 Project Review:-

Located in shopian district at degree collage.

HISTORY AND NECESSITY

The state of Jammu and Kashmir referred as the land of saints, rishes and munies with around 5000 years
of written history not only holds the richest cultural heritage in the sub-continent, but is unique blend of
multihued culture and heritage in the country, differentiating it from the rest of the country, rightly calked a
paradise on earth the three distinct geographical parts of the state i.e. Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh having
diverse religious, language, culture, geography, ethnic and social entities makes it us parking specimen of
Indians unity in diversity. Its history of around 5000 years has witnessed various vicissitudes politically,
socially, economically and culturally. The alien fords have found it a safe Haven for their political and
economic ends. The redeeming feature, among all its rulers and people has been the culture cohesion and
social syncretism, advocating values of peaceful co-existence and brotherhood he people of the state has
been taken pride in the cultural ethos of love and humanism manifested in its philosophies of mysticism
traditions and socio cultural institutions.
A visit to the beautiful part of the globe brings home the fact that heaven is indeed a place on earth
in Kashmir. The state that portrays nature in its best is also famed for its art and architecture, language and
dialects, customs and costumes, fair and festivals, rites and rituals, saints and sufies, seers and shrines,
jewelers and artifacts, religions, literature and crafts. It is unique blend of multifaceted “unity in diversity”.
The numerous civilizations that have inhabited the valley have been way of celebrating festivals of the state
like BhaandPather, Rouuf, Dhambali, Chakri, Jagrana, Shaja etc with three divergent political, social and
culture, religion, language but continuously intermingling forming a spectrum of division and diversion and
culture diversity leading to culture and communal cohesion these art forms have become an integral part of
the people of the state heralding love, brotherhood, peaceful co-existence and communal harmony. This
rich and deep rooted ancient tradition of peaceful co-existence still remains its place in the heart of the
state.
As we know, Kashmir has been the highest seat of learning from ancient periods and had the glory
of being the cross road of various cultures, which as a law of nature, was bound to impress and influence
Kashmiri ethos, but it is also a matter of facts that the people of Kashmir never but the inherent core of
their Kashmir consciousness famous for its syncretistic and composite culture and openness. History bears
witness to the fact that whenever even forces have sought to replace this consciousness with a narrow and

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intolerant version, the native have resisted such attempts from the core of their hearts. The unique
consciousness, popularly known as “Kashmiryat” is the hidden treasure, the proud and invaluable heritage
of the people of Kashmir. The incredible culture continuity of multidimensional culture fabric of the state
has survived through 5000 years of history marked by period of unrest, invasions, war and political
subjugation. Besides, this heritage is characterized by a sense of tolerance that has always defined the
socio-cultural space of Kashmir. The redeeming feature of Kashmir culture has been that the people have
attuned to the immediate environment and to the historical post simultaneously and in a harmonious way.

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 North

ROAD FROM MAIN MARKET SHOPIAN TO MEEMINDER

BLOCKSHOPIAN
DEVELOPMENT
 SITE MAP
OFFICERS OFFICE

GOVT DEGREE
COLLEGE
SHOPIAN
Approach road

ORCHARDS
INDUSTRIAL
ESTATE

Proposed site

 PROJECT WORK:-

SITE SLECTION

1. LEVEL AT THE SITE:-The level at the site must be higher than that of its surrounding so as to provide
good drainage.

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2. CLIMATE CONDITION:-The intensity of the rainfall and sub soil water level should be low as to avoid
dampness in the building.
3. SUB-SOIL CONDITION:-A hard strata should be available at a reasonable depth so as to construct the
foundation of the building safely and economically.
4. AVAILABILITIES OF MODERN AMENITIES :-The site must be within municipal limits so that
modern amenities like water supply, electricity, drainage, road etc. can be made available inner future if
there is no provision at present.
5. AVAILABILITIES OF OTHER FACILITIES:-The site should provide as easy access from the nearest
road and after sufficient light and air, these should be good and cheap transport facilities available near the
site, it is always better if public services like fire brigade, police station etc.
6. SURROUNDINGS:-
The situation and surrounding of the site must as to suit the purpose for which the building it to be
constructed.

 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

INTRODUCTION

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 As architects and the building industry continue to design and build structures that vary in type, design,
materials, and building methods, it has become increasingly important that members stay familiar with both
basic and new concepts of building construction. Construction methods are constantly being replaced by
new and more efficient and cost effective methods to construct buildings.

Unfortunately, new construction methods are usually NOT designed to assist fire suppression operations.
Considering the cost of labor, equipment, and building materials, it is not economically feasible to build a
structure in the same manner as during the period of conventional construction. Heavy timbers have been
replaced by smaller dimension lumber, and petrochemical based compounds have replaced conventional
building materials, regardless of building size.

 BUILDING HIERARCHY:-

a. LAYOUT
b. EXCAVATION
c. MARKING
d. SOLING
e. MUD-MAT
f. FOOTING
g. PADERTRAL
h. PLINTH
i. COLOUMN
j. LINTAL BEAM
k. FLOOR BEAM
l. SLAB
Any structure constructed of what so ever material and used for residential, business education or other
purposes is called building.

TYPES OF THE BUILDING:-

1. Based on occupancy
2. Based on type of construction

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BASED ON OCCUPANCY:-

Residential buildings: -The building in which sleeping accommodation is provided for normal residential
purposes are called residential buildings.
Educational / institutional buildings: - The building used for school, college or day care purposes are
called education / institutional building.
Assembly Buildings: - The buildings which are constructed for the purposes to gathering of the people for
their respective purposes i.e. social, religious, civil, political is called assembly buildings.
Business Buildings: - The buildings used for transaction of business, for the keeping of accounts and
records and other similar purposes called business buildings.
Mercantile Buildings: - The buildings used for display of merchandise, either wholesale or retail are
called Mercantile Buildings.
Industrial buildings: - The buildings in which products or materials of all kinds and properties are
fabricated, assembled or processed are called industrial buildings.
Storage buildings: - The buildings used primary for the storage, handling or shattering of goods and wares
or merchandise, vehicles and animals are called storage buildings.
Hazardous buildings: -The buildings used for storage, handling manufacturing or processing of highly
combustible or explosive material are called Hazardous buildings.

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON TYPE OF CONSTRUCTION:-

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 Building with type 1 construction: - In these building the design and material used const. are such that all
structural components have about 4 hours fire resistance.
Buildings with type 2 construction: - In these building the design any type of material used in their
construction are such that all structural components have 3 hours fire resistance.
Buildings with type 3 construction: - In these building the design and types of the materials used in their
construction are such that all structural components have 3 hours fire resistance.
Buildings with type 4 construction: - In these buildings the design and the type of material used in their
construction are such that all structural components have 4 hours fire resistance.

 PARTS OF A BUILDING
A building can be divided into two parts: -
1. Sub structure
2. Super structure
1. Sub structure: - The part of a building constructed beneath the ground level is known as Sub structure.

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2. Super structure: - The part of the building constructed above ground level is known as super structure. It
is second part of a building. All the activities of the building construction take place after the making of
sub-structure. Flooring, wall roofing are the example of super structure of a building.

COMPONENTS OF A BUILDING

1. FOUNDATION:-It is the lowest part of a structure below the ground level which is direct contact with
ground and transmitted all the dead, live and other loads to the soil on which the structure rests.

Modern foundation types:-

Shallow foundations:-

Shallow foundations, often called footings, are usually embedded about a meter or so into soil. One
common type is the spread footing which consists of strips or pads of concrete (or other materials) which
extend below the frost line and transfer the weight from walls and columns to the soil or bedrock.

Another common type of shallow foundation is the slab-on-grade foundation where the weight of the
building is transferred to the soil through a concrete slab placed at the surface. Slab-on-grade foundations
can be reinforced mat slabs, which range from 25 cm to several meters thick, depending on the size of the
building, or post-tensioned slabs, which are typically at least 20 cm for houses, and thicker for heavier
structure.

Deep foundations:-

A deep foundation is used to transfer the load of a structure down through the upper weak layer of topsoil
to the stronger layer of subsoil below. There are different types of deep footings including impact driven
piles, drilled shafts, caissons, helical piles, geo-piers and earth stabilized columns. The naming conventions
for different types of footings vary between different engineers. Historically, piles were wood, later steel,
reinforced concrete, and pre-tensioned concrete.

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 Monopile foundation:-

A monopile foundation is a type of deep foundation which uses a single, generally large-diameter,
structural element embedded into the earth to support all the loads (weight, wind, etc.) of a large above-
surface structure.

A large number of monopile foundations have been utilized in recent years for economically constructing
fixed-bottom offshore wind farms in shallow-water subsea locations For example, a single wind farm off
the coast of England went online in 2008 with over 100 turbines, each mounted on a 4.7-meter-diameter
monopile footing in ocean depths up to 18 meters of water.

Design:-

Foundations are designed to have an adequate load capacity with limited settlement by a geotechnical
engineer, and the footing itself may be designed structurally by a structural engineer.

Inadequate foundations in muddy soils below sea level caused these houses in the Netherlands to subside.

The primary design concerns are settlement and bearing capacity. When considering settlement, total
settlement and differential settlement is normally considered. Differential settlement is when one part of a
foundation settles more than another part. This can cause problems to the structure the foundation is
supporting.

2. PLINTH: - The portion of a building and the top of the floor immediately above the ground is known as
plinth. The level of the surrounding ground is known as formation level of the ground floor of the building
is known as plinth level.

3. WALLS:-Walls are provided to enclose or divide the floor space n desired pattern in addition wall
provided privacy security and give protection against sun, rain, cold and other undesired effect of the
weather.

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4. COLUMN:-A column may be defined as an isolated load bearing member, the width of which is neither
less than its thickness. It carries the axially compressive load.

5. FLOORS:-Floors are flat supporting elements of a building. They divided a building into different levels.
There by creating more accommodation on a given plot of land. The basic purpose of a floor is to provide a
firm and other items like stores, furniture, equipment etc

6. DOORS, WINDOWS AND VENTILATORS:-A door may be defined as a barrier secured in an opening
left in a wall to provide usual means of access to a building, room or passage. Windows and ventilators are
provided for sun light, fresh air and ventilation purposes.

7. ROOF:-It is the uppermost component of a building and its function is to cover the space below it of a
room and protect it from rain, snow, sun, wind etc.

8. BUILDING FINISHES: -A building is considered incomplete till such time the surface of its components
is given appropriate treatment.
Building finishes include items like plastering, painting, pointing, white / colour washing, varnishes and
distempering etc.

 MATERIAL USED IN CONSTRUCTION

Following are the materials used for the construction of a building.

1. Bricks.
2. Sand.
3. Cement.
4. Stone.
5. Coarse Aggregate.

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6. Fine Aggregate.
7. Timber.
8. Metal.
9. Floor Tiles.
10. Roof Tiles.
11. Reinforcement.
12. Plastic Materials.
13. Doors & Windows.
14. Asphalt Bitumen.
15. Coloring Material.
16. White Cement.
17. Paints & Varnishes.
18. Brick Ballast.
19. Sanitary Materials.
20. Water.
21. Finishing Tiles. Etc.

 GENERAL SPECIFICATION:-

FOUNDATION AND PLINTH

Foundation and plinth should be of 1st class brick work in lime or cement mortar over a bed of lime or
cement concrete.

SUPER –STRUCTURE
Super-structure shall be of 1st class brick in lime or cement mortar.
DAMP PROOF COARSE (D.P.C.)

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D.P.C. shall be of minimum40 mm (4cm) thick cement concrete (1:2:4) with two coat of hot bitumen layer
on it.

ROOFING
Roof shall be of R.C.C. slab with an insulator layer of lime or cement 8cm thick over it. The flooring
cement pointed on the top height of the room shall not be less than 3.7 m.

FLOORING
Terrazzo floor should be provided in drawing, dining, bath and w/c conglomerate polished floor 4 cm thick
1:2:4 should be provided in bed and other rooms.

DOORS AND WINDOWS

Doors and windows shall be at least of wood of teak 4.5 mm thick paneled or glazed with additional wire
gauges shutters. All fitting and fastenings should be good quality of brass or other materials.

FINISHING
The inner and outer wall shall have 1.25 cm. thick cement plaster. Drawing, dining and bed room shall be
distempered with two coats, other parts of the structure should be white washed with three coats and
outside walls should be colored with snowcem of two coats over one coat of white washing.

PAINTING
All the windows, doors and other furniture used in building should be painted with two coats with good
quality of colored enamel paints over one coat of primer.

MISCELLANEOUS
Building should be provided with first class sanitary and water supply fittings and electrical installation
should be protected in the building by using good quality of electrical products.

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CONSTRUCTION OF COLLEGE AUDITURIUM

(a)LAYOUT OF COLLAGE AUDIOTURIOM:-

Layout is drawn by using triangulation method (right triangle) by using tape .In this method we draw a
straight line in any direction at project place and then draw perpendicular (imaginary) to straight line after
that by using the right triangulation method with the help of tape we can draw the layout of whole
building.

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 13ft

5ft

12ft

BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL:-

The bearing capacity of soil to support the loads applied to the ground. The bearing capacity of the soil is
the maximum contact pressure between the foundation and the soil which should not produce shear failure
in the soil. Ultimate bearing capacity is the theoretical maximum pressure which can be supported without
failure ; allowable bearing capacity divided by factor of safety .i.e.
Bearing capacity= allowable bearing capacity
Factor of safety

There are three modes of failure: general shear failure, local shear failure and punching shear failure.

 INTRODUCTION TO FOUNDATIONS
The soil beneath structures responsible for carrying the loads is the FOUNDATION. The general
misconception is that the structural element which transmits the load to the soil (such as a footing) is the
foundation. The figure below clarifies this point.

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TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS

Foundations can be can be categorized into basically two types: Shallow and Deep.

 Shallow Foundations:

These types of foundations are so called because they are placed at a shallow depth (relative to their
dimensions) beneath the soil surface. Their depth may range from the top soil surface to about 3 times their
breadth (about 6 meters). They include footings (spread and combined), and soil retaining structures
(retaining walls, sheet piles, excavations and reinforced earth). There are several others of course.
 Deep Foundations:

The most common of these types of foundations are piles. They are called deep because they are embedded
very deep (relative to their dimensions) into the soil. Their depths may run over several 10s of meters. They
are usually used when the top soil layer have low bearing capacity.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

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To perform satisfactorily, foundations must carry the loads (and moments) and have two main
characteristics:

1. Be safe against overall shear failure (Bearing Capacity Failure).

2. Not undergo excessive displacement (Settlement).

These conditions will insure that the foundation i.e. the soil is safe and can carry the loads without major
problems. Therefore, when designing foundations, these two characteristic must be satisfied.
In addition to satisfying the conditions for the foundation, the structural members (concrete, steel and/or
wood) must be able to transfer the load to the soil without failing. In the case of concrete, two basic
conditions must be satisfied:

1. No shear failure: This is satisfied by providing an adequate thickness of concrete.

2. No tension failure: This is satisfied by providing adequate steel reinforcement.

This course covers the analysis and design (geotechnical and concrete design) of the basic and most
commonly used types of foundations including both shallow and deep foundations. Other types of
foundations are covered in the follow-up course, "Foundation Engineering 2".
The following types of foundations will be covered in Foundation Engineering 1.

FOOTINGS:-

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 (a) (b)

(C) (d)

Fig. 1 Spread Footings: (a) Square, (b) Rectangular,

(c) Wall (Strip) and (d) Circular

VARIOUS TYPES OF FOOTINGS

(A) Spread or isolated footing

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 Isolated footing

(B) Combined footing

Combined footing

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 (Rectangular Combined Footing)

(Steel layout for a rectangular combined footing)

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 (Trench and steel layout for a wall footing)

EARTH RETAINING STRUCTURES

(Cantilever Retaining Wall) (Gravity Retaining Wall)

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 (Counter fort Retaining Wall)

DEEP FOUNDATIONS: - PILES

(Various types of concrete piles)

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(Layout of Piles in Groups)

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  BASIC TERMS:-

PLINTH BEAM :-( STRAP BEAM) Beam laid above the foundation at plinth level. Plinth beam is a part
of structure can transfer loads to the adjacent columns.

FOUNDATION BEAM :-( STRIP OR MONOLITHIC BEAM) Building a home on a steep hillside or
poorly drained soils calls for a different type of foundation. The foundation beam can solve the problems of
a shifting load that these types of conditions can prevent. It is basically a platform for a structure to sit atop.

BATT: - Any portion of a full brick.

BEAM: - A horizontal load-bearing structural member.

COLUMN: - Free standing vertical load bearing member.

DESIGN OF MIXTURE (M):-

(a) cast-in-situ:-(nominal mix)( 1 : n : 2n )

M 20= 1:1/2:3

M 15=1:2:4

M 10=1:3:6

M 7 .5=1:4:8
(b) precast-in-situ:- (design mix)

R.M (Read-made mixture)

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  PILE FOUNDATION:-
When the soil at or near the ground surface is not capable of supporting a structure, deep foundations are
required to transfer the loads to deeper strata. Deep foundations are, therefore, used when surface soil is
unsuitable for shallow foundation, and a firm stratum is so deep that it cannot be reached economically by
shallow foundations. The most common types of deep foundations are piles, piers and caissons. The
mechanism of transfer of the load to the soil is essentially the same in all tapes of deep foundations.
A deep foundation is generally much more expensive than a shallow foundation. It should be
adopted only when a shallow foundation is not feasible. In certain situations, a fully compensated floating
raft may be more economical than a deep foundation. In some cases, the soil is improved by various
methods to make it suitable for a shallow foundation.
A pile is a slender structural member made of steel, concrete or wood. A pile is either driven into
the soil or formed in-situ by excavating a hole and filling it with concrete. A pier is a vertical column of
relatively larger cross-section than a pile. A pier is installed in a dry area by excavating a cylindrical hole of
large diameter to the desired depth and then backfilling it with concrete. The distinction between a cast in-
situ pile and pier is rather arbitrary. A cast in-situ pile greater than 0.6 m diameter is generally termed as a
pier. A caisson is a hollow, watertight box or chamber, which is sunk through the ground for laying
foundation under water. The caisson subsequently becomes an integral part of foundation. A pier and a
caisson differ basically only in the method of construction.

NECESSITY OF PILE FOUNDATION

Pile foundations are used in the following conditions:

1. When the strata are just the below the ground surface is highly compressible and very weak to support
the load transmitted by the structure.
2. When the plan of the structure is irregular related to its outline and load distribution. It would cause
non-uniform settlement if a shallow foundation is constructed. A pile foundation is required to reduce
differential settlement.
3. Pile foundation is required for the transmission of structural load through deep water to a firm
stratum.

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 4. Pile foundation are required to resist horizontal forces in addition to support the vertical loads in
earth retaining structures and tall structures that are subjected to horizontal forces due wind and
earthquake.
5. Piles are required when the soil conditions are such a washout, erosion or scour of soil may occur
from underneath a shallow foundation.

CLASSIFICATION OF PILES:-

Piles can be classified according to:

1. The material used
2. The mode of transfer of load
3. The method of construction
4. The use
5. The displacement of soil

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO MATERIAL USED

1. Steel piles. Steel piles are generally either in the form of thick pipes or rolled steel H sections. Pipe
steel piles are driven into the ground with their ends open or closed. Piles are provided with a driving
point or shoe at the lower end
2. Concrete Piles. Cement concrete is used in the construction of concrete piles. These piles are either
precast or cast in-situ. Precast piles are prepared in a factory or a casting yard.
A cast in-situ pile is constructed by making a hole in the ground and then filling it with concrete.
A cast in-situ may be cased or uncased. A cased pile is constructed by driving a steel casing into the
ground and filling it with concrete. An uncased pile is constructed by driving the casing to the desired
depth and gradually withdrawing casing when fresh concrete is filled.
3. Timber Piles. Timber piles are made from tree trunks after proper trimming. The timber used should
be straight and free from defects.
4. Composite Piles. A composite pile is made of two materials. A composite pile may consist of lower
portion of steel and the upper portion of cast in-situ concrete. Composite piles are rarely used in
practice.

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 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON MODE OF TRANSFER OF LOADS:-

1. End-bearing Piles. End bearing piles transmit the loads through their bottom tips. Such piles act as
columns and transmit the load through a weak material to a firm stratum below. If bed rock is located
within a reasonable depth, piles can be extended to the rock. The ultimate capacity of the pile depends
upon the bearing capacity of the rock.
2. Friction Piles. Friction piles do not reach the hard stratum. These piles transfer the load through the
skin friction between the embedded surface of a pile and surrounding soil. These piles are used when
a hard stratum does not exist at a reasonable depth.
3. Combined End-bearing and friction piles. These piles transfer load by the combination of end-
bearing at the bottom of the pile and the friction along the surface of the pile shaft.

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON METHOD OF INSTALLATION

1. Driven Piles. These piles are driven into the soil by applying blows of a heavy hammer on their tops.
2. Driven and cast in-situ piles. These piles are formed by driving a casing with a closed bottom end
into the soil. The casing is later filled with concrete.
3. Bored and cast in-situ piles. These piles are formed by excavating a hole into the ground and then
filling it with concrete.
4. Screw piles. These piles are screwed into the soil.
5. Jacked piles. These piles are jacked into the soil by applying a downward force with the help of
hydraulic jack.

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON USE

1. Load Bearing Piles. These piles are used to transfer the load of the structure to a suitable stratum by
end bearing, by friction or by both.
2. Compaction Piles. These piles are driven into loose granular soils to increase the relatively density.
3. Tension Piles. These piles are in tension. These piles are used to anchor down structures subjected to
hydrostatic uplift forces or over-turning forces.

26
 4. Sheet Piles. These piles form a continuous wall or bulk head which is used for retaining earth or
water.
5. Fender Piles. These are sheet piles which are used to protect water front structures form impact of
ships and vessels.
6. Anchor Piles. These piles are used to provide anchorage for anchored sheet piles. These piles provide
resistance against horizontal pull for a sheet pile wall.

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON DISPLACEMNET OF SOIL.

1. Displacement piles. All driven piles are displacement piles as the soil is displaced laterally when the
pile is installed. The soil gets dandified. The installation may cause heaving of the surrounding
ground. Precast concrete piles and closed end pipe piles are high displacement piles.
2. Non-displacement piles. Bored piles are non-displacement piles as the soil is removed when the hole
is bored, there is no displacement of the soil during the installation of these piles. The installation
causes very little change in the stresses in the surrounding soil.

CONSTRUCTION OF BORED PILES

a. DRILLING OF HOLES.
Bored piles are constructed after making a hole in the ground and filling it with concrete.
The following methods are used for drilling of the hole:
1. Hand auger. A hand auger can be used for boring without casing in soils which are self-supporting
such as firm to stiff clays and silts and clayey sands and gravels above the water table. The depth of
the hole is generally limited to about 4.5 m. The diameter of the hole is usually not more than 350
mm.
2. Mechanical auger. For piles of diameter more than 350 mm or depth greater than 4-5 m, a hand
auger becomes un-economical. In such a case a mechanical auger is used. A mechanical auger can be
of rotary type or bucked type. It is power driven. The soil in such cases may be self-supporting, with
or without bentonitte slurry. The soil should be free from tree roots, cobbles and boulders.
3. Boring rig. A boring rig is used to sink the hole in the ground where hand or mechanicalaugering is
not possible such as water bearing sand or gravels, very oft clays and silts and the soils having
cobbles and boulders.

27
 A special designed boring rig, known as grab-type bored piling rig, is sometimes used. In this
type of rig, the casing is given continuous semi-rotary motion which causes its sinking as the bore
hole is advanced by percussion drilling.
4. Belling bucket.Underreamed piles are large diameter piles with enlarged bases. Excavation for the
undreamed piles is done by a special type belling bucket.
b.CONCRETING.
Before concrete is placed, the bored hole is bailed dry of water. Any loose or softened soil is cleaned
out and the bottom of the hole is rammed. A layer of dry concrete is placed and rammed if the bottom
of the hole is wet. Then the concrete with a readily workable mix not leaner than 300kg cement/m 3of
concrete is poured into a hopper placed at the mouth of the hole.
If the hole cannot be bailed or pumped dry before placing the concrete, the hole is lined with a casing
throughout its depth. A mass of concrete is then deposited at the base of the hole by a termie pipe. As
soon as the concrete has hardened and formed a plug, the hole is pumped free of water. The casing is
then gently turned and lifted slightly to break the joint with the plug. The hole is pumped dry. The
remainder of the concreting is done by placing it dry up to the ground surface. The casing is then
lifted from the bore hole.
If the ground water is high pressure, there will be inflow of water between the concrete plug and the
inside of the casing. The inflow should be stemmed by caulking. The casing is cut by oxy-acetylene
just above the plug. The shaft is then concreted and the casing raised. The cut portion of the casing
around the plug is left permanently in place.
Instead of plugging the base of the pile and concreting, an alternate method is to concrete the entire
shaft under water using a tremie pipe. Concrete should be easily workable and the cement content
should be at least 400 kg/m3.A retarder is added to the concrete if there is a risk of the concrete setting
before the casing is lifted out. However the quality of concreting done under water is not good. This
method should be avoided as far as possible.

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29
  SITE SAFETY, PLANNING ESTIMATION AND MANAGEMENT
CONSTRUCTION SITE SAFETY

Construction is the most dangerous land-based work sector in Europe, after the fishing industry. In the
European Union, the fatal accident rate is nearly 13 workers per 100,000 as against 5 per 100,000 for the all
sector average.

In the United States, there were 1,225 fatal occupational injuries in the construction sector in 2001 with an
incidence rate of 13.3 per 100,000 employed workers. For the same year the construction industry
experienced 481,400 nonfatal injuries and illnesses at a rate of 7.9 per 100 full-time workers in the
industry. Construction has about 6% of U.S. workers, but 20% of the fatalities - the largest number of
fatalities reported for any industry sector. Hong Kong is also notorious for its high construction accidents
rates. Although the accidents rate dropped from 350 per 1000 workers in mid 1980 to 60 per 1000 workers
in 2007, it still accounted for nearly 20% of all the industrial accidents in Hong Kong. In the United
Kingdom, the construction industry alone represented over 40% of the total number of fatalities reported
among the four major industry sectors and was consistently reported as the first or second worst offender
for reported fatal injuries. In Australia, the construction industry experienced 5.6 fatalities per 100,000
employees which is more than twice the average for all the industries in 2007–2008.

The problem is not that the hazards and risks are unknown, it is that they are very difficult to control in a
constantly changing work environment.

Furthermore, the cost of construction is very high. In Ghana, for example, although there were 10% of the
reported accidents claims were settled, the total amount was $150,000 which was quite expensive when we
try to compare the income of the country

CONSTRUCTION FATALITY RATES

Country/Region Fatalities (per Annum per 100,000 Workers) Year

Europe 13.3 1996
France 112.1 1996
Germany 115.4 1996
Ireland 18.0 1996
Italy 114.4 1996
United Kingdom 13.4 2009/08
United States of America 10.8 2006

HOW TO MAKE A CONSTRUCTION SITE SAFE

30
  Perform a thorough walk through of the site. Identify and assess any workplace hazards and write
down anything that may be considered unsafe. Notify your managers of possible dangers that he/she
should know about

 .Train all personnel in work-site safety and operating procedure either on-site or at a training facility.

 Label and store any materials deemed hazardous in proper containers and secure them in a safe
location. Post precautions for handling nearby. Make sure there is an MSDS (material safety data
sheet) for all potentially hazardous chemicals/materials.

 Inspect equipment to be sure it is working properly. Be on the lookout for unusual noises and jerky
movements. Report any problems immediately and do not operate the machinery until repairs have
been made.

 Use harnesses and other safety equipment when performing roof work or working on scaffolds.

 Provide personal protective equipment to all employees, including hard hats, safety goggles and
boots, work gloves, ear plugs (or another form of protection) and face masks.

 Be sure OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) standards are met. Follow all
recommendations and mandates from occupational health and safety inspectors. If you work for a
private company, ask managers whether they've hired or contracted a health and safety inspector.

 Prepare for emergencies. Operators and site workers should know what to do in case of electrical,
mechanical, power failures, or injuries.

 Protect the public by barricading the construction site during work hours. After working hours, lock
all points of entry.

HAZARDS TO CONSTRUCTION WORKERS

31
Various workplace safety signs commonly used at construction sites and industrial work environments.

The leading safety hazards on site are falls from height, motor vehicle crashes, excavation accidents,
electrocution, machines, and being struck by falling objects. Some of the main health hazards on site are
asbestos, solvents, noise, and manual handling activities.

Falls from heights is the leading cause of injury in the construction industry. In the OSHA Handbook (29
CFR), fall protection is needed in areas and activities that include, but are not limited to: ramps, runways,
and other walkways; excavations; hoist areas; holes; formwork; leading edge work; unprotected sides and
edges; overhand bricklaying and related work; roofing; precast erection; wall openings; residential
construction; and other walking/working surfaces.

The height limit where fall protection is required is not defined. It used to be 2 metres in the previous issue
of Work at Height Regulations. It is any height that may result in injury from a fall. Protection is also
required when the employee is at risk to falling onto dangerous equipment.

Fall protection can be provided by guardrail systems, safety net systems, personal fall arrest systems,
positioning device systems, and warning line systems.

All employees should be trained to understand the proper way to use these systems and to identify hazards.
The employee or employer will be responsible for providing fall protection systems and to ensure the use of
these systems.

32
Employees on construction sites also need to be aware of dangers on the ground. The hazards of cables
running across roadways were often seen, until cable ramp equipment was invented to protect hoses and
other equipment which had to be laid out.

Motor Vehicle Crashes are another major safety hazard on construction sites. It is important to be safety
cautious while operation motor vehicles or Equipment on the site. Motor vehicles shall have a service brake
system, emergency brake system, and a parking brake system. All vehicles must be equipped with an
audible warning system if the operator chooses to use it. Vehicles must have windows and doors, power
windshield wipers, and have a clear view of site from the rear window.

Equipment on the job site must have light and reflectors if intended for night use. The glass in the cab of
the equipment must be safety glass. The equipment must be used for their intended task at all times on the
job site.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Project management is the discipline of planning, organizing, motivating, and controlling resources to
achieve specific goals. A project is a temporary endeavour with a defined beginning and end (usually time-
constrained, and often constrained by funding or deliverables) undertaken to meet unique goals and
objective typically to bring about beneficial change or added value. The temporary nature of projects stands
in contrast with business as usual (or operations), which are repetitive, permanent, or semi-permanent
functional activities to produce products or services. In practice, the management of these two systems is
often quite different, and as such requires the development of distinct technical skills and management
strategies.

The primary challenge of project management is to achieve all of the project goals and objectives while
honoring the preconceived constraints. The primary constraints are scope, time, quality and budget.The
secondary and more ambitious challenge is to optimize the allocation of necessary inputs and integrate
them to meet pre-defined objectives.

33
HISTORY
Until 1900 civil engineering projects were generally managed by creative architects, engineers, and master
builders themselves, for example Vitruvius (first century BC), Christopher Wren (1632–1723), Thomas
Telford (1757–1834) and Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806–1859). It was in the 1950s that organizations
started to systematically apply project management tools and techniques to complex engineering projects.
Henry Gantt (1861–1919), the father of planning and control techniques
As a discipline, project management developed from several fields of application including civil
construction, engineering, and heavy defense activity. Two forefathers of project management are Henry
Gantt, called the father of planning and control techniques, who is famous for his use of the Gantt chart as a
project management tool (alternatively Harmon gram first proposed by Karol Adamiecki; and Henri Fayol
for his creation of the five management functions that form the foundation of the body of knowledge
associated with project and program management. Both Gantt and Fayola were students of Frederick
Winslow Taylor's theories of scientific management. His work is the forerunner to modern project
management tools including work breakdown structure (WBS) and resource allocation.
The 1950s marked the beginning of the modern project management era where core engineering fields
come together to work as one. Project management became recognized as a distinct discipline arising from
the management discipline with engineering model. In the United States, prior to the 1950s, projects were
managed on an ad-hoc basis, using mostly Gantt charts and informal techniques and tools. At that time, two
mathematical project-scheduling models were developed. The "Critical Path Method" (CPM) was
developed as a joint venture between DuPont Corporation and Remington Rand Corporation for managing
plant maintenance projects. And the "Program Evaluation and Review Technique" or PERT, was developed
by Booz Allen Hamilton as part of the United States Navy's (in conjunction with the Lockheed
Corporation) Polaris missile submarine program; These mathematical techniques quickly spread into many
private enterprises.

34
 (PERT network chart for a seven-month project with five milestones)

At the same time, as project-scheduling models were being developed, technology for project cost
estimating, cost management, and engineering economics was evolving, with pioneering work by Hans
Lang and others. In 1956, the American Association of Cost Engineers (now AACE International; the
Association for the Advancement of Cost Engineering) was formed by early practitioners of project
management and the associated specialties of planning and scheduling, cost estimating, and cost/schedule
control (project control). AACE continued its pioneering work and in 2006 released the first integrated
process for portfolio, program and project management (Total Cost Management Framework).
The International Project Management Association (IPMA) was founded in Europe in 1967, as a federation
of several national project management associations. IPMA maintains its federal structure today and now
includes member associations on every continent except Antarctica. IPMA offers a Four Level Certification
program based on the IPMA Competence Baseline (ICB). The ICB covers technical, contextual, and
behavioral competencies.
In 1969, the Project Management Institute (PMI) was formed in the USA. PMI publishes A Guide to the
Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide), which describes project management practices
that are common to "most projects, most of the time." PMI also offers multiple certifications.

35
APPROACHES

There are a number of approaches to managing project activities including lean, iterative, incremental, and
phased approaches.

Regardless of the methodology employed, careful consideration must be given to the overall project
objectives, timeline, and cost, as well as the roles and responsibilities of all participants and stakeholders.

The traditional approach

A traditional phased approach identifies a sequence of steps to be completed. In the "traditional approach"
five developmental components of a project can be distinguished (four stages plus control):

Typical development phases of an engineering project

1. initiation
2. planning and design
3. execution and construction
4. monitoring and controlling systems
5. completion

Not all projects will have every stage, as projects can be terminated before they reach completion. Some
projects do not follow a structured planning and/or monitoring process. And some projects will go through
steps 2, 3 and 4 multiple times.

Many industries use variations of these project stages. For example, when working on a brick-and-mortar
design and construction, projects will typically progress through stages like pre-planning, conceptual
design, schematic design, design development, construction drawings (or contract documents), and
construction administration. In software development, this approach is often known as the waterfall model,

36
i.e., one series of tasks after another in linear sequence. In software development many organizations have
adapted the Rational Unified Process (RUP) to fit this methodology, although RUP does not require or
explicitly recommend this practice. Waterfall development works well for small, well defined projects, but
often fails in larger projects of undefined and ambiguous nature. The Cone of Uncertainty explains some of
this as the planning made on the initial phase of the project suffers from a high degree of uncertainty. This
becomes especially true as software development is often the realization of a new or novel product. In
projects where requirements have not been finalized and can change, requirements management is used to
develop an accurate and complete definition of the behaviour of software that can serve as the basis for
software development. While the terms may differ from industry to industry, the actual stages typically
follow common steps to problem solving—"defining the problem, weighing options, choosing a path,
implementation and evaluation."

PROCESSES

The project development stage

Traditionally, project management includes a number of elements: four to five process groups, and a
control system. Regardless of the methodology or terminology used, the same basic project management
processes will be used. Major process groups generally include

 Initiation

37
  Planning or design
 Production or execution
 Monitoring and controlling
 Closing

In project environments with a significant exploratory element (e.g., research and development), these
stages may be supplemented with decision points (go/no go decisions) at which the project's continuation is
debated and decided. An example is the Phase–gate model.

INITIATING

INITIATING PROCESS GROUP PROCESSES

The initiating processes determine the nature and scope of the project. If this stage is not performed well, it
is unlikely that the project will be successful in meeting the business’ needs. The key project controls
needed here are an understanding of the business environment and making sure that all necessary controls
are incorporated into the project. Any deficiencies should be reported and a recommendation should be
made to fix them.

The initiating stage should include a plan that encompasses the following areas:

 analyzing the business needs/requirements in measurable goals

 reviewing of the current operations
 financial analysis of the costs and benefits including a budget
 stakeholder analysis, including users, and support personnel for the project

38
  project charter including costs, tasks, deliverables, and schedule

PROJECT CONTROLLING AND PROJECT CONTROL SYSTEMS

Project controlling should be established as an independent function in project management. It implements

verification and controlling function during the processing of a project in order to reinforce the defined
performance and formal goals. The tasks of project controlling are also:

 the creation of infrastructure for the supply of the right information and its update
 the establishment of a way to communicate disparities of project parameters
 the development of project information technology based on an intranet or the determination of a
project key performance index system (KPI)
 divergence analyses and generation of proposals for potential project regulations
 the establishment of methods to accomplish an appropriate the project structure, project workflow
organization, project control and governance
 creation of transparency among the project parameters

Fulfilment and implementation of these tasks can be achieved by applying specific methods and
instruments of project controlling. The following methods of project controlling can be applied:

 investment analysis
 cost–benefit analyses
 value benefit Analysis
 expert surveys
 simulation calculations
 risk-profile analyses
 surcharge calculations
 milestone trend analysis
 cost trend analysis
 target/actual-comparison

39
Project control is that element of a project that keeps it on-track, on-time and within budget. Project control
begins early in the project with planning and ends late in the project with post-implementation review,
having a thorough involvement of each step in the process. Each project should be assessed for the
appropriate level of control needed: too much control is too time consuming, too little control is very risky.
If project control is not implemented correctly, the cost to the business should be clarified in terms of
errors, fixes, and additional audit fees.

Control systems are needed for cost, risk, quality, communication, time, change, procurement, and human
resources. In addition, auditors should consider how important the projects are to the financial statements,
how reliant the stakeholders are on controls, and how many controls exist. Auditors should review the
development process and procedures for how they are implemented. The process of development and the
quality of the final product may also be assessed if needed or requested. A business may want the auditing
firm to be involved throughout the process to catch problems earlier on so that they can be fixed more
easily. An auditor can serve as a controls consultant as part of the development team or as an independent
auditor as part of an audit.

Businesses sometimes use formal systems development processes. These help assure that systems are
developed successfully. A formal process is more effective in creating strong controls, and auditors should
review this process to confirm that it is well designed and is followed in practice. A good formal systems
development plan outlines:

 A strategy to align development with the organization’s broader objectives

 Standards for new systems
 Project management policies for timing and budgeting
 Procedures describing the process
 Evaluation of quality of change

PROJECT MANAGERS

A project manager is a professional in the field of project management. Project managers can have the
responsibility of the planning, execution, and closing of any project, typically relating to construction

40
industry, engineering, architecture, computing, and telecommunications. Many other fields in production
engineering and design engineering and heavy industrial have project managers.

A project manager is the person accountable for accomplishing the stated project objectives. Key project
management responsibilities include creating clear and attainable project objectives, building the project
requirements, and managing the triple constraint for projects, which is cost, time, and scope.

A project manager is often a client representative and has to determine and implement the exact needs of
the client, based on knowledge of the firm they are representing. The ability to adapt to the various internal
procedures of the contracting party, and to form close links with the nominated representatives, is essential
in ensuring that the key issues of cost, time, quality and above all, client satisfaction, can be realized.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT TRIANGLE

Like any human undertaking, projects need to be performed and delivered under certain constraints.
Traditionally, these constraints have been listed as "scope," "time," and "cost".These are also referred to as
the "project management triangle", where each side represents a constraint. One side of the triangle cannot
be changed without affecting the others. A further refinement of the constraints separates product "quality"
or "performance" from scope, and turns quality into a fourth constraint.

The time constraint refers to the amount of time available to complete a project. The cost constraint refers
to the budgeted amount available for the project. The scope constraint refers to what must be done to
produce the project's end result. These three constraints are often competing constraints: increased scope

41
typically means increased time and increased cost, a tight time constraint could mean increased costs and
reduced scope, and a tight budget could mean increased time and reduced scope.

The discipline of project management is about providing the tools and techniques that enable the project
team (not just the project manager) to organize their work to meet these constraints.

PROJECT PLANNING:

Project planning is part of project management, which relates to the use of schedules such as Gantt charts
to plan and subsequently report progress within the project environment.

Initially, the project scope is defined and the appropriate methods for completing the project are
determined. Following this step, the durations for the various tasks necessary to complete the work are
listed and grouped into a work breakdown structure. The logical dependencies between tasks are defined
using an activity network diagram that enables identification of the critical path. Float or slack time in the
schedule can be calculated using project management software. Then the necessary resources can be
estimated and costs for each activity can be allocated to each resource, giving the total project cost. At this
stage, the project schedule may be optimized to achieve the appropriate balance between resource usage
and project duration to comply with the project objectives. Once established and agreed, the project
schedule becomes what is known as the baseline schedule. Progress will be measured against the baseline
schedule throughout the life of the project. Analysing progress compared to the baseline schedule is known
as earned value management.

The inputs of the project planning phase include the project charter and the concept proposal. The outputs
of the project planning phase include the project requirements, the project schedule, and the project
management plan.

COST ENGINEERING:

"Cost engineering is the engineering practice devoted to the project cost management, involving such
activities as cost- and control- estimating, which is cost control and cost forecasting, investment appraisal,

42
and risk analysis. Cost Engineers budget, plan and monitor investment projects. They seek the optimum
balance between cost, quality and time requirements."

Skills and knowledge of Cost Engineers are similar to those of Quantity Surveyors.

A cost engineer is "an engineer whose judgment and experience are utilized in the application of scientific
principles and techniques to problems of estimation; cost control; business planning and management
science; profitability analysis; project management; and planning and scheduling.

OVERVIEW

One key objective of cost engineering is to arrive at accurate cost estimates and schedules and to avoid cost
overruns and schedule slips. Cost engineering goes beyond preparing cost estimates and schedules by
supporting assessment and decision-making. "The discipline of ‘cost engineering’ can be considered to
encompass a wide range of cost-related aspects of engineering and programmer management, but in
particular cost estimating, cost analysis/cost assessment, design-to-cost, schedule analysis/planning and risk
assessment. The broad arrays of cost engineering topics represent the intersection of the fields of project
management, business management, and engineering. Most people have a limited view of what engineering
encompasses. The most obvious perception is that engineering addresses technical issues such as the
physical design of a structure or system. However, beyond the physical manifestation of a design of a
structure or system (for example, a building), there are other dimensions to consider such as the money,
time, and other resources that were invested in the creation of the building. Cost engineers refer to these
investments collectively as "costs".

Cost engineering then can be considered an adjunct of traditional engineering. It recognizes and focuses on
the relationships between the physical and cost dimensions of whatever is being "engineered". Cost
engineering is most often taught at universities as part of construction engineering, engineering
management, civil engineering, and related curricula because it is most often practiced on engineering and
construction capital projects. Engineering economics is a core skill and knowledge area of cost engineering.

AACE International "is dedicated to the tenets of furthering the concepts of Total Cost Management and
Cost Engineering. Total Cost Management is the effective application of professional and technical
expertise to plan and control resources, costs, profitability and risk. Simply stated, it is a systematic

43
approach to managing cost throughout the life cycle of any enterprise, program, facility, project, product or
service. This is accomplished through the application of cost engineering and cost management principles,
proven methodologies and the latest technology in support of the management process. ... Total Cost
Management is that area of engineering practice where engineering judgment and experience are utilized in
the application of scientific principles and techniques to problems of business and program planning; cost
estimating; economic and financial analysis; cost engineering; program and project management; planning
and scheduling; and cost and schedule performance measurement and change control. In summary, the list
of practice areas are collectively called cost engineering; while the “process” through which these practices
are applied is called total cost management or TCM.

HISTORY:

Cost engineering is a field of engineering practice that began in the 1950s (AACE International was
founded in 1956). The skills and knowledge areas of Cost Engineers are similar to those of Quantity
Surveyors. AACE International is one of many international engineering organizations representing
practitioners in these fields. The International Cost Engineering Congress (ICEC) was founded in 1976 as a
Worldwide Confederation of Cost Engineering, Quantity Surveying and Project Management Societies.

In 2006, AACE published the Total Cost Management (TCM) Framework which outlines an integrated
process for applying the skills and knowledge of cost engineering. This has also been called the world's
first process for portfolio, program and project management.

Professional Titles or Positions in Cost Engineering

"Cost engineering practitioners tend to be:

a) specialized in function (e.g., cost estimating, planning and scheduling, etc.);

b) focused on either the asset management or project control side of the TCM process; and

c) focused on a particular industry (e.g., engineering and construction, manufacturing, information

technology, etc) or asset type (e.g., chemical process, buildings, software, etc.)... They may work for the

44
business that owns and operates the asset (emphasis on economics and analysis), or they may work for the
contractor that executes the projects (emphasis on planning and control).

Some titles or positions in Cost Engineering practice include:

 Claims and Changes Specialist

 Construction Manager
 Contract Management Specialist
 Cost Analyst
 Cost Engineer
 Cost Estimator (or Estimator)
 Planner/Scheduler (or Scheduling Engineer)
 Pre-Construction Manager
 Project Controls Engineer
 Project Manager
 Quantity Surveyor

SCHEDULE (PROJECT MANAGEMENT)

In project management, a schedule is a listing of a project's milestones, activities, and deliverables, usually
with intended start and finish dates. Those items are often estimated in terms of resource allocation, budget
and duration, linked by dependencies and scheduled events. A schedule is commonly used in project
planning and project portfolio management parts of project management. Elements on a schedule may be
closely related to the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) terminal elements, the Statement of work, or a
Contract Data Requirements List.

OVERVIEW

In many industries, such as engineering and construction, the development and maintenance of the project
schedule is the responsibility of a full time scheduler or team of schedulers, depending on the size of the
project. Though the techniques of scheduling are well developed, they are inconsistently applied throughout

45
industry. Standardization and promotion of scheduling best practices are being pursued by the Association
for the Advancement of Cost Engineering (AACE), the Project Management Institute (PMI).

It should be noted that project management is not limited to industry; the average person can use it to
organize their own life. Some examples are:

 Homeowner renovation project

 Keeping track of all the family activities
 Coaching a team
 Planning a vacation
 Planning a wedding

METHODS

Before a project schedule can be created, the schedule maker should have a work breakdown structure
(WBS), an effort estimate for each task, and a resource list with availability for each resource. If these
components for the schedule are not available, they can be created with a consensus-driven estimation
method like Wideband Delphi. The reason for this is that a schedule itself is an estimate: each date in the
schedule is estimated, and if those dates do not have the buy-in of the people who are going to do the work,
the schedule will be inaccurate.

In order for a project schedule to be healthy, the following criteria must be met

 The schedule must be constantly (weekly works best) updated.

 The EAC (Estimation at Completion) value must be equal to the baseline value.
 The remaining effort must be appropriately distributed among team members (taking vacations into
consideration

46
  ESTIMATION AND COSTING OF STEEL AND CONCRETE OF
AUDITURIUM BUILDING

PLINTH LEVEL OF BUILDING:-

47
FORMULAE AND MEASUREMENT FOR ESTIMATION OF STEEL AND CONCRETE

Weight of steel=dia. of bar (mm)2× length of bar (m) ×no. of bars

162

48
  No. of rods = length of rod (mm)
C/c spacing (mm)

Note:-total fill required for the auditorium =1769.4m3

Conversion of inch into feet:-

1˝ =0.08ft
2˝ =0.16ft
3˝ =0.25ft
4 ˝ =0.33ft
5˝ =0.42ft
6 ˝ =0.50ft
7˝ =0.58ft
8˝ =0.66ft
9 ˝ =0.75ft
10˝ =0.83ft
11˝ =0.92ft
12˝ =1ft
Where, 1ft = 304.8mm

And 1˝ =25.40mm
COLLEGE AUDITORIUM BUILDING DRAWINGS

1. DETAILS OF FOUNDATION WITH FOUNDATION BEAM

49
2. DETAILS OF COLUMN AND COLUMN REINFORCEMENT

50
3. DETAILS OF MASS CONCRETE IN FACIAL WALL OF PLINTH

51
ESTIMATION FOR CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDING

52
  NAME OF THE WORK:- CONSTRUCTION OF DEGREE
COLLAGE BUILDING
 LOCATION : SHOPIAN, JAMMU & KASHMIR, INDIA
 DEPARTMENT: R&B SHOPIAN.

1. STEEL ESTIMATION:-
(a). FOOTING:-

S.NO. PARTICULARS 16mmɸ 25mmɸ 12mmɸ 10mmɸ

In kg In kg In kg In kg
1. F1 259.48 106.34
2. F2 103.52

3. F3 69.40
4. F4 1167.78 366.74

5. F5 533.12 167.78

6. F6 255,98 275.62

7. F7 355.40 112.22

8. F8 220.80 104.80

9. F9 571.20 179.62

10 F10 78.61 37.87

TOTAL 3615.29 1350.99

(b) Beams:-

S.NO PARTICULARS 16mmɸ 25mmɸ 12mmɸ 20mmɸ

In kg In kg In kg In kg

53
1. FB1 278.86
Extra steel 33.30 19.15 2.48 10.81
2. FB2 561.97
Extra steel 6.28 15.35 9.88
3. FB3 263.58
Extra steel 46.05
4. FB4 352.47
Extra steel 666.94 139.70
5. FB5 237.62
Extra steel 13.16 50.46
6. FB6 168.65

Extra steel 97.38

7. FB7 312.45

Extra steel 5.09 144.42 20.01

8. FB8 115.33
Extra steel 4.34 10.44
TOTAL 678.62 796.32 2.48 1709.89

(C) STRPS:-

S.NO PARTI 16mmɸ 25mmɸ 12mmɸ 10mmɸ 20mmɸ

-CULARS In kg In kg In kg In kg In kg
1. FB1 314.33

Extra steel 288.33 340.41 5.25 42.93

2. FB2 90.72

54
 Extra steel 18.68 19.67 87.32

3. FB3 155.14

Extra steel 254.07

4. FB4 665.99 301.62

Extra steel 65.00 2179.37 542.04

5. FB5 105.33 115.57

Extra steel 27.72 145.34 126.05

6. FB6 161.70

Extra steel 52.08 217.32

7. FB7 187.72

Extra steel 23.70 314.51 2.65 130.29

8. FB8 70.05

Extra steel 82.67 39.36 29.13

TOTAL 558.18 3038.66 779.22 1396.85 1429.15

55
 (d) C0LUMN:-

S.NO PARTI 16mmɸ 25mmɸ 12mmɸ 8mmɸ 20mmɸ

-CULARS In kg In kg In kg In kg In kg
1. C1(4) 427.60

STRP 92.15

2. C2(38) 746.82 1856.24

STRP 780.10

3. C3(11) 165.41 450.54

STRP 150.37

4. C4(4) 125.05

STRP 51.80

5. C5(circular) 104.87 256.00

(4)
STRP 73.36

TOTAL 1142.15 2960.38 1147.78

56
TOTAL STEEL:-
16mmɸ= 2378.95 kg

25mmɸ= 6795.36kg

20mmɸ= 3139.04kg

12mmɸ= 4396.99kg

10mmɸ= 2747.84kg

8mmɸ= 1147.78kg

57
 2. CONCRETE ESTIMATION:-

(a). FOOTING:-

S.NO. PARTICULARS VOL. OF VOL. OF FINAL

CONCRETE STEEL VOL. OF
AND STEEL CONCRETE
(m 3 ¿

1. F1 16.71 0.10996 16.6004

2. F2(2) 1.146 0.06844 2.428

3. F3 1.64 0.01074 1.601

4. F4(2) 5.34 0.1890 10.101

5. F5(2) 9.12 0.02028 17.8344

6. F6(2) 14.91 0.16134 29.49

7. F7(2) 6.80 0.066 13.46

8. F8 11.62 o.161 11.458

9. F9 26.45 0.0232 26.42

10 F10 7.752 0.0176 7.7344

TOTAL 101.488 0.76156 137.1272

58
 (b) C0LUMN:-

S.NO. PARTICULARS VOL. OF VOL. OF FINAL

CONCRETE STEEL VOL. OF
AND STEEL CONCRETE
(m3)

1. C1(4) 0.355 0.0212 1.3713

2. C2(38) 1.006 0.02979 10.483

3. C3(11) 1.2729 0.03628 2.5194

4. C4(4) 0.431 0.00896 0.721

5. C5(circular) 0.383 0.00445 1.515

(4)

TOTAL 3.4479 0.18132 16.6097

59
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  LAB EQUIPMENTS AND TESTS

LAB TESTING

Lab testing is very important at the site of construction as it prevents us from loss or damages and provides
us the super structures with high strength and great quality. Therefore at every site the material used for
construction should be tested before using it, so as to be sure about null losses. Some employees are hired
by the company and are provided with lab equipment’s by which the testing is done and they test and
analyze the material on regular basis
There are various tests done in the laboratory of the engineering site to test the materials used in the
construction. The tests done are as below:-

 Slump test
 Cube test
 Pile test
 Sieve analysis
 Sand Suspension test
 Reinforcement test
 Aggregate test
 Cone penetration test
 Impact machine test

SLUMP TEST:-

The concrete slump test is an empirical test that measures the workability of fresh concrete.

More specifically, it measures the consistency of the concrete in that specific batch. This test is performed
to check the consistency of freshly made concrete. Consistency is a term very closely related to
workability. It is a term which describes the state of fresh concrete. It refers to the ease with which the
concrete flows. It is used to indicate the degree of wetness. Workability of concrete is mainly affected by

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consistency i.e. wetter mixes will be more workable than drier mixes, but concrete of the same consistency
may vary in workability. It is also used to determine consistency between individual batches.

The test is popular due to the simplicity of apparatus used and simple procedure. Unfortunately, the
simplicity of the test often allows a wide variability in the manner that the test is performed. The slump test
is used to ensure uniformity for different batches of similar concrete under field conditions and to ascertain
the effects of plasticizers on their introduction. In India this test is conducted as per IS specification.

PRINCIPLE:

The slump test result is a measure of the behaviour of a compacted inverted cone of concrete under the
action of gravity. It measures the consistency or the wetness of concrete.

INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS:

The slumped concrete takes various shapes, and according to the profile of slumped concrete, the slump is
termed as true slump, shear slump or collapse slump. If a shear or collapse slump is achieved, a fresh
sample should be taken and the test repeated. A collapse slump is an indication of too wet a mix. Only a
true slump is of any use in the test. A collapse slump will generally mean that the mix is too wet or that it is
a high workability mix, for which slump test is not appropriate. Very dry mixes; having slump 0 – 25 mm
are used in road making, low workability mixes; having slump 10 – 40 mm are used for foundations with
light reinforcement, medium workability mixes; 50 - 90 for normal reinforced concrete placed with
vibration, high workability concrete; > 100 mm.

CUBE TEST:

The cubes of different mixes like M:20, M:25 , M:40 etc. are made on regular basis and are kept in water
after dried and for a given period of time. When climate conditions do not favor, the cubes are kept in hot
water using boilers. After this is done the cubes are tested on the testing machine by applying load on them.
After the desired load is applied on them the cubes may break or they don’t break. When the cubes get
broken under test, the test fails and we have to increase the mix or we can also decrease it. This is how cube
test is done.
PILE TEST:-

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TEST OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF WORK:

The tests has been aimed at confirmation/determining a safe load on a cast in-situ pile (DMC-method),
using pile load test (INITIAL LOAD TEST) result from above said located on test pile, which has been
executed for above said proposed construction. The complete technical specifications of the tests are
presented in the following section of this report. Further the purpose of this report is also to provide
preliminary input for evaluating of potential geotechnical/structural impacts on the design/construction and
provision of reasonable mitigation measures wherever deemed necessary. The report presents in detail the
field test results and the technical investigation undertaken to arrive at the said objective. The field
investigation has been conducted strictly in accordance with the relevant BIS/BS/ASTM
CODES/specification

TESTING METHODOLOGY

The vertical load test on the test pile has been carried out on bored cast in-situ RCC pile,M-20 ,20 grade
concrete, 750mm diameter and length of 16.0m,using maintained load method(is:2911-part-4, 1985).
Before applying the requisite load on pile head, the quality of concrete of the pile head was assessed by
using ultrasonic pulse wave velocity method. The compression load was applied on the smooth hardened
pile head laid over the pile,
The most reliable method for determining the load carrying capacity of a pile is the pile load test.
The setup generally consists of two anchor piles provided with an anchor girder or a reaction girder at their
top. The test pile is installed between the anchor piles in which the foundations piles are to be installed.

The load is applied

through a hydraulic jack resting on the reaction girder. The measurements of the pile are taken with respect

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to the fixed reference mark. The load is applied in equal increment of 20% of allowable load. Settlements
should be recorded with two dial gauge each stage of loading is maintained till the rate of the movement of
the pile top is not more than 0.1 mm/hour in sandy soils and 0.02 mm/hour in case of clayey soil. Under
each load increment settlements are observed at 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20 60 minutes. The loading should be
continued up to twice the safe load or the load at which the total settlement reaches the specific value. The
load is removed in same decrements at one hour interval and the final rebound is recorded 24 hours after
the entire load has been removed.

Above figure shows a typical load settlement curve for loading as well as unloading obtained from a pile
load test. For any given load the net pile settlement Snis given by
Sn=St-Se where St = total settlement, Se= elastic settlement.

 SOURCES OF INFORMATION

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The sources of information for the above mentioned project are as under:

1. R&B DIVISION, SHOPIAN.

2. BHAT CONSTRUCTION pt. ltd., J&K, Srinagar.
3. Soil Mechanics by Dr. K. R Arora.
4. Google
5. From site engineer

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