Environmental Science and Pollution Research

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-07977-0

ENVIRONMENTAL AND ENERGY MANAGEMENT

On-site rainwater harvesting and treatment for drinking water

supply: assessment of cost and technical issues
Son H. Tran 1 & Huyen T.T. Dang 1 & Dung A. Dao 1 & Viet-Anh Nguyen 1 & Lien T. Nguyen 1 & Viet-Anh Nguyen 1 &
Mooyoung Han 2

Received: 9 October 2019 / Accepted: 3 February 2020

# Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2020

Abstract
This study assessed the performance of rainwater-harvesting systems installed for selected public utilities in the northern
provinces of Vietnam where rainwater was collected, stored in stainless steel tanks, and treated with a complex filtration unit
and Ultraviolet (UV) disinfection system (full system). Results from an operation of over 5 years show that the untreated
rainwater could not be used directly for drinking purposes as it was contaminated with bacteria (total coliforms TC = 200–
300 CFU/100 ml, Pseudomonas aeruginosa PA = 40–160 CFU/100 ml), and turbidity = 2–4 NTU. Most of the heavy metals
detected were found below the standard limits. Phenol and its derivatives were detected occasionally as higher than the standard
value (1 μg/L). After treatment, all parameters met the drinking water standards. The capital costs of the rainwater systems were
approximately US$200/m3 and US$180/m3 for a full system and simplified system (without complex filtration unit), respec-
tively, while the operation and maintenance (O&M) costs were 3 cents/L and 0.8 cents/L on average for a full system and
simplified one, correspondingly.

Keywords Rainwater collection . Drinking purposes . Treatment system . Heavy metals . Bacteria examination . Cost evaluation

Abbreviations Pb Lead
As Arsenic SDG Sustainable development goals
BOD Biological oxygen demand Se Selenium
Cd Cadmium RW Rainwater
CFU Bacterial colony counts RWH Rainwater harvesting
E. coli Escherichia coli TC Total coliforms
Fe Iron TDS Total dissolved solid
NTU Nephelometric turbidity unit TSS Total suspended solids
Hg Mercury UV Ultraviolet
Mn Manganese TCU Transmission control unit
MPN Most probably number WHO World Health Organization
Ni Nickel Zn Zinc
NTU Nephelometric unit

Responsible Editor: Ta Yeong Wu Introduction

* Son H. Tran Water shortage has become a major problem worldwide ow-
sonth@nuce.edu.vn ing to the unpredictable growth of population and urbaniza-
tion. In an effort to secure a more sustainable water supply,
1
Institute of Environmental Science and Engineering (IESE), National alternating sources, such as rainwater, has received consider-
University of Civil Engineering, Hanoi, Vietnam able attention (Kaushik et al. 2012; Gado and El-Agha 2019).
2
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Seoul National Research by Villarreal and Dixon (2005) showed that there
University, Seoul, South Korea was a critical need for proper rainwater management,

including the collection and use, to release the pressure of
urban water supply. Rainwater can be used not only for drink-
ing purposes but also for other domestic demands. In Sweden,
it was estimated that 20% of household water consumption
was for flushing toilets, 15% for laundry, and 10% for
cleaning and car washing (Villarreal and Dixon 2005), while
in Vietnam, 18% of household water consumption was for
flushing toilets, 15% for laundry, and 4% for plant irrigation
and vehicle washing (Otaki et al. 2013). The use of rainwater
on a large scale has been well perceived as a strategy of adap-
tation to climate change against the reduction of water avail-
ability in many countries (Pandey et al. 2003; Wang and
Blackmore 2012; Campisano et al. 2017a). Özdemir et al.
(2011) reported that rainwater was the most used (88%) com-
pared with other sources (private wells, 44%; canals, 28%;
vendors, 18%; rivers, 16%; bottled water, 14%; and private
piped connection, 13%) in Vietnam Mekong River Delta. No
household used public wells or public standpipes (Özdemir
et al. 2011). Thus, rainwater harvesting (RWH) and utilization
may help offset water consumption demand, leading to many
other economic and environmental benefits.
The falling of rain often removes gases and particles from
the atmosphere. Various anthropogenic activities, such as the
combustion of fossil fuels, the usage of biocides and pesti-
cides, mining activities, and the inappropriate treatment of
industrial emissions, are directly responsible for the increasing
levels of particulate matters suspended in the atmosphere
(Cerqueira et al. 2014; Préndez et al. 2014) and eventually
contaminate rainwater. The intensity of rain and the number
of dry days before a rainy season significantly affect the qual-
ity of stormwater runoff. Normally, a long dry period often
leads to an increase in the amount of pollutants in rainwater
(Friedler et al. 2017). Water collected from roofs is often con-
taminated with many pollutants, such as dust particles, bird
droppings, leaves, and other débris (Fewkes 2006; Li et al.
2016). Previous studies in this area of research reported that
the rainwater can be treated before use, either with a filtration
mesh or a complex media filter, consisting of layers of fine to
course sand, gravel, and rubble (Guozhen et al. 2011; Hoyos
et al. 2011; Zhu 2015) or with multistage gravel filters
(Garrido et al. 2011). The recently recommended system
was composed of settling tanks, followed by filtration,
and Ultraviolet (UV) light for disinfection (Lee et al.
2012). Some systems can even be fully automated, re-
motely accessible, and powered by solar energy
(Senevirathna et al. 2019). At the household level, most
of them used rainwater that has been stored in a reservoir,
some added sedimentation without coagulants (40%), and
only 5% of interviewees used household filters (Özdemir
et al. 2011). The costs certainly relate proportionally to
how advanced the treatment systems are. Zhu (2015) de-
scribed quite a few rainwater storage tanks used in the
rural areas of China, where the cost varied according to
Environ Sci Pollut Res
the tank materials (i.e., from US$3.90/m3–US$12.50/m3
of storage tank). The average expenditure on rainwater
storage was significantly different among the different
provinces in Vietnam (i.e., US$3.7/m3, US$9.1/m3, and
US$11/m 3 of storage tank for households in Ben Tre,
Vinh Long, and Soc Trang provinces, respectively)
(Özdemir et al. 2011). The difference was due to the avail-
ability of the materials.
Given that RWH has been applied mostly at household
levels in Vietnam, the promotion of RWH on a larger scale
requires full understanding of the rainwater quality, potential
contaminants, and cost of the treatment systems. To date, there
have not been many studies on these matters for large-scale
systems (i.e., community scale). The goal of this study, there-
fore, is to assess the performance of RWH systems installed
for selected public utilities in the northern provinces of
Vietnam and to investigate the effects of treatment systems
on the removal of particles, heavy metals, and organic matter.
Furthermore, the capital cost and the operation and mainte-
nance (O&M) costs of the rainwater systems are also
evaluated.
Materials and methods
Description of study areas
The RWH systems were installed at Cu Khe Kindergarten
(Thanh Tri district, Hanoi city), a Dai Cuong school (Kim
Bang district, Ha Nam province), and a Phuong Nai pa-
goda (Yen Mo district, Ninh Binh province) in the north
of Vietnam (Fig. 1). The average precipitation in these
areas was reported as high in the rainy season (i.e., from
June to September) and increased with years. For in-
stance, the rainflow increased from 350 mm/month to
530 mm/month from 2015 to 2017 (General Statistic
Office of Vietnam 2019). The average precipitations in
2017 were 22% and 72% higher than those in 2015 in
Hanoi and Ha Nam province, respectively (Fig. 2). It
should be noted that data from Ha Nam province were
not available and had to be obtained from Nam Dinh, an
adjacent province. The monthly data of precipitation were
not available for Ninh Binh province either. Nevertheless,
Ninh Binh province is located farther south of Hanoi
compared to Nam Dinh province and closer to the sea,
with the highest rainfall of about 400 mm in September
(General Statistic Office of Vietnam 2019).
In those locations, the household harvesting of rainwater
for drinking was quite common but not at public utilities. At
schools or public buildings, people often buy 20-L water bot-
tles for drinking purposes. The monthly drinking water fee
that students have to pay at school is about US$0.40/month/
student.
Environ Sci Pollut Res
Fig. 1 Location of studied areas
Description of rainwater harvesting and treatment
system
The rainwater system was composed of a first-flush
chamber, a sedimentation tank, a storage tank, a second
(feeding) tank, and a filtration unit (including primary
cartridge filter and ultrafiltration) (Fig. 3). A UV lamp
for disinfection was installed after the installation of the
filtration unit. Initial rainwater during the first 10 min
was flushed away via the first-flush chamber as it often
contained the most contaminants from the air and roofs.
Then, the rainwater was collected in the sedimentation
tank and storage tank. Suspended solids settled down in
these tanks. The second tank was designed to be placed
on the roof to provide additional pressure for filtration
so smaller pumps can be used. For the latest setup at
Phuong Nai pagoda in 2018, the second tank was no
longer applied owing to its negligible energy savings.
The rainwater was then filtered through a fiber filter
with a pore dimension of 50 μm and followed by a
complex filter unit (including a coarse filter, activated
carbon cartridge, ultrafiltration membrane with a pore
size of 0.1 μm, and mineral-adding cartridge). The treat-
ed water was then passed through a 12 W UV sterilizer.
Table 1 presents the detailed dimensions of the sys-
tems at the three sites. The main difference in the de-
signs among the studied places was the catchment sur-
face and volume of storage tanks. The roof catchment
surface at Cu Khe Kindergarten and Dai Cuong
Elementary School was made of corrugated steel sheets
as it was a combination of corrugated tiles and cement
at the Phuong Nai pagoda.
Water sampling and analysis
Samples were taken three times per year at each site
from 2015 to 2019. They were collected from the sed-
imentation tank (S1), which was the first tank in the
system, before filtration (S2), and after disinfection
(S3) (see Fig. 3). The water sampling and sample stor-
age complied with standard methods ISO 5667-2:2006
(Water quality—Sampling—Part 1: Guidance on the de-
sign of sampling programs and sampling techniques)
and standard method ISO 5667-3:1985 (Water quali-
ty—Sampling—Guidance on storage and treatment of
samples). Samples were analyzed in terms of pH, tur-
bidity, conductivity, total dissolved solids (TDS), heavy
metals, total coliforms, Escherichia coli (E. coli), and
 Environ Sci Pollut Res

Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) and organic Results and discussions

compounds. The analysis of these parameters complied
with the “Standard Methods for the Examination of
Water and Wastewater” (APHA 2012) and “Selected
Analytical Methods for Environmental Remediation and
Recovery” (Campisano et al. 2017b).
The statistical analysis was also conducted to evalu-
ate the impact of a catchment surface on rainwater qual-
ity. This step was performed by using one-way analysis
of variance (ANOVA) in which the variable was the
catchment surface. The level of significance was α =
0.05 in all cases. The software StatPlus:mac LE version
6.7.1 (AnalystSoft Inc., USA) was used for this statisti-
cal analysis.
Rainwater quality and treatment efficiency
To be eligible for drinking purposes, the treated water from
RWH systems must meet the national regulation on bottled
drinking water quality (QCVN 6-1:2010/BYT issued by the
Ministry of Health). It assumes that people can drink directly
the treated water instead of using bottled water. Some param-
eters, such as turbidity, color, and pH, which are not available
in the QCVN 6-1:2010/BYT standard, can be inferred from
national technical regulation on drinking water quality
(QCVN 01-1:2018/BYT issued by the Ministry of Health).
Table 2 illustrates the average values of the untreated

600
(a)
500
Precipitation (mm/month)

400

300

200

100

0
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.
Hanoi, 2015 Hanoi, 2016 Hanoi, 2017

600
(b)
500
Precipitation (mm/month)

400

300

200

100

0
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.
Hanam, 2015 Hanam, 2016 Hanam, 2017
Fig. 2 Precipitation in Hanoi and Ha Nam provinces in the last 3 years
Environ Sci Pollut Res
Rainwater harvest ing system
for drinking water
S1
Urgent valve
S2
Pump
S3
Pressure Pump
Valve Ultrafil tration
Bottled
water Note: S1, S2, S3 are sampling points
Fig. 3 Diagram of RWH and treatment system at Dai Cuong school
rainwater in the testing areas. These parameters belong to
Category A of QCVN 01-1:2018/BYT that require monthly
monitoring. The World Health Organization (WHO) guide-
lines are also included for reference.
In general, the untreated rainwater was quite clean with low
turbidity (sometimes meeting the standard); only the microor-
ganism was a problem (Table 2). It should be noted that this
was the rainwater collected after the first flush. The first-flush
chamber is a vital unit in the whole RWH system. The quality
of first-flush water was reported by Gikas and Tsihrintzis
(2012) to be 3 to 12 times higher than the limit in terms of
suspended solids. Hence, the rainwater quality would be much
worser than that in the data reported in Table 2 if no first-flush
chamber was used. The presence of total coliforms and E. coli
was quite significant, which was similar to the findings in
previous studies (Kaushik et al. 2012; Sánchez et al. 2015).
The E. coli was probably from birds’ feces on the roofs or
from dust and plants (Lee et al. 2012).
It is worth noting that arsenic is the only ion included in
Category A indicators according to the latest Vietnam quality
standard, as this metal has been found to be a major pollutant
in water sources, especially in the northern part of Vietnam.
Rooftop
Winkel et al. (2011) argued that the groundwater in the Red
River Delta region was seriously polluted by arsenic, especial-
ly downstream areas of the Red River. The concentration of
As2+ varied from 50 μg/L to 800 μg/L, which is 10 times
higher than the acceptable value of 10 μg/L. The Cu Khe
commune area (Hanoi city), Dai Cuong commune (Ha Nam
province), and Phuong Nai pagoda (Ninh Binh province) are
those areas having the highly polluted groundwater.
Besides arsenic, other heavy metals were also monitored in
this study to determine whether there was heavy metal con-
tamination in these areas (Table 3). Results from Table 3 re-
veal that all metal concentrations are lower than the standard
values, except for Cd2+. The concentrations of Cd2+ were
0.007 mg/L, 0.01 mg/L, and 0.011 mg/L for Cu Khe, Dai
Cuong, and Phuong Nai sites, respectively, while the limit
for Cd2+ is 0.003 mg/L (Vietnam regulations and WHO guide-
lines). A high concentration of this cytotoxic compound might
be from the activities of a nearby metal processing plant in the
industrial clusters and possibly from artificial fertilizers.
Agricultural activity and the burning of electronic wastes were
found to relate directly to the release of cadmium into the
environment (Perera et al. 2016; Igbinosa and Aighewi
 Environ Sci Pollut Res

Table 1 Description of treatment systems of the paint on roof railing (Islam et al. 2019) or leaching from
Cu Khe Dai Cuong Phuong Nai the polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes used in the RWH systems
Kindergarten Elementary pagoda (Morrow et al. 2010) as the PVC pipes were extruded in lead.
School Figure 4 presents the monitoring results of pH, turbidity,
conductivity, and TDS and the impact of treatment units at
Number of 300 500 100
served
different sites. It is obvious that pH in rainwater at different
people/- locations varied insignificantly (from 6.5 to 7.0) and greater
day than 5.6 (pH = 5.6 was a limit to acid rain), indicating no po-
Catchment Corrugated steel Corrugated steel Corrugated tiles tential of the acid rain in the study areas. Acid rain often is a
surface sheet sheet and cement
problem in industrial countries or countries, such as Indonesia
First-flush 200 L, stainless 200 L, stainless 2 × 200 L,
tank steel steel stainless steel
(Budiwati et al. 2016), China (Li et al. 2016; Sun et al. 2016),
Taiwan (Ying and Kuo 2013), and Japan (Uchiyama et al.
Cistern/tanks 2 ground tanks 2 ground tanks 2 ground tanks
(Vtank = 8 m3), (Vtank = 8 m3), (Vtank = 10 m3), 2017), with frequent forest fires and fossil fuel combustion.
stainless steel; stainless steel; stainless steel After filtration and disinfection, the pH slightly increased to
2-m3 second 0.5-m3 second neutral. As for the turbidity, even though the samples were
tank, stainless tank, stainless
steel steel
taken from the sedimentation tanks, the turbidity was occasion-
Filtration Fiber filtration Fiber filtration Fiber filtration ally higher than the limit (2 mg/L), in particular at Phuong Nai
system (pore size (pore size (pore size location. It means using sedimentation itself cannot guarantee
50 μm) and 50 μm) and 50 μm) and all suspended solids are settled to an acceptable level.
ultrafiltration ultrafiltration ultrafiltration
Nevertheless, if the water was further stored in a storage tank
(pore size (pore size (pore size
0.1 μm) 0.1 μm) 0.1 μm) (data were shown as “before filtration”), the turbidity can be
Disinfection 12 W UV light 12 W UV light 12 W UV light reduced by about 50% or more, which certainly meets the
Year of 2014 2015 2018 standard (Vietnam and WHO guidelines). It is noteworthy that
starting the quality of untreated rainwater varied with time and loca-
operation tions. The turbidity was higher in 2019 than that in 2018 at all
three sites. The same trend was observed for conductivity and
TDS, most clearly at Phuong Nai pagoda. The average rainwa-
2017; Idrees et al. 2018). Low concentrations of heavy metals ter conductivity in studied areas was lower than 0.1 mS/cm
in the studied sites reveal that heavy metals existing in the indicating the low potential pollution (Vlastos et al. 2018).
groundwater in these areas were not coming from the rainwa- Overall, the water after treatment met the standard values for
ter; they could be from the contaminated soil and the decom- direct drinking purposes during these years.
position of underground ores into aquifers. The findings of As different kinds of roof catchment were employed in this
low concentrations of heavy metals in rainwater matched study, one attention was made to evaluate the rainwater quality
those mentioned in earlier studies (Quek and Forster 1993; collected from different roofs (Table 4). The pH reading of
Zhu et al. 2004; Lee et al. 2010; Morrow et al. 2010; Garrido water harvested from corrugated tiles and cement (at the
et al. 2011; Islam et al. 2019). Even though other heavy metals Phuong Nai pagoda) was slightly higher than that from corru-
(Pb2+, Zn2+, Cr2+, Ni2+) were not present significantly in the gated steel sheets (at the Cu Khe and Dai Cuong schools). The
rainwater at these studied sites, they were found present in some same trend was observed with respect to turbidity and conduc-
areas (Kwaadsteniet et al. 2013; Chubaka et al. 2018). For tivity with a higher level of significance (see Table 4). It seems
instance, Pb2+ was found in the rainwater if there was a leaching likely that the dirt may stick to corrugated clay tiles more

Table 2 Quality of untreated rainwater (after first flush)

Parameters Units Value QCVN 6-1:2010/BYT QCVN 01-1:2018/BYT WHO guidelines

pH – 6.65 ± 0.1 N/A 6.0–8.5 6.0–8.5

Odor – No odor N/A No odor None
Color TCU 7.73 ± 3.9 N/A 15 –
Turbidity NTU 2.83 ± 1.1 N/A 2 1.5
E. coli CFU/100 mL 420 ± 289 0 <1 0
Total coliforms CFU/100 mL 1420 ± 951 <1 <3 0
Arsenic mg/L <0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

*N/A not available

Environ Sci Pollut Res

Table 3 Heavy metals from rainwater at three testing sites

No Parameters Unit Cu Khe Dai Cuong Phuong Nai QCVN 6-1:2010/BYT

S1 S2 S3 S1 S2 S3 S1 S2 S3

1 As2+ mg/l < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 0.01
2 Fe2+ mg/l < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.2 0.3*
3 Ni2+ mg/l 0.0215 0.0184 < 0.01 0.022 < 0.01 < 0.01 0.023 < 0.01 < 0.01 0.07
4 Cd2+ mg/l 0.007 < 0.001 < 0.001 0.01 < 0.001 < 0.001 0.011 0.005 < 0.001 0.003
5 Mn2+ mg/l < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 0.4
6 Hg2+ mg/l < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 0.006
7 Se2+ mg/l < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 0.01
8 Pb2+ mg/l < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 0.01
9 Zn2+ mg/l 0.1 < 0.015 < 0.015 0.17 0.019 < 0.015 0.031 < 0.015 < 0.015 3*

In sedimentation tank (S1), before filtration (S2), and after sterilization (S3)
*Obtained from QCVN 01-1:2018/BYT standard for domestic water, as they are not available from the QCVN 6-1:2010/BYT standard for bottled water

significantly and readily than to the steel materials. That is the antique houses are the main places maintained with the corru-
reason why steel sheets are more commonly used for roofing gated clay tiles as a means of preserving culture in Vietnam.
than clay tiles. A survey on the RWH systems in the Mekong In a previous study, Lee et al. (2012) revealed that the pH of
Delta region (South of Vietnam) reported that about 42% of the samples taken from wooden shingle, concrete tile, and clay
these households reported using corrugated metal, followed tile roofs was higher than that from a galvanized steel roof. In
by 28% for fibro cement, 22% for brick tiles, and 7% for addition, the concentrations of total suspended solids (TSS),
thatched roof (Özdemir et al. 2011). Pagodas, temples, or relating to turbidity (Daphne et al. 2011), changed

6.0
8.0
7.0 5.0

6.0
Turbidity (NTU)

4.0
5.0
pH

3.0
4.0
3.0 2.0
2.0
1.0
1.0
- -
In Sed. Before A er In Sed. Before A er In Sed. Before A er In Sed. Before A er
filtra on disinfec on filtra on disinfec on filtra on disinfec on filtra on disinfec on

2018 2019 2018 2019

Cu Khe kindergarten Dai Cuong School Phuong Nai pagoda Cu Khe kindergarten Dai Cuong school Phuong Nai pagoda

100 180
90 160
Conduc vity (microS/cm)

80 140
70
120
TDS (mg/L)

60
100
50
80
40
30 60

20 40
10 20
- -
In Sed. Before A er In Sed. Before A er In Sed. Before A er In Sed. Before A er
filtra on disinfec on filtra on disinfec on filtra on disinfec on filtra on disinfec on
2018 2019 2018 2019
Cu Khe kindergarten Dai Cuong school Phuong Nai pagoda Cu Khe kindergarten Dai Cuong school Phuong Nai pagoda

Fig. 4 Water quality monitoring at three sites (Sed. sedimentation)


Table 4 Mean and standard deviation results of rainwater quality by each corrugated steel sheets and results of one-way ANOVA statistic (F-ratio).
Parameters Unit Corrugated steel sheet (n = 13)
Mean SD
pH 6.78 0.38
Turbidity NTU 1.52 0.80
Conductivity μS/cm 86.59 14.90
TDS mg/l 65.38 11.01
significantly (p value < 0.05) according to the type of roofs. For
instance, the average TSS concentrations were 35.65 mg/L for a
wooden shingle roof, 45 mg/L for a concrete tile roof, 41.6 mg/
L for a clay tile roof, and 15.1 mg/L for a galvanized steel roof
(Utsev 2012). In consideration of the impacts of the flat con-
crete roofs and sloped clay tiles in suburban areas, Gikas and
Tsihrintzis (2012) claimed that the conductivity, alkalinity,
SO42−, Ca2+, Na+, and K+ in the rainwater collected from a flat
concrete roof presented values of higher pollution. They did not
clearly explain the reasons for this phenomenon. However, it is
probable that the flat concrete somehow holds much more dirt
than do the sloped tiles roof; thus, this kind of roof is not likely
suitable for harvesting rainwater. Sanchez et al. (Sánchez et al.
2015) found in their review that runoff water quality was better
from the sloping smooth catchments than that from the flat
rough roofs, and the necessary first-flush volume from the flat
rough roofs was the highest. Improving the flat concrete roof
with slightly sloped steel sheets (in red or dark blue color) on
top could be an option for rainwater harvesting purpose.
Fortunately, steel sheets seem to be the roof style trend in urban
areas of Vietnam for the past two decades as the concrete roof
offers poor heat insulation in addition to its poor rainwater
quality. Therefore, extra roofs with slightly sloped steel sheets
help lower the house temperature, thereby cooling down the
house, minimizing the energy cost for air conditioners, and
reducing dust attachment.
Phenol and other organic matters in harvested
rainwater
Since industrial and agricultural activities or vehicular ex-
hausts may give rise to some organic compounds in the air
and eventually in the rainwater, effort was made to investigate
these substances at the Dai Cuong school in Ha Nam province,
which is nearby many industrial clusters. Table 5 shows that
the concentrations of the measured organic compounds were
present at trace levels, and all were lower than acceptable
values regulated by the Vietnam standards and WHO guide-
lines. These results matched those mentioned in earlier studies
of Zhu et al. (2004) and Schummer et al. (2009).
However, the phenol and its derivatives were occasionally
detected at values higher than the limit (1 μg/L) (Fig. 5). After
Environ Sci Pollut Res
Corrugated tiles and cement (n = 7) F ratio p value
Mean SD
6.95 0.39 1.19 0.2901
3.00 1.45 9.43 0.0065
124.29 46.75 7.13 0.0156
72.86 15.29 1.18 0.2916
the filtration complex unit (including activated carbon and
microfiltration membranes), their concentrations reduced
from 30 to 60%, and the treated water all met the standard
values. The origins of phenols in the atmosphere could be
from various sources, such as vehicular combustion process,
manufacture of dyes, drugs, fungicides, pesticides, and paper
(Schummer et al. 2009), but in this case, it could probably
come from plastic and chemical plants in the nearby industrial
clusters and vehicle emissions. Significant levels of phenols
and nitrophenols were also found in rainwater in the east of
France, with total concentrations ranged from 0 to 1383 μg/L
in Strasbourg and from 0 to 1215 μg/L in Erstein (Schummer
et al. 2009). The researchers, therefore, concluded that the
vehicle emissions were the main cause. The presence of these
compounds, in general, is the problem with many countries, in
particular where road traffic and traffic jams are daily occur-
rences. This has been reported in Denmark, the USA,
Germany, Switzerland (Anku et al. 2017), and concurrently
in many Asian countries, such as Vietnam. The presence of
phenol and its derivatives can be very toxic to human beings
and wildlife (Anku et al. 2017); thus, careful monitoring
should be implemented.
Control of microorganisms
According to the National Environmental Report by the
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE) 2014), the
percentage of disability-adjusted life year (DALY) for water-
borne diseases was about 6% of total DALYs. The average
number of deaths due to waterborne diseases was 14,531 per
year. As a result, the control of disease factors, such as micro-
organisms, has been of the greatest concern.
According to Table 6, the microbial indicators, including
total coliforms, E. coli, and P. aeruginosa (PA), were present
in all rainwater samples (from sedimentation tank) at three
locations. Limits for E. coli and total coliforms are < 1 CFU/
100 mL and < 3 CFU/100 mL, respectively, based on the
Vietnam national regulation (QCVN 01-1/2018/BYT). It
means the rainwater at studied sites was microbial contami-
nated and not safe for drinking purposes. The number of path-
ogens in the first tank was quite significant and ranged from
Environ Sci Pollut Res

Table 5 Concentrations of organic compounds in rainwater samples

Parameters Unit Raw rainwater Treated rainwater QCVN 01-1:2018/BYT for WHO guidelines for direct
domestic water use** drinking water

Alachlor μg/L < 4.0 < 4.0 20 20

Aldicarb μg/L < 0.20 < 0.20 10 10
Aldrin μg/L < 0.006 < 0.006 0.03 0.03
Atrazine μg/L < 0.081 < 0.081 2 100*
Bentazone μg/L < 0.01 < 0.01 30 N/A
Carbofuran μg/L < 0.01 < 0.01 5 7
Clordane μg/L < 0.015 < 0.015 0.2 0.2
Chlorotoluron μg/L < 1.50 < 1.50 30 30
DDT μg/L < 0.016 < 0.016 2 N/A
1,2-Dibromo-3-cloropropane μg/L < 0.05 < 0.05 1 40
2,4-D μg/L < 0.06 < 0.06 30 30
1,2-Dicloropropan μg/L < 0.02 < 0.02 20 20
1,3-Dichloropropen μg/L < 0.02 < 0.02 20 20
Heptaclo và heptaclo epoxit μg/L < 0.006 < 0.006 0.03 0.03
Hexachlorobenzene μg/L < 0.074 < 0.074 1 N/A
Isoproturon μg/L < 1.50 < 1.50 9 9
Lindane μg/L 0.019 0.019 2 2
MCPA μg/L < 0.35 < 0.35 2 2
Methoxychlor μg/L < 0.015 < 0.015 20 20
Methachlor μg/L < 4.0 < 4.0 10 10
Molinate μg/L < 0.086 < 0.086 6 6
Pendimethalin μg/L < 1.0 < 1.0 20 20
Pentachlorophenol μg/L < 0.04 < 0.04 9 N/A
Permethrin μg/L < 0.05 < 0.05 20 N/A
Propanil μg/L < 0.1 < 0.1 20 N/A
Simazine μg/L < 0.13 < 0.13 20 2
Trifluralin μg/L < 0.50 < 0.50 20 20
2,4-DB μg/L < 0.30 < 0.30 90 90
Dichlorprop μg/L < 0.43 < 0.43 100 100
Fenoprop μg/L < 1.0 < 1.0 9 9
Mecoprop μg/L < 0.19 < 0.19 10 10
2,4,5-T μg/L < 0.024 < 0.024 9 9
2,4,6-Trichlorophenol μg/L < 0.15 < 0.15 200 N/A

*Atrazine and its chlorotriazine metabolites

**These parameters are not regulated by the national standard QCVN 6-1:2010/BYT for bottled water quality; thus, the national standard QCVN 01-
1:2018/BYT was used as reference

several hundred to several thousand pathogens per 100 mL.
The microorganisms reduced from 30 to 100% after settling
and completely sterilized after disinfection, except for the case
of total coliforms at Dai Cuong school in 2018. That case was
probably due to the UV light malfunction, as after fixing, it
worked fine and showed good data in 2019. The explanation
for the reduction of microorganism after sedimentation may
lie in the fact that during the settling and storage, the micro-
organism has no further nutrient supply. In addition, the tem-
perature was high in Vietnam (25 °C on average and up to
45 °C in the summer), and the stainless steel material of the
tank concentrated ultraviolet sunlight very well, which could
act as a disinfectant against bacterial pathogens (Lee et al.
2012).
The percent of positive samples was reported in many
countries and regions (Ahmed et al. 2011; Kaushik et al.
2012; Hamilton et al. 2016), ranging from 35 to 100% for
fecal coliforms, 30 to100% for total coliforms, and 33 to
70% for E. coli. Microorganisms existed in the air (Kaushik
et al. 2012) and their prevalence and concentrations were at-
tributed to the biomass-burning emissions generated from un-
controlled forest and peat fires (Kaushik et al. 2012).
 Environ Sci Pollut Res

Fig. 5 Monitoring of phenol and

its derivatives

Therefore, the suggestion was made that further research to be
done on the correlation of microbial indicators in rainwater
and meteorological conditions, atmospheric deposition, and
in the presence of wildlife (Hamilton et al. 2016). In addition,
it is highly recommended to have disinfection of rainwater
prior to potable use, unless, this water is designated for irriga-
tion or firefighting. Previous studies revealed that rainwater
harvested from metal roofs contained lower concentrations of
coliforms than does that harvested from other roofing mate-
rials (Lee et al. 2012). However, this is not the case in the
present study. There was no significant difference between
the total coliforms from Cu Khe and Dai Cuong catchment
surface (using steel sheets) and those from Phuong Nai roof
(using tiles and cement) during the 2 years.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa was added as another microor-
ganism indicator for this research as it is associated with seri-
ous hospital-acquired infections, such as ventilator-associated
pneumonia and various sepsis syndromes (Hoang et al. 2014).
It is especially well-known as a multidrug-resistant pathogen.
A study at the Pasteur Institute in Vietnam has revealed that
P. aeruginosa strains were resistant to most available antimi-
crobial agents with a high proportion (up to 40%).
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is also rated a common pathogen,
multiplies easily, and moderately resistant to chlorine. The
presence of high numbers of P. aeruginosa in potable water
can be associated with taste, odor, and turbidity issues (World
Health Organization 2011). The disinfection of P. aeruginosa
was not so effective with chlorination; rather, it was found to
be more effective with UV light. Table 6 shows negative pres-
ence of P. aeruginosa after disinfection with UV light for all
samples. Even Argyraki et al. (2017) argued that Ultraviolet B
irradiation (wavelength of 296 nm) was significantly more
effective than Ultraviolet C irradiation (wavelength of
266 nm) in inactivating P. aeruginosa biofilms. Although,
no other pathogens were monitored in this study, it was re-
ported that substantial variation in the microbial communities

Table 6 Control of microorganisms in rainwater

Parameters Location 2015 2018 2019

In After In Before After In Before After

sedimentation disinfection sedimentation filtration disinfection sedimentation filtration disinfection

Total coliform Cu Khe 5050 0 377 213 0 1000 500 0

(MPN/100 ml) ± 2474 ± 186 ± 101 ± 282 ± 141
Dai Cuong N/A* N/A 1528 518 63 1190 338 0
± 1041 ± 467 ±75 ± 1131 ± 226
Phuong N/A N/A 353 207 0 1158 325 0
Nai ± 303 ± 150 ± 1171 ± 269
E. coli (MPN/100 ml) Cu Khe 545 0 678 0 0 734 0 0
± 219 ± 342 ± 425
P. aeruginosa Dai Cuong N/A N/A 4±8 0 0 30 ± 6 10 ± 2 0
(MPN/100 ml) Phuong N/A N/A 40 ± 6 14 ± 2 0 0 0 0
Nai

*N/A: At the time of sampling in 2015, there was only one RWH system in Cu Khe location under operation
Environ Sci Pollut Res

could occur from the different catchment surfaces (Waso et al.
2017; Bae et al. 2019). For instance, human mitochondrial
DNA (mtDNA) and Bifidobacterium adolescentis
(B. adolescentis) were quantifiable in 90% and 67% of the
tank water samples, respectively, in the study by Waso et al.
(2017). In another study, the microbial communities found in
the rainwater harvested from the cool and green roofs, the
shingle roof, and the metal roof were Betaproteobacteria,
Methylobacteriaceae, and Enterobacteriaceae, respectively
(Bae et al. 2019).
Cost assessment of RWH system
The investment, O&M costs of the full systems (including
sedimentation, filtration, and disinfection), and simplified ones
(including sedimentation and disinfection only) are present in
Table 7. The reason for considering the simplified system is
that in many places, organic matter and heavy metals were of
no concern. Thus, the simplified system, including the sedi-
mentation and disinfection itself, has successfully reduced the
suspended solid (turbidity) and microorganisms to the limits.

Table 7 Capital and operational costs for RWH and treatment systems

Parameters Cu Khe Kindergarten Dai Cuong school Phuong Nai pagoda

(VND) (VND) (VND)

I. Capital cost
Collection system (1) 1000,000 5,000,000 5,000,000
Sed. tank + Storage tank (2) 40,000,000 40,000,000 50,000,000
Construction and installation (3) 10,000,000 100,000,000 10,000,000
Filtration system (4) 6000,000 10,000,000 10,000,000
Pump and accessories (5) 2,000,000 4,000,000 2,000,000
UV lamp (6) 2,000,000 4,000,000 6000,000
Pipes and fittings (7) 5,000,000 10,000,000 10,000,000
Total A (VND) (8) = (1) + … + (7) 66,000,000 173,000,000 93,000,000
Total B (VND) (9) = (1) + (2) + (3) + (6) + (7) 58,000,000 159,000,000 81,000,000
Number of users (10) 300 500 100
Volume of reservoirs (m3) (11) 16.0 16.5 20.0
Investment per capita for full treatment Total A/(10) 220,000 346,000 930,000
system
Investment per capita for simplified Total B/(10) 193,333 318,000 810,000
system(3)
Investment per m3 for full treatment Total A/(11) 4,125,000 10,484,848 4,650,000
system
Investment per m3 for simplified Total B/(11) 3,625,000 9,636,364 4,050,000
system
II. Operation cost per year
Labor (VND) (12) 1,200,000 1,600,000 –
Replacement of membrane (VND) (13) 1,200,000 2,400,000 2,400,000
Replacement of UV light(2) (14) 300,000 600,000 600,000
Power (VND) (15) 480,000 1,200,000 960,000
Total per year (VND)—full system (16) = (9) + (10) + (11) + (12) 3,180,000 5,800,000 3,960,000
Total per year (VND)— simplified (17) = (9) + (11) 1,500,000 2,200,000 600,000
system
Per month (VND) (18) = (13)/12 265,000 483,333 330,000
Rainwater for drinking per month (19) 6000 10,000 6000
(L)(4)
Cost (VND/L)— full system (17)/(19) 530 580 660
Cost (VND/L)— simplified system (18)/(19) 250 220 100
1
The operation at the pagoda was conducted by the monks. Thus, there was no cost for hiring operators
2
The life cycle of UV light is approximately 5 years
3
The simplified system does not include a filtration unit
4
Based on the estimation of 1 L/cap/day for drinking at the school and kindergarten, 3 L/cap/day for drinking and cooking purposes at the pagoda, for an
average of 20 days use/month
1 USD = 23,200 VND

As described, there were different configurations for RWH
systems although they applied the same treatment concept includ-
ing sedimentation, filtration, and disinfection. At Cu Khe site, the
rainwater was pumped from the ground reservoir to the second
tank on the rooftop (2m3) then flowed by gravity to the filtration
system. At the Dai Cuong school, the second tank was not on the
roof top. Thus, two successive pumps were used. However, at the
Phuong Nai pagoda, which was designed and installed later, the
second tank was not applied because its energy saving was con-
sidered insignificant. Only one pump from the reservoir to the
filter tank was employed at this site. In addition, in Dai Cuong, a
shelter was built to house the tank and filtration systems; hence,
the construction cost was slightly higher than the two other sides.
Furthermore, only one UV light system was applied at the Cu
Khe site, while two UV light systems were used at the remaining
ones for better microbial control. The investment costs for full
systems in Cu Khe (using intermediate tanks), Dai Cuong (using
two consecutive pumps), and Phuong Nai (using only 1 pump)
are VND4,125,000/m3 (US$177.8/m3); VND10,484,848/m3
(US$451.9/m3), and VND4,650,000/m3 (US$200.4/m3), respec-
tively. The costs are from 8 to 13% higher than those without a
filtration system. For O&M, providing that the UV light’s life
expectancy is 5 years, the life span of the pump is 10 years, and
the membrane replacement period is 1 year; the O&M cost of the
systems installed at Cu Khe, Dai Cuong, and Phuong Nai sites
will be VND 530/L (US$0.023/L), VND580/L (US$0.025/L),
and VND990/L (US$0.043/L), correspondingly. These costs of
the full systems were 50–85% higher than those of the simplified
ones (about US$0.006–US$0.01/L). It is worth noting that at the
Phuong Nai site, the O&M cost was quite low because the labor
cost was zero (i.e., the system was operated by the monks, not the
hired workers). Accordingly, the application of a simplified sys-
tem at some suitable places could help reduce about 10% of
investment cost and more than 60% of O&M cost. This is a
significant number. Besides, the cost could be lowered if the
volumes and materials of proper containers are carefully evaluat-
ed. From Table 7, it is obvious that the cost of containers/tanks
accounts for nearly 70% of the investment cost. For container
optimization, some aspects, such as weather conditions and stu-
dents’ ages and habits, could be borne in mind. The economical
tank capacity should definitely be considered during the design
phase (Wang and Blackmore 2012; Nguyen et al. 2016). For tank
materials on a large scale, besides concrete (which is a traditional
but immobile and costly one), some other materials, including
plastic (polyethylene PE), stainless steel, composite, rubber blad-
der, or flexible polymer, could be taken into account. The cost per
unit volume of the rubber bladder tank was about US$20.5/m3
(Zhu 2015). In Vietnam, it costs about US$125/m3 for a stainless-
steel tank, US$120/m3 for a plastic tank, US$110/m3 for a com-
posite tank, and US$105/m3 for a concrete tank.
In comparison with other RWH and treatment systems, it
was found that the multi-medium sand filter (MMSF) system
had low-cost operation and energy (US$0.30/m3 or 0.03 cents/
Environ Sci Pollut Res
L) and was easy to maintain, whereas the cost of drinking
water distributed by truck was US$6.15/m3 or US$0.00615/
L (Garrido et al. 2011). However, with respect to this cost, the
researchers did not mention clearly whether the disinfection
and labor expenses were taken into account. Another study on
the cost-benefit of RWH system for a house in Indonesia re-
vealed that with a storage tank of 2m3, two pumps, and a
gutter filter per house, the capital cost was US$185/m3, and
O&M cost was US$0.003/L (Juliana et al. 2017). The results
of this study were quite similar to the cost of the simplified
RWH systems in the present study. In general, the cost of
RWH systems is quite feasible even for rural communities.
This was confirmed in previous studies (Juliana et al. 2017;
Oviedo-Ocaña et al. 2018; Lani et al. 2018).
Dallman et al. (2016) studied the benefit-cost analysis of
RWH system and showed that the largest share of benefits was
from water savings (potable water purchases replaced by cap-
tured rainwater). For example, annual water saving comprised
70% of total benefits (i.e., US$4.3 million) if 208-L rainwater
cisterns were assigned for outdoor use in the USA (Dallman et al.
2016). In the rural areas of Vietnam, the cost of a 20-L drinking
water container is VND15,000 or VND750/L. Thus, the operat-
ing cost for each liter of rainwater (as presented in Table 7) is
about 20–30% cheaper. If each student drinks 0.6 L/day, it is
possible to save up to 30% of the water charges (normally
US$0.4/month/student). For the case in Indonesia, the RWH sys-
tem could save water use up to 54.92% and reduce the volume of
runoff from the roof up to 71.53% per year (Juliana et al. 2017).
Again, it should be emphasized that the level of rainwater
treatment can be decided on the basis of the utility purposes. If
it is intended to be used for irrigation, watering plants, or
firefighting, the rainwater just needs to be settled in a two-
chamber sedimentation tank. If it is intended to be used for
non-potable objectives, such as toilet flushing, the addition of
disinfection should be implemented together with sedimenta-
tion. Finally, if it is intended to be used for drinking and
cooking purposes, the treatment should be composed of the
full processes of sedimentation, filtration, and disinfection.
With careful design consideration, the application of RWH
systems could be expanded to commercial buildings in the
urban areas (Konig 2001; Lani et al. 2018).
Conclusion
The monitoring study of a 5-year operation of on-site RWH
and treatment systems that have been used for the drinking
water supply at public units in rural areas of Vietnam has
revealed that the untreated rainwater could not be used directly
for drinking purposes as it was contaminated with bacteria
(TC = 200–300 CFU/100 ml, PA = 40–160 CFU/100 ml),
and turbidity = 2–4 NTU. Most of the heavy metals in it were
found below the standard limits. Only Cd2+ was occasionally
Environ Sci Pollut Res
detected and was due to vehicle transportation and industrial
activities. The organic compounds identified were found at
trace levels and all under the limits (1 μg/L), except for phenol
and its derivatives, which possibly originated in nearby plastic
and chemical plants. The removal efficiency of phenol and its
derivatives by RW treatment systems varied from 30 to 60%.
There was a microbial hazard in all untreated rainwater sam-
ples. However, they were well controlled by UV disinfection.
The full rainwater treatment system (sedimentation, filtra-
tion, and disinfection) costs 10% more than that of the simpli-
fied one (sedimentation and disinfection), but the operation
and maintenance costs of the full system were significantly
higher (US$0.03/L and US$0.008/L for a full system and
simplified one, correspondingly). Thus, careful consideration
during the design phase is highly essential for choosing the
proper solution according to the local weather, human activi-
ties, and the affordability of the community.
Acknowledgments The authors would like to express high acknowledg-
ment for the financial support of the Project “Water And Sanitation
Appropriate Technology Center for SDG 6 solution (WASAT Center)”
jointly provided by the Institute of Environmental Science and
Engineering (IESE), National University of Civil Engineering (NUCE),
and the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Seoul
National University (SNU), Korea, funded by the Ministry of Science
and ICT, Korea.
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