CHAPTER 2

ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY
CONVERSION

1
Electrical energy is the most popular form of
energy, because:

1. it can be transmitted easily for long distance, at high

efficiency and reasonable cost.

2. It can be converted easily to other forms of energy such as

sound, light, heat or mechanical energy.

2
Hidro power station, Kenyir
Terengganu

Power consumers,
JB Johor

3
 Electrical energy Sound energy

Loud speaker

Electrical energy Light energy

Lamp

Electrical energy Heat energy

Kettle

4
 Electromechanical energy conversion
device:

converts electrical energy into mechanical energy

or
converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

5
There are various electromechanical conversion devices
may categorized as under:

a. Small motion
- telephone receivers, loud speakers, microphones

b. Limited mechanical motion

- electromagnets, relays, moving-iron instruments,
moving-coil instruments, actuators

c. Continuous energy conversion

- motors, generators 6
 Principle of Energy Conversion

According to the principle of conservation of energy, energy

can neither be created nor destroyed,

it can merely be converted from one form into another.

The total energy in a system is therefore constant.

7
 Energy conversion in
electromechanical system

In an energy conversion device, out of the total input energy,

some energy is converted into the required form, some
energy is stored and the rest is dissipated.

It is possible to write an equation describing energy

conversion in electromechanical system:

Electrical Mechanical Increase of Energy

energy = energy to + + 3.1
field converted
from load energy to heat
source
(losses)
8
Electrical Energy
Mechanical Increase of
energy = + + converted 3.1
from energy to field to heat
source load energy
(losses)

The last term on the right-hand side of Eq. 3.1 (the losses)
may be divided into three parts:

Energy
Friction and
converted = Resistance + + Field losses 3.2
to heat windage
losses losses
(losses)

Then substitution from Eq. 3.2 in Eq. 3.1 yields

9
Electrical Mechanical Increase of
energy to 3.3
energy from = load plus
+ magnetic
source minus coupling field
resistance friction and energy plus
losses windage core losses
losses

Now consider an electromechanical system (actuator)

illustrated in Fig. 3.1.

10
Bahagian
Fixed tak boleh
steel core
gerak
gu

SW R  Moveable steel
Bahagian boleh
i armature
gerak
Fm
v e
x

dx

Figure 3.1

11
At any instant, the emf e induced in the coil by the
change in the flux linkage (  )is

d
e volt 3.4
dt

Consider now a differential time interval dt, during which

the current in the coil is changing and the armature is
moving.

12
 Therefore, the differential energy transferred in
time dt from the electric source to the coupling
field is given by the energy output of the source
minus the resistance loss:

dWe  vidt  Ri dt
2

 (v  Ri )idt
 eidt

 dWe  eidt Joule 3.5

13
 The coupling field forms an energy
storage to which energy supplied by the
electric system. At the same time,
energy is released from the coupling
field to the mechanical system.

The rate of release energy is not

necessarily equal at any instant to the
rate of supply of energy to the field, so
that the amount of energy stored in the
coupling field may vary.

14
It’s like a pipe system in our house.

Water tank

The water out from the tap will make water flow into the
storage tank from the supply.
15
It’s like a pipe system in our house.

Water tank

The water out from the tap will make water flow into the
storage tank from the supply.
16
In time dt, let dWf be the energy
supplied to the field and either stored or
dissipated. Let dWm be the energy
converted to mechanical form, useful or
as loss, in the same time, dt.

Then, by the principle of conservation of

energy, the following equation may be
written for the field:

dWe  dWm  dW f 3.6

17
Field Energy

To obtain an expression for for dWf of

Eq. 3.6 in terms of the system
variables, it is first necessary to find
an expression for the energy stored in
the magnetic field for any position of
the armature. The armature will
therefore be clamped at some value
of air-gap length g so that no
mechanical output can be produced.

dWm = 0 3.6
18
Field Energy (continue…..)

If switch SW in Fig. 3.1 is now closed, the current

will rise to a value v/R, and the flux will be
established in the magnetic system. Let the
relationship between coil flux linkage  and the
current i for the chosen air-gap length be that
shown in Fig. 3.2




dWf

i1 i2 i

Fig. 3.2
19
Field Energy (continue…..)

Since core loss is being neglected, this will be a

single-valued curve passing through the origin. In
the absence of any mechanical output energy, all of
the electric input energy must be stored in the
magnetic field:

dWe = dWf 3.8

Substitution from Eqs. 3.4 and 3.8 in Eq. 3.5 yields

dWf = dWe = i.edt = id J 3.9

20
Field Energy (continue…..)

If now v is changed, resulting in a change in current

from i1 to i2, there will be a corresponding change in
flux linkage from 1 to 2 .

The increase in energy stored during the transition

between these two states is

2
dW f   id J 3.10
1

The area is shown in Fig 3.2. When the flux

linkage is increased from zero to , the total
energy stored in the field is 21
Field Energy (continue…..)


Wf   id J 3.11
0

This integral represents the area between the –i

characteristic and the –axis, the entire shaded area
of Fig. 3.2.

If it is assumed that there is no leakage flux, so

that all flux  in the magnetic system links all N
turns of the coil, then

 = N Wb 3.12 22
Field Energy (continue…..)

From Eqs. 3.9 and 3.12,

dWf = id = Nid = F d J 3.13

where

F = Ni A 3.14

F is mmf (magneto-motive force)

The characteristic of Fig. 3.3 can also represent

the relationship between  and F .
23



2

1 dWf

F1 i1 iF22 i
F

24
Field Energy (continue…..)

If the reluctance of the air gap forms a large part of

the total reluctance of the magnetic system, then
that of the steel may be neglected and the –i
characteristic becomes the straight line through the
origin shown in Fig. 3.3. For this system,

 = Li Wb 3.15

Where L is the inductance of the coil.

Substitution in Eq. 3.11 gives the energy Wf in
several useful forms:

  2 Li 2 i
Wf   d    J 3.16
0 L 2L 2 2 25



dWf

i1 i2 
i



dW f

i1 i 2 i
Fig. 3.3
26
Field Energy (continue…..)

If the reluctance of the magnetic system (that is, of

the air gap) as seen from the coil is R, then F = R ,
and from Eq. 3.13,

 R 2 F 2
Wf   F d   J 3.17
0 2 2R

If A is the cross-section area of the core and l = 2g

is the total length of air gap in a flux path, then
from Eq. 3.16,

i F 1
Wf    HBlA J J 3.18
2 2 2 27
 Wf
1 1 1 B2
wf  BH  0 H 2 

Field
lA 2 Energy
2 2 0
(continue…..)

Where B is the flux density in the air gaps. Since

B/H=µ0 and lA is the total gap volume, it follows
from Eq. 3.18 that the energy density in the air gaps
is

Wf 1 1 1 B2
wf   BH  0 H 
2
J/m3 3.19
lA 2 2 2 0

Equations 3.16, 3.17 and 3.19 represent three

different ways of expressing the field energy.
J
28
Example 3.1 The core and armature dimensions of the
actuator of Fig. 3.1 are shown in Fig. 3.4. Both parts are
made of mild steel, whose magnetization curve is given in
Fig. 3.5. Given la = 160 mm, lb = 80 mm. The coil has 2000
turns. Leakage flux and fringing may be neglected. The
armature is fixed, so that the length of the air gas, lu= 9
mm, and a direct current is passed through the coil,
producing a flux density of 0.8 T in the air gap.
a) Determine the required coil current.
b) Determine the energy stored in the air gap.
c) Determine the energy stored in the steel.
d) Determine the total field energy.

29
 la

20 mm

Theketebalan
thickness = 20 mm

lu
Theangker
armature

lb 20 mm

Fig. 3.4

30
B (Tesla)

2.0 Keluli
Sheetkeping
steel

1.8

1.6

mild steel
Keluli tuang
1.4

1.2

1.0

0.8
cast tuang
Besi iron

0.6

0.4

0.2

H (AT/m)
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

Fig. 3.5 31
Solution

(a) Area, A = (20  10-3)(20  10-3) = 4  10-4 m2.

Ni = Htlt + Hulu

lt = 160 + 80 = 240 mm = 240  10-3 m

lu = 2  9 mm = 18 mm = 18  10-3 m

Given Bu = 0.8 T
Bu = Bt = 0.8 T

From Fig. 3.6, magnetic field intensity in the steel is,

Ht = 450 A/m

32
 For the air gaps

Bu 0.8
Hu    636.62  10 3
A/m
 o 4  10 7

(450)( 240  10 3 )  (636.62  10 3 )(18  10 3 )

i
2000

11567.16
=  5.78 A
2000
(b) Energy density in the air gaps is

B2
w fu   254.65  10 3
J/m3
2(4  10 7 ) 33
 Volume of air gaps = length of air gaps  area of air gaps
= 0.018  0.02  0.02
= 7.2  10-6 m3

Energy stored in the air gaps,

Wfu = the volume of air gaps  wfu
= (7.2  10-6)  254.65  103
= 1.834 Joule.

(c) Energy density in the steel,


0.8
w ft  HdB
0

34
 Energy density in the steel is given by the area enclosed
between the characteristic and the B axis in Fig. 3.6 up to
value of 0.8 T.

wft  ½  0.8  450 = 180 J/m3 (straight-line approximation)

Volume of steel= length of steel  area of steel

= (240  10-3)  (0.02  0.02)
= 9.6  10-5 m3

Energy stored in the steel,

Wft = 9.6  10-5  180 = 0.01728 Joule

(d) Total field energy,

Wf = Wft + Wfu
= 0.01728 + 1.834
= 1.851 Joule. 35
The proportion of field energy stored in the steel is,
therefore, seen to be negligibly.

36
 Coenergy
Coenergy, Wf’ is the area enclosed between the -i
characteristic and the i axis of Fig.3.2.


Wf

Wf'

i
Fig. 3.6 Field energy and coenergy

For linear -i characteristic, Wf’ = Wf.

For nonlinear -i characteristic, Wf’ > Wf. 37
Mechanical Energy in a Linear
System

It will be assumed that the armature of the actuator in

Fig. 3.1 may move from position x1 to position x2, as a
result, the length of air gaps is reduced. The –i
characteristics for the two extreme positions of the
armature may be assumed to be the two straight lines
(linear).

38
Bahagian
Fixed tak boleh
steel core
gerak
gu

SW R  Moveable steel
Bahagian boleh
i armature
gerak
Fm
v e
x

dx

Figure 3.1

39
 x2
λ

x1

40
Mechanical Energy in a Linear System

Consider a very slow armature displacement. It may

assumed that it takes place at essentially constant
current as illustrated in Fig. 3.7 (as d/dt is negligible).
The operational point has changed from a to b.

At the moment of armature movement,

2
We   eidt   id  io (2  1 ) 3.20
1

The change of field energy,

W f  12 io 2  12 io 1

 12 io (2  1 ) 3.21
41
  x = x2

 c b

d x = x1

a

o i
io
Fig. 3.7 Current is fixed

42
Mechanical Energy in a Linear System

From Eq. (3.6),

We  Wm  W f
Wm  We  W f
  io (2  1 )  12 io (2  1 )
 12 io (2  1 )

= ΔWf
= ΔWf’ = the change of coenergy

43
Mechanical Energy in a Linear System

For small change of x or dx,

dWm = dWf’


 Fmdx = dWf’ 3.21

where
dWm = Fmdx

Fm = mechanical force on moving part (armature)

44
Mechanical Energy in a Linear System

Eq. 3.21 can be written as,


W f 3.22
Fm  (i, x) N
x
i = constant

Eq. 3.22 is partial differential since Wf is

function of more than one variable.

45
Mechanical Energy in a Linear System

Consider now a very rapid differential armature

displacement dx. It may be assumed that it takes place at
essentially constant flux linkage o, as illustrated in Fig.
3.8. At the instant, the current is changed from i1 to i2 ,
where i1 > i2.


0
dWf

o i
i2 i1
46
Fig. 3.8 Flux linkage is fixed
Mechanical Energy in a Linear System

Refer to Fig. 3.8, the change of field energy is

dW f  12  o i2  12  o i1

 12 o (i2  i1 ) 3.23

Since  does not change, no emf is induced in the

coil , and

 dWe = 0 3.24

 From Eq.3.6,
47
Mechanical Energy in a Linear System

dWe  dWm  dW f

-Fmdx = dWf 3.25

  Fm dx  12 o (i2  i1 ) 3.26

= the change of field energy

Eq. 3.26 can be written as,

W f
Fm   ( , x ) 3.27
x  = constant

Since the electrical input energy is zero, the mechanical output

energy has been supplied entirely by the coupling field. 48
Mechanical Energy in a Linear System
For a linear electromagnetic system,
 = L(x) i 3.28

where
L(x) = the inductance of the coil which dependent on length of
the air gaps.

From Eqs. 3.11 and 3.28,

   2
Wf   id  
0 0 L( x )
d 
2 L( x )
3.29

L( x ) 2 i 2 1
  2 L( x)i 2 3.30
2 L( x )

W f  W f  12 L( x)i 2 3.31
49
Mechanical Energy in a Linear System

From Eqs. 3.22 and 3.31,


W f
Fm  (i, x)
x i = constant

 1
 ( 2 L( x)i 2 )
x
i = constant

1 2 dL( x)
 i 3.32
2 dx

1 2 dL( x)
 Fm  i 3.33
2 dx
50
Mechanical Energy in a Linear System

From Fig. 3.1 (for linear system),

Ni  H u 2 g
Bu
 2g 3.34
o
From Eq. 3.18
2
Bu
Wf = volume of air gaps 
2 o
2
Bu
 Au 2 g  3.35
2o

where Au = cross section area of air gap

51
Mechanical Energy in a Linear System

From Fig. 3.1, it is seen that a positive displacement

dx will correspond to a reduction dg in the air gap
length. Thus,

dx =  dg m 3.36

From Eqs. 3.27, 3.35 and 3.36 yield,

  Bu 
2
Fm   Au 2 g  

g  2o 
2
Bu
 Fm  2 Au 3.37
2 o

where
2Au = The total cross-section area of air gaps 52
Mechanical Energy in a Linear System

 The force per unit area of air gaps, fm is

2
Bu
fm  N/m2 3.38
2 o

53
 Example 3.2
An electromagnet system is shown in Fig. 3.9.
i

N lu

Fig. 3.9: linear system

Given that N = 600, i = 3 A, cross section area of air gap

is 5 cm2 and air gap length is 1.5 mm. By neglecting core
reluctance, leakage flux and fringing effects, find:
(a) Force between the electromagnetic surfaces.
(b) Energy stored in the air gap.
54
Solution

(a) The total cross-section area of air gap = Au, Eq. 3.37
becomes,
2
Bu 3.39
Fm  Au
2 o
For linear system,
Bu lu
Ni  H u lu 
o

 o Ni
 Bu  3.40
lu
55
 Substitution from Eq. 3.40 in Eq. 3.39 yields

Au  o N 2 i 2
 Fm  2
2lu
(5  10 4 )( 4  10 7 )(600) 2 (3) 2

2(1.5  10 3 ) 2

= 452.39 N

(b) Since the system is linear, the entire field energy is

stored in the air gap,

56
 2
Bu
W f  volume of air gap 
2o
2
Bu
 lu  Au 
2 o

= lu  Fm
= (1.5  10-3)  452.39 Nm
= 0.6789 Nm
= 0.6789 Joule

57
Example 3.3
Electromagnet system in Fig. 3.10 has cross-section
area 25 cm2. The coil has 350 turns and 5 ohm
resistance. Magnetic core reluctance, fringing effects
and leakage flux can be neglected. If the length of air
gap is 4 mm and a 110 V DC supply is connected to the
coil, find

(a) Stored field energy

(b) Lifting force

lu

Fig. 3.10
58
Solution
Coil current,

110
i  22 A
5

Since the electromagnet system is linear, core reluctance is

neglected,
Bu
 Ni  H u lu  lu
o
 o Ni
 Bu 
2lu
(4  10 7 )(350)( 22)

2(4  10 3 )
59
= 1.2095 Tesla
Field energy,
2
Bu
W f  volume of air gap 
2o
4 3 1.2095 2
 2  (25  10 )  (4  10 ) 
2  4  10 7

= 11.6413 Joule

(b) Applying Eq. 3.37 to obtain lifting force,

2
Bu
Fm  the total area of air gaps 
2o
2
1.2095
 2  (25  10 4 ) 
2(4  10 7 )
= 2910.33 N 60
 Mechanical Energy in a Saturable System
Figure 3.11 shows a diagram illustrating the -i characteristics
for the actuator in Fig. 3.1 when the effect of the ferromagnetic
material is taken into account. It is no longer a linear system
due to saturation of the steel. Wf is smaller than coenergy Wf’.

x + dx

x


dWm
di

o i
i
Fig. 3.11: At constant flux linkage. 61
Mechanical Energy in a Saturable System

However the areas of this diagram may be interpreted in

exactly the same way as were those of Fig. 3.8 for the
ideal linear system. Field energy is still given by Eq. 3.11.

If an analytical expression is available that gives the

coil current as a function of  and x, then the force on
the armature for a given value of x can readily be
determined. Fig. 3.11 illustrates a differential movement
of the operating point in the -i diagram corresponding
to a differential displacement dx of the armature made
at high speed; that is, at constant flux linkage.

62
Mechanical Energy in a Saturable System

By integrating to obtain an expression for the

area between the -i curve for any x and the
–axis, Wf is obtained as a function of  and x
can be written as

Wf = Wf (,x) J 3.41

For the movement, the electrical energy

input is zero, since  does not change and
the emf is zero. Consequently,

dWm = dWf (,x) 3.42

63
Mechanical Energy in a Saturable System

and
dWm W f
Fm    , x 
dx x  = constant

W f
 Fm    , x  3.43
x
 = constant

This corresponds to the expression for a linear

system in Eq. 3.27

64
 Mechanical Energy in a Saturable System

More usually, however, it is convenient to express  as a

function of x and i and to employ different approach.
Figure 3.12 illustrates a differential movement of the
operating point in the -i diagram corresponding to a
differential displacement dx of the armature made at low
speed; that is, at constant current. For this displacement,
during flux linkage changes, the emf is not zero, and
therefore dWe is not zero.,

2


dWe  eidt  1
id

= area defg 3.44

dWf = area oef – area odg 3.45

65
Mechanical Energy in a Saturable System


x + dx
 f e
d
g x

d
dWf

o i i

Fig. 3.12: At constant current

66
Mechanical Energy in a Saturable System

From Eq. 3.6,

dWm = dWe – dWf
= area defg + area odg – area oef
= area ode
3.46
The differential mechanical energy associated
with movement dx is given by the shaded area, it
is equal to the increase of coenergy.

dWm = dWf’
Fmdx = dWm = dWf’


W f
 Fm  i, x 3.47
dx
i = constant
67
Mechanical Energy in a Saturable System

where
 i
W f (i, x)   di Joule 3.47
0

Wf’ is the function of i and x.

Also since  = NΦ, and i = F /N, substitution in Eq. 3.47

yields the coenergy as a function of mmf and
displacement

 F
W f (F , x)   dF 3.48
0

68
Mechanical Energy in a Saturable System

and


Wf
Fm  F , x  3.49
x
F = constant

69
 Example 3.4

The flux linkage and current relationship for an actuator

can be expressed approximately by,

 g 
2

i 
 2 

Between the limits 0 < i < 3 A and 3 < g < 9 cm. If the
current is maintained at 2 A, what is the force on the
armature for g = 4 cm?

70
Solution

The -i relationship is nonlinear, and thus the force

must be determined using Eq. 3.11.

 x  x 2 3
2
 

 
1 2 3
Wf  idλ    d   x 
0 0  2  4 3 12

From Eq. 3.43,

W f
Fm    , x 
x
 = constant

3 2 x
= 
12
71
 For x = 0.04 m and i = 2 A,

1 1
2i 2
2 2 2

   70.71 Wb-turn
x 0.04

70.713  2  0.04
 Fm  
12

=  2356.95 N

72