagulants M. oleifera [drumstick], P. vulgaris [common bean], and
S. potatorum [Nirmali]. The optimum dosage found in the jar test is
used in this settling columns test, which depends upon the settling
columns. Dose calculation required for that particular volume of a
settling column was carried out. The optimum dosages are added
in the settling column and at a constant time interval the samples
are drawn from the sampling ports of settling column and their
turbidity is measured. The measured turbidities of each sample
from each sampling port at constant time are tabulated.
3. Result and discussion
3.1. Physicochemical characteristics of turbidity water given in
Table 1
The physicochemical characteristics such as turbidity, alkalini-
ty, hardness, sulfate, chloride and other ions concentration was
measured for pond water and given in Table 1.
3.2. Effects of using different solvents as the extracting agent of the
coagulant from natural seeds
In the determination of best solvent to be used for the
extraction of the active coagulant agent from M.O seeds, the effects
of M.O 0.5 NaCl and 0.5 M NaOH were compared with M.O distilled
water. Fig. 1 shows the turbidity removal of synthetic wastewater
using these three types of solvents. At 500 NTU M.O 0.5 M NaCl
 G. Muthuraman, S. Sasikala / Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 20 (2014) 1727–1731 1729

Table 1
Physical and chemical parameters for untreated and treated waters.

S. No. Parameters Untreated Treated WHO standards

1 Turbidity (NTU) 100 5 <10

2 pH 7.72 7 6.5–9.2
3 Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) 5.6 7.8 8.72
4 Conductivity (mS/cm) 1641 1740 1000
5 Alkalinity (mg/L) 210 150 <400
6 Hardness (mg/L) 460 320 <600
7 Calcium (mg/L) 280 190 <600
8 Magnesium (mg/L) 180 130 <600
9 Sulfate (mg/L) 0.089 0.089 200
10 Chloride (mg/L) 310 150 <100
11 TSS (mg/L) 1240 300 <600

could effectively coagulate more than 99% of the initial turbidity,
while the M.O 0.5 M NaOH provided 95% turbidity removal. Seeds
extracted using NaCl demonstrated a greater performance
compared to the other solvents. Fig. 2 shows that P. vulgaris seed
shows the turbidity removal of synthetic wastewater using three
types of solvent. At 500 NTU P.V-DW and P.V 0.5 M NaCl could
effectively coagulate more than 85% of the in initial turbidity, while
the P.V 0.5 M NaOH provided 85% of the initial turbidity. Seeds
extracted using NaCl demonstrated a greater performance
compared to the other solvents.
In Fig. 3, a S. potatorum (S.P) seed shows the turbidity removal of
synthetic wastewater using three types of solvents. At 500 NTU
S.P-DW and S.P 0.5 M NaCl could effectively coagulate more than
95% of the initial turbidity, while the S.P 0.5 M NaOH provided 93%
of turbidity removal. Seeds extracted using NaCl demonstrated a
greater performance compared to the other solvents.
3.3. Effects of using an ultrasound-assisted extraction method
The effects of combined blending and ultrasound for extracting
the active coagulant agent from natural coagulant seeds with
different solvents shown in Fig. 4. The longer the seed was
subjected to the combination treatment, the less was the turbidity
removal from the synthetic wastewater. The maximum turbidity
reduction in M. oleifera for distilled water, NaCl and NaOH was
observed, with percentage turbidity removal of 98.2%, 95% and
93.2% respectively. When the treatment time was increased from,
the percentage of turbidity reduction using the distilled water and

Fig. 3. Effects of Strychnos potatorum seed coagulant (experimental condition: NaCl

concentration = 0.5 M, NaOH concentration = 0.5 M and distilled water, pH = 7.4).
Fig. 1. Effects of Moringa oleifera seed coagulant (experimental condition: NaCl
concentration = 0.5 M, NaOH concentration = 0.5 M and distilled water, pH = 7.4).

Fig. 4. Effects of Moringa oleifera ultrasound seed coagulant (experimental

Fig. 2. Effects of P. vulgaris seed coagulant (experimental condition: NaCl condition: NaCl concentration = 0.5 M, NaOH concentration = 0.5 M and distilled
concentration = 0.5 M, NaOH concentration = 0.5 M and distilled water, pH = 7.4). water, pH = 7.4).
1730 G. Muthuraman, S. Sasikala / Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 20 (2014) 1727–1731

3.4. Settling column test

Settling column analysis is carried out using optimum dosage of

Fig. 5. Effects of Phaseolus vulgaris ultrasound seed coagulant (experimental
condition: NaCl concentration = 0.5 M, NaOH concentration = 0.5 M and distilled
water, pH = 7.4).
coagulants. A comparative study of turbidity reduction efficiency
of different coagulants in different turbidity ranges is given in
Table 2. The settling column test is carried out for without
coagulant and for different types of coagulants like M. Oleifera, P.
vulgaris and S. potatorum using the optimum dosage. The
maximum turbidity removal efficiency obtained for no coagulant
at 12 h retention time in the settling column for 100 NTU, 250 NTU
and 500 NTU initial turbidity removal efficiency are as 71.44%,
75.10% and 78.06% respectively. The maximum turbidity removal
efficiency obtained for M. oleifera at 12 h retention time in the
settling column for 100 NTU, 250 NTU, and 500 NTU initial
turbidity removal efficiency are as 95.93%, 95.10% and 99%
respectively. The maximum turbidity removal efficiency obtained
for P. vulgaris at 12 h retention time in the settling column for 100
NTU, 250 NTU and 500 NTU initial turbidity removal efficiency are
as 77%, 85% and 87% respectively. The maximum turbidity removal
efficiency obtained for S. potatorum at 12 h retention time in the
settling column for 100 NTU, 250 NTU and 500 NTU initial turbidity
removal efficiency are as 80%, 89% and 96% respectively. From table
2 it is observed that overall removal efficiency at constant time
interval of all these coagulants, it is observed that maximum
turbidity removal efficiency is obtained by M. oleifera, then the
overall removal efficiency decreases in the order of M. oleifera and
S. potatorum and then P. vulgaris and finally it is least for no
coagulant.

3.5. Effect of equilibrium time

The residual turbidity observed as a function of contact time for

Fig. 6. Effects of Strychnos potatorum ultrasound seed coagulant (experimental
condition: NaCl concentration = 0.5 M, NaOH concentration = 0.5 M and distilled
water, pH = 7.4).
0.5 M NaCl solution were between 93% and 95%. While the
percentage of turbidity reduction using 0.5 M NaOH was between
92% and 90%. Again prolonged exposure to the treatment may
eventually destroy the structure of the coagulant agent and hence
its ability to function in the coagulation process. This is as expected
since more particles are removed (high % turbidity removal) from
the synthetic wastewater using NaCl and DW compared to NaOH.
Figs. 5 and 6 give the maximum turbidity reduction efficiency of P.
vulgaris and S. potatorum coagulants in different solvents.
the range of natural coagulants used in this experiment. At a
coagulant dose of 500 mg/L the residual turbidity is observed to
decrease as the contact time increased. The highest residual
turbidity 500 NTU for the 500 mg coagulant dose occurred at a
contact time of 12 h. Fig. 7 shows that the percentage of turbidity
removal in M. oleifera seeds is 98.2%, P. vulgaris 96% and S.
potatorum seed is 86% of turbidity reduction takes place. M. oleifera
seed coagulant to remove the turbidity of synthetic wastewater at
short time compared to the other coagulants.
3.6. Effect of pH and coagulant dosage on M.O-0.5 M NaCl, P.V-0.5 M
NaCl, and S.P-0.5 M NaCl
Fig. 8 illustrates pH on turbidity removal using M.O-0.5 M NaCl,
P.V-0.5 M NaCl, and S.P-0.5 M NaCl. As the pH increased the
percentage of turbidity removal decreased. The highest turbidity
removal using M.O-0.5 M NaCl, P.V-0.5 M NaCl, and S.P-0.5 M NaCl

Table 2
A comparative study of turbidity reduction efficiency of different coagulants.

Coagulants Dose used mg/L % of turbidity reduction 100 NTU % of turbidity reduction 250 NTU % of turbidity reduction 500 NTU

Moringa oleifera 250 82.5 91.2 96.7

500 80.7 88.4 94.2
750 76.3 92.1 95.2
1000 80.1 93.2 96.3

Phaseolus vulgaris 250 70.7 72.8 80.5

500 66.5 80.9 85.8
750 75.5 82.1 86.5
1000 76.1 84.3 87.3

Strychnos potatorum 250 80.2 90.3 86.5

500 85.2 86.8 84.4
750 82.3 88.9 88.6
1000 84.2 86.7 90.6
 G. Muthuraman, S. Sasikala / Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 20 (2014) 1727–1731
Fig. 7. Effects of time (experimental condition: NaCl concentration = 0.5 M,
time = 12 h, pH = 7.4).
Fig. 8. Effects of pH (experimental condition: NaCl concentration = 0.5 M,
time = 12 h, various pH).
was observed to occur at pH 7 with a percentage of turbidity
removal 99%, 95% and 90% respectively while it is clear that pH
changes do alter the final turbidity in terms of the overall removal,
the changes are not appreciable and suggest that there is no reason
to consider using P. vulgaris and S. potatorum at a pH other than
1731
neutral. In comparison, M.O-0.5 M NaCl exhibits better turbidity
removal under alkaline conditions for which the percentage
removal was on average greater than 95% (Fig. 8).
4. Conclusion
M. oleifera, P. vulgaris and the seeds of S. potatorum significant
improvement in removing turbidity from synthetic raw water was
found. Maximum turbidity reduction was attained in high turbid
water. After dosing NaCl soluble extract of M. oleifera, S. potatorum
and P. vulgaris reduced turbidity to 5, 10, 1 NTU respectively from
500 NTU. The natural coagulant NaCl extract is the greatest
removal of turbidity compared to NaOH and distilled water.
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