Connections to the Commutator Segments

Once the windings are installed in the rotor slots, they must be connected to the commutator
segments.

There are a number of ways in which these connections can be made, and the different
winding arrangements which result have different advantages and disadvantages.

The distance (in number of segments) between the commutator segments to which the two
ends of a coil are connected is called the commutator pitch Yc.
If the end of a coil (or a set number of coils, for wave construction) is connected to a
commutator segment ahead of the one its beginning is connected to, the winding is called a
progressive winding.

If the end of a coil is connected to a commutator segment behind the one its beginning is
connected to, the winding is called a retrogressive winding.
If everything else is identical, the direction of rotation of a progressive-wound rotor will be
opposite to the direction of rotation of a retrogressive-wound rotor.

Rotor (armature) windings are further classified according to the plex of their windings.

A simplex rotor winding is a single, complete, closed winding wound on a rotor.

A duplex rotor winding is a rotor with two complete and independent sets of
rotor windings. !

If a rotor has a duplex winding, then each of the windings will be associated with
every other commutator segment: One winding will be connected to segments 1,
3, 5, etc., and the other winding will be connected to segments 2, 4, 6, etc. !

Similarly, a triplex winding will have three complete and independent sets of
windings, each winding connected to every third commutator segment on the rotor.
Collectively, all armatures with more than one set of windings are said to have
multiplex windings!

Finally, armature windings are classified according to the sequence of their

connections to the commutator segments. !
There are two basic sequences of armature winding connections-lap windings and
wave windings.!

In addition, there is a third type of winding, called a frog-leg winding, which

combines lap and wave windings on a single rotor.
 The$Lap$Winding!
The%simplest%type%of%winding%construction%used%in%modem%dc%machines%is%the%simplex%series%or%
lap% winding.% A% simplex% lap% winding% is% a% rotor% winding% consisting% of% coils% containing% one% or%
more%turns%of%wire%with%the%two%ends%of%each%coil%coming%out%at%adjacent%commutator%segments.%
If%the%end%of%the%coil%is%connected%to%the%segment%after%the%segment%that%the%beginning%of%the%
coil%is%connected%to,%the%winding%is%a%progressive%lap%winding%and%Yc%=%1;%if%the%end%of%the%coil%
is%connected%to%the%segment%before%the%segment%that%the%beginning%of%the%coil%is%connected%to,%
the%winding%is%a%retrogressive%lap%winding%and%Yc%=%A%1.%A%simple%twoA%pole%machine%with%lap%
windings%is%shown%in%this%Figure.!
An% interesting% feature% of% simplex% lap% windings% is% that% there% are% as% many% parallel% current% paths%
through%the%machine%as%there%are%poles%on%the%machine.%If%C%is%the%number%of%coils%and%commutator%
segments%present%in%the%rotor%and%P%is%the%number%of%poles%on%the%machine,%then%there%will%be%
c/P%coils%in%each%of%the%P%parallel%current%paths%through%the%machine.%!

A coil in 3 progressive rotor winding and a coil in 3 A simple two-pole lap-wound dc machine.
retrogressive rotor winding.
 Definition$of$Lap$Winding2
2
In% lap% winding,% the% consecutive% coils% overlap% each% other.% The% first% end% of% the%
winding%is%connected%to%the%one%segment%of%the%commutator,%and%the%starting%end%
of%the%other%coil%is%placed%under%the%same%magnet%(different%pole)%and%join%with%the%
same%segment%of%the%commutator.!

There% can% be% two% types% of% winding% in% a% DC% machine,% one% is% called% the% lap% winding%
and%another%is%called%the%wave%winding.!
!
Lap%winding%is%the%winding%in%which%successive%coils%overlap%each%other.%It%is%named%
FLapF%winding%because%it%doubles%or%laps%back%with%its%succeeding%coils.!

Lap%winding%are%of%two%types:!
!
•  Simplex%Lap%Winding!
•  Duplex%Lap%Winding!
 Definition$of$Wave$Winding2
2
The%one%end%of%the%coil%is%connected%to%the%starting%end%of%the%other%coil%which%has%
the% same% polarity% as% that% of% the% first% coil.% The% coils% are% connected% in% the% wave%
shape% and% hence% it% is% called% the% wave% winding.% The% conductor% of% the% wave%
winding% are% split% into% two% parallel% paths,% and% each% path% had% Z/2% conductors% in%
series.%The%number%of%brushes%is%equal%to%2,%i.e.,%the%number%of%parallel%paths.!

hTps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wex3ZenASl0!

hTps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Axebh8wU8gY!
This%winding%is%necessarily%required%for%large%current%application%because%it%has%more%
parallel%paths.!
!
It%is%suitable%for%low%voltage%and%high%current%generators.!
It% gives% less% emf% compared% to% wave% winding.% This% winding% requires% more% no.% of%
conductors%for%giving%the%same%emf,%it%results%high%winding%cost.!
It%has%less%efficient%utilization%of%space%in%the%armature%slots.!
WAVE%Winding!
!
In%this%winding%the%end%of%one%coil%is%connected%to%the%starting%of%another%coil%of%the%
same%polarity%as%that%of%the%first%coil.!
This%winding%forms%a%wave%with%its%coil,%that’s%why%it%is%named%as%wave%winding.%It%
is%also%called%series%winding%because%its%coils%are%connected%in%series.!
!
In%this%winding%only%two%brushes%are%required%but%more%parallel%brushes%can%be%
added%to%make%it%equal%to%the%no.%of%poles.%If%one%or%more%brushes%set%poor%contacts%
with%the%commutator,%satisfactory%operation%is%still%possible.!
!
This%winding%gives%sparkles%commutation.%The%reason%behind%is%that%it%has%two%
parallel%paths%irrespective%of%no.%of%poles%of%the%machine.%The%conductors%in%each%of%
the%two%parallel%path%are%distributed%around%the%armature%in%the%entire%
circumference.!
!
For%a%given%no%of%poles%and%armature%conductors%it%gives%more%emf%than%that%of%lap%
winding.%Hence%wave%winding%is%used%in%high%voltage%and%low%current%machines.!
Resultant%emf%around%the%entire%circuit%is%zero.!
 Highlighting%the%differences:!

LAP%A%all%the%pole%groups%of%the%coils%generating%e.m.f%in%the%same%direction%at%any%
instant%of%time%are%connected%in%parallel%by%the%brushes.!
WAVE%A%In%this%winding%all%the%coils%carrying%current%in%the%same%direction%are%
connected%in%series%i.e.,%coils%carrying%current%in%one%direction%are%connected%in%one%
series%circuit%and%coils%carrying%current%in%opposite%direction%are%connected%in%
other%series%circuit.!

LAP%A%The%number%of%parallel%path%is%equal%to%the%number%of%poles%in%the%
machine.!
WAVE%A%The%number%of%parallel%paths%is%always%2.!

LAP%A%The%number%of%brush%required%by%this%winding%is%always%equal%to%the%number%
of%poles.!
WAVE%A%The%number%of%brushes%required%by%this%winding%is%always%equal%to%2.!

LAP%A%Generally%used%for%machines%of%ratings%above%500%kW.!
WAVE%A%generally%used%for%machines%of%ratings%below%560%kW.!
 Key$Differences$Between$Lap$and$Wave$Winding2
2
1.  In%lap%winding,%the%coil%is%lap%back%to%the%succeeding%coil%whereas%in%the%case%of%the%wave%winding%the%coil%
are%connected%in%the%wave%shape.!
!

2.  In%lap%winding,%the%end%of%the%armature%coil%is%connected%to%the%adjacent%commutator%segment,%whereas%is%
wave%winding%the%end%of%the%armature%coil%is%placed%in%the%commutator%segment%which%is%placed%apart.!
!

3.  In%lap%winding%the%number%of%parallel%paths%is%equal%to%the%total%number%of%poles%of%the%coil%and%in%the%
wave%winding%the%number%of%parallel%paths%is%always%equal%to%two.!
!
4.  The%lap%winding%is%also%called%parallel%winding%because%their%coils%are%connected%in%parallel%whereas%in%
the%wave%winding%the%coils%are%connected%in%series%and%hence%it%is%called%series%winding.!
!
5.  The%emf%of%the%lap%winding%is%less%as%compared%to%wave%winding.!
!

6.  The%lap%winding%requires%equaliser%for%the%beTer%commutation.%The%wave%winding%requires%the%dummy%
coil%for%giving%the%mechanical%balance%to%the%armature.!
!

7.  In%lap%winding,%the%number%of%brushes%is%equal%to%the%number%of%parallel%paths%whereas%in%wave%winding%
the%number%of%brushes%is%two.!
!
8.  The%efficiency%of%the%lap%winding%is%less%as%compared%to%the%wave%winding.!
!

9.  The%simplex%and%duplex%are%the%types%of%lap%windings.%In%simplex%winding,%the%number%of%parallel%paths%
is%equal%to%the%pole,%in%duplex%winding%the%pole%is%twice%to%that%of%a%parallel%path,%whereas%the%progressive%
and%the%retrogressive%are%the%types%of%the%wave%windings.!
!

10.  The%winding%cost%of%the%lap%winding%is%more%than%the%wave%winding%because%it%requires%more%conductor.!
!
11.  The% lap% winding% is% used% in% low% voltage,% high% current% machines,% whereas% the% wave% winding% is% used% in%
high%voltage,%low%current%machines.!
The%dc%generators%and%dc%motors%have%the%same%general%construction.%In%fact,%when%
the%machine%is%being%assembled,%the%workmen%usually%do%not%know%whether%it%is%a%
dc%generator%or%motor.!

Any%dc%generator%can%be%run%as%a%dc%motor%and%viceAversa.!

All%dc%machines%have%these%principal%components:!
1.  Magnetic%frame%or%Yoke!
2.  Pole%Cores%and%Pole%Shoes!
3.  Pole%Coils%or%Field%Coils!
4.  Armature%core%%!
5.  Armature%Winding!
6.  Commutator%%!
7.  Brushes%and%Bearings!
The$diagram$given$below$represents$the$various$parts$of$a$DC$machine.2

The%crossAsection%of%a%DC%machine%is%shown%in%the%figure%below.!
 Yoke$(Magnetic$Frame)2
The%outer%frame%or%yoke%serves%a%double%purpose%:!
1.  It%provides%mechanical%support%for%the%poles%and%acts%as%a%protecting%cover%for%
the%whole%machine.!
2.  It%carries%the%magnetic%flux%produced%by%the%poles.!
In%small%generators%where%cheapness%rather%than%weight%is%the%main%consideration,%
yokes%are%made%of%cast%iron.%But%for%large%machines%usually%cast%steel%or%rolled%
steel%is%employed.!

The%modern%process%of%forming%the%yoke%consists%of%rolling%a%steel%slab%around%a%
cylindrical%mandrel%and%then%welding%it%at%the%boTom.%!
!
The% feet% and% the% terminal% box% etc.% are% welded% to% the% frame% afterward.% Such% yokes%
possess%sufficient%mechanical%strength%and%have%high%permeability.!

Yoke%of%DC%Machine!
 Pole$Cores$and$Pole$Shoes2

The%field%magnets%consist%of%pole%cores%and%pole%shoes.%The%pole%shoes%serve%two%purposes:!
1.  They% spread% out% the% flux% in% the% air% gap% and% also,% being% of% larger% crossAsection,%
reduce%the%reluctance%of%the%magnetic%path%!
2.  They%support%the%exciting%coils%(or%field%coils)!

There%are%two%main%types%of%pole%construction.!
!
!  The%pole%core%itself%may%be%a%solid%piece%made%out%of%either%cast%iron%or%cast%steel%but%
the%pole%shoe%is%laminated%and%is%fastened%to%the%pole%face%by%means%of%countersunk%
screws%!
!  In%modern%design,%the%complete%pole%cores%and%pole%shoes%are%built%of%thin%
laminations%of%annealed%steel%which%are%riveted%together%under%hydraulic%pressure.%
The%thickness%of%laminations%varies%from%1%mm%to%0.25%mm.%!

Pole%Cores%and%Pole%Shoes!
 Field$system2
he% function% of% the% field% system% is% to% produce% a% uniform% magnetic% field% within% which%
the%armature%rotates.%!
!

Field%coils%are%mounted%on%the%poles%and%carry%the%dc%exciting%current.%The%field%coils%
are%connected%in%such%a%way%that%adjacent%poles%have%opposite%polarity.%!
The%m.m.f.%developed%by%the%field%coils%produces%a%magnetic%flux%that%passes%through%
the%pole%pieces,%the%air%gap,%the%armature,%and%the%frame.%!
!

Practical%d.c.%machines%have%air%gaps%ranging%from%0.5%mm%to%1.5%mm.%!

Since%armature%and%field%systems%are%composed%of%materials%that%have%high%
permeability,%most%of%the%m.m.f.%of%field%coils%is%required%to%set%up%flux%in%the%air%gap.%!
!
By%reducing%the%length%of%the%air%gap,%we%can%reduce%the%size%of%field%coils%(i.e.%the%
number%of%turns).!

Field%system!
 Armature$core$and$Laminations2
The%armature%core%is%keyed%to%the%machine%shaft%and%rotates%between%the%field%poles.!
!

It%consists%of%sloTed%softAiron%laminations%(about%0.4%to%0.6%mm%thick)%that%are%stacked%to%
form%a%cylindrical%core%as%shown%in%the%figure.!

The%laminations%are%individually%coated%with%a%thin%insulating%film%so%that%they%do%not%
come%in%electrical%contact%with%each%other.%!
!

The% purpose% of% laminating% the% core% is% to% reduce% the% eddy% current% loss.% Thinner% the%
lamination,%greater%is%the%resistance%offered%to%the%induced%e.m.f.,%smaller%the%current%
and%hence%lesser%the%I²R%loss%in%the%core.!
!

The% laminations% are% sloTed% to% accommodate% and% provide% mechanical% security% to% the%
armature% winding% and% to% give% shorter% air% gap% for% the% flux% to% cross% between% the% pole%
face%and%the%armature%“teeth”.!

Armature%core%and%Laminations!
 Armature$Winding2
The% slots% of% the% armature% core% hold% insulated% conductors% that% are% connected% in% a%
suitable%manner.%This%is%known%as%armature%winding.!

This% is% the% winding% in% which% “working”% e.m.f.% is% induced.% The% armature% conductors%
are% connected% in% seriesAparallel;% the% conductors% being% connected% in% series% so% as% to%
increase%the%voltage%and%in%parallel%paths%so%as%to%increase%the%current.!
!

The% armature% winding% of% a% DC% machine% is% a% closedAcircuit% winding;% the% conductors%
being% connected% in% a% symmetrical% manner% forming% a% closed% loop% or% series% of% closed%
loops.!
%!
Depending%upon%the%manner%in%which%the%armature%conductors%are%connected%to%the%
commutator%segments,%there%are%two%types%of%the%armature%winding%in%a%DC%machine%
viz.,%!
!
(a)%lap%winding%!
(b)%wave%winding.%!

Armature%Coil%and%Armature%Core!
 Commutator2
A% commutator% is% a% mechanical% rectifier% which% converts% the% alternating% voltage%
generated%in%the%armature%winding%into%a%direct%voltage%across%the%brushes.!
The%commutator%is%made%of%copper%segments%insulated%from%each%other%by%mica%sheets%
and%mounted%on%the%shaft%of%the%machine.!
!

The% armature% conductors% are% soldered% to% the% commutator% segments% in% a% suitable%
manner%to%give%rise%to%the%armature%winding.%!
!

Depending%upon%the%manner%in%which%the%armature%conductors%are%connected%to%the%
commutator%segments,%there%are%two%types%of%the%armature%winding%in%a%DC%machine%
viz.,%%%%%Lap%winding%%%Or%%%Wave%winding.!
!

Great%care%is%taken%in%building%the%commutator%because%any%eccentricity%will%cause%the%
brushes%to%bounce,%producing%unacceptable%sparking.!
The%sparks%may%bum%the%brushes%and%overheat%and%carbonize%the%commutator.!

Commutator!
 Brushes2
DC%motors%are%of%two%types:%one%is%brushed%dc%motor%and%the%other%one%is%brushless%dc%
motor.% Brushless% dc% motors% are% mainly% used% in% highAspeed% applications% such% as%
multicopters%(eg:A%quadcopters).%!
!

The%purpose%of%brushes%in%a%dc%generator%is%to%ensure%electrical%connections%between%the%
rotating%commutator%and%stationary%external%load%circuit.%!
The% brushes% are% made% of% carbon% and% rest% on% the% commutator.% The% brush% pressure% is%
adjusted%by%means%of%adjustable%springs.%!
If% the% brush% pressure% is% very% large,% the% friction% produces% heating% of% the% commutator%
and%the%brushes.!

On% the% other% hand,% if% it% is% too% weak,% the% imperfect% contact% with% the% commutator% may%
produce% sparks.% Multipole% machines% have% as% many% brushes% as% they% have% poles.% For%
example,%a%4Apole%machine%has%4%brushes.!

As% we% go% round% the% commutator,% the% successive% brushes% have% positive% and% negative%
polarities.!
Brushes% having% the% same% polarity% are% connected% together% so% that% we% have% two%
terminals%viz.,%the%+ve%terminal%and%the%Ave%terminal!

Brushes!
 POWER$FLOW$AND$LOSSES$IN$DC$MACHINES2

DC%generators%take%in%mechanical%power%and%produce%electric%power,%while%dc%motors%
take%in%electric%power%and%pnxluce%mechanical%power.%In%either%case,%not%all%the%power%
input%to%the%machine%appears%in%useful%form%at%the%other%endAthere%is%always%some%loss%
associated%with%the%process.%The%efficiency%of%a%dc%machine%is%defined%by%the%equation!

The%difference%between%the%input%power%and%the%output%power%of%a%machine%is%the%
losses%that%occur%inside%it.%Therefore,!

The%Losses%in%DC%Machines!
The%losses%that%occur%in%dc%machines%can%be%divided%into%five%basic%categories:!
1.  Electrical%or%copper%losses%!
2.  Brush%losses!
3.  Core%losses!
4.  Mechanical%losses!
5.  Stray%load%losses!
ELECTRICAL$OR$COPPER$LOSSES.% Copper%losses%are%the%losses%that%occur%in%
the%armature%and%field%windings%of%the%machine.%The%copper%losses%for%the%armature%
and%field%windings%are%give%n%by!

The%resistance%used%in%these%calculations%is%usually%the%winding%resistance%at%normal%
operating%temperature.!
!

BRUSH$LOSSES.$1lle%brush%drop%loss%is%the%power%lost%across%the%contact%potential%
at%the%brushes%of%the%machine.%It%is%given%by%the%equation!

The%reason%that%the%brush%losses%are%calculated%in%this%manner%is%that%the%voltage%drop%
across% a% set% of% brushes% is% approximately% constant% over% a% large% range% of% armature%
currents.%Unless%otherwise%specified.%the%brush%voltage%drop%is%usually%assumed%to%be%
about%2%V.!
MECHANICAL$ LOSSES.$ The% mechanical% losses% in% a% dc% machine% are% the% losses%
associated% with% mechanical% effects.% There% are% two% basic% types% of% mechanical% losses:%
friction%and%windage.%Friction%losses%are%losses%caused%by%the%friction%of%the%bearings%
in%the%machine,%while%windage%losses%are%caused%by%the%friction%between%the%moving%
parts%of%the%machine%and%the%air%inside%the%motorqs%casing.%These!
losses%vary%as%the%cube%of%the%speed%of%rotation%of%the%machine.!

STRAY$ LOSSES$ (OR$ MISCELLANEOUS$ LOSSES).% Stray% losses% are% losses%

that% cannot% be% placed% in% one% of% the% previous% categories.% No% maTer% how% carefully%
losses%are%accounted%for,%some%always%escape%inclusion%in%one%of%the%above%categories.%
All% such% losses% are% lumped% into% stray% losses.% For% most% machines,% stray% losses% are%
taken%by%convention%to%be%I%percent%of%full%load.!
PowerRflow$diagrams$for$de$machine:$(a)$generator:$(b)$motor.2