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Combined Science
Combined Science
chemistry
1
SEPARATION TECHNIQUES
Simple Distillation
Simple Distillation – separation of pure liquid from a solution. Used when we want to obtain the
liquid from the solution.
Process of Distillation:
Solution is heated, and steam (pure vapour) is produced. The steam is cooled in a condenser to
form pure liquid called the distillate. Solute remains in the flask.
Water can be obtained from salt water using this method. The solution is heated in the flask until it
boils. The steam rises into the Liebig condenser, where it condenses back into water. The salt is left
behind in the flask. This sort of technique is used on a much larger scale to obtain pure water for
drinking. This process is carried out in a desalination plant.
Fractional Distillation
Fractional Distillation – separates mixture of miscible (soluble) liquids with differing boiling points.
Use of fractionationg column separates them
Process of Fractional Distillation: E.g. ethanol and water
Mixture of ethanol (b.p 75 oC) and water (100oC) is placed in a flask and heated. When the mixture
is heated the vapour produced is mainly ethanol with some steam. Because water has higher
boiling point than alcohol it condenses out from the mixture with ethanol in the fractionating
column. The water condenses and drips back into the flask while the ethanol vapour moves up the
column into the condenser where it condenses into liquid ethanol and is collected in the receiving
flask as the distillate. Temperature will stay constant until all ethanol is distilled. When all the
ethanol has distilled over the temperature begin to rise steadily to 100 oC showing that the steam is
entering the condenser. At this point the receiver can be changed and the condensing water can
now be collected.
2
paper chromatography
used to separate two or more dissolved solids in solution.
It makes use of two phases of substances, a moving phase (mobile phase) and non moving phase
(stationery phase).
The stationery phase is the chromatography paper.
The mobile phase is the mixture that must be separated dissolved in a solvent.
A drop of the concentrated solution to be separated is placed on a pencil line (baseline) near the
bottom edge of a strip of chromatography paper as shown below. The paper is then dipped in the
solvent . the level of the solvent must start below the sample. Many solvents are used in
chromatography. Water and organic solvents such as ethanol are common. organic solvents are
useful because they dissolve many substances which are insoluble in water. When an organic
solvent is used the process is carried out in a tank with a lid to stop the solvent evaporating.
The substances separate according to their solubility in the solvent. As the solvent moves up the
paper, the substances are carried with it and begin to separate. The substance that is most soluble
moves fastest up the paper. An insoluble substance would remain at the origin. The run is stopped
just before the solvent front reaches the top of the paper. The solvent front is the furthest point that
the solvent reaches up the chromatography paper. A filter paper can be used as a chromatography
paper.
The distance moved by a particular spot is measured and related to the positon of the solvent front.
The ratio of these distances is called the Rf value.
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distance moved by the substance
Rf =
distance moved by the solvent front
Chromatography is used to separate both coloured and non-coloured substances. For non-coloured
substances the chromatogram (chromatography paper) is treated with locating agent after the run.
The agent reacts with the samples to produce coloured spots.
4
Although atoms contain electrically charged particles, the atoms themselves are electrically
neutral (they have no overall electric charge). This is because atoms contain equal numbers of
electrons and protons.
Nuclide notation
The proton number and nucleon number of an element are usually written in the following
shorthand way:
A
X where X is the symbol of the element
A is the mass number (nucleon number)
Z is the proton number (atomic number)
e.g lithium with a mass number of 7 and a proton number of 3 is written as
3 Li
Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element which have the same proton number but different neutron
numbers. For example carbon has three isotopes i.e carbon 12, carbon 13 and carbon 14 written
below
12 13 14
C 6 6C 6C
5
35
17 Cl and 37 17Cl
Calculate the number of neutrons in each of the isotopes above
8p
8n
H
1p K
19p
20n
6
ber ons tion
Hydroge H 1 1 1
n
Helium He 2 2 2
Lithium Li 3 3 2,1
Beryllium Be 4 4 2,2
Boron B 5 5 2,3
Carbon C 6 6 2,4
Nitrogen N 7 7 2,5
Oxygen O 8 8 2,6
Fluorine F 9 9 2,7
Neon Ne 10 10 2,8
Sodium Na 11 11 2,8,1
Magnesi Mg 12 12 2,8,2
um
Aluminiu Al 13 13 2,8,3
m
Silicon Si 14 14 2,8,4
Phosphor P 15 15 2,8,5
us
Sulfur S 16 16 2,8,6
Chlorine Cl 17 17 2,8,7
Argon Ar 18 18 2,8,8
Potassiu K 19 19 2,8,8,1
m
Calcium Ca 20 20 2,8,8,2
7
A period represents elements in same horizontal row e.g from Li to Ne
Elements in a period have the same number of shells.
The period number is equal to the number of shells in an element in that period e.g K (potassium) is
in period 4 therefore has 4 shells, check the structure of potasium drawn earlier above.
A group represents elements in same vertical column e.g from Be to Ra
The number of electrons in the outer most shell (valency electrons) is equal to the group number
e.g K potassium is in group 1 therefore has 1 electrons in its outer most shell. Check with diagram
drawn above.
Elements in a group have the same number of electrons in the outer most shell (valency electrons).
Thus all elements in group 2 have 2 electrons in their outer most shell.
The elements found between group 2 and group 3 are known as transition elements.
CHEMICAL BONDING
Ionic bonding (electrovalent bonding)
Ionic bonding a usually occur between metals and non-metals.
It gives rise to ionic compounds.
It involves transfer of electrons from the metal atoms to the non-metal atoms during the chemical
reaction. In doing this, the atoms become more stable by getting full outer energy levels.
Metals lose electrons to form positive ions (cations)
Non-metals gain electrons to form negative ions (anions)
For example, consider what happens when sodium and chlorine react together and combine to
make sodium chloride. Sodium has just one electron in its outer energy level ( 11Na 2,8,1). Chlorine
has seven electrons in its outer energy level ( 17Cl 2,8,7). When these two elements react, the outer
electron of each sodium atom is transferred to the outer energy level of a chlorine atom as shown in
the dot cross diagram below. In this way both the atoms obtain full outer energy levels and become
stable.
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Formation magnesium oxide
Magnesium with two electrons in its outer most shell, loses the two electrons. 0xygen with 6
electrons in its outer shell, gains the two electrons as shown below. In this way both the atoms
obtain full outer energy levels and become stable.
Dot cross diagram for the formation of magnesium oxide
9
They usually cannot conduct electricity when solid, because the ions are not free to move
but they usually conduct electricity when in the molten state or in aqueous solution because
the ions are free to move.
They mainly dissolve in water. This is because water molecules are able to bond with both
the positive and the negative ions, which breaks up the lattice and keeps the ions apart.
Covalent bonding
it occurs between non metals.
it involves the sharing of a pair electrons by overlapping of orbitals (shells).
For example
Hydrogen (H2)
Each hydrogen atom has one electron, in order to obtain a full outer energy shell and gain the
electron configuration of the noble gas helium, each hydrogen atom must have two electrons. To do
this, the two hydrogen atoms allow their outer energy shells to overlap as shown
Dot cross diagram for hydrogen H2
A molecule of hydrogen is formed, with two hydrogen atoms sharing a pair of electrons. This shared
pair of electrons is known as a single covalent bond and represented by a single line as in hydrogen
Water H2O
An oxygen atom has 6 electrons in its outer shell. It therefore needs to share another two in order
to achieve stability. Hydrogen atom has one electron in its outer shell. Therefore two hydrogen
atoms have to bond covalently with one oxygen atom to form water molecule.
Dot cross diagram for formation of water
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Properties of covalent compounds
Covalent compounds have the following properties.
As simple molecular substances, they are usually gases, liquids or solids
They have low melting and boiling points. The melting points are low because of the weak
intermolecular forces of attraction which exist between simple molecules.
they do not conduct electricity.This is because they do not contain ions.
they do not dissolve (insoluble) in water but are soluble (dissolve) in organic solvents.
Metallic bonding
Occurs within atoms of metals involving a lattice of positive ions surrounded by a sea of
electrons.
1. Metals can be bent (ductile) and can be stretched (malleable) because the layers of atoms in
metals slide over each other when force is applied but will not break due to attractive force
between electrons and metal ions.
2. Metals conduct electricity as it has free (delocalised) electrons which carries current.
3. Metals conduct heat as it has free electrons which gains energy when heated and moves faster
to collide with metal atoms, releasing heat in collisions.
4 Metals have high melting and boiling points because the bonds between metals is very strong.
Hence very high heat energy needed to break the bonds.
STOICHIOMETRY
Formula of compounds
the formula shows the ratio of the number of each type of atom that combines to make the
compound.
The elements are represented by their symbols.
Radicals
All radicals may be viewed as ions since they carry either ppositive or negative.
A radical just like an element has a known valency.
Radical Ionic symbol Valency
Ammonium NH4+
H+
1
Hydrogen
Nitrate NO3-
Chloride Cl-
Hydroxyl OH-
Iodide I-
Oxide O2-
Sulphate SO42-
11
Sulphide S2-
SO32-
2
Sulphite
Carbonate CO32-
Dichromate Cr2O72-
Phosphate PO43- 3
12
Interpreting chemical formula
Consider the following
H means a) hydrogen element symbol
b) one atom hydrogen
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2H2 implies a) two molecules of hydrogen molecules
b) four atoms of hydrogen atoms
From the above examples it can be appreciated that the number in front of a formula gives us the
number of molecules of that compound.
The number in front of a formula when multiplied by the number at the bottom right side of the
symbol gives us the total number of atom for that particular.
When a number is after the brackets it affects the number of all atoms within the brackets
e.g Al2(CO3)3
one molecule of aluminium carbonate
two atoms of aluminium
three atoms of carbon
nine atoms of oxygen
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1 mole of oxygen = 6.02 x 1023
1 mole of potassium = 6.02 x 1023
M
5=
111
M = 5x 111
=555g
Chemical equations
Characteristics
1. A chemical equation is a short and convenient way of describing a chemical reaction.
2. The total number of all atoms involved do not change nor disappear, they are just
rearranged
3. The number of different atoms are the same on both sides of the equations. This is called a
balanced.
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4. States of the reactants should always be added to a chemical equation. The state symbols
are (s) for solid
(l) for liquid
(g) for gas
(aq) for aqueous
Examples
Zinc + chlorine → zinc chloride
Zn + Cl2 → ZnCl2
e.g how many grams of magnesium contain the Avogadro number of particles 6.02 x 10 23
1 mole of magnesium is 24g and
1 mole of magnesium is 6.02 x 1023
Therefore 24g of magnesium contain the avogadro particles.
concentration
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concentration is a measure of how much solute is dissolved in a solvent.
The S.I unit of concentration are g/dm3 or mole/dm3
Note 1dm3 = 1000cm3 = 1000ml =1L
The following relationship can be used to calculate concentration
n = VC
where n is the number of moles
V is the volume in dm 3
C is the concentration in mol/dm 3
Also note that the molarity of a solution is the number of moles of solute present in 1dm 3 of a
solution
Therefore mol/dm3 is often shortened to M, e.g 0.1 mol/dm 3 is written as 0.1M (M is molar).
1. Find the volume of 0.1 mol/dm 3 of potassium hydroxide solution that contains 0.2
mol/dm3of potassium hydroxide
n = vc
c
v=
n
0.2
v=
0.1
v = 2dm3
2. if 8g of sodium hydroxide are dissolved to form 2500cm 3 of sodium hydroxide, calculate its
concentration.
n = vc
M
first find the number of moles, n =
Mr
8
=
40
= 0.2moles
n
c=
v
0.2
c=
2.5
= 0.08mol/dm3
Empirical formula
Empirical formula shows the simplest ratio of the atoms present.
To find the empirical formula
i. divide each percentage by the atomic mass
ii. divide the ratios obtained in (i) by the smallest numbers.
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1. In another experiment an unknown organic compound was found to contain 0.12 g of
carbon and 0.02 g of hydrogen. Calculate the empirical formula of the compound. (Ar: H = 1;
C = 12)
C H
Masses (g) 0.12 0.02
0.12 0.02
Number of moles
12 1
= 0.01 = 0.02
0.01 0.02
Ratio of moles
0.01 0.01
1 2
Empirical formula CH2
2. Calculate the empirical formula of an organic compound containing 92.3% carbon and 7.7%
hydrogen by mass. The Mr of the organic compound is 78. What is its molecular formula? (Ar: H =
1;
C = 12)
C H
% by mass 92.3 7.7
92.3 7.7
Number of moles
12 1
= 7.7 = 7.7
7.7 7.7
Ratio of moles
7.7 7.7
1 1
Empirical formula CH
Molecular formula
Molecular formula shows the actual numbers of atoms of each element present in the molecule.
1. Calculate the empirical formula of an organic compound containing 80% carbon and 20% hydrogen
by mass. The Mr of the organic compound is 30. What is its molecular formula? (Ar: H = 1; C = 12)
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1 3
Empirical formula CH3
Litmus paper Blue litmus turns red. Red litmus turns blue.
Universal indicator Turns yellow, orange, red Turns blue, purple depending
depending on strength of on strength of base.
acid.
Corrosive corrosive
Examples Hydrochloric acid, sulphuric Ammonia, potassium
acid, vinegar, citric acid hydroxide, sodium hydroxide
pH scale
it is a measure of how acidic or alkaline a substance is.
The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14.
Acids have a pH below 7.
Bases have a pH above 7.
A pH of is neutral, it is neither acidic or basic
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Indicators
an indicator is asubstance that changes colour according to the acidity or alkalinity of the solution it
is in. indicators are used to measure the pH of a solution. The table shows a few indicators and their
colour changes
Indicator Colour in acid Colour in base
Litmus Red Blue
Methyl orange Red Yellow
Phenolphthalein Colourless Red
Universal indicator Red in strong acid Purple in strong base
The salt produced has two words and will depend on the metal and the acid used. The first
word is the name of the metal used while the last word is depended upon the acid used in the
reaction. If sulphuric acid (H2SO4) is used it becomes sulphate
If hydrochloric acid (HCl) is used it becomes chloride
If nitric acid (HNO3) is used it becomes nitrate
If ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) is used it becomes ethanoate
e.g sodium + hydrochloric acid → sodium chloride + hydrogen
2Na(s) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + H2(g)
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- Acids react with carbonates to produce a salt, carbon dioxide gas and water. Carbon dioxide
produced is tested by bubbling into limewater which forms a white precipitate. The general
equation is
Acid + metal carbonate →salt + carbon dioxide + water
e.g sulphuric acid + magnesium carbonate → magnesium sulphate + carbon dioxide + water
H2SO4(aq) + MgCO3(s) → MgSO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O (l)
Acid-Base titrations
Titration is the slow addition of a solution of known concentration to a given volume of another
solution of unknown concentration to a point of neutralisation. The solution of known
concentration is called the titrant and the solution of unknown concentration is called the analyte.
Burette, clamp and stand, conical flask, volumetric pipette, dropper or small pipette and indicator.
Performing a titration
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1. Write a balanced equation for the reaction.
2. Measure required volume of analyte using a pipette and run it into a conical flask.
3. Add a few drops of the indicator into the conical flask.
4. Fill the titrant into the burette. Zero the burette by opening the tap letting the titrant into a
beaker until the meniscus is level with the maximum mark on the burette. N.B- this is
necessary to get rid of any air bubbles in the titrant.
5. Place the conical flask below the burette so that the tip of the burette is well within the
conical flask.
6. Slowly open the tap of the burette just enough to let a few drops into conical flask.
7. Continue to let a few drops of titrant a little at a time, reducing volume added as you
progress. Also swirl contents of flask after each addition.
8. As soon as the indicator starts to change colour, close the tap of burette immediately and
swirl the mixture making sure the colour change is final. This shows that all the analyte has
reacted. Addition of more results in wrong results.
9. Record volume of titrant remaining in burette.
10. Calculate volume used by subtracting end point volume from starting volume.
Acid-base titrations
This is a neutralisation titration, whose aim is to produce a salt which is separated and dried.
Experiment
Materials: Burette, clamp and stand, conical flask, 25ml pipette, dropper or small pipette,
phenolphthalein indicator, dilute sodium hydroxide, evaporating dish, dilute HCl, Bunsen burner.
Procedure
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2. Measure 25ml of dilute sodium hydroxide (analyte) using a pipette and run it into a
conical flask.
3. Add a few drops of the phenolphthalein indicator into the conical flask.
4. Fill the dilute HCl (titrant) into the burette. Zero the burette by opening the tap letting the
titrant into a beaker until the meniscus is level with the maximum mark on the burette. N.B- this is
necessary to get rid of any air bubbles in the titrant.
5. Place the conical flask below the burette so that the tip of the burette is well within the conical
flask.
6. Slowly open the tap of the burette just enough to let a drop into conical flask.
7. Continue to let a drop of titrant a little at a time, reducing volume added as you progress. Also
swirl contents of flask after each addition.
8. As soon as the indicator starts to change colour, close the tap of burette immediately and swirl
the mixture making sure the colour change is final. This shows that all the dilute sodium hydroxide
(analyte) has reacted. Addition of more; results in wrong results.
10. Calculate volume used by subtracting end point volume from starting volume.
11. Pour the neutral solution into evaporating dish and heat so that excess water evaporates.
INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES
Liquefaction and Fractional distillation of air
• The air is passed through fine filters to remove dust.
• The air is cooled to about −80 °C. water vapour and carbon dioxide solidify and are removed. If
these are not removed, then serious blockages of pipes can result.
• Next, the cold air is compressed to about 100 atm of pressure. This warms up the air, so it is
passed into a heat exchanger to cool it down again.
• The cold, compressed air is allowed to expand rapidly, which cools it still further.
• The process of compression followed by expansion is repeated until the air reaches a temperature
below −200 °C. At this temperature the majority of the air liquefies
• The liquid air is passed into a fractionating column and it is fractionally distilled. The gases can be
separated because they have different boiling points. Nitrogen boils of at -196 oC and oxygen at
-1830C.
• The gases are then stored separately in large tanks and cylinders.
Uses of the gases
Gas Use
Oxygen Welding
Steel making
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Medical purposes
Basic oxygen furnace
Nitrogen Make ammonia and nitric acid
Refrigerant
Food preservative
Carbondioxide -Used in fire extinguishers
-As dry ice or coolant.
-Used in fizzy drinks as a preservative.
Electrolysis
Electrolysis is the decomposition of compound using electricity.
Electrolysis is an electrochemical reaction in which electricalenergy is converted to chemical energy.
Electrolysis takes place in an electrolytic cell as shown below;
Electrolyte is an ionic compound which conducts electric current in molten or aqueous solution,
being decomposed in the process.
Electrode is a rod or plate where electricity enters or leaves electrolyte during electrolysis. Reactions
occur at electrodes. Electrodes usually made of unreactive metals such as platinum or of the
nonmetal carbon (graphite). These are said to be inert electrodes because they do not react with
the products of electrolysis. The names given to the two electrodes are cathode, the negative
electrode (connected to the negative terminal of the battery) which attracts cations (positively
charged ions), and anode, the positive electrode (connected to the positive terminal of the battery)
which attracts anions (negatively charged ions).
Principles of electrolysis
If electricity is passed through an electrolyte, the electrolyte breaks down to form ions.
The positively charged ions move to the negative electrode (cathode). They receive electrons and
are reduced. Thus reduction always takes place at the cathode.
The negatively charged ions move to the positive electrode (anode). They lose electrons and are
oxidised. Thus oxidation always take place at the anode.
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Reaction at Anode
Br- (bromide ions) loses electrons at anode to become Br (bromine) atoms. Br atoms created form
bond together to make Br2 gas.
2Br- → Br2 + 2e-
Reaction at Cathode
Pb2+ (lead II ions) gains electrons at cathode to become Pb (lead) atoms.
Pb2+ + 2e- → Pb
Overall Equation
PbBr2 → Pb + Br2
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results and explanation
When the lead bromide is solid the bulb does not light, because the solid compound does not allow
electricity to pass through it.
However, when the compound is heated until it is molten, the bulb does light because the molten
lead(ii) bromide now has free ions therefore behaves as an electrolyte.
When this happens bubbles are seen at the anode and lead metal is produced at the cathode
underneath.
When the heat is removed everything stops. The bulb goes off and the bubbles stop being
produced.
Electrolysis of water
Water is a poor conductor of electricity. To make it conduct, a little dilute acid is added
(dilute sulphuric acid).
Ions Present
H+, OH- and SO42-
H+ ions moves to the cathode.
OH- and SO42- moves to the anode. At the anode the OH - ions are discharged
Reaction at Anode
OH- loses electrons at anode to become O2 and H2O.
4OH -(aq) → O2(g)+ 2H2O(l) +4e-
Reaction at Cathode
H+ gains electrons at cathode to become H atoms becoming hydrogen gas.
2H+(aq) + 2e- → H2(g)
Overall Equation
2H2O(l)→ 2H2(g) + O2(g)
Since only water is electrolysed, the sulphuric acid now only becomes concentrated.
26
The amount of hydrogen produced during electrolysis of water is twice the amount the amount of
oxygen. The ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is 2:1.
Uses of hydrogen
Welding
Manufacture of margarine
Manufacture of ammonia
Used as a fuel in rockets
Reaction at Anode
OH- loses electrons at anode to become O2 and H2O.
4OH -(aq)→ O2(g)+ 2H2O(l) +4e-
Reaction at Cathode
Cu2+ gains electrons at cathode to become Cu atoms becoming liquid copper.
Hydrogen ions are not discharged because copper is easier to discharge.
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- →Cu(s)
Since copper ions in solution are used up, the blue colour fades. Hydrogen and sulphate ions left
forms sulphuric acid.
Reaction at Anode
The copper anode lose electrons to form Cu 2+. So, the electrode size decreases.
Cu(s)→ Cu2+(aq) + 2e-
Reaction at Cathode
Cu2+ produced from anode gains electrons at cathode to become Cu atoms becoming copper. Hence,
the copper is deposited here and the electrode grows.
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- →Cu(s)
Overall Change
There is no change in solution contents as for every lost of Cu 2+ ions at cathode is replaced by Cu 2+
ions released by dissolving anode. Only the cathode increases size by gaining copper and anode
decreases size by losing copper. We can use this method to create pure copper on cathode by using
pure copper on cathode and impure copper on anode. Impurities of anode falls under it.
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Electroplating
Electroplating is coating an object with thin layer of metal by electrolysis. This makes the object
protected and more attractive.
Object to be plated is made to be cathode and the plating metal is made as anode.
The electrolyte MUST contain plating metal cation.
Plating Iron object with Nickel
Reaction at Anode
Ni2+ discharged from anode into solution. So, the electrode size decreases.
Ni(s) → Ni2+(aq) + 2e-
Reaction at Cathode
Ni2+ produced from anode gains electrons at cathode to become Ni atoms becoming nickel. Hence,
the nickel is deposited here and the electrode grows.
Ni2+(aq) + 2e- → Ni(s)
Copper plating an iron nail
The anode is copper electrode
The cathode is the iron nail
The electrolyte is copper sulphate
Reaction at Anode
The copper anode lose electrons to form Cu 2+. So, the electrode size decreases.
Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e-
28
Reaction at Cathode
Cu2+ produced from anode gains electrons at cathode to become Cu atoms becoming copper. Hence,
the copper is deposited here and the electrode grows.
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- →Cu(s)
Reasons for electroplating
Decorative purposes
Prevent corrosion
29
From the above reaction
Na becomes positive, Na+. Therefore Na is oxidized as it loses electron to Cl2 to form Na+ ions.
Cl2 is oxidizing agent.
Cl2 becomes negative, Cl-. Therefore Cl2 is reduced as it gains electron from Na to form Cl- ions.
Na is reducing agent
Oxidation State in Reduction-Oxidation reaction
Oxidation State is the charge an atom would have if it existed as an ion.
To work out oxidation state, the rules are:
1. all elements in their natural state have oxidation state zero, e.g. Cu, Fe, N 2
2. Oxidation of an ion is the charge of the ion, e.g. Na + = +1, Cu2+=+2, O2- = -2
Examples:
Work out the oxidation states of the underlined elements in these compounds:
(a) CO2
(oxidation state of C) + (-2) x 2 = 0
(oxidation state of C) + (-4) = 0
Oxidation state of C = +4
(b) KMnO4
(+1) + (oxidation state of Mn) + (-2) x 4 = 0
(oxidation state of Mn) + (+1) + (-8) = 0
(oxidation state of Mn) + (-7) =0
Oxidation state of Mn = +7
(c) Fe(NO3)2
(oxidation state of Fe) + (-1) x 2 = 0
(oxidation state of Fe) + (-2) = 0 30
Oxidation state of Fe = +2
Oxidation and reduction in terms of oxidation number
Oxidation is the increase of oxidation state by a substance
Reduction is the decrease of oxidation state by a substance
With oxidation numbers it is also important to rewrite the equation showing ions present in
compounds involved in the reaction.
e.g Cu(s) + HCl(aq) → CuCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Cu(s) + H+Cl-(aq) → Cu2+Cl-(aq) + H2(g)
Another example
Cl2(aq) + 2KI(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + I2(aq)
Cl2(aq) + 2K+ I- (aq) → 2K+ Cl- (aq) + I2(aq)
I-ions in KI is oxidized as it gains oxidation state from -1 to 0.
I-ions is reducing agent
Cl2 is reduced as it loses oxidation state from 0 to -1.
Cl2 is oxidizing agent
Extraction of iron
The main ores of iron are haematite and magnetite
Iron is extracted in a blast furnace
Raw materials
Iron ore (Fe2O3)
Coke (C)
Limestone (CaCO3)
The process
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The raw materials are mixed together to form what is called charge. The charge is fed into the top of
the blast furnace
1. A blast of hot air is sent in near the bottom of the furnace through holes (tuyères) which
makes the ‘charge’ glow, as the coke burns in the preheated air.
C(s)+ O2(g) → CO2(g)
2. The carbon dioxide gas produced reacts with more hot coke higher up in the furnace,
producing carbon monoxide in an endothermic reaction.
carbon dioxide + coke →carbon monoxide
CO2(g) + C(s) →2CO(g)
3. Carbon monoxide is a reducing agent. it rises up the furnace and reduces the iron
(III)oxide ore. This takes place at a temperature of around 700 °C:
iron(III) oxide + carbon monoxide → iron + carbon dioxide
5. Calcium oxide reacts with impurities such as silicon(iv) oxide in the iron, to form a slag which
is mainly calcium silicate.
calcium oxide + silicon(iv) oxide →calcium silicate
32
The molten iron, as well as the molten slag, may be tapped off (run off) at regular intervals.
The waste gases, mainly nitrogen and oxides of carbon, escape from the top of the furnace. They are
used in a heat exchange process to heat incoming air and so help to reduce the energy costs of the
process. Slag is the other waste material. It is used by builders and road makers for foundations.
The iron obtained by this process is known as ‘pig’ or cast iron and contains about 4% carbon (as
well as some other impurities.
Production of steel
The ‘pig iron’ obtained from the blast furnace contains between 3% and 5% of carbon and other
impurities, such as sulfur, silicon and phosphorus. These impurities make the iron hard and brittle. In
order to improve the quality of the metal, most of the impurities must be removed and in doing this,
steel is produced.
The impurities are removed in the basic oxygen process, which is the most important of the
steelmaking processes. In this process:
Molten pig iron from the blast furnace is poured into the basic oxygen furnace
A water-cooled ‘lance’ is introduced into the furnace and oxygen is blown onto the surface of the
molten metal.
Carbon is oxidised to carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, while sulfur is oxidised to sulfur
dioxide. These escape as gases.
Silicon and phosphorus are oxidised to silicon(iv) oxide and phosphorus pentoxide, which are solid
oxides.
Some calcium oxide (lime) is added to remove these solid oxides as slag. The slag may be skimmed
or poured off the surface.
Samples are continuously taken and checked for carbon content. When the required amount of
carbon has been reached, the blast of oxygen is turned off.
There are various types of steel that differ only in their carbon content. The differing amounts of
carbon present confer different properties on the steel and they are used for different purposes.
Alloys of iron
Steel Typical composition Properties Uses
Mild steel 99.7% iron, 0.3% carbon Easily worked Car bodies, large structures,
Lost most of brittleness machinery, railway tracks,
Low cost blocks and bolts
Hard steel 99% iron, 1% carbon Tough and brittle Cutting tools, chisels, razor
blades
Manganese 87% iron, 13% manganese Tough, springy Drill bits, springs
steel
Stainless 70% iron, 20% chromium, Tough, does not corrode Cutlery, kitchen sinks, surgical
steel 10% nickel instruments, chemical plant
reaction vessels, car parts
Tungsten 82-99% iron, 1-18W% Tough, hard, even at high high-speed cutting and
steel tungsten temperatures sharpening tools, machinery,
crushing machinery.
Wrought 99% iron, 1% slag Soft but it does not melt Ornate railings and gates,
iron can be worked into shapes garden furniture
using tools.
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Cast iron 96-98% iron, 2-4%carbon Hard and brittle with a low Cooking utensils
melting point; decoration
easy to melt and mould
Medium 99.5% iron, 0.5% carbon Tougher than mild steel Car springs, chains
steel
Havel (high 99% iron, 1% carbon Very hard but brittle Blades for cutting tools, chisel
carbon steel) and razor blades
Nickel steel 95%iron, 5% nickel hard and tough Turbine blades, axles, storage
canisters for liquefied gas
The Process
Nitrogen and hydrogen are mixed together in ratio 1:3 and passed over iron catalyst.
The reaction is
Since the reaction is reversible so H2 and N2, reproduced from decomposition of produced NH 3, are
passed over the catalyst again to produce ammonia.
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Graph shows that to have high yield of ammonia we should have:
1. Higher pressure
2. Lower temperature
But in practice, we use lower pressure of 200 atm because using high pressure involves safety risk
and higher cost and higher temperature of 450 oC because using low temperature is too slow to
reach equilibrium
Uses of ammonia
For producing: fertilisers, nitric acid, nylon, dyes, cleaners and dry cell.
2. Sulphur dioxide is further reacted with oxygen at a temperature between 450 0C and
5000C, pressure of 1atm and in the presence of vanadium (V) oxide (V 2O5) catalyst to
produce sulphur trioxide.
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Optimum condition for the contact process
temperature between 4500C and 5000C,
pressure of 1atm
vanadium (V) oxide, (V2O5) catalyst
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ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are organic compounds containing hydrogen and carbon atoms only e.g alkanes and
alkenes.
Homologous series is a series of compounds that have similar properties and the same general
formula but hose structure only differ by the number of CH 2 units in the main carbon chain. For
example alkanes are a homologous series and alkenes too as well as alcohols.
1. It has one carbon atom, meth- 1. It has two carbon atoms, eth-
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2. It is an alkane, -ane 2. It is an alkane, -ane
Therefore the name is methane Therefore it is ethane
Production of biogas
Biogas is a gas evolved when organic material decomposes. It is a mixture of gases including
methane, carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide.
Biogas is obtained from fermenting manure.
the manure is put into a sealed pit. Bacteria digest the manure and the gas given off is
collecte and piped to burners. The sludge in the pit has to be agitated by rotating the
floating gasometer tank on the top several times a day.eventually the sludge build up has to
be removed and the process started again. The sludge can be used as a fertilizer for crops.
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Factors affecting the production of biogas
Temperature- optimum temperatures are between 350C and 550C
P.H- the solution should not be too acidic or too alkaline
Role of yeast
Type of waste
Time
Uses of Biogas
-For cooking
-For lighting
Ethanol
Ethanol is an organic compound which belongs to the homologous series, alcohol.
The structure of ethanol is
Ethanol is a liquid fuel that burns with a pale blue flame and leaves no residue. It is made by
fermenting plants that have high sugar content / maize. In Zimbabwe, ethanol is produced
at the ethanol plant at Triangle.
Ethanol from sugar cane
The cane is crushed and the juice from it. The fibre that remains is called bagasse and is
used as fuel for the boilers that generate steam. The juice is filtered and evaporated to
produce sugar crystals. These are separated from the molasses.
The molasses from the sugar mill is diluted with water and mixed with a yeast culture. The
pH is lowered by adding sulphuric acid. The yeast will survive at this pH but bacteria cannot.
Air is bubbled through the tank and the yeast multiplies.
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When the yeast population is at the required level, the culture is removed to the main
fermentation vats. Air is not admitted at this stage so that the fermentation will be
anaerobic. Under these conditions yeast cannot multiply. The pH is adjusted and the
mixture is allowed to brew for 40hours.
The enzymes in yeast cause the breakdown of the sugars into smaller glucose molecules
which is then converted into ethanol by the action of zymase in yeast. Carbon dioxide is the
other product.
Once the alcohol content reaches about 15%, the yeast becomes inactive. Fractional
distillation is then used to concetrate the alcohol.
Fractional Distillation of ethanol
Note: one percent Benzol is added to the pure ethanol to make ethanol unfit for human
consumption.
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The ethanol produced is concentrated by fractional distillation.
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Causes of global warming
1. Burning fossil fuels like coal and oil produces carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide.
2. Cutting down forests (deforestation). Trees help to regulate the climate by absorbing CO 2 from
the atmosphere. So when they are cut down, that beneficial effect is lost and the carbon
stored in the trees is released into the atmosphere, adding to the greenhouse effect.
3. Veld fires release gases such as carbon dioxide
4. Cars emit carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide via the exhaust
5. Large scale livestock farming. Cows and sheep produce large amounts of methane when they
digest their food.
6. Fertilisers containing nitrogen produce nitrous oxide emissions.
Group 1
The elements in group one are also called alkali metals.
Physical properties
They are good conductors of electricity and heat.
They are soft metals such that they can be cut with a knife
They are metals with low densities with lithium, sodium and potassium having so low
densities that they can float on water.
They have shiny surfaces when freshly cut with a knife however they quickly tarnish.
They have low melting and boiling points. For example, lithium has a melting point of 181 °C
and potassium has a melting point of 64 °C.
Chemical properties
They are all very reactive metals and they are stored under oil to prevent them coming into contact
with water or air. The reactivity increases as you go down the group.
They burn in oxygen or air, with characteristic flame colours, to form white solid oxides. For
example, lithium reacts with oxygen in air to form white lithium oxide, according to the
following equation:
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They react vigorously with water to give an alkaline solution of the metal hydroxide as well
as producing hydrogen gas. For example:
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They show a gradual change from a gas (Cl 2), through a liquid (Br2), to a solid (I2) as the
density increases.
The boiling and melting points of the halogens increase as you move down the group.
Chemical properties
They form molecular compounds with other nonmetallic elements, for example HCl.
They react with hydrogen to produce the hydrogen halides, which dissolve in water to form
acidic solutions.
Uses of halogen
Bleaching agents- chlorine is used to bleach wood pulp in the paper making industry
Sterilisation- chlorine is used to kill bacteria and viruses in drinking water. Iodine is used in
medicine and disinfectants. Bromine is used to make disinfectants.
Group 0
The group is also known as group VIII (8). The elements are called noble gases.
They are colourless, monoatomic gases.
They are very unreactive (inert).
Reactivity series
With air/oxygen
Many metals react directly with oxygen to form oxides. For example, magnesium burns brightly in
air/oxygen to form the white powder magnesium oxide.
magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
With water/steam
Reactive metals such as potassium, sodium and calcium react with cold water to produce the metal
hydroxide and hydrogen gas. Hydrogen makes a large popping sound with a lighted splint (test for
hydrogen). For example, the reaction of sodium with water produces sodium hydroxide and
hydrogen.
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Magnesium + hydrochloric acid → Magnesium Chloride + Hydrogen
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Lead reacts with concentrated hydrochloric acid.
Copper and Gold have no reaction with dilute nor concentrated hydrochloric acid
Summary of reactions
Reactivity series Reaction with Reaction with Reaction with
air/oxygen water dilute acid
Potassium (K) Burn very brightly Produce H2 with Produce H2 with
and vigorously decreasing vigour decreasing vigour
Sodium (Na) Burn to form an with cold water
oxide with
Calcium (Ca) decreasing vigour
Magnesium (Mg)
React with steam
Aluminium (Al*)
with decreasing
vigour
Zinc (Zn)
React slowly to
Iron (Fe) form the oxide
Lead (Pb)
Platinum (Pt)
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Gold (Au)
Platinum (Pt)
Displacement Reactions
Displacement reaction is the displacement of ions of metal from compounds of metals lower in
reactivity series by metals higher in reactivity series.
E.g. Magnesium displaces copper(II) chloride
Mg(s) + CuCl2(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + Cu(s)
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