CHAPTER

ONE
INTRODUCTION

Potable water consists of nutrients most people do not know. Indeed, it is the basis of

fluids of all living organisms and absolutely necessary to sustain life. People around the world

faces water scarcity. In the Philippines, an average of 4,200 people die every year due to unsafe

drinking water (United for Healthier Kids PH 2017).

This study is all about determining the feasibility of a potable water supply for Purok

Sagrado, Barangay Estefania. The factors considered in determining the feasibility of this study

are market, technical, finance, socio-economic, and management aspects.

The absence of potable water supply in the area and the arising cases of water related

diseases caused by dirty water are the main reasons why this study is conducted.

Background of the Study

The community of Purok Sagrado is one of the 45 puroks/subdivisions in Barangay

Estefania, Bacolod City. The present Purok Sagrado community is the relocation site given by

the Gonzaga family to the residents of Hacienda Sagrado which the family owned. Residents of

the hacienda with the Gonzaga farm have to move due to the selling of the property to a

developer of the East Home Subdivision. Majority of the residents are farmers of the sugarcane

fields.

It was in 2007 when the farm workers started to transfer residence from the old hacienda

to their new residence in what is now known as Purok Sagrado. The Geographical conditions of

the site is flat.

1
1-1 Statement of the Problem

This study aims to determine the feasibility of a potable water supply for Purok Sagrado.

Specifically, the study attempted to answer the following questions:

1. What is the demand of water by the residents?

2. Will the supply of potable water be maintained up to its intended service life?

3. Can it be managed successfully to its intended purpose?

4. What will be the process needed to make the water potable?

5. How much will it cost to implement this proposed design?

6. Will the water be affordable for the residents?

7. Who will finance the project?

8. Will the money invested be recovered during the operation period?

9. Can it be operated with minimum expense?

1-2 Significance of the Study

The purpose of our study is to determine the feasibility of the potable water supply for

Purok Sagrado which will meet their demand of water and can be maintained up to its intended

service life managed by the barangay through purok officials.

This study could be highly significant and beneficial specifically to the following:

A. The Residents. One of the socioeconomic beneficiary of this study. They are the

consumers of the service this study will give.

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 B. The City Government. The study will be presented to the government for evaluation by

the city development council of Bacolod City which they can use to address the need of

potable water supply of the residents.

C. The Barangay. The study will give awareness to the barangay officials, to give attention

to the needs of the residents in terms of the unavailability of potable water supply in the

area. The data gathered will help them in addressing and resolving the said problem/s.

E. The School Administrators. The result of the study will support school community

outreach program.

1-3 Hypotheses

The Potable Water Supply for Purok Sagrado is not feasible.

3
 1-4 Conceptual Framework

“A Feasibility Study on Potable Water Supply for Purok Sagrado”

INPUT
PROCESS OUTPUT
Market Data
-Water Demand Forecast -Statistical Survey -Feasible water supply
-Population Forecast
-Supply Forecast -Statistical treatment of
-Income per household Data

Technical Data -Surveying

-Topographic data -Consultations
-Process -Water Analysis
-Equipment
-Volume -Microbiological Testing
-Cost Estimate
Financial Data -Design of Pipe Network
-Project cost estimation
for Water Supply System
-Funding
-Purchasing Power of the -Computations
Residents

Socio-Economic Data
-statistical data
-Census

Operational Data
-Recommendations from
government and private
agencies in management of
water supply facility

Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of Conceptual Framework.

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1-5 Scope and Limitation

Scope

This study focuses on determining the feasibility of potable water supply for Purok

Sagrado, Barangay Estafania, Bacolod City. The researchers will only focus on the analysis and

evaluation of the results of the assessment to determine the feasibility of potable water supply by

checking market, technical, finance, socio-economic, and management aspects. This will be

conducted by the 5th year Civil Engineering students of Colegio San Agustin Bacolod from June

to March, A.Y. 2017-2018.

Limitation

One of the limiting factor is the population growth of Purok Sagrado, which cannot be

projected accurately. The study will not cover the design of sewer and drainage system but will

be suggested as a new study. The study will only focus on zone 1 and zone 2 of Purok Sagrado.

Furthermore other uncontrollable factors that can affect the study are; rain, geographical

condition of the area and flood.

1-6 Definition of Terms

Terms here are conceptually and operationally defined for better understanding of the

readers.

Potable Water

- Conceptually, this means water fit for drinking, being free from contamination

and not containing a sufficient quantity of saline material to be regarded as a

mineral water. (Jill Manning Hudkins)

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 - In our study this refers to a water that is safe to drink or to use for food

preparation, without risk of health problems.

Demand of Water

- Conceptually, this means the measure of the total amount of water used by the

customers within the water system. (SPC Water Sanitation Program).

- In our study this refers to the total quantity of water the residents will

consume.

Feasibility

- Conceptually, this means to be capable of being used or dealt with

successfully. (Investopedia)

- In our study this refers to an analysis of how successfully a project can be

completed, accounting for factors that affect it such as economic,

technological, legal and scheduling factors. 

Per Capita

- Conceptually, this means the average per person in any number of statistical

observances. (Investopedia)

- In our study this refers to the individual consumption of potable water by the

residents.

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Water Supply System

- Conceptually, this means a system of engineered hydrologic and hydraulic

components which provide water supply.

- In our study this refers to a system that collects, transmits, treats, stores and

distributes water from source to consumers.

Production process

- Conceptually, this means the mechanical or chemical steps used to create an

object, usually repeated to create multiple units of the same item. (Business

dictionary)

- In our study this refers to the steps of processing the water to be treated and

supply to the residents.

Management Study

- Conceptually, this means the study of the technique, practice, or science of

managing a company, business, etc. (Collins English Dictionary).

- In our study this refers to the analysis of the operations and procedures

including the construction of program evaluation review technique and the

selection of critical path.

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 CHAPTER
TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter presents a review of related literature and its relevance to our feasibility

study. This chapter serves as a valuable source of ideas and bases for the concept of the project

and the conceptual model of the study.

2-1 Local Literature

A. Market Study

Hydraulics Chapter 4: Design of Water Supply Pipe Network

(Dr. Mohsin Siddique)

Factors Affecting Water Consumption

Climate conditions. Warm dry regions have higher consumption rates than cooler regions. In

addition, water usage is affected by the precipitation levels in the region.

Characteristics of the population. Domestic use of water was found to vary widely. This is

largely dependent upon the economic status of the consumers, which will differ greatly in

various sections of a city. In high value residential areas of a city the water consumption per

capita will be high and vice versa

Metering. Communities that are metered usually show a lower and more stable water use pattern.

Water quality. Consumer perception of bad water quality can decrease the water usage rate.

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Cost of water. A tendency toward water conservation occur when cost of water is high.

Water pressure. Rates of water usage increase with increases in water pressure.

Water conservation. Public awareness and implementation of water conservation programs by

utilities tend to have an impact on the water usage rate.

B. Technical Study

Water Code of the Philippines

Section 7. Water Charges. - Except when the appropriation is for family domestic

purpose or when the quantity of water appropriated for agricultural use is not more than 5 liters

per second, all appropriators shall pay to the Council in the manner provided under Section 6

hereof, an annual water charge in accordance with the following schedule:

A. For the use of water when diverted/extracted from the natural source:

Rate of Withdrawal Charge per liter/sec.

(Liters/second) (Php)

I) Not more than 30 0.50

2) More than 30 but not exceeding 50 0.75

3) More than 50 1.00

Section 14. Periodic and Final Inspection of Project. - The Council or its authorized

agents who investigated the application may conduct periodic inspection while construction,

alteration, or repair' is in progress as well as final inspection thereof to ascertain whether or not

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the same is in accordance with approved plans and specifications. A report of inspection within

ten (10) days from date thereof shall be submitted to the Council thru the Public Works Regional

Director.

Section 16. Inspection of Works. - Inspection of the premises shall be conducted by any

person deputized by the Council to determine compliance with the conditions imposed in the

permit and such other order, rule or regulation the Council may issue.

Section 45. Protection of Water Supply Sources. - No person shall discharge into any

source of water supply any domestic sewage, industrial waste, or pollutant not meeting the

effluent standards set by the National Pollution Control Commission.

Section 50. Water Resources Projects/Programs by Government Sector. - Government

water resources and related projects/programs shall be submitted by the proponent agencies to

the Council, which may, if necessary, refer the matter to the proper deputies or concerned

agencies for evaluation and comment in accordance with the above guidelines before approving

the same.

Section 52. Requirements of Water Resources Projects/Programs. - Project Program

proposals shall contain indicators of socio-economic justification, relationship to the National

Development Plan, impact statement on the sector's project/program supports and complement,

regional impact state· environmental impact statement, and such other information as the

Council may require. Projects, such as artesian wells, spring development and barangay

waterworks for purely domestic and municipal use, and such other small-scale projects as the

Council may determine, shall be exempted from this requirement.

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 Section 58. Review and Approval of Rules and Regulations Involving Water. - Rules and

regulations by any government agency involving policies on the utilization, exploitation,

development, control, conservation or protection of water resources shall be reviewed and

approved by the Council, unless the charter of such agency provides that the same shall be

approved by the President, in which case the proposed rules shall first be referred to the Council

for comment.

National Plumbing Code of the Philippines (RA 1378)

Plumbing System

Plumbing System includes all potable water supply and distribution pipes, all plumbing

fixtures and traps; all sanitary and storm drainage systems; vent pipes, roof drains, leaders and

downspouts; and all building drains and sewers, including their respective joints and

connections; devices, receptacles, and appurtenances within the property; water lines in the

premises; potable, tap, hot and chilled water piping; potable water treating or using equipment;

fuel gas piping; water heaters and vents for same.(Section 217.12 NPC 1999) A Plumbing

system, reduced to its simplest terms, consists of a supply pipe leading to a fixture and a

drainpipe taking the used water away from this fixture. The system constitutes the following:

The water supply and water distribution system Carries water from the water source,

street main or a pump to the building and to various points in the building at which water is used.

The plumbing fixtures. The receptacles that receive the supplied water and allow the

occupants of the building to use the water.

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 The drainage system. The piping network within the building which conveys from the

plumbing fixtures all wastes and fecal matter (sanitary drainage) as well as rainwater (storm

drainage) to a point of disposal or a treatment facility.

The Plumbing Code

The improper installation of plumbing may affect the health of the occupants of a

building and create a center point for the spread of disease. The possibility is of sufficient public

interests to require the regulation of plumbing by law. The right of the government to regulate

the details of plumbing is based on the principle of the protection of public health. The basic goal

of the National Plumbing Code of the Philippines is to ensure the qualified observance of the

latest provision of the plumbing and environmental laws.

The Basic Principles Governing the National Plumbing Code

1. All premises intended for human use or habitation shall be provided with a supply of

pure and wholesome water, neither connected to unsafe water supply nor subject to backflow or

back- siphonage.

2. Plumbing fixtures, devices and appurtenances shall be supplied with water in sufficient

volume and pressure adequate to function satisfactorily and without undue noise.

3. Plumbing shall be designed and adjusted to use the minimum quantity of water

consistent with proper performance and cleaning.

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 4. Devices for heating and storing water shall be so designed and installed as to prevent

dangers from explosion through overheating.

5. Plumbing fixtures shall be made of smooth non-absorbent material, free from

concealed fouling surfaces and shall be located in ventilated enclosures.

6. All piping shall be of durable NAMPAP-approved materials, free from defective

workmanship, designed and constructed by Registered Master Plumbers to ensure satisfactory
service.

7. Plumbing systems shall be subjected to such tests to effectively disclose all leaks and
defects in the workmanship

8. Plumbing systems shall be maintained in serviceable condition by Registered Master

Plumbers.

9. All plumbing fixtures shall be installed properly spaced, to be accessible for their
intended use.

10. Plumbing shall be installed with due regard to the preservation of the strength of
structural members and the prevention of damage to walls and other surfaces through fixture
usage.

WATER QUALITY PROBLEMS AND THEIR CORRECTION

PROBLEM CAUSE EFFECT CORRECTION
1.Acidity Contains carbon dioxide. Corrosion of non-ferrous Passing the water through
Cistern and pond waters pipes, rusting and a bed of crushed marble
containing decaying clogging of steel pipes. or limestone to achieve
vegetation are likely to be alkalinity or adding
acidic sodium silicate.
2. Hardness Presence of Magnesium Clogging of pipes. Introduction of water
and Calcium Impaired laundering and softeners made up of
food preparation. Zeolite ( a greenish
granular material )
3. Turbidity Silt or suspended matters Discoloration and bad Filtration
picked up in surface or taste.
near surface flow.

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 4. Color Presence of Iron and Discoloration of fixtures Precipitation by filtration
Manganese and laundry through manganese
zeolite (oxidizing filter )

5. Pollution Contamination by organic Disease Chlorination

matter or sewage
Table 1. Water Quality Problem and their correction

Water Purification

Water purification is any method that will remove one or more materials that make the

water unsuitable for a given use. The methods that are commonly used in water purification are:

1. Settling or Sedimentation

2. Filtration

3. Adsorption/ Flocculation-Coagulation

4. Aeration

5. Distillation

6. Disinfection/ Chlorination

The natural water includes all of these purification methods except disinfection. Sitting in

lakes, ponds, or the oceans, water is subject to settling (sedimentation). As it percolates through

soil or porous rocks, it is filtered (filtration). Soil and humus are also good chemical adsorbents

(coagulation/ flocculation). As water flows down streams and rivers, detritus is removed by

biological oxidation (aeration). As water evaporates and condenses, it is distilled

(distillation).Thus, numerous freshwater sources might be safe to drink were it not for human

pollution. The most serious threat to human health is contamination with disease-causing

organisms and parasites, which come from the excrements of humans and their domestic

animals. In human settlements, one can see how the organisms may get into water and be passed

14
onto people before any of the natural purification processes can work. The Metropolitan Cebu

Water District (MCWD) is the sole commercial provider in Metro Cebu comprising of four cities

and four municipalities. As of year 2000, MCWD served 40% of the total population of Metro

Cebu. MCWD is primarily tasked to deliver adequate, safe, potable and affordable water to be

conssionares.

MCWD has two sources of its water supply:

1. Ground Water

2. Surface Water

Treatment Process

MCWD treats the surface water using the conventional process comprising of the following:

1. Aeration- Water is sprayed into the air to release any trapped gases and absorb additional

oxygen for better taste.

2. Coagulation - Flocculation- This is the process by which small sediment particles which do

not settle well combine together to form larger particles which can be removed by sedimentation.

This process includes physical and chemical process:

a. Coagulation- is the chemical process in which the coagulant reacts with the sediment to

make it capable of combining into larger particles. This is called destabilization.

b. Flocculation- is the physical process in which the sediment particles collide with each

other and stick together.

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3. Sedimentation- This is the process by which suspended solids are removed from the water by

gravity settling and deposition. This process usually follows coagulation-flocculation. The

objective of this process is to remove most of the suspended solids, reducing the loads on the

filters.

4. Filtration- This is the passage of fluid through a porous medium suspended matter which did

not settle by gravity. In water purification, matter to be removed includes suspended silt, clay,

colloids, and microorganisms including algae, bacteria, and viruses. A filter bed consists of a

granular non-porous material held one place by the force of gravity or by the direction of flow.

5. Disinfection/ Chlorination- This is the most important process used in the production of water

of a safe and sanitary quality. Chlorination is the method of introducing a controlled amount of

chlorine to the water in order to attain a desired degree of disinfection.

After the processes, water is stored in a reservoir, then to the transmission mains, then to

the, distribution lines, down to the service connections and lastly to the concessionaire’s faucet

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Figure 2. Ground Water Supply and Treatment System.

Section 604 - Materials

604.1 Water pressure pipes shall be of copper, centrifugal cast iron (CCI), B & S and F &

F ends, ductile cast iron (DCI), galvanized wrought iron, galvanized steel, or other approved PE

& PVC water pressure pipe manufactured to recognized standards may be used for cold water

distribution systems. CPVC. Water pipe and tubing may be used for hot and cold-water

distribution systems within a building. All materials used in the water supply system, except

valves and similar devices, shall be of a like material, except where otherwise approved by the

Administrative Authority.

604.2 Cast iron fittings up to and including S 1 mm in size, when used in connection with

potable water piping shall be galvanized.

604.3 All small-sized malleable iron water fittings shall be galvanized.

604.4 Pipings and tubings which were previously used for any purpose other than for

potable water systems shall not he used.

604.5 Approved plastic materials may be used in water service piping, provided that

where metal water service piping is used for electrical grounding purpose and replacement

pipings therefore shall be of like materials.

Section 606 - Gravity Supply Tanks

606.1 Elevated or gravity storage tank fur potable water supply shall be tightly covered to

keep out unauthorized persons, dirt and vermin. The covers of gravity tanks shall be vented with

a return-bend vent pipe having an area not less than the area of the down-feed riser pipe, and the

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vent shall be screened with a fine corrosion-resistant screen with openings not less than 14 nor

more than 18 mess per 25 mm.

606.2 Potable water inlets to gravity tanks shall be controlled by a float valve, float switch or

electrode-type water level control to prevent the tank from overflowing.

606.3 Gravity tanks shall be provided with a valved drain pipe and an overflow pipe

screened as described in Subsection 606. 1.

Section 608 -· Installation, Inspection, and Testing

608.1 lnstallation - all water piping shall be adequately supported to the satisfaction of

the Administrative Authority. Burred ends shall be reamed to the full bore of the pipe or tube.

Changes in direction shall be made by the appropriate use of fittings, except that changes on

direction in copper tubing may be made with bends provided that the same are made with proper

bending equipment which does not deform or create a loss in cross-sectional area of the tubing.

Provisions shall be made for expansion in hot water pipings. All pipings, equipment,

appurtenances and devices shall be installed in a workmanlike manner in conformity with the

provisions and intents of this Code. All water service yard piping shall be at least 0.3 m below

the finish ground level.

608.2 Water pipes shall not be run or laid in the same trench as building sewer or storm

drainage pipings constructed of clay or materials not approved for use within the building unless

both of the following conditions are met:

608.2.1 The bottom of the water pipe at all points, shall is at least 0.3 m above the top of

the sewer or drain line;

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 608.2.2 The water pipe shall be placed on a solid shelf excavated at one side of the

common trench with a minimum clear horizontal distance between the sides of at least 0.3-m

from the side of sewer or drain line and the water line, and

608.2.3 Water pipes crossing sewer or drainage piping constructed of clay or materials,

not approved for use within a building, shall be laid a minimum of 0.3 m above the sewer or

drainpipe.

608.3 Water piping installed within a building and in or under a concrete floor slab

resting on the ground shall be installed in accordance with the following requirements:

608.3.1 Ferrous piping shall have an outside protective coating of an approved materials,

machine applied and conforming to recognized standards. Field bitumastic coating and wrapping

shall provide equivalent protection and application is restricted to those short pipe lengths at

points of connection with fittings necessarily stripped for threading and jointing. Zinc coating

(galvanized) shall not be deemed adequate outside protection for ferrous piping or fittings.

Approved non-ferrous pipings such as plastic tubes and pipes need not be wrapped for

rustproofing.

608.3.2 Copper tubing shall be installed without joints where possible. Where joints are

permitted, they shall be brazed and fittings shall be wrought copper. Copper tubing shall be fully

externally protected with bitumastic coating and fiberglass wrapping and installed inside a split

rigid casing whenever installed underground.

Note: For the purpose of this section, "within the building" shall mean within the fixed limits of

the building foundation.

608.3.3 Plastic pipings shall be installed in accordance with applicable sections found

elsewhere in this Code.

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 608.4 Inspection - no water supply system or portion thereof, shall be covered or

concealed until it has been first inspected, tested and approved.

608.5 Testing - water piping shall be tested and approved as provided in Section 501.

608.6 Unions - unions shall be installed in the water supply piping within 0.3 meter away

from regulating equipment, water heater, conditioning tank and similar equipment which require

removal for servicing or replacement.

Section 609- Size of Potable Water Piping

609.1 The size of the water meter and the immediate piping from the meter or from other

source of unmetered water supply to the risers, fixture supply branches, fixture connections,

outlets or other uses shall be based on the total water demand and shall be determined according

to the methods and procedures outlined in this section.

609.2 Whenever a water filter, water softener or similar water treating device, backflow

prevention device or similar devices are installed in a water supply line, the pressure loss through

such devices must be included in the pressure loss calculations of the system and the water

supply pipe and meter shall be adequately sized to provide for such pressure losses.

609.2.1 No water filter, water softener, backflow prevention device or similar devices

regulated by this Code shall be installed in any potable water supply piping when the diameter of

the inlet and/or outlet of any such device or its connecting pipings are less than the diameter of

the water supply distribution piping, or when the installation of such devices produces excessive

pressure drop in the water supply piping system.

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 609.2.2 All such devices shall be of types approved by the Administrative Authority and

tested for flow ratings and pressure losses by an approved laboratory or recognized testing

agency against standards consistent with this Chapter.

C. Management Study

Plumbing Design and Estimate 2nd Edition

(M.B. Fajardo Jr., 2001)

13-2 Impurities in Water

Pure or uncontaminated water is not found in nature. Water in the form of rain, absorbs

dust and gases of carbon dioxide and oxygen. Similarly, water in the ground is exposed to

pollution by organic matter, including animal and human wastes.

The Common Impurities in Water are:

1. Entrained gases
2. Dissolved minerals
3. Suspended and colloidal materials
4. Radioactive materials

Entrained gases are carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, methane, oxygen and nitrogenous and

organic compounds.

Dissolved minerals are calcium, magnesium sodium, iron and manganese and other carbonates

and silicates, alkyl benzene sulfate from detergents and synthetic organic from insecticides and

pesticides.

Suspended and colloidal materials such as bacteria, algae, fungi, silt, protozoa and other colloidal

matters making the water colored and acidic.

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 Radioactive materials by entrainment of radioactive substances from mining or

processing ores, by wastes from industrial use of radioactive materials.

Among the minerals present in water through artificial means is Lead. Lead pipe should

not be used for distribution of soft acid water, or for water having a high concentration of

dissolved oxygen or chlorides. The solution of lead and water with such characteristics may

cause Lead Poisoning.

2-2 Local Study

A. Technical Study

Drinking Water From Air

(M. Grande, C. Guintibano, A. Santiago, L. Sevellejo, 2004)

Recommended Treatment

Chlorination and Activated Carbon Filtration

This treatment is recommended due to its satisfactory results. Chlorination

disinfects the condensate to rid it of microbes. It also improves the pH of the water. The

activated carbon filter absorbs the traces of chlorine and other minute solid matters that may be

present in the water.

The treatment includes:

1. Collection of the condensate in a graduated container. It is necessary to

control volume of the water so that the proper amount of chlorine can be

applied.

2. Chlorination

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 3. Activated carbon filtration

It is necessary to store the water in a clean tank after the filtration.

B. Finance Study

A Proposed Water Purifying Station

(For deep well and rainwater)
(Crisanto G.Escare , Leopoldo R.Flores, Jr et.al, 2005)

Investment Cost

Fixed Capital

a. Technology, Machineries and

Equipment Cost

1) Water purification system and machineries

Description # of units Cost per unit Unit total cost

(Php)

water pump(submersible) 1 40,000 40,000

water pump 4 17,000 68,000

Effluent(Product Pump) 1 18,000 18,000
Chemical Pumo(automatic) 1 8,000 8,000
Sediment and Rust filter 1 1,900 1,900
Polypropylene water filter 1 3,400 3,400
Taste and odor
filter 1 2,000 2,000
Chlorine removal filter 1 8,000 8,000

Reverse Osmosis Technology 1 30,000 30,000

Carbon Block Filter 1 5,600 5,600
Ultraviolet water purifier 1 40,000 40,000
Rain water
reservoir 1 30,000 30,000
Rapid Sand Filter 1 85,000 85,000

Wash water tank 1 10,000 10,000

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Elevated Tank 1 20,000 20,000
Reject water underground reservoir 1

Product Tank 1 25,000 25,000

Hydro pneumatic tank 1 10,000 10,000

Generator set 1 60,000 60,000
464,900.0
TOTAL 0

a) Electrical system cost

Description Cost(Php) Installation Cost(Php) Total Cost(Php)

Electrical Materials 9,700.00 6,790.00 16,490.00
TOTAL 16,490.00

***Installation Cost is 35% of unit cost

** Reject water underground reservoir cost is included in rainwater reservoir total cost
***Electrical materials installation cost is 35% of electrical material cost, multiply by the number of unit
(Air conditioning unit)
to be installed. Includes also switches, sockets, light posts, switchboard, and other electrical devices.

Major Repair and Maintenance Cost

Description Yearly repair/maintenance Yearly maintenance cost, (Php)

Frequency
Water Pump (submersible) Once every two (2) years 1,000.00
Row-Water reservoir pump Once every two (2) years 450
Water Pump Once every two (2) years 450
Water Pump (2 units) 1 1,800
Effluent (product pump) 1 1,000
Chemical pump 1 500
Sediment and rust filter 3 285
Polypropylene water filter 3 510
Taste and odor
filter 3 300
Chlorine removal filter 3 1,200
Reverse Osmosis 2 3,000
Carbon block filter 3 840

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Ultraviolet water purifier 3 6,000
Pipings Once every two (2) years 85
Rapid-sand filter 1 500
Raw-water reservoir 1 500
Truck 4 35,000
Mini-cab 4 17,000
TOTAL 70,420.00

Taxes and Insurance Fees

a.)Taxes Fees
Period Gross profit, (Php) Taxes fee, (Php)
Monthly 571,300.355** 114,260.07
1,364,007.7
Yearly 6,820,038.85** 7

b.) Insurance Fee

Yearly insurance fee is 1% of fixed capital
Yearly insurance fee = 0.01 X Php 3,552,675.00 = Php 35,526.75
Monthly insurance fee = Php 2,960.56

Economic analyses

Depreciation
– Depreciation is the decrease in the value of physical property with the
passage of time

– Using the straight line and assuming that the book value of ssets will be 5%
of the initial cost, and the useful life is 15 years.

Depreciation = (Fixed cost* - Salvage value)/(Useful life)

= (Php 2,639,675.00 – Php 131,983.75)/(15 yrs)
= Php 167,179.42 (yearly)
= Php 13,931.61 (monthly)
Net profit

Net profit = Total sales – Operational cost**

a) Monthly net profit, Pm

Pm = Php 715,500.00 – Php 272,391.325
Pm = Php 443,108.675

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 b) Yearly net profit, Py
Py = Php 8,586,000.00 – Php 3,297,148.34
Py = 5,288,851.66

Return of investment, (R.O.I.)

R.O.I. = (Net profit / Investment***) x 100%

R.O.I. = (Php 5,288,851.66 / Php 7,037,911.42) x 100%
R.O.I. = 75.148 %

* Fixed capital (excluding land and office/station supply cost)

** Operational cost, including depreciation
*** Investment cost + First year operational expenses

Payback period

Payback period = 1 / R.O.I.

Payback period = 1 / 0.75148
Payback period = 1.33 yr. say 1 yr. and 4 months

Break – Even analysis

 Break – Even point is the value of certain variable for which the costs of the
two alternatives are equal.

Income = Expenses

Where: Income = (selling price per unit) x (no. of units)

Expenses = (Operational cost**) + Fixed cost
Note: Fixed cost = Investment
Operational cost = Expenses
**Operation cost, including depreciation
Let x = number of gallons of purified water in order to equalize the
operational cost and income.

Php 9.00 (x) = Php 3,297,148.34 + Php 3,907,942.50

(x) = 800,565.65 gallons

26
2.3 Foreign Literature

A. Market Study

KOHLER.philippines

(kohler.ph/news, 2013)

Water Consumption Facts and Figures

When you consider how much water we consume on an annual basis, the staggering

amounts remind us that water is both important and not exactly unlimited. With a vast majority

of water being seawater instead of the freshwater we require for most of our purposes, it

becomes pretty apparent to us that adding up these numbers may shock us and overwhelm us, all

things considered.

Figure 3.

First of all, the average household consumes 1,000 to 1,500 liters of water a day. Of that,

about one-fifth of that comes from flushing the toilet, as every person on average flushes the

toilet five times a day. In a household of four, that amounts to twenty flushes a day. Twenty

27
flushes from a traditional, inefficient 6 liter per flush toilet means about 240 liters of water in

toilet flushing alone. Crazy numbers, but crazier when you add it all up.

B. Financial

Estimating costs of small scale water supply interventions

(P. Jagals, L. Rietveld, 2008)

Implications of Costing a Small Water System Intervention

The local costing an intervention system may be done for a new system or for upgrading

an existing water supply system to a more sophisticated system. Costing a new system for an

area where there is none at first might be quite complicated as it takes place in the early planning

stages before the actual construction begins to take shape. Especially costing of the initial stage

of a project to install a water system will potentially have large inaccuracies. One reason for this

is that relatively little is known during the initial stage (configuration of the treatment scheme,

specific construction demands, and local conditions). Another reason is that many things can and

will change during subsequent designs. This all requires great understanding and integration of

three critical aspects i.e. the service provider must have a good idea of what type of intervention

(i.e. system) might potentially be installed. With this in mind, the layout of the system must be

determined (relative positions and elevations of source, storage and pipe network configuration)

and then the elements of the potential system must be sized. Only then can the costing of the

intended system commence. While costing can be done in great detail to cover for these

uncertainties, this will require a high level of collaboration between service providers and

engineering planners. It should therefore preferably be done by such specialists. For detailed

information, including comprehensive checklists, reference is made to the Practical Manual by

Carlevaro and Gonzalez (2008). Costing an upgrading of an existing system is more readily
28
attempted by specialists or non-specialists alike because of the fewer degrees of freedom (or

uncertainty). After following these preceding steps described above, estimating the approximate

cost of a small water supply system can start, usually with estimating the investment or capital

costs. However, the service provider should look at the complete picture and costing therefore

has to be extended to include recurrent (operation and maintenance) costs. This second

component is absolutely vital to predicting what the sustainable operation of the system is going

to cost the service provider once the system is built. If this is neglected, the intervention will be

short lived and the benefits often negated before they were accrued. This will be discussed

further in the next section.

Cost estimation necessarily requires a large number of inputs. In order to simplify the

data collection and preparation steps, a three-tier data structure is required. The first data

category captures the engineering parameters, which would typically include technical

specifications such as pump and motor efficiencies, as well as pipe friction coefficients, which

are not likely to vary significantly anywhere in the world. Data for these parameters should only

be measured by those with an engineering background with the capacity to provide a sound

technical judgement based on experience. The second data category captures the monetary

parameters, which would typically include the cost of pumps, pipes, holding tanks, fuel and

electricity, as well as the ratio between the costs of labor and materials for system construction.

These parameters will be fairly constant for any particular economic zone. Once these

parameters have been calibrated for a particular region, they can be left unchanged while

different water supply systems within the region are analyzed. The third data category captures

the system parameters, which will typically include pipe types, diameters and lengths, storage

29
tank volumes and the number of standpipes. These parameters are unique to each water supply

system, and have to be determined on site or from engineering drawings.

Types of Costing

Costs by definition consist of all resources required to put in place and maintain the

intervention. These include capital costs (investment in planning, preparing, construction,

purchase of hardware) and recurrent costs (operation, maintenance and monitoring). The cost of

a small water supply system usually includes capital as well as recurrent costs in each of the

usual activities of a water supply i.e. source, treatment, pumping, storage and distribution. The

costing method must be robust and it will need to provide reliable estimates by aggregating

collections of physical parts of a water supply activity into single units of cost. An example is the

estimation of the initial costs of water treatment for a new / improved system. To get started,

cost-functions can be used that are based on previously completed projects for which there must

be several examples in any country. Often in such functions, the design capacity is typically

included as a variable e.g. cost per m3 of treated water and this will give the planner a good

estimate of the cost of water treatment for a village of X number of people consuming Y liters of

water per person per day (ℓ/c/d).

While this example is simplistic and robust, the costing model at the end of the chapter is

more refined but is still based on this approach.

Capital costs

Formally defined, capital goods is the stock of goods which are man-made and used in

production (as opposed to consumption). Fixed capital goods (durable goods such as buildings

and machinery) are usually distinguished from circulating capital goods (stocks of raw materials

30
and semi-finished goods which are rapidly used up). Capital costs are the costs incurred by

implying capital goods. In accounting conventions, capital goods are usually taken as those with

a life of more than one year, such as land, buildings and equipment. In the context of developing

and installing a small water system the capital costs represent, therefore, the total costs that are

not expected to recur for significant periods of time. These are costs for the preparation and

construction of the system through to the moment that the system becomes operational. From

that moment on, the system must be operated and maintained towards the optimal benefit

expected from the intervention i.e. the O&M costs. Capital costs can also occur during the

operational lifetime of the system. Examples include expansion of the system and replacement of

major (high-cost) parts. Capital costs usually include those costs related to the construction and

equipment activities of installing the new system. These costs flow from the preliminary studies,

which are conducted during the pre-investment (e.g. planning) stage and involve the study of the

technical, economic, social, environmental and health aspects in the construction project. A

drinking water system consists of a variety of fixed (constructed) installations like filter units,

clear water reservoirs, pipes etc. Depending on the size of the system, these construction

activities might include office and sanitary facilities for the staff of the new treatment facility or

a workshop and maybe a small laboratory with facilities for the maintenance personnel. Besides

these costs, the furnishing of staff facilities, workshop and a laboratory is part of the capital

costs. The project requires equipment, which will be a capital cost in items such as pumps and

power systems. Materials are needed to complete the construction including materials bought or

acquired by the community or the municipality in the local markets of the country as well as

imported materials. The workforce for the construction can be specialists such as engineers,

constructors, technical staff, and social science professionals. It will also include non-qualified

31
workers that work in excavation, cleaning, etc. These can be the people from the local

community. Lastly, semi-qualified workers will be required - generally a type of worker between

qualified and non-qualified. This will depend on the work activity. Other capital costs will be

related to management of the project, administration, direction, coordination, logistic,

transportation, communications, office costs, private executors and control of quality, and any

other unassigned cost of the project. Contingency costs are an amount or percentage of the total

capital costs included in a project account to allow for adverse conditions that will add to the

basic costs.

A cost which will often be encountered that should be seen as part of the capital costs

will be the acquisition of land that might be required for components of the system e.g. the site

for the treatment facility, land covered by water when a surface source such as a stream or river

is impounded. Provision must also be made for overheads and supervision. Once all the capital

investment costs have been estimated, their sum will reflect the net construction cost. A

contractor, be it the villagers themselves or outsiders, might add a surcharge to allow for site

establishment, site clearing, supervision, profit, etc, which are all allowed for by adding an

additional percentage to the net construction cost. (A typical surcharge for contracts in rural

South Africa is 25%.) This then add up to form the total contract cost. For a new water supply

system, the client has to also bear the costs of planning, surveying, soil investigation, possibly

exploratory drilling, contract management, quality control, etc. These design and supervision

costs, paid to consulting engineers or borne by the client’s own design staff, amount to an

additional surcharge (about 25% over and above the total contract value) to finally determine the

total project cost.

32
Estimating Costs for a Small Water System

Three costing types exist for small water supply interventions. A service provider might

want to 1) do a direct costing, or 2) estimate the costs as part of a cost-effectiveness analysis.

This chapter is about 3) estimating the costs as part of a social cost-benefit analysis.

Activity cost estimation

Developing the source

Small water systems are often supplied from groundwater or from perennial protected

springs. Because of its inherent characteristics, ground water in rural areas is quite often

considered as safe enough to be provided directly without treatment i.e. with a hand pump. Costs

are relatively lower than with other forms of supply, which makes it a popular choice with

service providers. Where there is no other option than to use surface water, construction of

impoundments in rivers and streams is mostly required (Chapter 6) to provide a continuous

supply of raw water throughout the year for treatment and distribution. The costs of creating an

impoundment in a small water supply system can be a considerable proportion of the whole

system cost. The capital cost of groundwater sourcing are two-fold; the direct costs of gaining

access to an aquifer either by drilling a borehole or digging as well, and the cost of lining such a

borehole or well where the well has to penetrate soft material in the earth. A good estimate of

drill-well costs can be made, for example, by using unit rates for linear meters of hole drilled and

lined, respectively. The unit cost here is usually capital cost per meter drilled including the final

finishing of the well such as casing and concrete surface collar - depending on the extent of the

service rendered by the drilling company. The final capital cost will therefore depend on the

33
depth of the drill-well. The maintenance cost will be a percentage of the civil structure as shown

in the relevant section later on. Operation costs will be minimal on the well itself if the well was

properly installed. Operation costs around pumping will be dealt with in a following section.

Costs to surface water sourcing will mostly be incurred by the creation of an impoundment, as

well as by securing the land that the impounded water might cover and the land required for the

sourcing activity such as a pumping station and often the treatment facility. Capital costs can be

estimated as cost of m3 of concrete in the dam wall, per running meter of the dam wall or per m3

of water stored. The latter would usually be used if the activity required purchasing of land.

Maintenance cost will be required for ensuring the integrity of the impoundment wall, as well as

for whatever sluices / valves and other mechanical water outlets there might be. Maintenance

cost will be a percentage civil structure costs. Operation costs will be incurred by running the

above and will often comprise only personnel costs.

Storage

After sourcing, water usually needs to be stored, either for direct distribution or pre- and

post-treatment distribution. These activities require a storage tank, which is usually a capital cost

item. Three common storage tank types are in use for small water supply systems. The smallest

systems generally use prefabricated glass-fiber tanks if and where these are available. These

tanks are available is in multiples of about 2 500ℓ or 5 000ℓ up to about 20 000ℓ. For tanks from

about 20 m3 or larger, tanks of reinforced concrete might be used. Tanks assembled from

prefabricated panels of galvanized steel are also popular due their ease of construction and are

available in similar volume sizes as the plastic tanks.

Treatment

34
 When water is obtained from a surface (and sometimes a ground) water source, treatment

is required. Depending on the quality of the source, simple chlorination can be sufficient. When

water is polluted with suspended solids and pathogenic micro-organisms more advanced

treatment is necessary, including coagulation/flocculation, and filtration as well. Most of the

treatment items are usually capital costs to firstly install the treatment system. These costs

depend on degree of pollution of the source, the number and type of treatment steps and the scale

of the treatment. The larger the scale of the treatment is, the lower the costs per m2 building area.

Unit costs for different treatment steps can be obtained from projects that are realized earlier in

similar settings. Part of the capital costs at the treatment site is the installation of a small

laboratory for water quality analysis, storage of chemicals, pumping stations and reservoirs.

Although the capital costs of treatment are normally not high compared to the capital costs of

transport and distribution, treatment requires considerable operation and maintenance. O&M

costs consist mainly of salaries for operators and laboratory personnel and the costs of chemicals

(such as aluminum sulphate and chlorine) to be dosed during treatment. Water will be lost during

cleaning and backwashing of filters and disposal of the resultant sludge must be organized. The

loss of water (which can be up to 5-10% of the produced water) represents an economic value

and the sludge must be treated before disposal, which represents an economic and environmental

value. These costs must thus be included in the O&M costs.

Distribution

Costing a distribution system is discussed in this section in the context of costing mainly

three diverse systems. Water can be distributed through 1) a pipeline, 2) mobile units such as

tanker trucks and other forms of mobile vending i.e. animal drawn carts and 3) containers that

people in communities use to move water from the supply point and store at home. Pipelines are

35
usually capital cost items. The cost components of a pipeline consist of the costs of pipes,

couplings and shut-off valves. There are also the earthworks needed to excavate pipe trenches,

bedding for laying the pipes on, backfilling the pipeline trench after laying the pipe and labor.

For the smaller diameters of pipes used in small systems, the capital costs are about constant and

mostly independent of the pipe diameter. Maintenance costs are normally incurred to maintain

valves. Operational costs will be incurred to fix major (breaks) and minor leaks in pipelines.

Mobile distribution might also require considerable capital investment depending on the

type of system. For example, it may require investment in the truck or cart and the animals. The

maintenance cost will be keeping the vehicles and tanks in a good mechanical state. Animals of

course have to be kept in a healthy state physiologically, which will incur a cost. A container-

based distribution system requires purchasing of the containers (a capital cost), and keeping the

containers free from dirt and biofilm (a recurrent cost item). These costs can be considerable for

a poor household and should be considered when attempting a cost-benefit analysis. The idea is

that an intervention must be optimally effective at a minimum cost. Costs that is often

overlooked when assessing a small system will be those related to the inevitable water losses

though especially the distribution part. These can be seen as operational or other costs once the

loss-characteristics of a system are established.

Pumping

Pumping is an integral part of many small systems across the globe. Whether water is

pumped from the source to the treatment works or to the system, pumps have certain

characteristics which will enable the costing of the pumping component of a small system

intervention. These characteristics are best determined with the help of a technician or engineer

36
with specific knowledge in this field. Pump suppliers can provide an estimation of the capital as

well as the recurrent costs if they can be provided with information on the net power delivered

by the pump. This is derived from the static head, an estimate of the friction head as well as the

pumping rate if it is known. The pumping rate can be estimated from the pipe diameter and

assuming a pipe flow velocity (typically between 0.6 and 1.0 m/s for small diameter pipelines).

From this the size of the motor to drive the pump can be derived. Such a motor can be electric

but would in rural areas usually be a fuel-powered motor, which has implications for the

recurrent costs.

Public source points (taps on stand posts)

The community sources its supply from the taps at the end of standpipes, which are

connected to the distribution pipeline. The capital investment goes towards the taps, pipework

and connecting fittings, which can have a nominal size of either 15mm, 20mm (the most

common) or 25mm, the latter being much sturdier, of course. To facilitate the filling and lifting

of containers, most taps are installed as part of a small concrete platform with the vertical pipe

encased in some form of concrete pedestal. The maintenance of the taps has proven to be a

substantial recurrent cost in that the taps are often not designed for the many times it is opened

per day and also other abuses.

37
 Evaluating Economic and Financial Feasibility of Municipal and Industrial
Water Projects
(Steven Piper, 2009)

Financial feasibility is based on the ability of individuals and/or businesses to pay the

costs associated with an alternative. If water users have the financial resources to pay the full

cost of a project, including construction and operation and maintenance costs, then the project

would be considered financially feasible. These costs may be paid through monthly user fees,

retirement of debt incurred to build the project, tax assessments, or through other funding

methods.

Financial feasibility is an important consideration for water providers and local, state, and

federal governments. Providers need to know how much water users can pay toward the cost of a

water supply project and how that compares to the total cost of different water supply

alternatives. If project costs are determined to be greater than the ability of water users to pay for

a project, then imposing the cost of project repayment will result in financial hardship to water

users. Government agencies are interested in knowing if a project will be financially self-

sufficient from a budgeting standpoint. If project costs exceed the ability of water users to make

water payments, some government cost sharing would be needed to make a water supply project

affordable to water users.

A study by the American Water Works Association evaluating future drinking water

infrastructure needs identified affordability as the primary challenge in meeting infrastructure

needs (AWWA, 2001). The study questioned the ability of water customers to pay for

38
infrastructure improvements through rate increases and voiced concern about the impact of

higher rates on household well-being. For instance, rate increases could result in some

households trading off necessary expenditures (such as health care) to pay the water bill. The

study indicated a need to address the affordability gap, which is the difference between what you

think you should be spending on infrastructure and what you or your customers can afford to

spend “in reality” (AWWA, 2001).

Several federal laws related to the protection of water resources and provision of clean water

supplies require consideration of water supply affordability as part of the evaluation process.

Some of these laws include the Safe Drinking Water Act, the Clean Water Act, the Toxic

Substances Control Act, the Asbestos Hazard Emergency Response Act, the Comprehensive

Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA), and the Resources

Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). The Environmental Protection agency (EPA) has

included affordability criteria in their guidelines for evaluating the cost of compliance with

federal laws, assessing financial responsibility, and establishing penalties and fines when setting

water quality and service standards.

There is no universally accepted method of measuring payment capability or affordability

for domestic water supplies. Government agencies, water resource consultants, and academic

institutions have used a wide range of methods to evaluate how much water users can pay for

domestic water supply improvements. The most common method of evaluating affordability is

the cost of water as a percentage of median household income.

Using this measure of affordability, total annual user charges are divided by median

household income and compared to a predetermined threshold value of water utility

affordability. There are variations of the basic formula, such as the use of average (mean)

39
household income in the denominator or using cost of living indices to account for differences in

household expenditures. Affordability criteria are often used in conjunction with other measures

that consider general socio-economic conditions such as poverty rates or unemployment rates.

Several methods of evaluating payment capability and affordability are discussed below.

C. Socio-Economic Study

“Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality

Third edition incorporating the first and second addenda
Volume 1 Recommendations”

(Geneva, 2008)

Social and Economic Aspects; Educational, Behavioral and Related Socio-Cultural

Considerations for Household Water Treatment Systems

A number of studies and considerable field experiences have shown that the introduction

of water treatment technology without consideration of the socio-cultural aspects of the

community and without behavioral, motivational, educational and participatory activities within

the community is unlikely to be successful or sustainable. Therefore, initiatives in water, hygiene

and sanitation must include community participation, education and behavior modification. A

number of systems have been developed and successfully implemented for this purpose. One of

the most widely used and successful of these is termed PHAST, which stands for Participatory

Hygiene and Sanitation Transformation (WHO, 1996). It is an adaptation of the SARAR (Self-

esteem, Associative strengths, Resourcefulness, Action-planning and Responsibility) method of

participatory learning. PHAST promotes health awareness and understanding among all

members of a community or society in order to change hygiene and sanitation behaviors. It

encourages participation, recognizes and encourages self-awareness and innate abilities,

40
encourages group participation at the grassroots level, promotes concept-based learning as a

group process and attempts to link conceptual learning to group decision-making about solutions

and plans of action for change and improvement of the current situation. It encourages internally

derived decisions and both material and financial investment of the community to affect change.

Current approaches to participatory education and community involvement in water and

sanitation interventions apply behavioral theory and other related sciences to successfully

implement control measures. The use of water treatment technologies and other water quality

control measures that are consistent with prevailing beliefs and cultural practices and local

resources are promoted by behavioral theory. Community involvement at all levels is important

in achieving community support and sustainability for the technology. Efforts to introduce

improved household water treatment and storage systems have employed health education,

community mobilization, social marketing, motivational interviewing, focus groups, and other

educational, promotional, communication and mobilization techniques to change behaviors,

facilitate learning and elicit participation. Another example of this approach is a program to

facilitate support agencies in developing community willingness and capacity to take

responsibility for their own water supplies called the MANAGE Dissemination system

developed by the International Water and Sanitation Centre (IRC, 1999). The goal of the system

is to facilitate achievement of community management of and decision-making for rural water

supply supplies. The MANAGE Dissemination program disseminates and shares findings of

entities engaged in developing and implementing community participatory action through an

information network intended to enhance multi institutional learning approaches and develop

training methods and tools that facilitate and support community management of water supplies.

The system employs exchange visits and other communications activities among participants

41
who 51 are stakeholders in the community's water supply ranging from local citizens to NGOs

and their national and international partners. The Manage Dissemination system has been

implemented in many parts of the world, including Africa (Cameroon and Kenya), the Indo-

Asian region (Pakistan and Nepal and Latin America (Colombia and Guatemala).

Economic Aspects of Household Water Treatment Processes and Systems

The affordability, costs and willingness to pay of household water treatment technologies

are important considerations for their implementation, use and sustainability. All systems for

household water treatment and storage require an approach for cost recovery in order to be

sustainable. Approaches to cost recovery include providing all or some system components free

of charge with funding provided by external sources (donors, governments, etc.), partial cost

recovery by sales of some system components (e.g., sale of a household water disinfectant),

recovery of all costs by sales of all system components. A phased approach to cost recovery also

can be employed, with initial subsidies that decrease or stop later on or loans that must be repaid

later on. Often, economic analyses reveal that the costs of prevailing water use, treatment and

storage practices can be shifted to a new system of improved household water treatment and

storage, if communities and consumers are made aware of the substitution, accept that is better

than the existing system and thereby become willing to create an economic demand. Some water

intervention initiatives have employed pricing schemes and short-term subsidies or price

supports to obtain and increase consumer demand, including sales on credit, barter sales and in-

kind payments (work in exchange for goods and services of the technology). The various

approaches for cost recovery and financial management of household water supply systems are

42
beyond the scope of this review. Many of the principles of 52 financial management for more

centralized water supply and sanitation systems have been described elsewhere (Cairncross et al.,

1980; WHO, 1994). It is likely that these economic approaches to cost recovery and technology

sustainability can be applied or adapted to the more decentralized systems for household

treatment and storage of water described in this report.

Table 17. Cost Estimates per Household for Alternative Household Water Treatment and
Storage Systems (US$)*

System Imported Items Initial cost of hardware Annual operating cost

(per capita; per per capita and
household) household
Boiling None None(assumes use of a Varies with fuel price;
cook pot) expensive
Ceramic filter Filter candles $5;$25 $1, $5 for annual
replacement
SODIS and SOLAIR None( assumes spent Cost of black paint for None
(solar disinfection by bottles available) bottles or alternative
UV radiation and heat) dark surface (roofing)
Solar heating( solar Solar cooker or other Initial cost of solar Replacement costs of
disinfection by heat solar reflector cooker or reflector & solar reflectors and
only ) water exposure and water exposure and
storage vessels. storage vessels
UV Lamp Systems UV lamps and housings Initial cost of UV Power (energy); Lamp
system: US$100-300, replacement($10-100)
$20-60 every 1-3 years
On-site generated or Hypochlorite generator $1.60; $8.00 $0.60/$3.00 ( estimated
other chlorine and and associated by USA CDC ); costs
narrow-mouth storage hardware for may be higher for
vessel (*USA CDC production and bulk different sources of
Safewater* system) storage chlorine and for
different water storage
vessels
Combined coagulation- Chemical coagulant Use existing storage Chemical costs at about
filtration and and chlorine mixture, vessel or buy a special $US7-11 per capita per
chlorination systems as powder or tablet treatment and storage year ($35-55 per
vessels(US$5-10 each) household per year,
assuming about 2 liters
per capita ( 10 liters per
household)/day

43
Table 2. Cost Estimate per Household for Alternative Household Water Treatment and Storage
System.

D. Management Study

Costing Improved Water Supply Systems for Low-Income Communities

A Practical Manual

(F.Carlevaro, C.Gonzalez, 2010 )

Improved WS technologies for low-income communities

The essential components or "activities" of a water supply process in low-income

communities are:

• Water Source: represents all the fresh water that comes from evaporation to

precipitation. The types of water source are: surface water, groundwater and pluvial water

. • Water Collection: dug wells are common for the use of groundwater, while an intake

with pumping facilities is required if the water is to be collected from a surface water source. A

permanent roof is needed for collection of rainwater.

• Water Conveyance: water is normally conveyed by gravity or pumping. Dedicated

structures carry the water from the water source to storage before treatment or water

consumption.

• Water Storage: the reservoirs have a storage capacity for the anticipated water demand

before treatment and distribution.

44
 • Water Treatment: the more common method for water treatment includes

sedimentation, aeration, filtration, demineralization and disinfection.

• Water Distribution: the means of delivery of water to individual consumers varies. It

may be piped or carried by various means of transport in containers.

Water Source

- Groundwater
- Surface water
- Pluvial water

Water Collection

- Dug wells
- Pumps with a power system
- Rainwater harvesting

Water Conveyance

- Gravity
- Pumping

Water Storage

Central Treatment system

Distribution The Distribution The Distribution

household household
- Individual transfers - Individual transfers - Individual
water to the water to the
Connections Connections Connections
home home
- Public water - Public water - Public water
points points points

45
 Storage and Treatment at home

Water Storage

Figure 1. Activities of a Water Supply Process

Costing rationale

The primary intent of economic costing is to develop an economic value of the

opportunity cost of providing a given WS service to the national economy. In practice, there are

three principles to follow in preparing estimates of economic costs:

• All relevant costs to the economy, regardless of who (utility, households, Government,

etc.) incurs them, must be included.

• Each cost must be properly evaluated using economic prices representing the national

opportunity costs of the resources invested in the WS project. To correct distorted prices,

“shadow factors” must be used, in particular for unskilled labor wages, foreign exchange for

imports and the interest rate.

• The assumptions used for costing different technologies must be mutually consistent

and comparable. The proposed method of identifying, collecting and analyzing cost data of

appropriate WS technologies relies on a bottom-up approach that disaggregates the WS process

according to the main activities described in section 2. For each activity we consider four types

of costs.

46
 • Investment costs include those costs that can be identified in the construction of

infrastructures, such as: preliminary studies, equipment, local material, imported material,

workers, other investment costs and contingencies.

• Operation costs comprise all expenditures that are required to keep a system in

operation. They include expenses for personnel, chemicals, electricity, fuels, materials, office

supplies and building rents.

Distribution of population
- Concentrated
- Dispersed

Minimum endowment of water

- Quantity - Season
- Need of Sanitation - Climate conditions

Socio-economic conditions
- Acceptable
- Poor
- Very poor

Type of water source

- Surface water
- Groundwater
- Pluvial water

Water conveyance
- Gravity
- Pumping

Water treatment
- Mineral concentration
- Water pollution 47
 Water acceptibility
- Colour and turbidity
- Colour and taste

Appropriate WS Technologies
- Piped watering dwelling, plot or yard - Protected dug well - Tube-well borehole
- Public tap/standpipe - Protected spang - Rainwater collection

Figure 5. Selecting Appropriate Water System Technology Flowchart.

• Maintenance costs comprise all expenditures that are required to keep a system in good

condition while it is operated. They include all the expenses for running maintenance plans and

repair interventions of infrastructures, equipment and vehicles. • Other relevant costs encompass

the operational costs of a WS technology reflecting the correct functioning of the system; in this

context the most important are: administrative costs of the system, training costs, promotional

and educational costs.

2-5 Synthesis

Market Study

Factors affecting the demand and supply of potable water is reflected from the historical

background of the residents’ water consumptions. Water consumption according to Dr. Mohsin

Siddique is influenced by the Climate conditions, Characteristics of the population, Metering,

Cost of water and more. An article from Kohler.ph state that “the average household consumes

1,000 to 1,500 liters of water a day. Of that, about one-fifth of that comes from flushing the

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toilet, as every person on average flushes the toilet five times a day”. The demand of water can

be forecasted using the different applicable formulas depending on the characteristics of the

population growth of the residents.

Technical Study

All methods and process to be used are in accordance with Water Code of the Philippines

and National Plumbing Code of the Philippines where different sections suggest the

requirements, criteria’s and standards in putting up water supply system. National Plumbing

Code of the Philippines suggested different water problem corrections such as Water Purification

which removes one or more materials that make the water unsuitable for a given use, this could

be done by settling or sedimentation, filtration, adsorption/ flocculation-coagulation, aeration,

distillation, or disinfection. Other methods are aeration, coagulation – flocculation, filtration and

disinfection/ chlorination. However on the feasibility study entitled Drinking Water from Air by

M. Grande, et.al, they suggested Chlorination and Activated Carbon Filtration as the treatment to

be used due to its satisfactory results.

Finance Study

The most crucial part of the project feasibility study is the financial aspect. From the

feasibility study entitled “A Proposed Water Purifying Station (for deep-well and rain water) by

Escare et. al,” their study covers source of investment, project financial status, job and

qualification of personnel, and operational cost. The presentation of how they computed and

estimated the expenses gives the researcher concrete basis in finance study.

Socio Economic Study

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 Socio-Economic aspects studied in this research is based on the Guidelines for Drinking-

water Quality 3rd edition, following the criteria provided by World Health Organization (WHO).

It states that “A number of studies and considerable field experiences have shown that the

introduction of water treatment technology without consideration of the socio-cultural aspects of

the community and without behavioral, motivational, educational and participatory activities

within the community is unlikely to be successful or sustainable. Therefore, initiatives in water,

hygiene and sanitation must include community participation, education and behavior

modification. The affordability, costs and willingness to pay of household water treatment

technologies are important considerations for their implementation, use and sustainability.

Management Study

This aspect of feasibility where researchers will undergo analysis of the operations and

procedures including the construction Program Evaluation Review Technique and the selection

of the critical path. Plumbing Design and Estimates by Fajardo Jr. together with Costing

Improved Water Supply Systems for Low-Income Communities a Practical Manual by

F.Carlevaro and C.Gonzalez are the references we used which gives information about the

factors to be considered, with diagrams illustrating steps to generate a water supply system.

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 CHAPTER
THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter presents the research design, research instrument, subjects and respondents

of the study, the data gathering procedures and statistical treatment used to answer the problems

presented in the study.

3-1 Research Design

This is a descriptive and applied type of research utilizing self-made survey

questionnaire. The descriptive aspect looked into the extent of use of the tools in gathering of the

needed quantitative information that can be tabulated in numerical form, such as the average of

the survey results, the number of residents in the community the distance between each

household, its elevations with respect to the location of the source and other numerical data.

While the applied aspect pursues to have solution to the problem, which in our case is the
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designing of a feasible potable water supply suitable for the area. Furthermore, the details of the

assessment is discussed below.

3-2 Population and Sample

The researcher considered the residents of zone 1 and 2 of Purok Sagrado Barangay

Estefania comprising of 48 households (257 residents) to be the respondents of this study. In

determining the sample size for this study we used the Slovin’s Formula to estimate a random

sampling size and is given by the formula;

N
n= 2
(1+ N e )

Where; n = no. of samples, N = total Number of Households, e = margin of error

N = 48 Households
e = 5% (we are 95% confident that the result will be in favor of our prediction)

48
n= 2
=42.85 ≈ 43 Households
(1+48(0.05 ))

Since the number of population and sample size only differed by a small difference, we

decided to conduct the survey to all the households under zone 1 and zone 2 of Purok Sagrado,

Barangay Estefania, Bacolod City.

3-3 Research Instrument

This study make used of the self-made questionnaire in data gathering. The instrument

consist of four (4) close ended dichotomous questions, these are simple questions that asks

respondents to answer in yes or no. Questions are designed to assess the need of potable water

supply by the community. This was used because it gathers data faster and reliable than any

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other method. The questionnaire is translated in dialect since not all respondents are literate

enough to understand the questions clearly and to avoid confusion.

The copies of questionnaire were distributed personally by the researcher to the

respondents and are retrieved after few hours. (See Appendix A.1 - questionnaire)

3-4 Validity of Questionnaire

The validity of the self-made questionnaire follows the criteria developed for evaluating

survey questionnaire set forth by Carter V. Good and Douglas B. Scates. A jury of experts have

evaluated the self-made survey questionnaire specifically designed for the study. Their

corrections and suggestions will be incorporated in the draft for the next stage of validation. (See

Appendix A.2 – Validation Sheet)

The jury of experts are composed of the following: Engr. Jerome M. Mongcal (MaEd.),

Jury 1; Engr. Eddie Santillan, Jury 2; Engr. Jose Marcus Bedrio, Jury 3.

3-5 Data Collection

Generally the data used in assessment are reflected from the questionnaires sent to 45

households of zone 1 and 2 of Purok Sagrado. The interpretation and procedures of data analysis

is based on the provided method by the book “A Business Planning Manual”, J.H. Cuyugan

2005. Below are discussions of the method used in conducting each aspect of feasibility and is

furthermore discussed in the next chapter.

3-5.1 Market Study

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 A. Demand of Water: The total demand of water at zone 1 and 2 of Purok Sagrado is

estimated from the domestic use of water by respondents. The water demand at the end

of the design life of the project is usually the basis for design. The per capita water

demand is assumed to be fairly constant.

B. Supply of Water: The estimation of the design flowrates for components of the water

supply system is done by computing a forecast of the population at the end of the

design life, which is then multiplied by the per capita water demand to yield the design

flowrate. We used the Incremental Increase Method to project the growth of population

after nth decades given by the formula:

Pn = 0.0168P
Where, Pn = Population after nth decade, P = Number of Population in the preceding year.

3-5.2 Technical/Production Study

A. Service/s. This study will provide a service offering potable water for the residents of

Purok Sagrado.

B. Production process. The production follows the simplest way of extracting the water

from the deep well and treated to make safe to drink and is supplied to each households.

C. Materials and Equipment. Materials and equipment for production are dependent to the

consideration of the design of piping system and the method of extracting and treating the

water. The following data are to be used:

 Demand of water needed for the period of service which includes the volume of

water per capita use.

 The desired service life of the equipment.

 The cost of the equipment.

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 D. Technological Assistance. The researcher asks assistance to some of the government

agencies in the data gathering procedure to collect needed existing information.

E. Location of the Water Source. The location of the water source is selected by finding an

elevated area that will result to lower power requirement to distribute water to each

households.

F. Production Cost. The cost of production is computed by estimates, in which the materials

and equipment used are tabulated with corresponding costs.

3-5.3 Finance Study

A. Total Project Cost. The total cost is calculated through summing up the estimates of

production cost and other cost requirements.

3-5.4 Socio Economic Study

A. Beneficiaries. We state here, all the possible benefits people, businesses and organization

and other than our projects proponents and the government will receive as a result of the

implementation of our project.

3-5.5 Management Study

A. The researcher follows the guidelines provided by Jorge H. Cuyugan in his book “A

Business Planning Manual” from pages 31-33.

3-6 Data Analysis

In the interpretation of the data gathered from our questionnaire, the researchers used the

mean or average method of statistical treatment which will indicate the average level of

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agreement of the respondents in each item of the questionnaire. Which is solved using the

formula;

x
X=
N

Where: X = Mean, x = Sum of all scores, N = number of cases

After getting the mean of the results of each number, we then get the percentage of

positive and negative results for an easy comparison. We use the formula for Frequency and

Percentage Distribution given as;

f
%= x 100 %
N

Where: % = Percentage, f = Frequency, N = number of cases

To test for reliability of the result obtained from our instrument we used T-test statistical

treatment to determine the significant difference between two (2) variable means.

The system of tabulation of results correspond to either negative or positive. A higher

positive percentage indicates that there is a need to implement the project plan, otherwise they do

not.

3-7 Reliability of Result

The survey is conducted twice to compare the results of the first and second survey to

obtain a reliable result for data basis a tabulated breakdown of results is presented in the next

chapter for furthermore discussion. The statistical survey is conducted last July 2, 2017 (Initial

Survey) and July 9, 2017 (Final Survey).

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