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COURSE CONTRIBUTORS

NAME DESIGNATION INSTITUTIONAL AFFILIATION

Prof. Dibyendu Bhattacharyya Professor Dept. of Education,
University of Kalyani,
West Bengal.
Dr. Sanjib Ghosh Retd. Prof. Dept.of Education
Rabindra Bharati University,
West Bengal.

COURSE EDITOR

NAME DESIGNATION INSTITUTIONAL AFFILIATION

Dr.Biswa Ranjan Pradhan Retd. Associate Prof.& Teacher- Dept.of Education
In-Charge Azad Hind Fauj Smriti
Mahavidyalaya,
Howrah,
West Bengal.

LIST OF EDITORIAL ASSISTANCE

NAME DESIGNATION INSTITUTIONAL AFFILIATION

Ms. Aazra Nuh Asst. Prof. in Education Centre for Distance and
Online Education,Rabindra
Bharati University,
West Bengal.

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PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS
OF EDUCATION - 1

Semester -I

Course 1.1
(Course Code: EDN CC 1.1)

M.A. in Education
 SYLLABUS

Unit-I: Philosophy for Educational Practice

Philosophy: its Meaning and definitions
Metaphysics and major concerns related to metaphysics,
Epistemology and Major Epistemological Problem of the 21st Century,Dimensions of
Knowing: Truth, Vicarious and Direct knowledge, and Subjective and Objective
Knowledge, and A Priori and APosteriori knowledge.
Axiology and Major Axiological problems in 21st Century,
Ethics: Conceived versus Operative Values, Good and The Good, Ends and Means,
Morality and Religion.
Aesthetics: The Aesthetic experience, Art for art’s sake, Art for our sake.

Unit II: Introduction to Philosophy of Education

Relationship between Education and Philosophy,
Meaning, Nature and Scope of Philosophy of Education,
Functions of Philosophy of Education,Education in relation of philosophy of life.

Unit III: Western Schools of Philosophy of Education

Metaphysics, Epistemology and Axiology of Idealism, Realism, Pragmatism, Marxism
and Existentialism as Philosophies of Education.

Implications of Idealism, Realism, Pragmatism, Marxism and Existentialism for goals

of Education, Curriculum, and instruction.

Modern concept of Philosophy: Analysis-Logical Analysis, Logical Empiricism and

positive Relativism.

Unit – 1 Philosophy for Educational Practice

CONTENT STRUCTURE
1.0 Learning Outcomes
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Philosophy- its Meaning and definitions
1.3 Metaphysics and major concerns related to metaphysics
Check Our Progress 1.1, 1.2 & 1.3
1.4 Meaning of Epistemology & Epistemological Problem in 21st Century
1.4.1 Dimensions of Knowing
1.5 Meaning of Axiology & Axiological Problem in 21st Century
1.5.1 Ethics or Ethical Values
1.5.2 Aesthetics or Aesthetic Values
Check Our Progress 1.4, 1.5 &1.6
1.6 Reference
1.7 Assignments

1.0 LEARNING OUTCOMES

After going through this unit, you will be able to-

 Define Philosophy;
 Explain about Metaphysics and major concerns related to metaphysics;
 Be acquainted with the meaning of Epistemology;
 Understand with the Epistemological Problem in 21st Century;
 Know the various Dimensions of Knowing;
 Be acquainted with the meaning of Axiology;
 Understand with the Epistemological Problem in 21st Century;
 Comprehend about the Aesthetic & Morality;
 Know the concept of Aesthetic experience;
 Understand the concepts ‘Art for art’s sake’ and ‘Art for our sake.’

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Philosophy always ask some questions: Who we are? Is there a higher existence that determines
our existence? What is the relationship between nature and human beings? What is the meaning of life?
Are our senses reliable in telling us about the truth of the universe? How do we get to know about the
world? What is the relationship between the mind and the body? They further ask these questions: What
is happiness? What is virtue? What is the relationship between individuals and the collective? How can
we organize a society and an economy that promote the common good? What methods should we
employ to find out truth from false statements? Can we ever hope to find out the truth of our existence?
Philosophy is reflection of the above questions. Hence, philosophy is the study of general and
fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, truth, beauty, law, justice,
validity, mind, and language.

Most of the main problems or questions with which philosophy is concerned may be thought of as
falling into three main general areas, those are;

a. Problems pertaining to reality,

b. Problems pertaining to knowledge, and
c. Problems pertaining to value.
Philosophy has three basic branches (Metaphysics, Epistemology and Axiology) that deals with the
above stated problematic areas. The metaphysics deals with Reality, Epistemology deals with
Knowledge and axiology deals with Values.

This is the Another way of approaching philosophy for getting an overview of its major problems and
corresponding areas of inquiry. This is the systematic approach, for when considered in this way
philosophy may reveal itself as having a system and an order of its own. As per the demand of our
syllabus we shall discuss the major Epistemological and Axiological problems in reference to 21st
century.

1.2 MEANING AND DEFINITIONS OF PHILOSOPHY

Let us begin with the etymological meaning of philosophy. The origin of the word 'Philosophy'
is from two Greek words 'philos' and sophia' 'Philos' means love and `sophia' means wisdom. When the
word `Philosophy' began to be used by the Greeks about 500 B .C., it meant 'love of wisdom' . It did not
denote a department of knowledge, but an interest or attitude of mind. What made a man a philosopher
was the way he thought about things, rather than the particular things he thought about. There is an
observation by Plato in his ‘The Republic’ which reflects the belief that philosophy is that love of
knowledge which makes a man wise, and to live wisely was the ideal of human life; He who has a taste
for every sort of knowledge and who is curious to learn and is never satisfied may be justify termed a
philosopher. It is to be noted in the above definition that a philosopher is to be interested in all types of
knowledge.

Philosophy, from the earliest times, has been not merely an affair of the schools, or of
disputation between a handful of learned men. It has been an integral part of the life of the community
and is, in fact, their way of life and not merely a way of thought. Philosophy, it can be said, is the
human endeavour to understand man in relation to the whole universe. It wants to understand all that
comes within the bound of human experience. It seeks to provide a complete account of man's world.
Philosophy is concerned with reflective and critical examination of the fundamental notions and
assumptions in any field that falls within human experience. Philosophy is a persistent attempt to gain
insight into the nature of the world and men by means of systematic reflection without neglecting
experience.Philosophy is the highest level of human meditation.It does logical analysis of entire
universe and actual form of human life, creation of world and its creator, soul-god, creature world,
knowledge ignorance, tools of knowledge and workable and non-workable karma. India is considered to
be the ‘guru’ of philosophy. After India, Greece stands at second place. Today, in every country
philosophy is growing, but there is small difference in perspective of India and western world in
philosophy. It is essential to discuss that, and then only we shall be able to understand actual form of
philosophy.

Indian Concept of Philosophy

Any type of meditation was called philosophy in ancient India, but as development started in the area of
knowledge, we started dividing it into different streams for example; anthropology, theology,
economics and medicine etc. That discipline of knowledge, in which we try to find ultimate reality
of life, is called philosophy. During the time of Upanishad, philosophy was accepted in this form only.
Then its definition was (According to Upanishad) —
With which we could see i.e., sight of truth is philosophy.

In our country even today philosophy is considered to be the discipline of ultimate truth finder. In the
words of Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan—
Philosophy is the logical analysis of the nature of reality.

Western Concept of Philosophy

Greece was the first in western nations to develop philosophy. Initially scope of philosophy in Greece
too was very wide, but with the development in the field of education, philosophy kept confining into a
separate discipline.

According to Plato— Philosophy aims at knowledge of eternal nature of things.

Aristotlesaid, —Philosophy is the science which investigates the actual nature of supreme element.

In the words of Comte— Philosophy is the science of sciences.

According to R. W. Sellars, Philosophy is a persistent attemptto gain insight into the nature of world
and us by means of systematic reflection. It is a search for a comprehensive view of nature, an attempt
at a universal explanation of the nature of things.

Generally, Philosophy is a consistent, rational and reflective study of life and the world. It is a
comprehensive picture of the universe.

1.3 METAPHYSICS AND MAJOR CONCERNS RELATED TO METAPHYSICS

There are three important aspects of human life and development that philosophy is concerned with.
They are: (1) Metaphysics/Ontology (2) Epistemology and (3) Axiology.

In this part we will discuss about Metaphysics.

Metaphysics:
Metaphysics / Ontology is concerned with the theory of being. It is concerned with the
problem/nature of ultimate reality of man and the end of life. It is the study of what belongs to things in
general and not this or that aspect of reality. Normally, whenever we try to explain reality (even if it is
in a particular aspect of reality), we are practising metaphysics. It is for this reason that academic
metaphysics is been stratified into “Metaphysicageneralis and Metaphysicaspecialis”. As earlier said,
Metaphysicageneralis is ontology (the real metaphysics); but Metaphysicaspecialis refers to the regional
ontologies or specialized sciences i.e. a search for “what is” in this or that aspect of reality.

Metaphysics is a Greek word which derived from "after-nature." Metaphysics is concerned with the
question of what exists beyond nature, or does something invisible support the visible world? For
example, we do see part of the world before us. Metaphysics is far more complicated than asking the
question of what exists beyond nature. It is interested in the nature of nature, space, time, number of
basic elements in the world, motion, change, causality, and other issues. This branch of Philosophy is
intrinsically related to Metaphysics which deals with the questions of reality (beyond physical reality).
Questions usually discussed are:

• What is the nature of the Universe we live in?

• What is reality? What is the nature of cause-effect relationships?
• What is the nature and functions of the mind?
• What is the purpose of life?
• What is God? and so on.

VARIOUS METAPHYSICAL PROBLEMS AND MAJOR CONCERNS

The perennial problems of metaphysics seem, at least on the surface, to be among the deepest and
most important questions of philosophy. The basic problems of metaphysics are discovered when one
dives into deep rational and critical thinking. Although, the problems metaphysicians work on are
superficially diverse, some of the basic metaphysical problems are evaluated below;

i. Permanence and change

A philosopher like Parmenides is known for his theory that reality is one, fixed and permanent.
He upholds the idea that change is merely an illusion of the senses. Parmenides being a monist
sees reality as one big whole. Thus, even though particular things seem to change it is only an
activity of the whole, which does not change in itself. On the other hand, a philosopher like
Heraclitus disagrees and says that reality is in a constant state of flux. In other words, things
change. He even goes on further to say that you do not step into the same river twice. He
perceives things in plurality, thus change is an inherent part of nature. These varying positions
are still in contrast till this present time.

ii. The problem of Universals

The problem of universals is an ancient problem in metaphysics about whether universals exist.
Universals are general or abstract qualities, characteristics, properties, kinds and relations, such
as being male/female, solid/liquid/gas or a certain colour that can be predicated of individuals
or particulars or that individuals or particulars can be regarded as sharing or participating in.
For example, Tunde, Patrick, and Emeka have in common the universal quality
of being human or humanity.

The problem of universals is about their status; as to whether universals exist

independently of the individuals (particulars) of whom they can be predicated or if they are
merely convenient ways of talking about and finding similarity among particular things that
areradicallydifferent

iii. The problem of evil

 The analysis and study of the metaphysical problem of evil is known as “theodicy”. Theodicy (a
term coined by Leibniz) is a theological-philosophical study which attempts to justify the
monotheistic God’s intrinsic nature of having Omni-ultimate characteristics, despite the
existence of evil in the world which stands to refute these God-qualities. Accordingly, the
problem of evil is founded on the idea that the Almighty God is said to have infinitely great
qualities like omnipresence (being everywhere), omnipotence (being all powerful), and
omniscience (being all knowing) and so on. But despite these qualities which are believed to be
possessed by God, it is still the case that evil is widespread in the world. The conclusion is that
the presence of evil in a world believed to be created by an Almighty God with such infinitely
great characteristics belittles the nature of the same God and also brings into question the
validity of the characteristics He is said to possess.

iv. Determinism and freewillism

Determinism is the philosophical school of thought that postulates the idea that man is by
nature fixed in his ideals, actions, thoughts, plans and endeavours ever before he even existed.
Determinism has a theological undertone in that it presents God as the ultimate power who has
determined all and what every man would do, be or become in life. Determinists hold that man
is invariably affected by a lot of factors including environment, culture, orientation, background
and companionship and so on. Thus, it is clear that man is determined as he is a product of his
environment.
On the other hand, freewillism is the philosophical theory which postulates the idea that
man is by nature a free being. It upholds the maxim that man must be responsible for every
action, thought, and deed or endeavour that he undertakes in life. The argument put forward by
freewill philosophers is that man is by nature a moral being and to be a moral being
presupposes being free. Therefore, saying that man is determined is indirectly purporting that
man is not a moral being. Also, freewill philosophers hold that if it is true that man were not
free, why do we praise, blame, reward, and punish people for actions which they do? Thus, the
very fact that we do these things implies that man is a free being.

v. The mind-body problem

The problem of mind-body dualism, concerns the explanation of the relationship that exists
between minds or mental processes, as well as bodily states or processes. The main aim which
philosophers of mind set out to accomplish is to determine the nature of mind (mental states)
and how minds are affected by the body.
Dualism and monism are the two major schools of thought that attempt to resolve the mind-
body problem. However, this problem of the mind-body dualism is far from having been
resolved. Some of the various schools of thought that have set out to resolve this mind-body
problem are, Epiphenomenalism, Interactionism, Behaviourism, mind-brain identity theory,
Functionalism and so on.
The perennially challenging problems of metaphysics are due to the fact that metaphysics is
traditionally concerned with what exists, how things are related and also with questions about the
natures of things of various sorts. This places metaphysics in a position of being universally relevant as
it cuts across all beings. Therefore, it is no surprise that metaphysics has such challenging problems.
However, getting solutions to them is not the priority of the philosopher as an attempt to do so lead us
to more problems.

Let Us Check Our Progress 1.1 , 1.2 & 1.3

Write your answers in about 50 words.

 1) What do you mean by Metaphysics?
2) Explain the meaning of Philosophy.
3) Specify the problem of Metaphysics.
4) What do you meant by problem of Philosophy?

1.4 MEANING OFEPISTEMOLOGY & EPISTEMOLOGICAL PROBLEM IN 21ST CENTURY

Epistemology is the one of the most important aspect of philosophy. This branch basically deals
with Knowledge. Questions usually discussed are:

How do we get knowledge?

What are the sources of knowledge?
How does a man know what is real?
How can we discern the truth from falsehood? and so on.

Let us turn now to a consideration of what is meant by the term ’knowledge’ in the philosophical sense.
The philosophical sense of the term has its roots in the ordinary sense of the term but - a refinement of
it. We commonly contrast knowledge with ignorance. And we commonly think of knowledge a
possessing some characteristics, whatever they may be, which are lacking mere opinion or belief.
Philosophers accept and urge upon these distinctions. However, with regard to the province of
knowledge, as opposed to belief, they also ask further questions and make further distinctions. Some of
these are: knowledge which is absolutely certain as Opposed to probable knowledge; knowledge which
is significant and informative as opposed to knowledge which is trivial. All matters about knowledge is
the subject of Epistemology.

Epistemological Problems of 21st century

This twenty first century is such a period in the history of human civilization in which immense
and rapid development of Science and technology takes place. No doubt Science has made tremendous
strides in various ways. In various fields like medicine, transport and communication, education,
information technology etc. man is immensely benefited. Life has been made very easy and very much
comfortable. As a result our way of life, our way of thinking, appears to be completely changing. Quite
naturally, therefore most of our traditional ideas, ideals and customs, traditional way of thinking have
become absolute.

Let us consider some of the main Epistemological problems in the light of 21st Century.

1. The problem of the criterion of knowledge

The main questions under this section are:

a) What constitutes genuine knowledge?

b) What is the criterion for knowledge?

In the field of epistemology, the problem of the criterion is an issue regarding the starting point of
knowledge. American philosopher Roderick Chisholm in his Theory of Knowledge details the problem
of the criterion of knowledge. But there has no static direction for accurate criteria of knowledge.

2. The problem of the possibility of knowledge.

Once we have defined what genuine knowledge is, then the question arises:
 a) Is any genuine knowledge attainable?
b) Is everything we claim to know merely an opinion or belief? If so,
c) What are the limits, within which such knowledge is possible?

Philosophers raise about the possibility of knowledge are not all to be settled by discovering what
knowledge is. They need to be severally examined; and this is the main concern of what is called the
theory of knowledge.

3. The problem of the sources of knowledge

If we claim to have knowledge of reality (even within limits), then the question may be raised:

a) What are the sources or origins of such knowledge?

b) How does it arise?
c) Where does it come from?

Philosophers have traditionally maintained that knowledge comes from different sources. Almost
everything that we know originates from four basic sources:
 Senses
 Authority
 Reason
 Intuition
But there have many problems among the sources of knowledge. For example, the problem
with reasoning is that deduction the most certain form of reasoning can never teach us anything new
because all the information is there in the facts at the start, while induction the thing that can give us
what seems like new knowledge can’t ever give us anything certain, only things that are likely to be the
case. On the other hand, there have problem with intuition, as most of our intuitions are wrong and they
need careful checking before they are trusted.

4. The problem of the grounds of knowledge

Let us suppose that we claim to have genuine knowledge and that we have indicated its sources, then an
even more important question must be raised:

a) What are the grounds for our claims to have knowledge?

b) How can we justify our knowledge claims?

Knowledge requires having good grounds, reasons or evidence for what is known. The ground of
knowledge are the grounds of action. If we want to consider the knowledge and action, we must have to
fine their ground.

5. The problem of the right to believe

It is an obvious fact that we all hold many beliefs, some of which may be items of knowledge. The main
question which arises with regard to belief is:

When do we have a right to believe something?

The right or ethics of belief refers to a cluster of questions at the intersection of epistemology. The
central question in the debate is whether there are norms of some sort governing our habits of belief-
formation, belief-maintenance, and belief-relinquishment. It can always morally wrong (or
epistemically irrational, or practically imprudent) to hold a belief on insufficient evidence. It also can
always morally right (or epistemically rational, or practically prudent) to believe on the basis of
sufficient evidence, or to withhold belief in the perceived absence of it.
In answer to such questions of epistemology, (especially numbers 3 and 4 no questions) two main
movements have arisen which hold competing and conflicting views. These are:

• Empiricism: All of our knowledge of the world comes to us via sensory experience and must
be justified by appealing to such experience. The only “knowledge” we have which requires no
such empirical justification is purely verbal and hence trivial and uninformative, for example,
’Uncles are males’.
• Rationalism: We can have some genuine knowledge of the world which can be justified
without appealing to experience. Such knowledge can be justified by thinking as well as by our
understanding of language. Such knowledge is not trivial or uninformative, but is significant.

Since, much of our knowledge is found in the sciences, some of the preceding questions can be
formulated with respect to science, along with any other related issues. These constitute the subject
matter of a subdivision of epistemology known as philosophy of science.
In the 21st century, there have been change in the direction of philosophy—indeed, a
revolution: epistemology, understood as the search for ultimate Truth, and which had largely ruled the
day for the last 2,500 years, was abandoned. By the search for ‘Ultimate Truth‘we mean the quest to
find an absolutely certain and immovable foundation upon which to base any and all claims ‘to
know‘anything whatsoever.

Skepticism and Epistemological Problems

Now a days, the central problem in the epistemology is Perception. It is about of explaining
how perception could give us knowledge or justified belief about an external world, about things
outside of ourselves.
This problem has traditionally been viewed in terms of a skeptical argument that essences to
show that such knowledge and justification are impossible. Skepticism about the external world
highlights a number of epistemological difficulties regarding the nature and epistemic role of
experience, and the question of how perception might bring us into contact with a mind-independent
reality. The issues that arise are of central importance for understanding knowledge and justification
more generally, even aside from their connection to skepticism.

Two main types of response to the skeptical argument have traditionally been given:

A) a metaphysical response that focuses on the nature of the world, perceptual experience,
and/or the relation between them, in an effort to show that perceptual knowledge is indeed
possible;
B) and a more directly epistemological response that focuses on principles specifying what is
required for knowledge and/or justification, in an effort to show that skepticism misstates
the requirements for knowledge.

Much of the philosophical tradition has viewed the central epistemological problems
concerning perception largely and sometimes exclusively in terms of the metaphysical responses to
skepticism.

Branches or School of thought about the Epistemological Problem:

 Historical:
The historical study of philosophical epistemology is the historical study of efforts to gain
philosophical understanding or knowledge of the nature and scope of human knowledge. Since efforts
to get that kind of understanding have a history, the questions philosophical epistemology asks today
about human knowledge are not necessarily the same as they once were. But that does not mean that
philosophical epistemology is itself a historical subject, or that it pursues only or even primarily
historical understanding.
Empiricism:
In philosophy, empiricism is generally a theory of knowledge focusing on the role of
experience, especially experience based on perceptual observations by the senses. Certain forms
exempt disciplines such as mathematics and logic from these requirements. There are many variants of
empiricism: positivism, realism and common sense being among the most commonly expounded. But
central to all empiricist epistemologies is the notion of the epistemologically privileged status of sense
data.
Idealism:
Many idealists believe that knowledge is primarily acquired by a priori processes or is innate—
for example, in the form of concepts not derived from experience. The relevant theoretical processes
often go by the name "intuition". The relevant theoretical concepts may purportedly be part of the
structure or they may be said to exist independently of the mind.
Rationalism:
By contrast with empiricism and idealism, which centers around the epistemologically
privileged status of sense data (empirical) and the primacy of Reason (theoretical) respectively, modern
rationalism adds a third 'system of thinking', (as Gaston Bachelard has termed these areas) and holds
that all three are of equal importance: The empirical, the theoretical and the abstract. For Bachelard,
rationalism makes equal reference to all three systems of thinking.
Constructivism:
Constructivism is a view in philosophy according to which all "knowledge is a compilation of
human-made constructions, not the neutral discovery of an objective truth. Whereas objectivism is
concerned with the "object of our knowledge", constructivism emphasizes "how we construct
knowledge. Constructivism proposes new definitions for knowledge and truth that form a
new paradigm, based on inter-subjectivity instead of the classical objectivity, and on viability instead of
truth. Piagetian constructivism, however, believes in objectivity—constructs can be validated through
experimentation. The constructivist point of view is pragmatic; as Vico said: "The norm of the truth is
to have made it.
Pragmatism:
Pragmatism is an empiricist epistemology formulated by Charles Sanders Peirce, William
James, and John Dewey, which understands truth as that which is practically applicable in the world.
Peirce formulates the maxim: 'Consider what effects, that might conceivably have practical bearings, we
conceive the object of our conception to have. Then, our conception of these effects is the whole of our
conception of the object. This suggests that we are to analyse ideas and objects in the world for their
practical value. This is in contrast to any correspondence theory of truth that holds that what is true is
what corresponds to an external reality.
William James suggests that through a pragmatist epistemology 'Theories thus become
instruments, not answers to enigmas in which we can rest. A more contemporary understanding of
pragmatism was developed by the philosopher Richard Rorty who proposed that values were
historically contingent and dependent upon their utility within a given historical period.

Naturalized epistemology:
 Closely related to Pragmatism, naturalized epistemology considers the evolutionary role of
knowledge for agents living and evolving in the world. It de-emphasizes the questions around
justification and truth, and instead asks, empirically, what beliefs should agents hold in order to survive.
It suggests a more empirical approach to the subject as a whole—leaving behind philosophical
definitions and consistency arguments, and instead using psychological methods to study and
understand how knowledge actually forms and is used in the natural world. As such it does not attempt
to answer the analytic questions of traditional epistemology but replace them with new empirical ones.

Analysing Knowledge:
In analysing the concept of knowledge, epistemologists seek to identify the essential, defining
constituents of knowledge. The standard analysis of knowledge stems from Plato’s Theaetetus, and
proposes that knowledge is justified true belief. Despite its distinctive heritage, this analysis faces a
serious challenge called the Gettier Problem. The Gettier problem is the problem of finding a
modification of, or an alternative to, the standard analysis of knowledge that sidesteps problems from
Gettier-style counterexamples. Many epistemologists take the main lesson of Gettier-style
counterexamples to be that propositional knowledge requires a fourth condition beyond the justification,
truth, and belief conditions.

1.4.1 DIMENSIONS OF KNOWING

Epistemology is the science of knowledge. Knowledge is the awareness and understanding of

particular aspects of reality. It is the clear, lucid information gained through the process of reason
applied to reality. The traditional approach, knowledge have some dimensions those are as follows.

A) Truth: since false propositions cannot be known - for something to count as knowledge, it must
actually be true. As Aristotle famously (but rather confusingly) expressed it: "To say of something which
is that it is not, or to say of something which is not that it is, is false. However, to say of something which
is that it is, or of something which is not that it is not, is true."
Plato, in his Gorgias, argues that belief is the most commonly invoked truth-bearer. Whether
someone's belief is true is not a prerequisite for (its) belief. On the other hand, if something is
actually known, then it categorically cannot be false. For example, if a person believes that a bridge is
safe enough to support her, and attempts to cross it, but the bridge then collapses under her weight, it
could be said that she believed that the bridge was safe but that her belief was mistaken. It would not be
accurate to say that she knew that the bridge was safe, because plainly it was not. By contrast, if the
bridge actually supported her weight, then the person might say that she had believed the bridge was
safe, whereas now, after proving it to herself (by crossing it), she knows it was safe.

Verificationist views:
The two main kinds of verification philosophies are positivism and a-priorism.
In positivism, a proposition is meaningful, and thus capable of being true or false, if and only
if it is verifiable by sensory experiences.
A- priorism, often used in the domains of logic and mathematics, holds a proposition true if and
only if a priori reasoning can verify it. Logical positivism attempts to combine positivism with a
version of a-priorism.

Perspectivist views:
 According to perspectivalism and relativism, a proposition is only true relative to a particular
perspective. The Sophists' relativist and Nietzsche's philosophy are some of the most famous examples
of such perspectivalism. There are four main versions of perspectivalism, and some interesting
subdivisions:

i) Individual perspectivalism
According to individual perspectivalism, perspectives are the points of view of particular individual
persons. So, a proposition is true for a person if and only if it is accepted or believed by that person (i.e.,
"true for me").

ii) Discourse perspectivalism

According to discourse perspectivalism, a perspective is simply any system of discourse, and it is a
matter of conventionwhich one chooses. A proposition is true relative to that particular discourse if and
only if it is somehow produced (or "legitimated") by the methods of that particular discourse. An
example of this appears in the philosophy of mathematics: formalism. A proposition is true relative to a
set of assumptions just in case it is a deductive consequence of those assumptions.

iii) Collectivist perspectivalism

In collectivist perspectivalism, perspectives are understood as collectivities of people
(cultures, traditions, etc.). There are, roughly, three versions of collectivism:

a) Consensus:
A perspective is, roughly, the broad opinions, and perhaps norms and practices, of a community of
people, perhaps all having some special feature in common. So, a proposition is true if, and only if,
there is a consensus amongst the members.

b) Power:
In the power-oriented view, a perspective is a community enforced by power, authority, military
might, privilege, etc. So, a proposition is true if it "makes us powerful" or is "produced by power", thus
the slogan "truth is power". This view of truth as a political stake may be loosely associated with Martin
Heidegger or with Michel Foucault's specific analysis of historical and political discourse, as well as
with some social constructivists.However, the Nazi mysticism of a communitarian "blood community"
conception radically differs from Heidegger or Foucault's criticism of the notion of the individual or
collective subject.

c) Marxist:
Truth-generating perspectives are collectives opposed to, or engaged in struggle against, power
and authority. For example, the collective perspective of the "proletariat". So, proposition is true if it is
the "product of political struggle" for the "emancipation of the workers" (Adorno). This view is again
associated with some social constructivists(e.g., feminist epistemologists).

iv) Transcendental perspectivalism:

On this conception, a truth-conferring perspective is something transcendental, and outside
immediate human reach. The idea is that there is a transcendental or ideal epistemic perspective and
truth is, roughly, what is accepted or recognized-as-true from that ideal perspective. There are two sub-
varieties of transcendental perspectivalism:

a) Coherentism:
 The ideal epistemic perspective is the set of "maximally coherent and consistent propositions". A
proposition is true if and only if it is a member of this maximally coherent and consistent set of
propositions (associated with several German and British19th century idealists).

b) Theological perspectivalism:
Theologically, the ideal epistemic perspective is that of God ("God's point of view"). From this
perspective, a proposition is true if and only if it agrees with the thoughts of God.

c) Pragmatic views
Although the pragmatic theory of truth is not strictly classifiable as an epistemic theory of truth, it
does bear a relationship to theories of truth that are based on concepts of inquiry and knowledge. The
ideal epistemic perspective is that of "completed science", which will appear in the (temporal) "limit of
scientific inquiry". A proposition is true if and only if, in the long run it will come to be accepted by a
group of inquirers using scientific rational inquiry. This can also be modalized: a proposition is true if,
and only if, in the long run it would come to be accepted by a group of inquirers, if they were to use
scientific rational inquiry. This view is thus a modification of the consensus view. The consensus needs
to satisfy certain constraints in order for the accepted propositions to be true. For example, the methods
used must be those of scientific inquiry criticism, observation, reproducibility, etc.. This modification of
the consensus view is an appeal to the correspondence theory of truth, which is opposed to the
consensus theory of truth. Long-run scientific pragmatism was defended by Charles Sanders Peirce.

B) Direct and Vicarious knowledge

I) Direct Knowledge:The most fundamental source of information is what a person comes to know by
direct personal experience. This type of experiences is also called direct knowledge. So, the direct
knowledge is something that we gain from observing something happening. An example is observing
customers in a store and count how many bags of candy they purchase.

a) Methods for Gathering Empirical Information

If we wish to construct truthful systematic knowledge, then we will have to have procedures which
will assure that we get exactly that. Methodologies for gathering empirical knowledge can be
categorized into several general classes. These classes could be seen as lying on a rough continuum
which varies from a relatively passive observation to the active manipulation of abstract variables in a
completely controlled environment.

i) Information Obtained Without Manipulation (observation)

Observational techniques take nature the way it comes. There are some Procedures of observation:
Naturalistic Observation
This is simply observing nature exactly as it occurs. The observer must hope that the data obtained
are relevant and that the observation itself did not affect the behaviour.
Restricted Observation
Often we cannot gather information on every conceivable event. This category is the explicit
recognition that many things are ignored.
Contrived Observation
Contrived observations alter the situation. In a sense experiments could be seen as extremely
contrived observations. This category is under the heading “types of observation” because if only
minor changes are made, it is called an observation. If major changes are made which allow a
 comparison, then it is called an experiment. Obviously however, it is a name for a position on a
continuum.

ii) Information Obtained with Manipulation (experimentation)

Experimental techniques do whatever is necessary to reveal what you need to know to better understand
the world. You have complete freedom and are only limited by your own imagination and skill.
However, if it doesn't reveal useful knowledge, then you have only yourself to blame. Experimental
design gives you the ability to eliminate confounding and to establish causation. It is, therefore, the best
way to gain knowledge. Keep in mind, however, that the result may be that you discover that what you
initially believed was wrong. Gathering knowledge directly through the active manipulation of variables
can range from simple to complex experiments.

II) Vicarious knowledge: Each person cannot directly experience for themselves all possible
events. Another way of knowledge is knowledge gained through some means other than your own
direct experience. This is known as Indirect or vicarious knowledge. (e.g., such as reading a book about
it or using trigonometry and math to find the separation of a chasm).
In general terms, vicarious experience can best be understood in terms of the process of
stimulus control. It is the degree to which a behavior appropriate to one situation occurs to a different
stimulus.
Machinery of Vicarious Experience:

 Boundary
An important part of communication is the specification of what is and what is not included in the set of
interest. There are aspects or elements that are the thing and there are aspects or elements that at not the
thing. The boundary differentiates between reinforcedand non-reinforced elements.

 Model or Label
The model or label must reliably match the referent. Helen Keller was changed forever when she
realized that words could be used to stand in place of their referents. It’s illuminating to consider the
difference in how the lay and the scientific community talk about things. The lay put great store in their
words and pay little attention to whether the listener has the same set of referents for their words.

 Exemplars:
An exemplar is one of the many positive instances of a set, but it poorly indicates where the boundary
of the concept is. This is why someone can give the “right” answer in a classroom, but still be wrong.

 Equivalence:
Behaviour can come under the control of stimulus equivalence. That is to say that a behaviour
controlled by Stimulus A will be controlled by Stimulus B. if A and B are equivalent either through
similarity or through some training experience. This effect is important in both communicating to
someone and in developing a valid model of the natural world.

Categories of Vicarious Experience:

Even though the following categories are not mutually exclusive, have overlapping elements, and
are often conflated together; it is pedagogically convenient to partition vicarious experience into
categories so that various issues can be systematically presented. Consider this organizational structure
as scaffolding.
 1) Knowledge via Communication or Discourse

This source of knowledge requires that the speaker and listener share some set of arbitrary symbols
which are equivalent to the same thing. Education is the term for the communication of abstract, general
principles vicariously to people rather than having the people learn them through direct experience with
actual concrete problems.
The task of the listener is to get their model to match reality by way of understanding the speaker’s
words. This is actually quite difficult for both the speaker and the listener.
• The speaker must have a correct model of reality.
• The speaker must articulate it correctly.
• The listener must hear it correctly.
• The listener must create a model from the words which matches reality.
2) Knowledge via Informal Inference

This source of knowledge is knowledge based on simple generalization of actually experience

events or relationships.

3) Knowledge via Formal Inference

In this case, some known relationship between entities is used as a potential solution for some
unknown relationship between entities. This application is very broad and has extremely far reaching
implications. There are many situations where we need information but we can only infer that
knowledge. This can occur because no one has measured them, or because they cannot be measured at
all. Reasonable guesses can be made based on the evidence we have on hand, and the rules of logic and
mathematics. Ultimately however, these inferences must appeal to empirical measures for their validity.

C) Subjective and Objective knowledge

I) Subjective Knowledge:
Subjective means those ideas or statements which are dominated by the personal feelings,
opinion, preferences of the speaker. It is an interpretation of truth or reality, from the speaker’s angle,
that informs and affects the judgement of people and is always biased. It can be a belief, opinion,
rumour, assumption, suspicion that is influenced by the speaker’s standpoint. A subjective point of view
is characterised by the past experiences, knowledge, perceptions, understanding and desires of the
specific person. These statements are exclusively based on the ideas or opinion of the person making it,
as there is no universal truth.
Subjective knowledge is the result of personal experience. Something is subjective when
it depends on personal preference, interpretation, belief or opinion. For example, “Chocolate ice cream
is the most delicious flavour of ice cream ever!” This statement is the case because I think it so, and not
because it is the case independent of my personal opinion.

II) Objective knowledge:

Objective refers to an unbiased and balanced statement that represents facts about something.
The statement is not coloured by the past experiences, prejudices, perceptions, desires or knowledge of
the speaker. Therefore, they are independent and external to the mind of the specific person. As the
information is entirely facts based, it can be is observable, quantifiable and provable. It can be counted,
described and imitated. It presents complete truth and is free from individual influences, so it proves
helpful in rational decision making.
Something is objective when it is independent of an individual’s personal preference,
interpretation, belief or opinion. Objective knowledge is obtained indirectly, mainly via books. For
example, 2×2=4 is the case whether or not one agrees or feels any different on the matter.

Comparative discussion on Subjective and Objective Knowledge:

 Subjective knowledge is the result of personal experience. The experiencer has had enough
similar experiences to reach some generalization about them, which we can label knowledge. I
would generalize that these are mainly relationship experiences, where relationship is understood
in the broadest possible sense.
 Objective knowledge is obtained indirectly, mainly via books. Scientific knowledge, to be valid
must be objective. One cannot know the distance to a star directly but only by analyzing its light.
Direct knowledge of the distance between two objects can be had by walking from one to the
other. One can know subjective knowledge objectively, for instance by studying psychology or
religion.
 Religion is about subjective knowledge. If one only knows religion through education, then he is
objectively knowledgeable but not necessarily religious. When one expresses opinions about a
subject of which he has only objective knowledge to someone who has subjective knowledge, the
opinion will be thought lacking. As an example, if person A is eating a radish and trying to
explain the sensation to person B who hasn’t had the experience, his efforts will be inadequate
and for person B to hold opinions on the experience would be presumptuous.
 Subjective experience reaches us via sensation or something analogous like dreams and
interpreted by feelings. They can be transmitted to us by others via mythology or fairy tales but
without the associated feelings which dramatically limits their usefulness.
 On the other hand objective knowledge when transmitted via textbooks, for example, can be
nearly as useful as the original experience, maybe more so if the producer of the textbook helps
us interpret the observations.
 Objective knowledge is the product of the human intellect mostly without the help of feelings.
This is what separates us from other life forms on the planet. They are without intellect as far as
we know and are therefore prisoners of subjectivity.
 The most alarming thing about modern life is the dismissal of subjective knowledge as worthless
which will make us, if carried to extreme, prisoners of objectivity.
 Since objective knowledge comes to us unmediated by feelings, the prospect is of a cold and
uncaring world. One doubts that we could survive long in such a state.

The difference between these two can be demonstrated by an observer watching a person falling
off a cliff. The observer has objective knowledge of the event while the faller has subjective knowledge
as he falls. The watcher will experience feelings but not direct ones. It is similar to watching a play. We
imagine what the depicted experience would be like and grade the playwright on his ability to make
clear to us the meaning of what is portrayed.

 Difference Between Objective and Subjective Knowledge:

 BASIS FOR
OBJECTIVE SUBJECTIVE
COMPARISON

Meaning Reality is objective Reality is subjective

Based on Observational and Hypothetical Assumptions

Truth Proven fact Subject relative.

Verification Verified Democratic pattern

Reporting Neutral Individual variation

Decision making Yes Subjective inference

Usability Textual Social media and biographies.

D) A Priori and A Posteriori Knowledge

I) A Priori Knowledge: A priori literally means “from before” or “from earlier.” This
is because a priori knowledge depends upon what a person can derive from the world
without needing to experience it. This is better known as reasoning.
For example, If you were in a closed room with no windows and someone asked you what the
weather was like, you would not be able to answer them with any degree of truth. If you did,
then you certainly would not be in possession of a priori knowledge. It would simply be
impossible to use reasoning to produce a knowledgeable answer.
On the other hand, if there were a chalkboard in the room and someone wrote the equation 4 +
6 =? On the board, then you could find the answer without physically finding four objects and
adding six more objects to them and then counting them. You would know the answer is 10
without needing a real-world experience to understand it. In fact, mathematical equations are
one of the most popular examples of a priori knowledge.

II)A Posteriori Knowledge: A posteriori literally means “from what comes later” or “from
what comes after.” This is a reference to experience and using a different kind of reasoning
(inductive) to gain knowledge. This kind of knowledge is gained by first having an experience (and
the important idea in philosophy is that it is acquired through the five senses) and then using logic
and reflection to derive understanding from it. In philosophy, this term is sometimes used
interchangeably with empirical knowledge, which is knowledge based on observation.

 A priori knowledge or justification is independent of experience, as with mathematics (2 + 2

= 4), tautologies ("All bachelors are unmarried"), and deduction from pure
reason(e.g., ontological proofs).

 A posteriori knowledge or justification depends on experience or empirical evidence, as with

most aspects of science and personal knowledge.
 There are many points of view on these two types of knowledge, and their relationship gives
rise to one of the oldest problems in modern philosophy. The terms a priori and a posteriori are
primarily used as adjectives to modify the noun knowledge for example, a priori knowledge.
However, a priori is sometimes used to modify other nouns, such as "truth". Philosophers also may
use apriority and aperiodicity as nouns to refer approximately to the quality of being "a priori.
Although definitions and use of the terms have varied in the history of philosophy, they have
consistently labeled two separate epistemological notions.

1.5 Meaning of Axiology & Axiological Problem in 21st Century

Axiology, is taken from the Greek word “Axia”, which means “value”, “worthiness”, it is a
theory of value. The term 'value’ in philosophy also has its roots in the ordinary sense of the term.
Axiology is that branch of philosophy which deals with the problems of values: Nature of values, types
of values, methods of value-realisation etc. Ethics, Logic and aesthetics are the three normative sciences
that deal with intrinsic values.

Axiological Problem in 21st century:

Axiology is the study of what has value. It is one of the broadest and most significant areas of
philosophical study. Axiological investigations tend to focus on morality and ethics, but that is only one
part of it
. Or, at least, it is a very interesting question what the relation is between morality or ethics
and axiology. It is quite plausible that there are questions about value which are not necessarily
questions about morality. The world is incomprehensible without value, as value judgments are implicit
in every choice we make, even if it concerns no one else.
However, philosophers often make further distinctions and refinements by asking such
questions as:

• Are any values more ultimate than others (the latter being merely apparent or on-the-
surface)?
• Are any values of greater importance to human life than others?
• If so, what are they?

Though it has roots in Plato. Aristotle, St. Thomas, and Spinoza, axiology, the theory of value,
is a comparatively young child in the family of philosophy. There are, of course, different theories of
value; and there are different types of value as well. Naturally, the different kinds of value are
numerous. Those receiving more direct attention so far from philosophers are the ethical, aesthetic,
religious, and social values. Some others are the economic, political, educational. utilitarian,
recreational, and health values.

1.5.1 ETHICS OR ETHICAL VALUES

Ethics, the theory of moral good, is one of the oldest fields in philosophy. It is at least possible
to consider ethical values as being of two kinds, immediate and ultimate. The major problems of ethics
are as following:

a) What is the good?

b) what is the good life?
 c) what is man’s highest good?
d) How one should behave?
e) What is right?
f) What is morally wrong?

Ethics evaluates human habits, character and voluntary determination and their propriety. If
ethical theories are to be useful in practice, they need to affect the way human beings behave. Some
philosophers think that ethics does do this. They argue that if a person realises that it would be morally
good to do something then it would be irrational for that person not to do it. But human beings often
behave irrationally - they follow their 'gut instinct' even when their head suggests a different course of
action.
Indeed, more and more people think that for many ethical issues there isn't a single right answer
- just a set of principles that can be applied to particular cases to give those involved some clear choices.

A) Conceive versus Operative Values

Operative Values: This type of values are the ways that we make judgements on how to live.
We use these values as the overarching and guiding principles which tell us what is always right and
wrong. These are things such as Integrity, Honesty, and Loyalty.
'Operative' values are value choices which are indicated with preferences of behavior, action
and objects. As an example, if an insect placed in a 'Y' maze is given a choice between a smooth path
and a path paved with sandpaper, it will prefer the smooth path. The insect's choice is an 'operative
value'.
Conceive Values: 'Conceived' values are value choices made on the basis of symbolized
concepts. They are made in anticipation of the outcome, of the chosen behavior. As an example, a
human being can choose one of two possible paths of action on the basis of a concept which he has been
told to value such as 'honesty is the best policy'. The choice is a 'conceived value'.

B)Good and The Good

All the things that around us have various forms, like different types of Pen, different forms of
house etc. In addition to forms of material things (house, pen, car), there are forms of Truth, Beauty,
and Goodness.
The form of Truth is the form that all things that are true participate in. The Form of the True is
that in virtue of which all true things are true. The form of truth is separate from any true thing.
The form of Beauty is the form that all beautiful things (flowers, vistas, beautiful people)
participate in. The form of the True is that in virtue of which all beautiful things are beautiful. The
Form of Beauty is separate from any beautiful thing.
The form of Good is the form that all good things participate in. The form of the Good is that
in virtue of which all good things are good. The Form of the Good is that in virtue of which all good
things are good.
Now, since both Truth and Beauty are Good things, they both participate in the Form of the
Good. Thus, the form of the Good is separate from and superior to the forms of Truth and Beauty.
This is a quick and dirty version of Plato’s doctrine of the forms. If we want to know about
goodness or how to be good or what acts are good acts, according to Plato, what we must study is the
Form of the Good.
So, Plato held that forms are separate (from particulars) and eternal. He also held that the
highest good must be eternal, separate from the physical world in which things come to be and pass
away. (Because something that lasts is better than something that doesn’t.)
C) Means and Ends
Means are something that is done just for the sake of producing an adequate result. Ends
means the Result or the Goal.
End values are those that fulfill you and make your life rich & rewarding. Means values are
those that help you achieve your end values.
For example, maybe we want a new car -- that's the Ends or Goal. The Means to that goal is how
to have that.
The means are the methods you use.
The ends are the goals or the final results.

According to the’Bhagvad Gita’, man hascontrol onlyover his action, but not over the goal. We
should therefore, remain detached and not attached to the goal or result of an action.
Gandhi writes, as the means, so the end indeed, the creator has given us control and that too very
limited over means not over the end. According to Gandhi, a morally worthy end can be achieved only
by adopting morally pure means. He was primarily concerned with the morally worthy means.
Jacques Martin Considers the problem of ends and means the basic problem in political
philosophy. His view on the mean-end relationship almost coincided with that of Gandhi.
According to Jacques Martin, “Means must be proportioned and appropriate to the end”, since
they are ways to the end, so to speak, the end itself in its very process of coming into existence.
So that applying intrinsically evil means to attain on intrinsically good end is simply nonsense
end a blunder.

D) Morality and Religion

Moral values are relative values that protect life and are respectful of the dual life value of self
and others. The great moral values, such as truth, freedom, charity, etc., have one thing in common.
When they are functioning correctly, they are life protecting or life enhancing for all. But they are still
relative values. Our relative moral values must be constantly examined to make sure that they are
always performing their life-protecting mission.
Our religious values are likely to depend on our metaphysics, with the notable exception that
religious experience may become a medium of revelation which will affect our metaphysics. The values
to be shared in religious experience are more easily understood by most of us than aesthetic values,
though they may be no more easily experienced. Our living has been more habitually religious than
artistic, and therefore we have at least a conceptual basis for thinking of religious values.

Relationship between religion and morality:

According to Stephen Gaukroger: "It was generally assumed in the 17th century that religion
provided the unique basis for morality, and that without religion, there could be no morality." This view
slowly shifted over time.
There are many types of religious values. Modern monotheistic religions, such
as Islam, Judaism, Christianity (and to a certain degree others such as Sikhism) define right and wrong
by the laws and rules set forth by their respective gods and as interpreted by religious leaders within the
respective faith. Polytheistic religious traditions tend to be less absolute. For example,
within Buddhism, the intention of the individual and the circumstances play roles in determining
whether an action is right or wrong

1.5.2 AESTHETICS OR AESTHETIC VALUES

 Aesthetic values are a bit harder to discern. This philosophical discipline deals with conceptual
problems arising out of the critical examination of art and the aesthetic. Aesthetic values broadly deal
with the aesthetics of nature (Budd 1996, Carlson 2000) and gardens (Ross 1998), and with the aesthetic
appreciation of objects and activities in everyday life (Dewey 1934). The main problematic issues of the
aesthetic values are as follows:

a) What is beauty?
b) Do the arts provide knowledge?
c) What is the importance of art in human life?
d) Is there a special kind of aesthetic experience or aesthetic perception?

One way in which we value things is by the rather subtle and often unnoticed feeling tones they
somehow evoke in us. A beautiful sunset may exalt us or fill us with awe, or we may trace-patterns of
colour in it which simply interest or attract us. These are values which may not have received general
attention; but any attempt at full living will probably involve the development of the ability to discern
them and aid in the achievement of that creative attitude which will control experience in such a way as
to realize as many of the desired aesthetic values as is possible. Aesthetic valuation depends upon four
canons:
1) Pleasure – There is no beauty unless. Something pleases to somebody.
2) Empathy - all beauty is expression of emotions or empathy.
3) Contemplation – beauty or work of arts enables one to muse with the marvelling unconcern of
a mere spectator
4) Voluntarism - appreciation should also take into account the purpose dominating the creation
or the work of art.
A) Aesthetic experience
An aesthetic experience arises in response to works of art or other aesthetic objects. The
aesthetic experience is often experienced as a pleasurable and desirable experience, an experience
which gives life worth and meaning.
According to Cupchik and Winston (1996), aesthetic experience is a psychological process in
which the attention is focused on the object while all other objects, events, and everyday concerns are
suppressed.
Similarly, Ognjenovi´c (1997) defined aesthetic experience as a special kind of subject-object
relationship in which a particular object strongly engages the subject’s mind, shadowing all other
surrounding objects and events.
In both definitions, aesthetic situations and objects of aesthetic interest are specified as
fundamentally different from everyday situations and objects of everyday use.
Immanuel Kant, one of the first philosophers to have addressed these kinds of questions,
characterizes aesthetic experiences as those pleasures associated with occasions when one judges
something to be beautiful. He asserts that one recognizes that this pleasure does not result from a
realization that an object is useful or agreeable to one because of special things about oneself. Instead
the pleasure arises simply because the form of the object is delightful and could and should be enjoyed
by anyone.

B) Art for art’s sake

Art for art’s sake, a slogan translated from the French l’art pour l’art, which was coined in the
early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. The phrase expresses the belief held by
many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needs no justification,
that it need serve no political, didactic, or other end. It expresses a philosophy that the intrinsic value of
art, and the only "true" art, is divorced from any didactic, moral, or utilitarian function. It opened the
way for artistic freedom of expression in the Impressionist movement and modern art. In the 21st
century this idea has become very popularised.

C) Art for our sake

“Art for life’s sake” Art or our sake is the concept, where art should not be separate from life but rather
all life is art and can benefit society, for example the act of planting a hundred trees or a thousand trees
as art, (an idea of Beuys). It is a motto that should be attached to all art; art that has style, depth,
poignant, and touching.
In an educational system strapped for money and increasingly ruled by standardized tests, arts
courses can seem almost a needless extravagance, and the arts are being cut back at schools across the
country. One justification for keeping the arts has now become almost a mantra for parents, arts
teachers, and even politicians: arts make an individual smarter. It's true that students involved in the arts
do better in school. The arts are needed because in addition to introducing students to aesthetic
appreciation, they teach other modes of thinking that everyone values.

Let Us Check Our Progress 1.4 & 1.5

Write your answers in about 50 words.

1. What do you mean by Epistemology?

2. Explain the Epistemology Problem in 21st Century.
3. Briefly Explain the various Dimension of Knowing in Educational Perspectives.
4. Discuss the differences between Subjective and Objective Knowledge.
5. What is meant by Priori and Posteriori Knowledge?
6. State the relations between moral and religious values.
7. Explain the concept – “Art for our sake.”
8. What do you mean by the Aesthetic experience?

1.6 REFERENCE

Barzilai,S., Zohar, A.(2014). Reconsidering personal epistemology as meta-cognition: A multifaceted

approach to the analysis of epistemic thinking. Educational Psychologist, 49, 13-35

Felton, M. K., Kuhn, D. (2007). How do I know? The epistemological roots of critical thinking. The
Journal of Museum Education, 32, 101-110.

Fricker, E. (1995). Telling and Trusting: Reductionism and Anti-Reductionism in the Epistemology of
Testimony. Mind 104, 393-411.

Hastings, S (1986),.Theory of Good and Evil, The Clarendon Press., Oxford, , vol. II, p. 212.

John C.(1950). Education and Morals, Appleton -Century-Crofts, new work. Pp- 250-266.

Maduabuchi, O. (2017). Philosophical Issues in Education, Onitsha: Book point Ltd. page. 16.

Maduabuchi, O. R., &Anowai, E. C. (2016). Philosophy as Self Formation: Geared Towards National
Transformation and Progress. Journal of Assertiveness, 10, 13-20.
Matilal, Bimal Krishna. (2015). Epistemology, Logic, and Grammar in Indian Philosophical Analysis.
Oxford University Press; Reprint edition.

Matilal, Bimal Krishna. (2017). Ethics and Epics: Philosophy, Culture and Religion. Motilal Banarsidass.

Mikeon, R. (Ed.) (2001) Metaphysics in the Basic Works of Aristotle New York, Modern Library
Publishers. pp. 689-691.

Okafor, F. C. (1992). Philosophy of Education and Third World Perspective, Enugu: Brunswick
Publishing Co. 4th ed., p. 21.

Osman & Graver (1976),.Philosophical Foundations of Education, Charles ,Merill Pub. Co., Colombus,
, p. 94

Peter,.B.(1987). Introduction to the Philosophy of Religion, Prentice Hall, Hew York, 1851, p, 8,

Russell, Bertrand. (2013). The Problems of Philosophy.Ingram short title (2013).

Tennis. J. T. (2008). Epistemology, Theory, and Methodology in Knowledge Organization: Toward a

Classification, Meta-theory, and Research Framework." (2008). In Knowledge Organization.
35(2/3): 102-112.

Wikipedia Contributor (2018). Philosophy from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy

1.7 ASSIGNMENTS

Q.1). Explain the Epistemology Problem in 21st Century. Briefly Explain the various Dimension of
Knowing in Educational Perspectives.
Q.2). Discuss the differences between Subjective and Objective Knowledge. What is meant by Priori
and Posteriori Knowledge?
Q.3). Explain the meaning of Philosophy. Specify the problem of Philosophy.What do you meant by
problem of Metaphysics?

Q.4). Explain the concept – “Art for our sake.” What do you mean by the Aesthetic experience?
State the relations between moral and religious values.

*****

Unit II: Introduction to Philosophy of Education

CONTENT STRUCTURE

2.0 Learning Outcomes

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Meanings of Education
2.3. Relation between Education and Philosophy
Let us check our Progress 2.2 & 2.3
2.4 Meaning of Philosophy of Education
2.5 Nature of Philosophy of Education
2.6 Scope of Philosophy of Education
Let us check our progress 2.4 , 2.5 & 2.6
2.7 Need for Educational Philosophy
2.8 Function of Philosophy of Education
2.9 Education in relation of philosophy of life

2.10 Conclusion

Let us check our progress 2.7 , 2.8 & 2.9

2.11 Bibliography
2.12 Assignments .

2.0 LEARNING OUTCOMES

After careful study of the module, we will be able to —

• understand the meanings of Philosophy and Education;

• state and explain the interdependence of Philosophy and Education;
• state and explain the nature and scope of Educational Philosophy;
• explain the need for Educational Philosophy;
• elaborate the function of philosophy of education;
• discuss the relation between education and philosophy of life.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Educational Philosophy is a branch of Philosophy concerned with virtually every aspect of the
educational enterprise. It significantly overlaps other, more mainstream branches, especially
epistemology and ethics, and even logic and metaphysics. It is application of philosophy in the field of
education. There was a time when no appreciable relation between Philosophy and Education could be
traced. There was seldom any communication or interaction between the two. But this estrangement
between philosophy and education is both artificial and undesirable. A careful study reveals that there is
a very deep-rooted relation between the two. This vital fact has been realised by both the philosophers
and the educators of today. The close relationship between philosophy and education led to the
emergence of a new branch of knowledge-‘Philosophy of education’-which traditionally assumed take
burden of formulating goals, norms or standards in order to conduct the educative process. Philosophy
may be regarded as the theory of education in its most general phases as no educational structure can be
built without the solid foundation of Philosophy. Almost all philosophical schools have realised the
immense significance of education in the life of modern man and have tried to formulate the aim and
content of education in conformity with their own accepted doctrines. According to Robert A. Rusk, a
noteworthy feature of the doctrines of the great educators who are also great philosophers is the
emergence and reflection of their philosophical views in their educational schemes.

2.2 MEANINGS OF EDUCATION

The word 'education' has a very wide connotation and it does not have a definition of universal
acceptance. There are numerous definitions of education and meanings that are suggested by these
definitions. A study of these meanings is useful for a systematic understanding of education. The origin
of the word 'education' is from the Latin root ‘educare’, which means `to bring forth' or `to lead out'/' to
bring out'. 'Educare' implies the bringing out of the potentialities of the child. Mahatma Gandhi's
definition of education fits into the meaning implied here: Education is an ‘all-round drawing out of the
best in child and man — body, mind and spirit’, 'Drawing out' and not 'pouring in' has been stressed by
Gandhiji. Education thus means leading out the inborn powers and potentialities and enabling the child
to become what he is capable of becoming. According to Swami Vivekananda, Education is the
manifestation of perfection that is already in man. Education means the exposition of every man's
complete individuality. Pestalozzi defines education, as the natural, harmonious and progressive
development of man's innate powers. Man is endowed with certain inborn and capacities, and the task
of education is to bring about the development of these ones.
The concept of education as 'acquisition of knowledge' was prevalent since the beginning of history of
education till recent times. Even now such a meaning of education prevails in the minds of the lay
public. Education came to be identified with the act of acquiring knowledge or skill of some definite
nature. Obviously, education taken in the above sense came to be equivalent to training. It denoted mere
acquisition of facts and the accumulation of valuable information related to only a particular aspect of
the individual's life. In conformity with this meaning of education, the study of books, the listening to
the lectures of the teacher, the cramming of facts and some practices came to be regarded as
indispensable means of acquiring knowledge. But this concept of education reduces education to a
totally static affair. It does neither take into account the active role of the human mind nor its basic
creative nature.
The above is a narrower view of education. There is also a wider meaning of education. In the wider
sense, education is a process or an activity which covers the whole range of varied experiences
undergone by an individual in his life time. It is this very characteristic that makes education a dynamic
affair. John Dewey regards education as ‘the development of all those capacities in the individual,
which will enable him to control his environment and, fulfil his possibilities’. This interpretation
converges into a two-fold meaning of the word ‘education’. It points to education as the process of
development of the individual from infancy to maturity — 'a life-long process'. Education in its true
sense is identified with the very process of living. Since growth is the characteristic of life, education is
all one with growing, it has no end beyond itself. The entire process of growth and development which
is caused by learning from experience is called education. Education is the harmonious development of
physical, intellectual, moral, aesthetic, social and spiritual powers of the human beings. The complete
development of individuality is the essence of education.

2.3 RELATION BETWEEN EDUCATION AND PHILOSOPHY

The relation between education and philosophy depends on the meanings attributed to
philosophy and education. Naturally, there can be multiple approaches to the determination of the
relation between the two. However, let us start with education as a life-long process of development.
Education is a process or an activity where everyone is engaged in the waking state. In the waking state
we do have experience, and experience is the greatest teacher. Experience has two educational
components: (1) action and (2) reflection. If experience is to be educative, action must be supplemented
by reflection. Education is a life-long process. It is not a preparation for life; rather it is life itself — a
life to be lived. So, the aim of education becomes identical with the aim or goal of life, which is
furnished by the philosopher. Philosophy determines the ends, goals, or aims of life and education is an
attempt to realise these goals. Educational aims cannot be determined apart from the ends and aims of
life itself for educational aims grow out of life's aims. Some are of opinion that philosophy is a branch
of humanities or arts and education, of science. But Ross says, Philosophy and Education are two sides
of a coin ; the former is the contemplative while the latter is the active side, Education may be described
as the strongest instrument for the achievement of the ideals conceived by society, and is a civilized
attempt to bring about the all-round development of the individual. If education is the manifestation of
the philosophical aspirations of people, then philosophy, we must say is its roots. That is the reason why
it is said that education is the roof of philosophy and philosophy is the root of education. Fichte
considered the relation between the two so integral when he said, the aim of education will never attain
complete clearness in itself without philosophy. John Dewey describes the relation between philosophy
and education as Philosophy may be defined as the general theory of education ... Education is the
laboratory of philosophy, where the validity of philosophical truth is tested. Education, in a sense, is a
testing ground of ideas.Ideas about the goals of life are tested for their practicability through education.
Theory no doubt is a guide to practice, but practice also offers correctives to theory. Ross says,
education is active aspect of philosophical belief the practical means of realising ideals of life.
Philosophy and education are so intimately related that we can; with reasoned conviction, safely say
that philosophy is the structure/foundation, and education is the superstructure. Without philosophy
education will be a blind effort, and without education philosophy will be crippled. Education is
dependent on philosophy for 'guidance' and philosophy is dependent on education for 'formulation'. As
a proof of their mutual dependence we can say that all the great educators are primarily great
Philosophers. Again, Philosophers like Socrates, Plato, Kant, Hegel, Whitehead, Dewey, Russell,
Buddha, Rabindranath, Gandhi, Vivekananda and others came and the truths realised by them were
disseminated through education.

Let us check our progress 2.2 & 2.3

Answer in about 60 words each :

(a) Deduce the origin of the word 'education'.

(b) Define Education in your own word.

Answer in about 250 words each :

(a) Draw out the relationship between philosophy and Education.

(b) Describe the wider view of education.

2.4 MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

Philosophers have their own views about universe and its creator, creature world, knowledge-ignorance
and workable and non-workable karmas. Mostly, scholars define philosophy of education as finding
solutions to problems of education. As per Henderson—

Philosophy of education is the application of philosophy to the study of problems of education.

In our view, it should be defined as following—

Philosophy of education is that branch of philosophy in which interpretation of humans and its nature
of education is done on the basis of opinion of different philosophers and philosophical solution to the
problems of education is presented.
It is here that philosophy of education plays an important role in providing direction to education on the
following issues as well as providing a theory of knowledge for education to work upon. Philosophy of
education is essentially a method of approaching educational experience rather than a body of
conclusions. It is the specific method which makes it philosophical. Philosophical method is critical,
comprehensive and synthetic.
Therefore,
1] Philosophy of education is the criticism of the general theory of education.
2] It consists of critical evaluation and systematic reflection upon general theories.
3] It is a synthesis of educational facts with educational values.
In brief, it is a philosophical process of solving educational problems through philosophical method,
from a philosophical attitude to arrive at philosophical conclusions and results. Thus, it aims at
achieving general as well as comprehensive results.

2.5 NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

Three essential elements in the nature of educational philosophy are considered 'desirable': Educational
philosophy is not merely theorisation about education. It gives a sense of 'meaning' to the educational
practitioner for his work and its place in the general scheme of life. In educational philosophy there
shall be clear formulation of aims and objectives. There shall be evaluation of necessary principles,
methods and system or organisation in each and every educational philosophy.
1. Philosophy of education is the product of meditation of two disciplines- philosophy and pedagogic.
2. This is a logical discipline and not empirical science.
3. It is interdisciplinary, which is inclined towards finding philosophical solution to problems of
education.
4. In philosophy of education, on the basis of various philosophical opinions, interpretation of human
and nature of education is done.
5. In logics also, it is a subjective discipline and not objective.
6. Ultimate reality is interpreted on the basis of various philosophical opinions in philosophy of
education and on the basis of this truth, individual, society and nation is guided.
7. In philosophy of education, on the basis of various philosophical opinions, nature of knowledge and
methods of attainment of knowledge is interpreted.
8. Philosophy of education is a directive discipline. It interprets actual nature of human life on the basis
of different philosophical opinions, which lets a human know its objective of life and guides it to have
proper education to attain these objectives.
 9. Philosophy of education interprets fundamental ideals and values of human life on the basis of
various philosophical opinions.
10. Philosophy of education is a liberal discipline. It presents a critical analysis of different philosophies
by metaphysics, epistemology & logic and axiology & ethics and provides freedom to individual,
society and nation to select its own path and arrangement of appropriate education to attain those goals.
In brief, Philosophy of education is an activity in itself. It never rests. It is a continuous activity, in
which old opinions are interpreted along with new ones and thus search of ultimate truth continues and
accordingly individual, society and nation is guided continually to define nature of education as per
contemporary time and situation.

2.6 SCOPE OF PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

Philosophy of education is a branch of philosophy concerned with virtually every aspect of the
educational enterprise. Philosophy of education is the application of philosophy in the field of
education. It significantly overlaps other, more mainstream branches, especially epistemology and
ethics, and even logic and metaphysics. The field might almost be construed as a 'series of footnotes' to
Plato's Meno, wherein are raised such fundamental issues as whether virtue can be taught; what virtue
is; what knowledge is; what the relation between knowledge of virtue and being virtuous is; what the
relation between Knowledge and teaching is; and how and whether teaching is possible. Mainstream
Philosophical topics considered within an educational context tend to take on a decidedly genetic cast.
So, e.g., epistemology, which analytic philosophy has tended to view as a justificatory enterprise,
becomes concerned if not with the historical origins of Knowledge claims then with their genesis within
the mental economy of persons generally — in consequence of their educations. And even when
philosophers of education come to endorse something akin to Plato's classic account of Knowledge as
justified true belief, they are inclined to suggest that the conveyance of Knowledge via instruction must
somehow provide the learner/student with the justification along with the true belief — thereby
reintroducing a genetic dimension to a topic long lacking one. Perhaps, indeed, analytic philosophy's
general (though not universal) neglect of philosophy of education is traceable in some measure to the
latter's almost inevitably genetic perspective, which the former tended to decry as arm-chair science and
as a threat to the autonomy and integrity of proper philosophical inquiry. If this has been a basis for
neglect, then philosophy's more recent, post-analytic turn towards naturalized inquiries that reject any
dichotomy between empirical and philosophical investigations may make philosophy of education a
more inviting area. Alfred North Whitehead, himself a leading figure in the philosophy of education,
once remarked that we are living in the period of educational thought. There is still no denying the
observation of Whitehead. According to him, education means acquiring the technique of how
knowledge is to be used. John Dewey's instrumentalism, his special brand of pragmatism, informs his
extraordinarily comprehensive progressive philosophy of education; and once he went so far as to
define all of philosophy as the general theory of education. He identifies the educative process with the
growth of experience, with growing as developing — where experience is to be understood more in
active terms, as involving doing things that change one's objective environment and internal conditions,
than in the passive terms, say, of John Locke's `impression' model of experience. Even traditionalistic
philosophers of education, most notably Maritain have acknowledged the wisdom of Deweyan
educational means, and have, in the face of Dewey's commanding philosophical presence, reframed the
debate with progressivists as one about appropriate educational ends, thereby insufficiently
acknowledging Dewey's trenchant critique of means-end distinction. And even some recent analytic
philosophers of education, such as R.S. Peters, can be read as if translating Deweyan insights (e.g.,
about the aim of education) into an analytic idiom.
Analytic Philosophy of education, as charted by Peters, Israel Scheffler, and others in the Anglo-
American philosophical tradition, has used the tools of linguistic analysis on a wide variety of
educational concepts, such as learning, teaching, training, conditioning, indoctrinating, and investigated
their interconnections: Does teaching entail learning? Does teaching inevitably involve indoctrinating?
etc. This careful, subtle, and philosophically sophisticated work has made possible a much-needed
conceptual precision in educational debates. Recent work in philosophy of education, however, has
taken up some major educational objectives—moral and other values, critical and creative thinking —
in a way that promises to have an impact on the actual conduct of education.

Educational Philosophy can be viewed in three ways:

(1) As a deduction from Philosophical premises, i.e., as a deduced principle from philosophical 'truth'.
(2) As a determinant of aim and means of education.
(3) As an analysis of language of education. We can conceive of the idea of Educational Philosophy in
different senses.

Educational Philosophy includes three fundamental aspects:

(a) Education is the primary concern of educational Philosophy. There shall be no educational
Philosophy if there is no school, teacher, curriculum, student/learner, social aim and so on. (b)
Education is a social process. From the view point of the welfare of a society, education means the
transmission of culture. Culture is another name for social heritage. Man is born with a biological
heritage into a social heritage. Education always occurs within a cultural condition or framework. So,
Philosophy of education is not an independent or neutral and universal subject.

(c) The principal aim of philosophy of education is to determine the ends and means of education and
their relationship. Let us now discuss in brief the role of educational philosophy with regard to the
educative process under the following heads which would form the basis of studying any school of
educational philosophy (Idealism / Realism / Pragmatism / Naturalism / Humanism / Logical Positivism
/ Existentialism etc) :
(1) Aims,
(2) Curriculum,
(3) Text books,
(4) Method,
(5) Role of Teacher,
(6) Discipline.

It is not hard to find a close affinity among the parameters wherein one implies the other and is the
fulfilment and production of the total process: teacher-content-pupil in its tri-polar glory. If we examine
various aspects of education in relation to philosophy, we shall realise that philosophy is essential for a
productive and progressive outlook on education. From every angle of educational problem comes the
demand for a philosophical basis of the subject. Philosophy plays the vital role in determining the aims
or goals of education. It is also in the areas of curriculum planning, methods of teaching and instructive,
selection / prescription of Text books, Teacher etc. that philosophy in education reflects itself.
Educational philosophy is the most significant phase of philosophy, because knowledge is acquired
through educative process. Generally, educational philosophy is called 'Philosophy of life'. Educational
philosophy primarily includes judgments and evaluations of the aims of education, programmes of
education for the realisation of the aims, methods, contents, teacher-student relationship and the ideals
of life.

Let us check our progress 2.4, 2.5 & 2.7

Answer in about 60 words each :-

(a) Mention three essential elements in the nature of educational philosophy.

 (b) Define philosophy of education.

Answer in about 250, words each :-

(a) Explain the nature and scope of philosophy of education.

(b) How can philosophy of education be viewed?

2.7 NEED FOR PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

Education is a practical activity of philosophical thought. Every educational practice is

illumined with the backdrop of philosophy. No practice is good and scientific unless rooted in
philosophical thought which gives logic, rationale, sequence and system to education. If education is a
set of techniques for imparting knowledge, skills and attitudes, philosophy is the foundation to vitalise
these. Philosophy is the foundation and education is the superstructure. Fichte rightly observes that the
art of education will never attain complete clearness in itself without philosophy. Dewey also maintains
that the most penetrating definition of philosophy is that it is the theory of education in its most general
phases. The philosophy of life of educational philosophy makes education meaningful and significant,
and this is what is called the philosophical foundation of education.

1) Knowledge of various Objectives of human life and Tools to attain them—with the study of
philosophy of education, we get knowledge of nature of human life and its objectives. On the basis
of this knowledge and own experience and logic, a teacher makes a perspective and provides for
education on that basis. with study of philosophy of education, he also makes available methods of
attainment of objectives of life and forms its path on that knowledge basis.

2) Knowledge of Concept of Education and objectives—in philosophy of education, interpretation

of concept of education and its objectives takes place on the basis of various philosophical
perspectives. Whatever perspective the philosophy has about universe and human life, it defi nes
nature of education and its objectives accordingly. Education is the tool to attain objectives of
human life, hence it carries same objectives as that of human life and since objectives of human
life have been defined differently by different philosophers, hence there is difference in the
objectives defined. By studying philosophy of education, teacher gets knowledge of these
objectives and becomes able to understand objectives of education on the basis of this knowledge,
to attain objectives of life. He can’t be successful without knowing objectives. Hence, he must
study philosophy of education.

3) Syllabus / curriculum related knowledge of Education—apart from getting knowledge of

various objectives of education; teacher also gets knowledge of syllabus of education as defined by
various philosophers. By studying its, teacher also get to know about principles of syllabus
formation and become able to effect necessary changes in various situations. We know that
syllabus can’t be understood in the absence of objectives and without understanding actual form of
syllabus, teacher can’t work on correct path. Hence, to move education forward correctly, teacher
should have knowledge of all of these and he must study philosophy of education.

4) Knowledge of Methods of Education—by studying philosophy of education , teacher gets

knowledge about various methods of education as defined by various philosophers and gets to read
many logics of various philosophers and pedagogue on whom, when and how; one should be
taught. On the basis of this study, teacher is able select his idols i.e., to select correct methods of
education for attainment of educational objectives. Hence, he must study them.
5) Knowledge of disciplinary perspectives in Education—in philosophy of education, different
thought on problems of discipline and philosophies are studied. By its study, teacher understand its
actual nature and gets to know about the tools of its attainment. We know that discipline is required
in the field of education also; hence to understand its actual nature and understand ways to achieve
those, teacher must study philosophy of education.

6) Knowledge of importance and functions of teacher and student—process of planned education

happens between teacher and student. In this process, what should be the relative status of teacher
and student, philosophers have different opinion. Philosophy of education studies them all. On this
basis, teacher becomes successful in defining its duties.

7) Knowledge of nature of Schools and Duties—philosophy of education also studies that for
planned education, what should be the nature and duties of schools. There is difference of opinion
amongst philosophers on this. behind this difference, there are different logics of them. With the
study of philosophy of education, teacher gets to know all this and he is successful in defining
nature of schools and its functions for the attainment of objectives of education. In the absence of
philosophy of education, we could not defi ne nature and duties of schools. Hence, teachers should
study it from this perspective also.

8) Philosophical solution to other problems of Education—in the absence of philosophy, no

teacher can find solutions to educational problems. After studying it only, teacher can understand
problems of education and perspective of different philosophers towards it and can find solution by
testing various perspectives on the basis of his experience. As long as we are not able to be aware
of gradual growth and the result of concept of education, its objective, its syllabus and its method
of education, we can’t find solutions to our educational problems.

The need for educational philosophy is strongly felt by the educational practioner — classroom teacher,
headmaster, educational administrator, educational planner and policy maker, educational researcher
and the like. It is hoped that educational philosophy gives a sense of 'meaning' to the educational
practitioner for his work and its place in the general scheme of life. It enables him to see clearly the
relationship between his day-to-day so-called routine work and the goals of individual & social life.

2.8 FUNCTIONS OF PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION 2.8

Philosophy of education performs various functions. They area discussed below:

a) Determining the aims of education:-Philosophy of education provides original ideas regarding all
aspects of education particularly educational aims. It is said that educational philosophy gives
different views, but this situation is not harmful, rather it helps in providing education according to
the need of society. The difference in view of philosophy of education reflects the multiplicity and
diversities of human life. Philosophy of education guides the process of education by suggesting
suitable aims from the diversities of life and selecting the means accordingly.

b) Determining the curriculum:-With the help of educational philosophy, a teacher comes to know
why naturalism gives emphasis to science subjects and why idealism gives importance to religious
subjects. Thus it helps curriculum designer to construct curriculum according to the need, ability
and interest of the child.

c) Determining the methods of teaching:-Educational philosophy is very much helpful to adopt

suitable methods of teaching and make classroom teaching more effective and attractive. We get
the knowledge of different methods of teaching, i.e. ‘learning by doing’ in naturalism, ‘lecture
method’ in idealism and ‘experimental method’ in pragmatism. With the help of educational
philosophy we able to choose the suitable methods of teaching according to the nature of the
subject and school environment.
d) Determining discipline:-Concept of discipline changes with the changes in the outlook of life. In
other word, discipline reflects the philosophy of life. Idealism advocates street discipline and self-
control whereas Naturalism emphasis freedom and natural discipline, and pragmatism stressed
social discipline. These disciplines are known from the study of different educational philosophies.
Hence, the knowledge of educational philosophy is essential to follow a desirable discipline.

e) Determining teacher &student:-It is the educational philosophy which determines the role and
quality of teacher as well as the student in diversified society. With the help of educational
philosophy, we get knowledge pertaining to the role of the teacher as well as student in the school
and relationship with each other. Students get secondary importance in idealism whereas they get
primary importance innaturalism. Similarly there is a close relationship between the teacher and
students in pragmatism and idealism whereas it is limited in naturalism.

f) Determining administration:-The knowledge of what kind of school administration we should

adopt is determined by educational philosophy. Educational philosophy helps to establish a school
in democratic or totalitarian system. Now days we are following democratic principle for
administering the educational institution. This is based on educational philosophy.

g) Harmonizing old and new traditions in the field of education:-In the process of social
development the old traditions become outdated for the people. They are replaced by the new
traditions. But this process of replacement is not always smooth. It is faced with lots of opposition
from certain orthodox sections of the society. At the same time it must be kept in mind that every
'old' is not out dated and every 'new' is not perfect Therefore, there is a need of co-coordinating the
two in order to maintain the harmony between both. This function can be performed by philosophy
of education.

h) Providing the educational planners, administrators and educators with the progressive vision to
achieve educational development:-Spencer has rightly pointed that only a true philosopher can
give a practical shape to education. Philosophy of education provides the educational planners,
administrators and educators with the right vision which guides them to attain the educational goals
efficiently. The function of educational philosophy is to help the individual to fit the square peg in
the square hole and round knot in the round hole. It helps him to grasp a conceptual framework on
educational principles and practices. It further helps one to change or modify one’s activities to
attained desired end or goal.

i) Preparing the young generation to face the challenges of the modern time:-Social commentators
have given many labels to the present period of history for some it is the information age and for
others it is post modernity, later modernity, high modernity or even the age of uncertainty. One
more addition to this list may be that 'present age is an age of Globalization as a phenomenon
arrived on the economic scene in the 1990 in India. This watchword has had its implications in the
social political, economic fabric of the country of which education is a part.

Philosophy of education is a guiding, steering and liberating force that helps young
people to and society at large to face the challenges of the modern time. It helps the individual to
understand the relationship between his goal and day to day routine work and develop critical
attitude towards life in diverse society.

2.9 EDUCATION IN RELATION OF PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE

As philosophy of life is multi-faceted and is construed by many thinkers, so educational philosophy also
becomes many-faceted. Idealism, Realism, Nationalism, Pragmatism, Logical Positivism, Humanism,
Marxism, Existentialism—these are all educational philosophies. Each educational philosophy from its
own view-point makes education significant. At the roof of education there must be a philosophical
ideal. Philosophy formulates what should be the end of life while education offers suggestions how this
end is to be realised or achieved.
Philosophy acquaints us with values in life and education tells us how these values can be
realised. That is why so much emphasis is placed on value in life while considering the aim of
education, nature of the curriculum, the method of school discipline, techniques of instruction and
school organisation. These values are nothing but a philosophy of education which, in the ultimate
analysis, is a philosophy of life. The aim of education is closely related with the aim of life, and the aim
of life is always dependent on the philosophy that the individual has at a particular time. Philosophy
plays the vital role in determining the aims or goals of education. Thus we cannot do without a
philosophical foundation of education. The need of philosophy of education is deeply fell in the area of
curriculum planning. The dependence of education on philosophy is very well marked in the question of
the curriculum. The curriculum is the sum total of the school's efforts to influence learning, whether in
the classroom, on the playground or out of school. Curriculum, in short, is the student's avenue to
knowledge. Curriculum is a comprehensive term and includes in its fold a course of studies. If aims of
education are taken to be the ends, then curriculum is the means through which the ends are attempted
to be realised. The place and the importance of the curriculum in the educative process need no over
emphasis. The general aims of education receive concrete expression through the curriculum. It
translates ideals into action. It is the crucial link between objectives and outcomes. The philosophical
approach to life is the guiding feactor in the choice of studies to be included in the curriculum.
Mahatma Gandhi's scheme of Basic Education was an expression of his philosophy. Soviet Educational
system can properly be understood only in the light of philosophy of Marxism-Leninism. Naturalism,
Idealism. Realism, Pragmatism—all are philosophies of education. In all these cases, different
curriculum were constructed from different philosophical outlook. In fact, the problem of the
construction of curriculum is a philosophical problem. Smith, Stanley and Shores speak of moral
authority as one of the chief guides of curriculum building. They say that moral authority is derived
from fundamental principles of right and wrong. Evidently, the problem is philosophical. The same is
true of text-books as well. The choice of appropriate text-books involves a philosophy. We must have
some ideals and standards for guiding us in the selection of text-books. There is no denying the point
that it is the text-book whose contents are to be imparted in conformity with the aim of education. The
working of the chosen curriculum depends on the text-books. The text-book reflects and establishes
standards. It indicates what the teacher is required to know and what the pupils are supposed to learn.
With the aims of education set and with the curriculum appropriate to the aim determined. We must
ponder how to teach that curriculum to ensure achieving our objectives as effectively as possible. The
need for a philosophical foundation of education becomes more apparent when we look at the problem
of methods of teaching. The choice of methods of teaching depends on a philosophy. Method is a means
by which a contact is developed between the learner and the subject-matter. Obviously in the absence of
a definite aim of education or an adequate philosophy of life, the method of teaching employed by the
teacher may repel the learner from the subject. Teachers who think that they can do without a
philosophy of life render their methods of teaching ineffective, because thereby the learners are not able
to see a relation between their life-ideals and what they read. Evidently, there is a need of a
philosophical foundation of education.
The need for philosophy of education is strongly felt when we look at the problem of discipline.
The concept of discipline also goes in conformity with the philosophical views. In fact, the nature of
discipline is always governed by the philosophy one holds. Hence, a philosophical problem needs a
philosophical remedy. In an authoritarian society, discipline would be strict and rigid, whereas in a
democratic society it would be permissive and liberal. Idealism relies on the personality of the teacher
for the maintenance of discipline. Realism wants to discipline the learner into objectivity. Naturalism
believes in discipline by natural consequences wherein pleasure and pain are the guiding factors—no
repression, no corporal punishment. Pragmatism does not believe in the employment of external
discipline as a means for the performance of school tasks. Children should be left free in order to
develop freely and harmoniously. Pragmatism believes in social discipline. Pragmatism gives full
freedom to the child, and stresses the educational value of interest which is of empirical, biological and
social nature in the child. Thus we can see that the problem of discipline is closely related with
philosophy, and the concept of discipline as held by a teacher or educational regime will always be
influenced by the philosophy believed in. the employment of external discipline as a means for the
performance of school tasks. Children should be left free in order to develop freely and harmoniously.
Pragmatism believes in social discipline. Pragmatism gives full freedom to the child, and stresses the
educational value of interest which is of empirical, biological and social nature in the child. Thus we
can see that the problem of discipline is closely related with philosophy, and the concept of discipline as
held by a teacher or educational regime will always be influenced by the philosophy believed in.
Educational philosophy enables the educational practioner to interpret his professional
experiences in the light of theoretical perceptions and vice versa. If we consider the different aspects of
educational problems we may conclude by paying that from varied angles of educational problems and
educative processes, there is a demand, a need, for a philosophical foundation of education. We must
have a philosophy of life, a philosophy of education.

Let us check our progress 2.7, 2.8 & 2.9

Answer in about 60 words each

(a) Why aim of life is related to aim of education?

(b) Give one reason for the study of educational philosophy to determine method of teaching.

Answer in about 200 words :

(a) Estimate the need of educational philosophy.

(b) Discuss the function of Philosophy of Education.

2.10 CONCLUSION

The introduction to this chapter sketched in a view of philosophy which sees it as a higher order activity
aimed at ridding the mind of problems which exist only as the result of conceptual or linguistic
confusions. It is not proposed here to defend this view of philosophy or to suggest that this is the only
way in which philosophy may be understood. Indeed, as was indicated earlier, it is by no means clear
that this view explains adequately all that a philosopher of education tries to do, since most of the
problems that concern him do not arise from linguistic confusion but are more often problems about
justification. The sketch was given simply to show an analogous shift in ‘educational philosophy’. What
usually went under this heading in the past were comprehensive theories of education, general theories
which tried to deal with education in something like the way in which metaphysicians dealt with reality.

2.11 BIBLIOGRAPHY

O'Connor, D.J.,(1966). An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education. Routledge & Kegan Paul
:London.
Park, Joe,(1968). Selected Readings in the Philosophy of Education. Macmillan & Co.: New York.
Kilpatrick,(1963). Philosophy of Education, Macmillan & Co.: New York.
Rusk, Robert R,.(1963). Philosophical Bases of Education, University of London press: London.
Dewey, John.(1961). Philosophy of Education, Patterson, New Jersy: Little Field-Adams &Co,.
Henderson, S.V.P.(1947).Introduction to the Philosophy of Education, University of Chicago Press:
Chicago.
Broudy,(1965) Building a Philosophy of Education, Prentice-Hall: New Delhi.
J.C. Agarwal,(2017).Theory & Principles of Education, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.: New Delhi.
Seetharamu, A.S.(1999), Philosophies of Education, Ashish Publishing House: New Delhi.
S.P. Chaube,(2004). Foundation of Education, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.: New Delhi.
Robert Audi (Ed),(1999). The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, Second Ed. Cambridge University
Press.
Hospers, John, Hocking, W.E. (1999). An Introduction to Philosohical Analysis, Allied Publishers Ltd..

2.12 ASSIGNMENTS

Answer the following questions :

1. What is education? Explain the relationship between philosophy and education.

2. Explain the meaning, nature and scope of Philosophy of Education.
3. Explain the need and function of Philosophy of Education.

*****

Unit-III WESTERN PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

Content Structure:
3.0 Learning Outcomes
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Metaphysics, Epistemology, Axiology &Fundamental tenets of Idealism and their educational
implication with special reference to Goals of Education, Curriculum, and instruction
3.3 Metaphysics, Epistemology, Axiology &Main tenets of Realism and their educational
implication with special reference to Aims of Education, Curriculum, and instruction
Let us check our progress 3.2 & 3.3
3.4 Metaphysics, Epistemology, Axiology &Main tenets of Pragmatism and their influence in
education with special reference to Aims of Education, Curriculum, and instruction;
3.5 Metaphysics, Epistemology, Axiology &Fundamental tenets of Marxist Philosophy and their
educational implications with special reference to Goals of Education, Curriculum, and
instruction
Let us check our progress 3.4 & 3.5
3.6 Metaphysics, Epistemology & Axiology of Existentialism and their influence in education with
special reference to Aims of Education, Curriculum, and instruction
3.7 Modern Concept of Philosophy
3.7.1 Logical Analysis, Language Analysis and its impact on education
3.7.2 Logical Positivism/ Logical Empiricism and their educational implication
3.7.3 Positive Relativism.
Let us check our progress 3.6 & 3.7
3.8 Summing Up
3.9 Bibliography
3.10 Assignments.

3.0 LEARNING OUTCOMES

After careful study of the module, we will be able to —

 Discuss the different Western schools of Philosophy with special reference to Metaphysics,
Epistemology & Axiology;
 Understand the fundamental tenets of Idealism and their educational implication ;
 State and explain the basic tenets of Realism and their influence in education;
 State and explain the basic tenets of Pragmatism and their influence in education ;
 Understand and describe the basic tenets of Existentialism and their educational implication ;
 State and explain the Fundamental tenets of Marxist Philosophy and their educational
implications;
 Understand and explain the Logical Analysis/Language Analysis and its impact on education
;
 State and explain the main tenets of Logical Empiricism & Positive Relativism and their
influence in education.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Western Philosophy of Education means those philosophies of the west, which have influence in
education. The application of those philosophies in education can be called Western Philosophy of
education. Philosophical foundation of education is what we need to understand. Idealism, Realism,
Naturalism, Pragmatism, Marxism, Existentialism, Logical Positivism/Empiricism, Logical Analysis
are some of the Western Philosophical tenets, which have their educational implications.-There should
be a discussion of the various schools of Philosophy that have influenced educational thought.
Philosophy is the theory of education in its most general phases as no educational structure can be built
without the solid foundation of Philosophy.

3.2 IDEALISM AND THEIR INFLUENCE IN EDUCATION

Idealism is a very old philosophical thought and it has exercised a great influence on man and his
activities. Idealism represents the views of Plato, Berkeley, Kant, Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, Lotze,
Gentile, Bradley and others. Idealism can be considered either from metaphysical points of view or
from epistemological ones.
From metaphysical points of view, Idealism holds that ultimate reality is spiritual. Idealism thus is anti-
materialism.
From epistemological point of view, Idealism holds that object of knowledge is mind-dependent;
independent of the knowing mind, it has no separate entity. Idealism thus is anti-realism. The basic
tenet of Idealism is that ultimate reality is spiritual and can be understood and expressed only in terms
of ideas. The existence of the object known is dependent on the mind of the knower. Material objects
have no existence independent of the knowing mind.
According to subjective idealism of Berkley, whatever exists exists as the contents or the data of our
consciousness or as ideas, and other than ideas or contents of our consciousness, there is nothing. It is
unintelligible that something exists without being perceived: Whatever is perceived as a content of
one’s consciousness is an idea. The entire being of a thing consists in its being perceived. Existence is
perception – ‘Esseest percipi’. Whatever is perceived is an idea, and an idea cannot exist apart from a
mind. According to objective Idealism of Hegel, reality is real and spiritual. The objects of our
knowledge, which are mental constructions or ideas, must be the only reality. Like Berkeley, Hegel also
asserts that the existence of objects does not depend on individual mind or consciousness; rather it
depends on an infinite and universal consciousness.
This absolute consciousness is dependent on universal consciousness. The entire universe is the
manifestation of universal consciousness. Idealism believes in three spiritual values:Truth, Beauty and
Goodness. Truth is an intellectual value, Beauty aesthetic and Good a moral value. These values are
already there and the purpose of man is to discover them.
Idealistic philosophy has its bearing on education. Idealism forwards two types of aims of education -
one for the welfare of the individual and to other for the good of the society. To speak of the former, the
ultimate aim of education is self-realization, Self-realization is the goal of life and hence the aim of
education. Self-realization means the actualization of the highest potentialities of the self. Education has
to enable the individual to realize all his potential – physical, intellectual, moral and spiritual - in a
balanced and integrated way. The social aim of education for the idealists is to have a perfect and
genuine democratic society. Horne rightly says, 'Democracy is a spiritual unity in a social variety’. To
idealists, education is self-development. Self-realization leads to self-development. The self-realized
man is the ideal one. Self-realization is sometimes called `exaltation of personality.' Idealism regards
education as self-development.
As the aim of education is the total development of the individual, a well-developed self, so the
idealist philosophers like to attach higher importance to humanities than physical and biological
sciences. They like to include literature, art, grammar, geography, history, culture, philosophy,
arithmetic, ethics and language in the curriculum. Idealism advocates the use of ideal cantered methods
of teaching. Idealists value the interests, efforts and most of all the will power of the child more than
their teaching. Idealists believe in the self-activity of the child. Self-activity includes both overt and
mental activities. Froebel prescribed play-way method in the kindergarten school. For classroom
practice, idealists would encourage the use of the discussion and the lecture methods. The discussion
method of learning, which is popularly known as the ‘Socratic method’, involves questioning and
discussion. Aristotle recommends inductive-deductive method. Idealists value the use of well-prepared
and presented lectures.
The position of the teacher in the idealist scheme of education is focal. It is the teacher who
provides the key to the educative process. The teacher is reality personified to the child. The teacher
must awaken in the child the desire to learn. The teacher in the idealist educative process must be a
friend, philosopher and guide to the learner.

3.3. REALISM AND THEIR INFLUENCE IN EDUCATION

Like idealism, Realism also arises out of the problem of the nature of knowledge and that of the relation
between knowledge and the reality, which it knows. Realism emerged as a movement in philosophy
against the idealist view of the world around. The world, Realism holds, is a reality. It is a pluralistic
world — a world of innumerable objects. Provided there is no defect in the functioning of the over mind
and the organs of sense, the objects known are known in their true character. Our knowledge, like a
search lights reveals the things in their original form and the mode of our knowing does not in any way
effect any change in the nature of the things known. The objects as we know them exist independently
of the ways of our knowing. This existence of this world is in no way dependent upon its being known
by a mind. Realism represents the views of Aristotle, John Locke, Herbert Spencer, Montague and
others.
As reality is outside the mind and as the world around is an objective reality, knowledge of the
surrounding world is the most desirable one. The best method to acquire knowledge is observation and
experiment. Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead advocate the exclusive use of this method.
Realists do not believe in ideal values. They would like to discover values in the immediate social life.
The external world consisting of men and matter would provide the framework for value-discovery and
value-realization.
Realism takes different forms: Naive Realism, Scientific Realism or Representationalism, Neo-Realism
and Critical Realism. Naive Realism is the unreflecting realism of the common man according to which
the world in which we live is a real world and we know the objects as they are directly. But Scientific
Realism holds that we do not know the objects directly; mind never perceives anything external to
itself. Mind can perceive only its own ideas - its own states and processes. Ideas are representatives or
copies of the qualities of real things external to the mind. Things act on our mind and thereby produce
certain ideas in it. We can know things only indirectly through the ideas, and things exist independently
of our mind as the ground of our ideas. Neo-Realism believes the direct presentation of objects to the
consciousness without undergoing any change or modification. Neo-Realism maintains that there is no
need for maintaining an epistemological dualism between the object and its idea. When the object is
known, it somehow gets into the mind and so the data of knowledge are the real constituents of the
objects. Critical Realism tries to justify the independent existence of the physical objects and tries to
draw a line of distinction between the sense data and the objects. The sense data are the means by which
the object can be described, but they are neither characters of, nor identical with the object. Critical
Realism assigns a natural position to the sense data, which are different from both the ideas and the
objects.
Whatever may be the form, the fundamental tenets of Realism are:

• The world around is a reality. It is a world of objects, and not ideas.

• The material world had the independent and objective existence. Its being and properties do not
depend upon a knowing mind.
• As reality is outside the mind and as the world around is an objective reality, knowledge of the
surrounding world is the most desirable knowledge.
• Correspondence to reality is truth.
• Realism does not believe in ideal values. It likes to discover values in the immediate social life.

Realism entered the field of education as a protest against the narrowness of the bookish and
abstruse curricula. Realism holds that education should be closely related with the actual realities of life
in all conceivable aspects. Education for the realists is a preparation for life. The young child, when
grown up, has to perform many roles such as that of a citizen, a worker, a husband or a house-wife, a
member of the group etc. To fit into these roles effectively the child needs education. In this sense
education is the preparation for life. The aim of education, according to Realism, is to give to the
learner a complete knowledge and understanding of the human society-human nature, motives and
institutions. Education should try to give all those skills and knowledge to the individual which are
necessary for a 'happy being' in the society.
The aim of education is the formation of a complete man skilled in art and industry. Education
must enable a person to actualize his potentialities. Realism wants that the natural tendencies and
activities of the child should not be repressed and that the child should be helped to develop up to his
utmost perfection so that he may control the natural environment to his best advantage. To state the
aims of education in a concrete way and make it intelligible, acquisition of knowledge is an important
objective of education. Other objectives include the development of character and vocational efficiency.
Curriculum for the realists is a means of forming desirable habits. These habits are to be
acquired not through conditioning but through the mastery of subject-matter. Realists stand for the
diversification of the courses, but the courses should be related to life. There should be no gap between
what is learnt in the school and what is actually there in life. In the realist curriculum the study of the
sciences is to be not only included but also a prominent part is to be given to it. Practical arts are also to
be included. The main stress of realist education is on vocational training since it is useful for utilitarian
purposes. Realists prefer a system of general education over a period of time at the earlier stages and
specialization to come later. At later stages they would like to give a vocational bias to the curriculum.
As regards methods of teaching, Realists would encourage the use of lectures, discussions and
symposia. They believe in the Socratic method of learning. They would not object to memorization at
the earlier stages. The Realists advocate sense-training. It is the senses that are the gateways of
knowledge.
The teacher, according to Realism, must be a scholar and must expose children to the problems
of life and the world around. The teacher is only a guide to the learners. He must guide the learners
towards the hard realities of life. Realism is very careful about discipline. The teacher should discipline
the learners into objectivity. The purpose of discipline is to make the learners submit themselves to the
direction of the physical world.

Let check our Progress 3.2 &3.3

1. Answer in about 60 words each:
(a) Show your acquaintance with Berkeley's diction "Esse Est Percipi".
(b) Types of Realism: Naive and scientific.
2. Answer in about 250' words each
(a) Explain, in in brief basic tenets of Idealism.
(b) Explain, in brief, the basic tenets of Realism.

3.4 PRAGMATISM AND THEIR INFLUENCE IN EDUCATION

Pragmatism is a comparatively recent development in the history of philosophic thought. It arose as a

reaction to the rigid monism of the Idealistic system of philosophy. Pragmatism is a philosophy that
stresses the relation of theory to praxis and takes the continuity of experience and nature as revealed
through the outcome of direct action as the starting point for reflection.
As a philosophic movement, pragmatism was first formulated by Charles Pierce in 1870, and it
was announced as a distinctive philosophical position by William James in 1898, and further elaborated
by John Dewey, F.C.H. Schiller, Jane Adams, Mead and Kilpatrick. Emphasis on the reciprocity of
theory and praxis, knowledge and action, facts and values follows from its post-Darwinian
understanding of human experience, including cognition, as a development, historically contingent,
process. In philosophy, pragmatism can take three forms:
1. Humanistic Pragmatism
2. Experimental Pragmatism and
3. Biological Pragmatism.
Humanistic Pragmatism considers only those things or principles as true, which satisfy the needs,
requirements, aspirations and goals of human beings. Truth is the index of human satisfaction.
'Whatever fulfils my purpose satisfies my desires, develops my life, is true'. Truth thus, is relative, and
contingent subject to satisfying human needs.
According to Experimental Pragmatism, only those things and principles which can be verified by
experiment are true. In other words, 'whatever works is true'.
Biological Pragmatism holds that whatever helps one adjust and adapt with environment, or
helps change the environment is valuable and important. Truth, therefore, is biologically useful.
Dewey maintains, "The test is found in the function of thought, in adapting the human organism to its
environment. It is also called Instrumentalism as it considers thought as a means, an instrument, for
solving problem-situations to achieve adjustment and harmony. Just as the organs are evolved in course
of a process of evolution, as means to the realization of our needs and interests, so also our thoughts are
evolved to suit the fulfil our demands in course of our intercourse with the environment. Ideas are
instrumental to our plans of action. The word `truth', according to the pragmatist, has no meaning apart
from the interest of the individual. That which helps me to work is true for me; that which is useful or
expedient for me to believe is true. Truth has reference to our practical interests. It is relative to our
purpose.
Pragmatism holds that the world or reality is in a state of flux. Reality is not constant; it is in the
making. There is change in the physical, social, political, economic and such other institutional
organizations and environments of man. The pragmatist firmly believes that human effort will improve
the human situation. Pragmatism is against both Naturalism and Idealism. Pragmatism rejects the
impersonal explanation of existence as given by Naturalism, and is also against the orthodox
Absolutism of Idealism. It also rejects transcendentalism and spiritualism as we find in Idealism.
Pragmatism believes that whatever tries to transcend the actualities of human experience is false. To the
Pragmatists, the world is the reality and experience is the 'Centre' of it. Activity and utility are the
hallmark of Pragmatism.
Realism considers sensational observation as the basis of knowledge. To the Idealists, sensation
is not the main source of knowledge. Mind is considered the source of knowledge. Pragmatism stands
against both Realism and Idealism in this regard. Pragmatism doubts the 'system' of knowledge.
Pragmatists consider `successful action' in the world of concrete biological and social world to be the
actual point. Knowledge arises as a result of the consequences of experiences. Experience is the basis
and the criterion of knowledge. Knowledge gained through doing, acting and living is useful.
Pragmatists emphasize functional knowledge and understanding
. Pragmatism does not believe in permanent and eternal values. Values are obtained from the
society. Values are changing. They are also in a state of flux. They vary spatially and temporally. The
validity of a value has to be determined from the consequences of putting it into action.
The educational implication of Pragmatism is significant. Pragmatism does not believe in setting
general aims of education. The general aim of education is mere education. There can only be specific
objectives to each learning situation. Pragmatism stresses on human purposes and satisfaction of human
wants rather than one grand purpose towards which the universe is to move. However, a few aims of
education could be identified. Natural development and social efficiency are the two aims of education
conceived by Dewey. Education, Pragmatists hold, has no pre-fixed or absolute aim. The aim of
education is emergent, and it is responsive to human experience.
Pragmatists do not approve of a rigid traditional pattern of curriculum wherein there would be
compartmentalization of knowledge. They would like to integrate the curriculum with the life and
experiences of children. Dewey maintains that 'the child and the curriculum are simply two limits which
define a single process'. These subjects, which provide practical knowledge and useful skill, should be
included in the curriculum. Thus, physical education, hygiene, history, geography, arithmetic, science
and language can form the curriculum.
Traditional and customary teaching is not preferred by Pragmatists. The focus of pragmatic
methods of teaching is on the 'child-in-society' and his activities therein. In the view of Pragmatists the
method, which is based on child's interest and is able to solve the problem of the child, is most
preferable. To speak of the actual methods employed in classrooms, pragmatists learn on creative and
constructive projects. Project is the purposive activity rooted in real life. Pragmatism believes in actual
working and real life. It believes in actual working and recommends that the learning process should be
rooted in experience. Experience is the first and best master whose lessons we never forget. Doing is
more important than knowing.
A teacher's work is to guide and put a child in the real situation of his life, so that he might be
able to understand his life's problems and thereby solve them. Like Socrates, the pragmatist teacher
wants his pupils to think and act for themselves, to do rather than to know, to organize rather than to
repeat. The teacher, in the capacity of a guide and adviser, and the pursuit of the self-activity of the
learner should together promote self-discipline.
Pragmatism believes in social discipline. Dewey says that discipline is a 'mental attitude' and in
order to maintain this attitude, socialized activities are essential. Discipline should not be the outcome
of external force; it should be backed with freedom and joy.

3.5 MARXIST PHILOSOPHY AND THEIR EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS

Karl Marx (1818-1883), a revolutionary thinker, philosopher and sociologist, is regarded as the
originator of Marxism. Marxist Philosophy is known as 'Dialectical Materialism'. Marx along with his
friend Friedrich Engels propounded a body of socio-economic doctrine which came to be called
Marxism. Marx's outlook is a materialist one, seeing ideas, and consciousness itself, as reflections of the
material world which exists independently of human thinking and existed before there were humans to
think.
The human brain itself is a matter at a high level of development; and the product of its activity
is thought. Marx's world view is realistic. He took from Hegel a dialectical view of nature, of history
and of human thinking. Instead of seeing the world only as a quantity of fixed things or objects, defined
and distinguished from one another by their external characteristics, dialectics views the would as series
of processes. These processes are not separate from one another, but are actually interconnected. All
phenomena are in the process of change, and such changes is rooted in what Marx called a.unity and
conflict of opposites within each phenomenon or process.
The earlier materialists (mechanical materialists) were correct in identifying the external,
objective material world as the source of all ideas and knowledge, but they considered man as only the
passive recipient, through the senses, of that material world. Marx insisted that men and women do not
confront the world first with their senses, automatically reflecting it, purely contemplatively, as it were.
Rather, men have always been compelled to act on the world, in order to live. Only by changing the
world through their activity have men survived and developed. In order to understand how human
knowledge reflects the external world, then, we must start from the fact that men are produce of the
world they live in as well as being the products of that world. Men are conditioned by their
environment, but they exist as men in the society only by continually modifying that same environment
through their own action. Marx's materialism is historical materialism, because it starts from men's
constantly changing and active relation with the rest of nature. And not only that. Man live not only in
nature but also in the human society. They make their own history, but under conditions which are not
of their own choice.
The application of the fundamental principles of Dialectical materialism on the analysis of
social life is called Historical Materialism. Marxism is a theory of revolutionary changes. The capture
of political power by the working class is the beginning and after it the dictatorship of the proletariat
should be established, and massive task of social and economic transformation should start so that the
way for a classless society may be paved. Marx and Engels, after carefully observing the defects of the
traditional theories of knowledge, tried to give a new shape to epistemology. 'Praxis'/`Practice' is a new
term introduced in Marxian epistemology. By 'practice' is meant the active role of men in producing
wealth. In the interest of men, what men actively do for changing its nature and society, can be called
'Practice'.It does not mean men's productive activities only; it includes politico-cultural activities,
freedom movement and scientific discoveries also. Through purposeful human activities the ideas or
thoughts about material the world that arise can be called 'Knowledge'. Knowledge thus, is not
something static; knowledge is continuously changing, developing. Practice is not only the basis of
epistemology or knowledge-process, it is also the criterion of truth. In the knowledge-process the
material world is the object of knowledge, and the subject of knowledge is not the individual but the
society. (society, not individual, is engaged in production).
The characteristic feature of Marxian epistemology is the recognition of social nature of knowledge-
process. Some of the most important characteristics of Marxism can be summarised in the following
sentences:
 Marxism is a philosophy of revolutionary social change.
 It believes in the materialistic philosophy of life. It is not mechanistic materialism but
dialectical materialism, and also historical materialism.
 Man is the central point of attraction, and the main aim of Marxism is to establish a human
society—a free classless society.
  Man's essence is defined in terms of productivity. Man possesses no personal freedom but finds
his freedom in following the collective will of the people.
 The working class must seize the power and abolish all private property. The dictatorship of the
proletariat will ensure a classless, exploitation-less society.
 Marx considered man productive, active, changing and creative.

The implications of Marxism in education are significant. The central aim of education,
according to Marxism, is to prepare the learners for the revolution — social, political and economic —
that alone will be able to build up aclass-less society free from all exploitations. If we accept Marxian
interpretation we shall find that the traditional curriculum has to be replaced by a more significant and
socially useful curriculum. Marxism recommends Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Zoology, Health
and Hygiene, Technology, History, Geography, Language and Literature, Aesthetics and Political
economy. Besides, according to Marx, education should be combined with productive work. Under
Marxism, education is compulsory at the school level, and should be free at all levels.
Marxian education mitigates competition and substitutes it by group work of different kinds. The child
should be made to feel from the very beginning that he/she is a limit in the society and has a duty to the
same. While imparting education the teacher must be in mind that 'Knowledge for the sake of
Knowledge'/`Knowledge for its own sake' is not the target. That knowledge has a social purpose is to be
emphasized.
The teacher has to make the learners understand, through his teaching, that class-division in society is
unjustified. Further, sex/gender discrimination in education is also immoral and unjustified. Under
Marxism, the method of teaching should be scientific. Science is the only way to reach truth, and this
indicates the standpoint of Dialectical materialism.
Under Marxian education Values are of immense significance. Generally, the following values are
emphasises:
1. Moral character
2. Patience and labour,
3. Reverence for public property.
4. Patriotism.
5. Common good
6. Discipline
7. Regard for the elders
8. Authority of the teacher.
9. Communist ideology.
At rational look, Marxist Philosophy lays great emphasis on morality and discipline of the learners.

Let check our Progress 3.4&3.5

1. Answer in about 60 words each

(a) What do you mean by axiology of Marxism?
(b) Specify the methods of instruction, according to Pragmatist Philosopher.
2. Answer in about 250 words each
(a) Explain the fundamental principles and educationalsignificance of Pragmatism.
(b) Explain, in brief, the basic tenets and educational implication of Marxism.

3.6 BASIC TENETS OF EXISTENTIALISM AND THEIR INFLUENCE IN EDUCATION

Existentialism is a recent development in Western Philosophical movement. It is an attempt to reach the

inmost core of human existence in a concrete and individual fashion. It is a reaction against abstractions
and systems. It is a philosophy of the subject rather than of the object. Existentialism is a reaction
against Naturalism and Idealism. The 'self as agent' provides the central themes of Existentialism.
Existentialism emphasizes the uniqueness and primacy of existence. It is a revolt against any kind of
determinism and an affirmation of the free nature of man. Existentialists turn their attention to life and
experience, and sought to solve the problems of life not by any intellectual effort but by actually living
it. Existentialism believes that man is free by nature and gives preference to subjectivity in place of
objectivity.
Existentialism is a philosophy not of things, but of human situation. Existentialists try to answer
in different ways the questions that men are inclined to ask about human existence. Existentialism as a
movement grew out of the Phenomenological movement but its basic philosophy can be traced back to
the ideas of Danish philosopher Soren Kierkegaard. Other principal exponents of Existentialism are
Heidegger, Nietzsche, Jaspers, Marcel, Sartre, Camus, Kafka, Dostoevsky and Martin Buber. Their
honest motto is 'to be' rather than 'to know'.
Existentialists do not form any well-knit school, nor do they hold any well-defined set of
doctrines. There is no common body of doctrines to which all existentialists subscribe. For this reason,
existentialism has been described not as a 'philosophy' but rather as a 'style of philosophizing’. It is a
style that may lead those who adopt it to very different convictions about the world and man's life in it.
Yet, however different their outlook may be, we find a family resemblance among them in the way they
`do' philosophy. It is this shared style of philosophizing that permits us to call them 'existentialists'.
What, then, are the basic characteristics belonging to this style of philosophizing? The first and most
obvious one is that this style of philosophizing begins from man rather than from nature. It is a
philosophy of the subject rather than the object—the subject being the existent in the whole range of his
existing. He is not only a thinking subject but an initiator of action and a centre of feeling. The 'Self as
agent' provides the central themes for existentialism.
Existentialism is a reaction against naturalism as well as idealism. Naturalism reduces men to a part of
the physical world, subject to mechanical laws, whereas idealism looks upon man as reproduction of the
impersonal universal reason, viz., the Absolute. But, to the existentialists neither naturalism nor
idealism recognises the reality of the concrete individual and his freedom and responsibility. The
fundamental proposition on which the entire existentialist philosophy or rather the existentialist way of
looking at thing is based is that 'existence precedes essence'. By 'essence' is meant what Bradley calls
the 'what' of a thing. It was Plato who said that the surrounding world is a world of essences (ideas), and
the purpose of life is to discover these essences. Essences are already there and they precede existence.
To say that essence precedes existence is to say that thought precedes existence. Existentialism is
opposed to this Platonian view.
According to existentialism, man has no character given from the beginning, which determines his
action but that he is free. In other words, 'existence precedes essence' means for existentialists that
human nature is determined by the course of action of life rather than life by human nature.
Existentialism emphasizes on the uniqueness and primacy of existence - the inner, immediate
experience of self-awareness. Man is nothing other than what he makes of himself. First of all, man
exists, turns up, appears on the scene, and only afterwards defines himself. When Idealists believe in
transcendental values, Naturalists believe that values are resident in nature, Pragmatists believe that
values arise out of social life, and Existentialists affirm that the individual alone creates values. Reality
is a state of becoming. Existence increases with every moment of life and essence is a consequence of
this perpetual becoming.
Existentialists emphasize on the contingency of human life. There was nothing before birth and
would be nothing beyond death. In between, men have been 'thrown' into a social life, and the
characteristics of this social life are the contingent circumstances of our life. This contingency is often
characterized by experiences of dread, horror, anguish, solitude, bewilderment, uncertainty and finally
limited by death. That existentialism should have consequences for the educational enterprise is not
surprising. To educate is to bring out or draw out. In the widest sense, `education' is the work of brining
a person out into his possibilities. To educate means no less than to let someone exist. Existentialism
believes, and rightly so from thepoint of view of psychology, that every individual is unique. Education
must, therefore, develop in him this uniqueness. Existentialism believes that man is free by nature. As
corollary, education must make a pupil aware of the infinite possibilities of his freedom and the
responsibilities he must bear in life. Education must also develop in him a scale of values consistent
with his freedom. The pupil must develop a commitment with his freedom. The pupil must develop a
commitment to these values and act for them. Existentialism gives preference to subjectivity in place of
objectivity. Therefore, the system of education should be such as to make the individual subjective and
introvert in place of objective and extrovert. Only then an individual will be able to recognize his 'self'
—his authentic existence.
Existentialism does not believe in prescribing a curriculum. The pupil must choose his own curriculum
according to his needs, abilities and station of life. Existentialists would agree to transmit some amount
of fundamental knowledge about the universe in general, but they believe that the curriculum must be
related to the immediate social, economic, political and other group problems, which the individual will
have to face. Various subjects of arts, sciences and humanities may be taught to the learners, but the
purpose of this teaching should enable him to acquire subjective knowledge with the help of the
objective. While the empiricist stresses knowledge by observation, the existentialist stresses knowledge
by participation.
Existentialists favour the Socratic method of teaching as Socratic method is personal, intimate and an I-
thou affair. The role of the teacher in an existentialist scheme of education is to help the learner towards
realizing his 'self'.
The teacher has to be a guide, and he has to bring the learners/pupils to an understanding of the meaning
and purpose of existence. Existentialists would consider the student as the existent who has the capacity
to transcend what he is to become something he is not.

Let check our Progress 3.6

1. Answer in about 60 words each

(a) What kind of Curriculum propagated by Existentialism?
(b) Explain the basic principles and chief affirmations of Existentialism.
(c) What is the meaning of 'existence' in Existentialism?

2. Answer in about 250 words each

(a) Discuss the fundamental tenets of Existentialism and their educational implications.
3.7 MODERN CONCEPT OF PHILOSOPHY

Philosophy and education are two sides of the same coin, and thus different philosophies bring out a
different fact of education and as education can change the philosophy of man and his life. Modern
concept of philosophy is revolutionary, dynamic and passionate; it changed the way of thinking and
brought to forefront. Moreover its views on education may seem dramatic but taken in right sense and
moderation is necessary in today‘s materialistic society.

3.7.1 ANALYSIS - LOGICAL ANALYSIS AND ITS IMPACT ON EDUCATION

In the history of Western philosophy Language analysis is relatively a new movement. The name
‘Language analysis’ suggests that it is concerned with the analysis of language. It is an analytical
approach to philosophy Language analysis is essentially a method and technique to solve the problems
of philosophy. It is not a school of thought. It is mainly concerned with the correct use of language to
describe verifiable facts and ideas. It is also referred to as Logical Analysis or philosophical analysis.
According to logical analysts, the usage of language has to be so precise and logical that A. J. Ayer
views philosophy as 'a department of logic'.
The origin of the movement in its present form can be traced back to Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951).
He produced his monumental treatise. Magnum opus, `TractatusLogicoPhilosophicus' in 1921. Being a
revolt against the Western philosophical literature, it gained immediate and wide-spread popularity.
Wittgenstein emphatically contended that the whole of Western philosophical literature is nothing short
of a veritable confusion of tongues. He wrote: "...the most questions and propositions of the
philosophers result from the fact that we do not understand the logic of our language." Wittgenstein
holds that the language of common usage or ordinary is defective and as such ineffective in either
solving or dissolving philosophical problems. So he considers that his task is to build up an ideal
language or perfect language.
Some philosophers in Cambridge became enthusiastic in supporting Wittgenstein's idea of the
reconstruction of language or the creation of language or the creation of an ideal language to explain
philosophical propositions. But there sprang-up a group of philosopher at Oxford, prominent among
them being J. L. Austin and A. J. Ayer who deviated from Wittgenstein's position that language analysis
should coin new technical terms to solve philosophical problems. They rather satisfied themselves in
analyzing ordinary language analysts. They were interested in analysing the immeasurable terms used in
philosophy such as Mind, Self, Value, Belief, Freewill, Knowledge. Good, the ought, pleasant etc. They
confined themselves to the examination of 'meaning' in philosophical propositions. In another
development, there appeared a corrective to the ordinary language approach, Ordinary language is
fashioned on practical necessities. But this language may not be free from defects as the perceptions of
individual members of the group as well as the sub-groups within a larger change and vary. Their
understandings and styles of expression also change and vary. Concepts underlying usages in ordinary
language should be analysed. This is a new thinking that may be called the 'conceptual analysis
approach.' and is represented by P.H. Hirst and R.S. Petrs. As language analysis is only a method of
philosophical analysis, we do not find any building system of ideas or beliefs about the universe.
However, the main philosophical ideas or contentions of language analysis may be listed as under:
1) The work is the reality. The world for the logical / language analysts is that which is
amenable to sense experience or that which is logically verifiable. Metaphysical
statements about the world are neither true nor false, but non-sense.
 2) This world is the real world which can be described only through a better use of
language. Linguistic confession gives rise to metaphysical statements.
3) Analytic method is the only method through which reality can be described. Philosophy
is the act of analysis, criticism and clarification of the language are used to describe
reality. Speculation has no place in philosophy.
4) Logical/Language analysts believe in cause and effect relationships, but only at the
physical level. They summarily reject the possibility of an ultimate cause, as it is not
verifiable.
5) Value fulfilments pronounced through the use of ordinary language are usually
defective. As such, conditional statements (which use 'if' in such a situation, under the
defined Circumstances etc.) need to be made while making value fulfilments.

The influence of logical/Language analysis on educational thought and practice is profound.

Any work that begins with operational definitions, definition of terms used, and the like bears the
impact of language analysis. The research and working on 'action research' and interaction analysis' in
education may be conceived of as an effect of the movement. An examination of assumptions exposure
of logical fallacies, criticism, clarification and interpretation of educational concepts has by for helped
to clear the debris in educational literature. Educational literature abounds with slogans and metaphors.
An examination of these slogans has brought out the ambiguity and vagueness in them.
Scheffler has referred to a few such slogans while outlining the role of language analysis in
education. The analysis of educational ideas such as `mental discipline', 'curriculum', character
development', `maturity' etc. and of educational situations has led to serious discussions among
professionals in educational circles about the words they use, concepts they teach and the facts they
pass on. It is due to this movement (Logical/language analysis) that the format of the students' lesson
plans in teacher education programmes has undergone revisions and is still undergoing radical changes.
Language analysis as a movement has a message to teachers. The message is about the right use
of logic in analysing school situations, pupil behaviours, pupil performance, pupil-teacher and pupil-
pupil relations etc. Teachers should develop the habit of logical inquiry of teachers need to make
'meaningful' statements; and those which are verifiable either logically or empirically, clarity of thought
and precision in communication ought to be the prized possessions of any teacher. Logical/language
analyses emphasises primarily these qualities.

3.7.2 LOGICAL EMPIRICISM/LOGICAL POSITIVISM AND THEIR IMPACT ON

EDUCATION

Logical Empiricism, also called Logical Positivism, is a philosophical movement inspired by

empiricism and verificationism. It began in the 1920s and flourished for about twenty or thirty years.
The driving force of Logical Empiricism may well have been adherence to the verifiability criterion for
the meaningfulness of cognitive statements. Acceptance of this principle led positivists to reject as
problematic many assertions of religion, morality, and the kind of philosophy they described as
metaphysics. In some ways logical empiricism/positivism can be seen as a natural outgrowth of radical
or British empiricism and logical atomism.
The members of 'Vienna Circle', a group of philosophers, scientists, logicians and
mathematicians, who propagate this philosophy are M. Schlick, 0. Neurath, R. Carnap, E. Mach, F.
Waismann, P. Frank, V. Craft, H. Halim, H. Feigl, Karl Menger, Edgar Zilsel, Kurt Godel, A.J. Ayer
and Felix Kaufmann. In 1929 the manifesto of Vienna Circle was published with the following aims in
view:
1. To establish science on a solid foundation.
2. To eliminate metaphysics from philosophy.
For realizing these aims, they recommended the method of logical analysis. The Central tenet of logical
empiricism is the theory of verification. According to this theory, a proposition is cognitively
meaningful or significant if and only if it is verifiable in sense-experience. It is necessary to draw a
distinction between practical verifiability, and verifiability in principle. The propositions, which have
already been verified, belong to the first category, while the propositions, which have not yet been
verified but are verifiable belong to the second category. The 'earth moves round the sun' is a
proposition, which has been actually verified in experience. But 'There are mountains on the farther side
of the moon' is a proposition which has not been verified because no rocket has yet been invented which
would enable us to go and look at the further side of the moon, so that we are unable to decide the
matter by actual observation. But we do know what observations would decide it for us, if we were in a
position to make them. This proposition thus is verifiable in principle, if not in practice, and is
accordingly significant. But if we say 'God lives in heaven' of the 'the soul is immortal', then we find
that there are no way of verifying such statements/propositions.
Such metaphysical propositions are not even in principle verifiable. Metaphysical propositions thus are
meaningless. While explaining the verification theory, A. J. Ayer made a distinction between 'strong'
verification and `weak' verification. A proposition is said to be verifiable in the strong sense of the term,
if and only if, its truth could be conclusively established in experience. But it is verifiable in the weak
sense, if it is possible for experience to render it probable.
Logical empiricists argue that there is no cognitively meaningful proposition or statement,
which implies such reality, and which is beyond all possible sense-experience. The proposition (which
expresses knowledge) must be either analytic or synthetic. Propositions of Mathematics and Logic are
examples of analytic propositions. Synthetic propositions are such propositions whose criterion of
determination of meaning is sense-experience. If any proposition does not express formally truth or
falsity of anything, or if it expresses anything which cannot be verified by experience, then that
proposition is meaningless or cognitively not significant. It can have, however, an emotive meaning.
Metaphysical propositions are neither analytic nor synthetic, and hence lack cognitive meaning, 'the
absolute is kind', 'the soul is immortal', 'God lives in heaven',—such metaphysical propositions are not
cognitively significant; these are pseudo-propositions. Linguistic confusion, logical empiricists hold, is
the prime source of Metaphysics. Metaphysicians who claim to have knowledge of a reality which
transcends the phenomenal world, is not justified.
Logical empiricism has a strong impact on educational thoughts and practices, and in that case, the role
of logical analysis is worth mentioning. Logical empiricists consider verification theory of meaning of
be the central theory of Logical empiricism. In case of knowledge, logical empiricism determines which
proposition is meaningful and which one is non-sensual with the help of verification criterion. For the
employment of meaningful proposition the logical analysis of language is essential. Failure to
understand the workings of our language gives birth to confusions.
It is applicable to educational thoughts and practices. Logical analysis of assumptions,
explanation and clarification of educational concepts, rejection of the use of unverifiable propositions
and use of cognitively meaningful propositions play a very significant role in educational literature.
Logical empiricists recommend the use of verification criterion not only in philosophy, but also in
science, education and literature. In the analysis of school-environment, learners' behaviour,
performance and achievement of learners, pupil-pupil relation and teacher - student relation, proper use
of logic is necessary. Teachers must have the habit of logical enquiry. It is also essential for the teacher
to issue 'meaningful' statements. Logical empiricism asks for a method of observation and experiment
(scientific) and a method of logical analysis. The employment of such a method in education will
certainly make education 'scientific'.

3.7.3 POSITIVE RELATIVISM AND ITS IMPACT ON EDUCATION

Positive Relativism-
The term, Positive Relativism adopted by Prof Morris L. Bigge purports to be an “emergent
synthesis, a somewhat new, systematic outlook” of Education evolved from the ideas of
pragmatists, logical empiricists, idealists, rational realists and cognitive field psychologists. It
is actually a “joining of theories of knowledge and theories of values”.

Positive Relativism is a normative theory that can be analyzed and summarized. The possible
implications of Positive Relativism are –
a) No one has a better moral system, belief system, or truth claim.
b) Provide solid logical grounds to prevent conflict and promote acceptance
c) The ultimate theory of tolerance.
Naturally, the implications of Negative Relativism are-
a) No one has the Truth or the knowledge of what is good.
b) Truth does not exist, or it can never be reached.
c) There is no good or bad, and no action can be condemned.
The fundamental propositions of Positive Relativism and its educational bearings are
analyzed by William Frankens are as follows-
A) Basic premises about aims and values of life, and principles of ethics and social
thoughts in a precise term is –‘ Life should be growth, democracy is good’
B) Empirical or Epistemological premises about human nature, life, education and the
world described -‘Man’s nature is “neutral –interactive”. Human behavior can be
‘scientifically predicted’. The ultimate metaphysical reality is a “thing –in-itself” and is
unknown through perceptual means. The meaning of learning can be discovered by
studying the “life space” of man. And Education is reconstruction and reorganization of
experience.
C) Dispositions to be fostered by education are stated as the understanding of the existing
culture, the abilities to improve the democratic way of life and to think reflectively and
the skill of cooperative learning.
D) Things that are necessary, effective or helpful in the cultivation of one or more of the
above dispositions declare – Education must be “goal directed” and not laissez-fair. The
educative process must function according to the cognitive –field psychology of
learning which is scientific.
E) Conclusion about what education should do, where, how, when etc. - The school should
be secular, democratic, scientific and humanistic. The teacher should play “the role of a
democratic group- leader. Students should be encouraged to think for themselves.
Criticism—The above outline of positive Relativism clearly demonstrates that the
propositions of positive relativism are basically a repetition of what Dewey said decades ago. It
is almost are the mixture of Dewey’s “act of reflective thinking “and technical definition of
education and added certain fragments of the psychological theories of Kurt Lewin, Gordon
Allport, Rollo May, and others. Dewey’s own theory of impulse, habit, and intelligence is
conspicuously ignored.
Professor Bigge claims that Positive Relativism is not an eclectic theory but an ‘emergent
synthesis’. But little new and original thinking can be found, and consistency within the theory
is inadequate.
 Let check our Progress 3.7

1. Answer in about 60 words each:

(a) What is Logical Analysis?
(b) What is Verification theory?
(c) Define Positive Relativism.

2. Answer in about 250 words each:

(a) Discuss Logical Analysis with educational implications.
(b) State, in brief, the basic tenets of Logical Empiricism.
(c) Write a short note on Positive Relativism.

3.8 SUMMING UP

In this unit, we have seen the philosophy of Idealism, Realism, Pragmatism, Marxism and
Existentialism, the criticism of them prevailing traditional rigid systems and Modern concept of
philosophy. Those philosophical idea change our attitude and thinking in new and creative point of
view.

3.9 BIBLOGRAPHY

Introduction to Philosophy of Education, George F. Kneller.

On Philosophical Perspective of Education, Namita Choudhury.
Philosophies of Education, A. S. Seetharamu.
Selected Readings in the Philosophy of Education, Joe Park
An introduction to Philosophy of Education, D. J. Conner.
Philosophy of Education, U.N. Biswal
The Philosophical Bases of Education, Robert R. Rusk
Philosophy of Education, John Dewey.
Phenomenology and Existentialism - Mrinal Kanti Bhadra.
Existentialism and Education, - George F. Kneller.
Positive Relativism: An Emergent Educational Philosophy. By- Morris L.Bigge, New York: Harper &
Row, 1971.
Relativism:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy--- By Bagharamian---2015.
 3.10 ASSIGNMENT

Q.1) State the fundamental tenets of Idealism and indicate their educational
implications.
Q.2) Explain the basic tenets of Realism and indicate their impact on education.
Q.3) Explain the basic tenets of pragmatism and indicate educational implications.
Q.4) State and explain the fundamental tenets of Existentialism and indicate their
educational implication.
Q.5) Explain the basic tenets of Logical Empiricism and indicate their influence in
education.

*****