508 Engineering Mathematics Pocket Book

When n is even, an  0

5 10 5 10
When n is odd, a1  (1  1)  , a3  (1  1)  ,
π π 3π 3π

5 10 and so on
a5  (1  1)  ,
5π 5π
Hence the Fourier series for the function f(x) is given by:

5 10 ⎡⎢ ⎛ πx ⎞⎟ 1 ⎛ 3πx ⎞⎟
f(x)   cos ⎜⎜ ⎟  cos ⎜⎜ ⎟
2 π ⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ 3 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠

1 ⎛ 5πx ⎞⎟ 1 ⎛ 7πx ⎞⎟ ⎤
 cos ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟  cos ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟  …⎥⎥
5 ⎜
⎝ 2 ⎠ 7 ⎜
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦

16.6 Half-range Fourier series for functions

defined over range L

A half-range cosine series in the range 0 to L can be

expanded as:
 ⎛ nπx ⎞⎟
f(x)  a0  ∑ an cos ⎜⎜ ⎟ (7)
⎜⎝ L ⎟⎠
n1

where

1 L 2 L ⎛ nπx ⎞⎟
f(x)cos ⎜⎜
L ∫0 ∫0
a0  f(x) dx and an  ⎟ dx
L ⎜⎝ L ⎟⎠

A half-range sine series in the range 0 to L can be expanded as:

 ⎛ nπx ⎞⎟
f(x)  ∑ bn sin ⎜⎜⎜⎝ L ⎟⎠
⎟ (8)
n1

2 L ⎛ nπx ⎞⎟
where bn  ∫0 f(x)sin ⎜⎜ ⎟ dx
L ⎜⎝ L ⎟⎠
 Fourier Series 509

Application: Determine the half-range Fourier cosine series for

the function f(x)  x in the range 0  x  2

A half-range Fourier cosine series indicates an even function. Thus

the graph of f(x)  x in the range 0 to 2 is shown in Figure 16.10
and is extended outside of this range so as to be symmetrical about
the f(x) axis as shown by the broken lines.

f(x) f(x)  x
2

4 2 0 2 4 6 x

Figure 16.10

 ⎛ nπx ⎞⎟
For a half-range cosine series: f( x )  a0  ∑ an cos ⎜⎜ ⎟ from
⎜⎝ L ⎟⎠
n1
equation (7)
2
1 L 1 2 1 ⎡⎢ x 2 ⎤⎥
L ∫0 2 ∫0
a0  f ( x )dx  x dx  1
2 ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦ 0

2 L ⎛ nπx ⎞⎟
an  ∫0 f( x ) cos ⎜⎜ ⎟ dx
L ⎜⎝ L ⎟⎠
⎡ ⎤2
⎢ x sin ⎛⎜ nπx ⎞⎟⎟ cos ⎛⎜ nπx ⎞⎟⎟ ⎥
⎢ ⎜⎜ ⎜⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎥⎥
2 2 ⎛ nπx ⎟⎞ ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
 ∫ x cos ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ dx  ⎢⎢  ⎥
2 0 ⎜
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎢ ⎛⎜ nπ ⎞⎟⎟ ⎛ nπ ⎞2 ⎥
⎢ ⎜⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦ 0

⎡⎛
⎟⎟⎞ ⎛⎜⎜ ⎞⎟⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎥⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜
⎢ ⎜ 2 sin nπ cos nπ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ cos 0 ⎟⎟⎟⎥ ⎢
⎢ cos nπ 1 ⎥⎥
 ⎢⎜⎜  ⎟  ⎜0  ⎟⎥  ⎢  ⎥
⎢⎜⎜ ⎛⎜ nπ ⎞⎟⎟ ⎛ nπ ⎞⎟2 ⎟⎟⎟ ⎜⎜⎜ ⎛ nπ ⎞⎟2 ⎟⎟⎟⎥ ⎢ ⎛⎜ nπ ⎞⎟
2
⎛ nπ ⎞⎟2 ⎥
⎢⎜⎜ ⎜⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟⎥ ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎝ 2 ⎟
⎜⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎟⎠ ⎝ ⎜ ⎟
⎜⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎟⎠⎥ ⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎠⎟ ⎟
⎜⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎦
⎛ 2 ⎞2
 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ (cos nπ  1)
⎜⎝ πn ⎠
510 Engineering Mathematics Pocket Book

8 8 8
When n is even, an  0, a1  2 , a3  2 2 , a5  , and
so on. π π 3 π2 52

Hence the half-range Fourier cosine series for f(x) in the range 0 to 2
is given by:

⎡ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎤
f(x)  1 
8 ⎢ cos ⎜⎜ πx ⎟⎟  1 cos ⎜⎜ 3πx ⎟⎟  1 cos ⎜⎜ 5πx ⎟⎟  ...⎥
π2 ⎢ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ 32 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ 52 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦

Application: Determine the half-range Fourier sine series for the

function f(x)  x in the range 0  x  2

A half-range Fourier sine series indicates an odd function. Thus the

graph of f(x)  x in the range 0 to 2 is shown in Figure 16.11 and
is extended outside of this range so as to be symmetrical about the
origin, as shown by the broken lines.

f(x)
f(x)  x
2

4 2 0 2 4 6 x
2

Figure 16.11

 ⎛ nπx ⎞⎟
For a half-range sine series: f( x )  ∑ bn sin ⎜⎜⎜⎝ L ⎟⎠
⎟ from equation (8)
n1

2 L ⎛ nπx ⎞⎟ 2 2 ⎛ nπx ⎞⎟
bn  ∫0 f( x ) sin ⎜⎜ ⎟ dx  ∫0 x sin ⎜⎜ ⎟ dx
L ⎜⎝ L ⎟⎠ 2 ⎜⎝ L ⎟⎠
2
⎡
⎢ x cos ⎛⎜ nπx ⎞⎟⎟ ⎛ nπx ⎞⎟ ⎤⎥
⎜⎜ sin ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎢ ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎥⎥
 ⎢⎢  ⎥
⎢ ⎛ nπ ⎞⎟ ⎛ nπ ⎞⎟2 ⎥
⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎦0
 Fourier Series 511

⎡⎛ 2 cos nπ sin nπ ⎞ ⎛ ⎤
 ⎢⎜⎜  ⎟⎟  ⎜⎜ 0  sin 0 ⎞⎟⎟⎥  2 cos nπ  4 cos nπ
⎢⎜⎜ ⎛ nπ ⎞ 2⎟ 2⎟
⎢⎜ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎟
⎛ nπ ⎞⎟ ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎜ ⎛ nπ ⎞⎟ ⎟⎥⎥
⎟ nπ nπ
⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟
⎢⎜⎜ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎠⎟ ⎜
⎝ ⎟
⎠ ⎟ ⎜ ⎜
⎝ ⎟
⎠ ⎟ ⎥ 2
⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦⎥
4 4 4 4 4 4
Hence, b1  (1)  , b2  (1)  , b3  (1)  ,
π π 2π 2π 3π 3π
and so on
Thus the half-range Fourier sine series in the range 0 to 2 is given by:

⎡ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
f(x) 
4 ⎢ sin ⎜⎜ πx ⎟⎟  1 sin ⎜⎜ 2πx ⎟⎟  1 sin ⎜⎜ 3πx ⎟⎟
π ⎢ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ 2 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ 3 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
⎣
1 ⎛ 4 πx ⎞⎟ ⎤
 sin ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟  ...⎥⎥
4 ⎜
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦

16.7 The complex or exponential form of a

Fourier series

The form used for the Fourier series considered previously con-
sisted of cosine and sine terms. However, there is another form
that is commonly used – one that directly gives the amplitude
terms in the frequency spectrum and relates to phasor notation.
This form involves the use of complex numbers (see Chapter 8). It
is called the exponential or complex form of a Fourier series.
e jθ  cos θ  j sin θ and ejθ  cos θ  j sin θ
e jθ  ejθ
e jθ  ejθ  2 cos θ from which, cos θ  (9)
2
e jθ  ejθ
e jθ  ejθ  2j sin θ from which, sin θ  (10)
2j
The complex or exponential form of the Fourier series.
 2πnx
∑
j
f(x)  c ne L (11)
n
512 Engineering Mathematics Pocket Book

L 2πnx
1 2 j

L ∫ L2
where cn  f(x) e L dx (12)

Care needs to be taken when determining c0. If n appears in the

denominator of an expression the expansion can be invalid when
n  0. In such circumstances it is usually simpler to evaluate c0 by
using the relationship:
L
1 2
L ∫ L2
c 0  a0  f(x) dx (13)

Application: Determine the complex Fourier series for the func-

tion defined by:

⎧
⎪ 0, when  2  x  1
⎪
⎪
f( x )  ⎪
⎨ when  1  x  1
5,
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0, when 1  x  2
⎪

The function is periodic outside this range of period 4.

This is the same Application Problem as on page 506 and we can

use this to demonstrate that the two forms of Fourier series are
equivalent.

The function f(x) was shown in Figure 16.9, where the period,
L  4.

From equation (11), the complex Fourier series is given by:

 2πnx
∑
j
f( x )  cn e L
n

L 2πnx
1 2 j

L ∫ 2
where cn is given by: cn  L f ( x ) e L dx (from equation (12))

With reference to Figure 16.9, when L  4,

 Fourier Series 513

1 ⎪⎧⎪ 1 1 j
2πnx 2 ⎪⎫⎪
cn  ⎨ ∫ 0 dx  ∫ 5 e 4 dx  ∫ 0 dx ⎬
4 ⎪⎪⎩ 2 1 1 ⎪⎪
⎭
⎡ jπnx ⎤1
jπn
nx ⎢  2 ⎥ ⎡ jπnx ⎤1
1 1  ⎢e
5 ⎥  5 ⎢ e 2 ⎥

4 ∫1 5 e 2 dx  ⎢ jπn ⎥
⎢
4 ⎥ j2πn ⎢⎢⎣ ⎥
⎥⎦1
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦1
⎛ j πn πn ⎞
⎟
5 ⎜⎜⎜ e 2  e 2 ⎟⎟⎟
j
5 ⎛⎜  jπ2n jπn ⎞
⎟⎟
 ⎜e  e ⎟⎟ 
2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
j2πn ⎜⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ πn ⎜⎜ 2j ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠
5 πn
 sin (from equation (10))
πn 2

Hence, from equation (11), the complex form of the Fourier series
is given by:

2πnx
 
5 πn j π2nx
∑ ∑
j
f(x)  cn e L  sin e (14)
n n πn 2

Let us show how this result is equivalent to the result involving sine
and cosine terms determined on page 508.
From equation (13),
L
1 2 1 1 5 5 5
L ∫ 2L ∫1 5 dx  4 [x]1 1  4 [1 1]  2
c 0  a0  f(x)dx 
4

5 n 5 π 5
Since cn  sin , then c1  sin 
πn 2 π 2 π

5
c2  sin π  0 (in fact, all even terms will be zero
2π
since sin nπ  0)

5 πn 5 3π 5
c3  sin  sin 
πn 2 3π 2 3π

5 5
By similar substitution, c5  , c7   , and so on.
5π 7π
514 Engineering Mathematics Pocket Book

5 π 5
Similarly, c1  sin 
π 2 π
5 2π
c2   sin  0  c4  c6 , and so on
2π 2
5 3π 5
c3   sin 
3π 2 3π
5 5π 5
c5   sin  , and so on.
5π 2 5π
Hence, the extended complex form of the Fourier series shown in
equation (14) becomes:

5 5 j π2x 5 j 3π2x 5 j 5π2x 5 j 7π2x ....

f( x )   e  e  e  e 
2 π 3π 5π 7π
5 j π2x 5 j 3π2x 5 j 5π2x 5 j 7π2x ....
 e  e  e  e 
π 3π 5π 7π
5 5 ⎛⎜ j π2x j
πx ⎞
⎟ 5 ⎛⎜ j 3π2x j
3πx ⎞
⎟
  ⎜⎜ e  e 2 ⎟⎟⎟  ⎜⎜ e  e 2 ⎟⎟⎟
2 π ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ 3π ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠

5 ⎛⎜ j 5π2x j
5πx ⎞
⎟
 ⎜⎜ e  e 2 ⎟⎟⎟  ....
5π ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
⎛ j πx πx ⎞⎟ ⎛ j 3πx 3πx ⎞
5 5 ⎜⎜ e 2  ej 2 ⎟⎟ 5 ⎜⎜ e 2  ej 2 ⎟⎟⎟
  (2) ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟  (2) ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
2 π ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ 3π ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟⎟
⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎝ ⎠
⎛ j 5πx 5πx ⎞
⎜⎜ e 2  ej 2 ⎟⎟
5 ⎜ ⎟⎟ ....
 (2) ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 
5π ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠
5 10 ⎛ πx ⎞ 10 ⎛ 3πx ⎞⎟ 10 ⎛ 5πx ⎞⎟
  cos ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟  cos ⎜⎜ ⎟+ cos ⎜⎜ ⎟  ...
2 π ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ 3π ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ 5π ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠

(from equation 9)

⎡ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎤
i.e. f(x) 
5 10
 ⎢ cos ⎜⎜ πx ⎟⎟  1 cos ⎜⎜ 3πx ⎟⎟  1 cos ⎜⎜ 5πx ⎟⎟  .... ⎥
2 π ⎢ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ 3 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ 5 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
which is the same as obtained on page 508.
 Fourier Series 515


5 nπ j π2nx
Hence, ∑ sin e is equivalent to:
n πn 2
⎡ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎤
5 10
 ⎢ cos ⎜⎜ πx ⎟⎟  1 cos ⎜⎜ 3πx ⎟⎟  1 cos ⎜⎜ 5πx ⎟⎟  ....⎥
2 π ⎢ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ 3 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ 5 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦

Symmetry relationships

If even or odd symmetry is noted in a function, then time can be

saved in determining coefficients.
The Fourier coefficients present in the complex Fourier series form
are affected by symmetry.
For even symmetry:
L
an 2 ⎛ 2πnx ⎞⎟
cn   ∫ 2 f(x)cos ⎜⎜ ⎟ dx (15)
2 L 0 ⎜⎝ L ⎟⎠

For odd symmetry:

L
jbn 2 ⎛ 2πnx ⎞⎟
cn   j ∫ 2 f(x) sin ⎜⎜ ⎟ dx (16)
2 L 0 ⎜⎝ L ⎟⎠
For example, in the Application Problem on page 512, the func-
tion f(x) is even, since the waveform is symmetrical about the f(x)
axis. Thus equation (15) could have been used, giving:
L
2 ⎛ 2πnx ⎞⎟
cn 
L ∫02 f( x ) cos ⎜⎜⎜⎝ L ⎟⎠
⎟ dx

2 2 ⎛ 2πnx ⎟⎞ 1 ⎧⎪ 1 ⎛ πnx ⎞⎟ 2 ⎫⎪
 ∫0 f( x ) cos ⎜⎜ ⎟ dx  ⎪⎨ ∫ 5 cos ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ dx  ∫ 0 dx ⎪⎬
4 ⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎠ 2 ⎪⎪⎩ 0 ⎜
⎝ 2 ⎠ 1 ⎪⎪⎭

⎡ ⎛ πnx ⎞ ⎤1
⎢ sin ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥
5 ⎢ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎥ 5 ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ nπ ⎞ 5 nπ
 ⎢ ⎥  ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ sin  0⎟⎟⎟  sin
2 ⎢⎢ πn ⎥ 2 ⎜⎝ πn ⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎠ πn 2
⎥
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
0

which is the same answer as on page 513; however, a knowledge

of even functions has produced the coefficient more quickly.
516 Engineering Mathematics Pocket Book

Application: Obtain the Fourier series, in complex form, for the

square wave shown in Figure 16.12
f(x)

π 0 π 2π 3π x

2
Figure 16.12

The square wave shown in Figure 16.12 is an odd function since it

is symmetrical about the origin.

The period of the waveform, L  2π.

L
2 ⎛ 2πnx ⎞⎟
Thus, using equation (16): cn  j ∫ 2 f( x ) sin ⎜⎜ ⎟ dx
L 0 ⎜⎝ L ⎟⎠

2 π ⎛ 2πnx ⎞⎟
 j ∫0 2 sin ⎜⎜ ⎟ dx
2π ⎜⎝ 2π ⎟⎠
2 π
 j
π ∫0 sin nx dx

2 ⎡  cos nx ⎤ π
 j ⎢ ⎥
π ⎢⎣ n ⎥⎦ 0
2
 j
πn
(( cos πn)  ( cos 0))
2
i.e. cn  j [ 1  cos πn ] (17)
πn
From equation (11), the complex Fourier series is given by:
 2πnx 
2
∑ ∑
j
f(x)  cn e L  j (1  cos nπ)e jnx (18)
n n nπ

This is the same as that obtained on page 501, i.e.

8 ⎛⎜ 1 1 1 ⎞
f( x )  ⎜⎜ sin x  sin 3x  sin 5x  sin 7x  ...⎟⎟⎟
π ⎝ 3 5 7 ⎠
 Fourier Series 517

which is demonstrated below.

2
From equation (17), cn  j (1  cos nπ)
nπ
2 2 j4
When n  1, c1  j (1  cos π)  j (1  1)  
(1)π π π
2
When n  2, c2  j (1  cos 2π)  0 ; in fact, all even values of
2π
cn will be zero.
2 2 j4
When n  3, c3  j (1  cos 3π)  j (1  1)  
3π 3π 3π
j4 j4
By similar reasoning, c5   , c7   , and so on.
5π 7π
2 2 j4
When n  1, c1  j
(1)π
(1 cos (π))  j π (11)   π
2 2 j4
When n  3, c3  j (1 cos(3π) )  j (11) 
(3)π 3π 3π
j4 j4
By similar reasoning, c5   , c7   , and so on.
5π 7π
Since the waveform is odd, c0  a0  0

2
From equation (18), f( x )  ∑ j nπ (1 cos nπ) e jnx
n
Hence,
j4 jx j4 j3x j4 j5x j4 j7x
f( x )   e  e  e  e …
π 3π 5π 7π
j4 jx j4 j3x j4 j5x j4 j7x
 e  e  e  e …
π 3π 5π 7π
⎛ j4 j4 ⎞ ⎛ j4 3x j4 3x ⎞⎟
 ⎜⎜ e jx  e jx ⎟⎟⎟  ⎜⎜ e  e ⎟⎟
⎜⎝ π π ⎜
⎠ ⎝ 3π 3π ⎠
⎛ j4 5x j4 5x ⎞⎟ ....
⎜
 ⎜ e  e ⎟⎟ 
⎜⎝ 5π 5π ⎠
j4 jx j4 j4

π
(e  ejx )  3π (e3x  e3x )  5π (e5x  e5x )  ....
4 jx 4 3x 4 5x
 (e  ejx )  (e  e3x )  (e  e5x )  ....
jπ j3π j5π
by multiplying top and bottom by j
518 Engineering Mathematics Pocket Book

8 ⎛⎜ e jx  ejx ⎞⎟ 8 ⎛⎜ e j3x  ej3 ⎞⎟ 8 ⎛⎜ e j5x  ej5x ⎞⎟

 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟  ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟  ⎜ ⎟⎟
π⎝ 2j ⎟
⎠ 3π ⎝ 2j ⎠ 5π ⎜⎝
⎟ 2j ⎟⎠
 .... by rearranging
8 8 8
 sin x  sin 3x  sin 5x  ....
π 3π 3x
from equation 10, page 511

8 ⎛⎜ 1 1 1 ⎞
i.e. f(x)  ⎜ sin x  sin 3x  sin 5x  sin 7x  ...⎟⎟⎟
π ⎜⎝ 3 5 7 ⎠

2
Hence, f(x)  ∑ j
nπ
(1  cos nπ) e jnx
n

8 ⎛⎜ 1 1 1 ⎞
≡ ⎜ sin x  sin 3x  sin 5x  sin 7x  ...⎟⎟⎟
π ⎜⎝ 3 5 7 ⎠

16.8 A numerical method of harmonic analysis

Many practical waveforms can be represented by simple math-

ematical expressions, and, by using Fourier series, the magnitude
of their harmonic components determined, as above. For wave-
forms not in this category, analysis may be achieved by numerical
methods.
Harmonic analysis is the process of resolving a periodic, non-
sinusoidal quantity into a series of sinusoidal components of
ascending order of frequency.
The trapezoidal rule can be used to evaluate the Fourier coef-
ficients, which are given by:
p
1
a0 ≈
p
∑ yk (19)
k1
p
2
an ≈
P
∑ yk cos nxk (20)
k1
p
2
bn ≈
P
∑ yk sin nxk (21)
k1
 Fourier Series 519

Application: A graph of voltage V against angle θ is shown in

Figure 16.13. Determine a Fourier series to represent the graph.
y10
Voltage (volts)

80
60
40 y y9 y11 y12
1
20 y2 y8
90 180
0 270 360
20 y3 y4 y5 y6 y7  degrees
40
60
80
Figure 16.13

The values of the ordinates y1, y2, y3, …. are 62, 35, 38, 64,
63, 52, 28, 24, 80, 96, 90 and 70, the 12 equal intervals each
being of width 30°. (If a larger number of intervals are used, results
having a greater accuracy are achieved).
The voltage may be analysed into its first three constituent compo-
nents as follows:
The data is tabulated in the proforma shown in Table 16.1.
p
1 1
From equation (19), a0  ∑ yk  12 (212)  17.67 (since p  12)
p k1
p
2
From equation (20), an  ∑ yk cos nxk
p k1
2
hence a1  ( 417.94 )  69.66,
12
2 2
a2  (39)  6.50 and a3  (49)  8.17
12 12
p
2
From equation (21), bn  ∑ yk sin nxk
p k1
2
hence b1  (278.53)  46.42 ,
12
2 2
b2  (29.43)  4.91 and b3  (55)  9.17
12 12
Table 16.1
Ordinates θ V cos θ V cos θ sin θ V sin θ cos 2θ V cos 2θ sin 2θ V sin 2θ cos 3θ V cos 3θ sin 3θ V sin 3θ

Y1 30 62 0.866 53.69 0.5 31 0.5 31 0.866 53.69 0 0 1 62

Y2 60 35 0.5 17.5 0.866 30.31 0.5 17.5 0.866 30.31 1 35 0 0
Y3 90 38 0 0 1 38 1 38 0 0 0 0 1 38
Y4 120 64 0.5 32 0.866 55.42 0.5 32 0.866 55.42 1 64 0 0
Y5 150 63 0.866 54.56 0.5 31.5 0.5 31.5 0.866 54.56 0 0 1 63
Y6 180 52 1 52 0 0 1 52 0 0 1 52 0 0
Y7 210 28 0.866 24.25 0.5 14 0.5 14 0.866 24.25 0 0 1 28
Y8 240 24 0.5 12 0.866 20.78 0.5 12 0.866 20.78 1 24 0 0
Y9 270 80 0 0 1 80 1 80 0 0 0 0 1 80
Y10 300 96 0.5 48 0.866 83.14 0.5 48 0.866 83.14 1 96 0 0
Y11 330 90 0.866 77.94 0.5 45 0.5 45 0.866 77.94 0 0 1 90
y12 360 70 1 70 0 0 1 70 0 0 1 70 0 0

12 12 12 12 12 12 12

∑ yk  212 ∑ yk cos θk ∑ yk sin θk ∑ yk cos 2θk ∑ yk sin 2θk ∑ yk cos 3θk ∑ yk sin 3θk
k=1 k =1 k =1 k =1 k =1 k =1 k =1
 417.94  278.53  39  29.43  49  55
 Fourier Series 521

Substituting these values into the Fourier series:


f( x )  a0  ∑ (an cos nx  bn sin nx )
n1

gives: v  17.67  69.66 cos θ  6.50 cos 2θ  8.17 cos 3θ  …

46.42 sin θ  4.91 sin 2θ  9.17 sin 3θ  ... (22)

Note that in equation (22), (46.42 sin θ  69.66 cos θ) comprises the
fundamental, (4.91 sin 2θ  6.50 cos 2θ) comprises the second har-
monic and (9.17 sin 3θ  8.17 cos 3θ) comprises the third harmonic.

It is shown in Chapter 5 that: a sin ωt  b cos ωt  R sin(ωt  α)

b
where a  R cos α, b  R sin α, R  a2  b2 and α  tan1
a
For the fundamental, R  (46.42)2  (69.66)2  83.71

a −46.42
If a  R cos α, then cos α   which is negative,
R 83.71
b 69.66
and if b  R sin α, then sin    which is positive.
R 83.71
The only quadrant where cos α is negative and sin α is positive is the
second quadrant.
b 69.66
Hence,   tan1  tan1  123.68 or 2.l6 rad
a 46.42
Thus, (46.42 sin θ  69.66 cos θ)  83.71 sin(θ  2.16)

By a similar method it may be shown that the second harmonic

(4.91 sin 2θ  6.50 cos 2θ)  8.15 sin(2θ  0.92) and the third
harmonic

(9.17 sin 3θ  8.17 cos 3θ)  12.28 sin(3θ  0.73)

Hence equation (22) may be re-written as:

v  17.67  83.71 sin( θ  2.16)  8.15 sin(2θ  0.92)
 12.28 siin(3θ  0.73) volts
which is the form normally used with complex waveforms.
522 Engineering Mathematics Pocket Book

16.9 Complex waveform considerations

It is sometimes possible to predict the harmonic content of a

waveform on inspection of particular waveform characteristics.
1. If a periodic waveform is such that the area above the horizon-
tal axis is equal to the area below then the mean value is zero.
Hence a0  0 (see Figure 16.14(a)).
2. An even function is symmetrical about the vertical axis and
contains no sine terms (see Figure 16.14(b)).
3. An odd function is symmetrical about the origin and contains
no cosine terms (see Figure 16.14(c)).
4. f(x)  f(x  π) represents a waveform which repeats after half
a cycle and only even harmonics are present (see Figure
16.14(d)).
5. f(x)  f(x  π) represents a waveform for which the positive
and negative cycles are identical in shape and only odd har-
monics are present (see Figure 16.14(e)).

f(x) f(x)

0 π 2π x π 0 π 2π x

(a) a0  0 (b) Contains no sine terms

f(x)
f(x)

2π π 0 π 2π x
2ππ 0 π 2π x

(c) Contains no cosine terms (d) Contains only even harmonics

f(x)

π 0 π 2π x

(e) Contains only odd harmonics Figure 16.14

 Fourier Series 523

Application: An alternating current i amperes is shown in Figure

16.15. Analyse the waveform into its constituent harmonics as
far as and including the fifth harmonic, taking 30° intervals.

10
i
5 y5

180 120 60 y1 y2 y3 y4 180 240 300 °

150 90 30 0 30 60 90120150 210 270 330 360
y7 y8 y9 y11
5 y10

10

Figure 16.15

With reference to Figure 16.15, the following characteristics are

noted:

(i) The mean value is zero since the area above the θ axis is equal
to the area below it. Thus the constant term, or d.c. component,
a0  0
(ii) Since the waveform is symmetrical about the origin the function i
is odd, which means that there are no cosine terms present in the
Fourier series.
(iii) The waveform is of the form f(θ)  f(θ  π) which means that
only odd harmonics are present.

Investigating waveform characteristics has thus saved unnecessary

calculations and in this case the Fourier series has only odd sine
terms present, i.e.
i  b1 sin θ  b3 sin 3θ  b5 sin 5θ  ..
A proforma, similar to Table 16.1, but without the ‘cosine terms’ col-
umns and without the ‘even sine terms’ columns is shown in Table
16.2 up to, and including, the fifth harmonic, from which the Fourier
coefficients b1, b3 and b5 can be determined. Twelve co-ordinates
are chosen and labelled y1, y2, y3, .. y12 as shown in Figure 16.15.
524 Engineering Mathematics Pocket Book

Table 16.2
Ordinate θ i sin θ i sin θ sin 3θ i sin 3θ sin 5θ i sin 5θ

Y1 30 2 0.5 1 1 2 0.5 1
Y2 60 7 0.866 6.06 0 0 0.866 6.06
Y3 90 10 1 10 1 10 1 10
Y4 120 7 0.866 6.06 0 0 0.866 6.06
Y5 150 2 0.5 1 1 2 0.5 1
Y6 180 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Y7 210 2 0.5 1 1 2 0.5 1
Y8 240 7 0.866 6.06 0 0 0.866 6.06
Y9 270 10 1 10 1 10 1 10
Y10 300 7 0.866 6.06 0 0 0.866 6.06
Y11 330 2 0.5 1 1 2 0.5 1
Y12 360 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
12 12 12

∑ y sin θ
k =1
k k ∑ y sin 3θ
k =1
k k ∑ y sin 5θ
k =1
k k

 48.24  12  0.24

p
2
From equation (21), bn  ∑ ik sin nθk where p  12
p k1

2 2
Hence, b1  ( 48.24 )  8.04 , b3  (12)  2.00 and
12 12
2
b5  (0.24 )  0.04
12
Thus the Fourier series for current i is given by:

i  8.04 sin θ  2.00 sin 3θ  0.04 sin 5θ