A. Thavalingam et al.
/ Computers and Structures 79 (2001) 1821±1830
systematic approaches with ecient mesh arrangements
[30,37], which may be useful in searching for critical
failure mechanisms. Here the discretisation of the ®ll
was improved by generating randomly shaped DDA
blocks with di€erent sizes. One way of developing an
automated procedure to provide randomly shaped ele-
ments is to generate the Voronoi polygons [38]. An al-
gorithm based on the Delaunay triangulation procedure
[39,40] has been developed, to generate polygonal shape
elements with random sizes to model the back®ll and in
order to improve the load dispersal. The Delaunay tri-
angulation is de®ned for an arbitrary collection of points
in a two-dimensional plane such that the circumcircle of
a triangle de®ned by any three points cannot contain
any other point. Fig. 2 shows a back®lled semi-circular
masonry bridge model where the area of the back®ll is
discretised using the randomly shaped polygons. Ini-
tially the area of the back®ll was covered with randomly
distributed points. Then a triangular mesh was created
using these points based on the Delaunay triangulation
technique and ®nally the polygons were obtained by
connecting circumcentres of each adjacent triangles.
This type of modelling is also useful in providing the ®ll
as randomly distributed particles of a de®nable average
size.
In order to simulate the timber sidewalls used in
the experiment, the model sidewalls were discretised
with deformable DDA blocks, fully constrained only at
centroids (as shown in Fig. 2) in order to simulate the
sidewall deformability. As the DDA framework used for
the analysis implied the constant stress state over each
block, each of the arch voussoirs was discretised into
eight sub-blocks connected with very strong joints in
order to improve the stress representation and stress
concentrations during the rotation of voussoirs. The
mortar joints between the voussoirs were given the `real'
(weaker) joint properties. The model is analysed using
the Shi's original DDA source code, which has been
enhanced by the authors recently. A displacement con-
trolled loading procedure has also been developed and
included in the algorithm for monitoring the structural
response beyond the collapse and to identify the collapse
mechanisms [30,32].
3.2. Particle ¯ow code model
Here the PFC, developed for the three-dimensional
analysis (PFC3D ) [34], is used to create the current two-
dimensional model. As PFC provides spherical particles,
the model was constructed with a single layer of particles
in the third direction to approximate the two-dimen-
sional model. Here several existing modelling de®nitions
(called `macros') and algorithms (written in `C ' like
`F I S H ' language) were used to construct the present
back®ll±arch model and to simulate a displacement
1825
Fig. 3. The PFC model of the back®lled semi-circular masonry
arch experiment.
controlled loading process. The parameters were taken
similar to that of the DDA analysis.
The PFC model developed for the above semi-
circular arch experiment is shown in Fig. 3. The model
was initially assembled with particles joined with high
strength bonds to construct a single barrel of arch
without providing any provisions for mortar joints. The
spherical particles were positioned by de®ning each of
their centre co-ordinates and the radius. Both ends of
the arch were supported with two ®xed horizontal walls.
Here the vertical reaction forces on both walls were
monitored throughout the process in order to control
the steady state at the end of each stage of modelling.
The arch was then allowed to settle under the gravita-
tional force until it reached the new equilibrium posi-
tion. The voussoirs were then de®ned by creating joint
planes (to represent mortar joints) using the `joint
plane'option available in the PFC.
The two sidewalls were modelled at either sides of
the model (as in experiment) to retain the back®ll. The
back®ll was modelled with unbonded particles added in
several layers, where each layer was allowed to settle
under gravity, in order to decrease the void ratio of the
back®ll. After that, mortar joints were given their ``real''
(weaker) interface properties, allowing the masonry arch
to adjust to its new position, working together with the
back®ll. In this way the arch was divided to 24 voussoirs,
each containing a cluster of 16 fully bonded particles.
Then the back®ll, modelled with 2175 particles, were
given the actual properties and further iteration cycles
were carried out in order to produce an appropriate
stress state for the whole structure prior to the applica-
tion of the external load.
3.3. DIANA model
The ®nite element based model, developed using the
DIANA FE software [36], is shown in Fig. 4. Here the
four-node quadrilateral isoparametric plane stress ele-
ments were used for modelling arch voussoirs and the
joints between voussoirs were modelled with L8IF in-
terface elements. The interface between arch and the ®ll