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 ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY
SJ VAN ZYL
- 5TH EDITION

Published by:

lg rata
P O Box 6201
Vandsrbijlpark
1900
Tel: 082 852 0340

@ LERATo 2011

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocoqYing, recording and/or otherwise without the prior written
permission of the publisher. This book may not be lent, resold, hireO
out or
otherwise disposed of by way of trade in any form of binding or cover other
than that in which it is published, without the prior consent of t[e publishers.

ISBN : 978-0-9814483-3-G

l*;
 ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY
SJ VAN ZYL
- sTH EDITION

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE - ADVANCED ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT

1.1 WATTMETER APPLICATIONS 1

1.1.1 ONE-WATTMETER METHOD 2
1.1.2 BLONDELL'S THEOREM 4
1.1.3 TWO-WATTMETER METHOD 6
1.1.3.1 TWO-WATTMETER METHOD OF OBTAINING THE POWER
FACTOR
1,1.4 THREE-WATTMETER METHOD 10

CHAPTER TWO - THREE.PHASE ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

2.1 INTRODUCTION 13
2.2 THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
14
??.t
2.2.2
PHASE SEQUENCE OF THREE_PHASE SYSTEMS
BALANCED STAR-CONNECTED, THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
16
19
BALANCED, DELTA.CONNECTED, THREE-PHASE
?.?.1
2.2.4 UNBALANCED DELTA-CONNECTED, THREE-PHASE
SYSTEM 23
LOAD 26
2.2.4.t STAR-DELTA (y_A) CONFTGURATTdN 26
2.2.4.2 DELTA-DELTA (A_A) CONFTGUMTTON 28
2.2.5 UNBALANCED STAR-CONNECTED, THREE-PHASE LOAD
30
2.2.s.7 DELTA-STAR (A_y) CONFTGURATiON 30
2.2.s.2 STAR-STAR (y_y) CoNFTGURATTON 3s
2.2.5.3 MILLMAN'S THEOREM 35
2.2.5.4 DELTA-STAR (A_y) CoNVERSTON 39
2.2.5.s STAR-DELTA (y_A) CONVERSTON 43
2.3 COMPLEX POWER 48
2,4 REACTIVE POWER 51
EXERCISE2.1 54
2.5 POWER MEASUREMENT IN THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS 59
EXERCISE2.2 74

CHAPTER THREE - SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS

3.1 INTRODUCTION BO
3.1.1 POSTTTVE PHASE_SEQUENCE
3.1.2 NEGATTVE PHASE_SEQUENCE 8282
3.1.3 ZERO PHASE-SEQUENbE 82
3.2 RESOLUTION OF AN UNBALANCED, THREE-PHASE
SYSTEM OF
SYMMETRICALCOMPONENTS 83 PHASORS INTO ITS
 3.3 SiGNiFICANCE OF SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS IN PROTECNVE
SYSTEMS 85
3.4 DETECNON OF P.P.S AND I.I.P.S COMPONENTS OF CURRENT
86
3.5 DETECTION OF P.P.S AND N,P.S COMPONENTS OF VOLTAGE
88
E(ERCISE 3 101

CHAPTER FOUR - INTER.CONNECTED SYSTEMS

4.I INTRODUCTION TO4

4.2 REASONS FOR INTER-CONNECTIONS IO7
4.3 THREE-PHASEINDUCTION REGULATOR 108
4.4 TAP-CHANGINGTRANSFORMER 110
4.5 SYNCHRONOUS PHASE MODIFIER 111
4.6 VALUE OFTHE SENDING-END VOLTAGE 113
4.7 AUTOMATIC LOAD DISPATCHING TT4
4.8 POWER TMNSFER TL4
EXERCISE 4 T32

CHAPTER FIVE - POWER ECONOMICS

5.1 INTRODUCTION 139

5.2 MAXIMUM DEMAND 139
5.2,1 ENCOUMGEMENT TO DIVERSIFY THE LOAD 139
5.2.2 ENCOUMGEMENT OF POWER FACTOR CORRECTION 140
5,2.3 LOAD AND FORM FACTORS I4O
5.2.4 LOSS FACTOR 741
5.3 MOST ECONOMICAL CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA OF A CONDUCTOR OT
TRANSMISSION LINE 141
5.4 KELVIN'S LAW T42
5.4.1 LIMITATIONS TO THE APPLICATION OF KELVIN'S LAW T43
5.4.2 TRANSMISSION VOLTAGE 144
5.4.3 GENEMTING COSTS L45
5.5 MOST ECONOMICAL POWER FACTOR 145
5,6 TARIFFS 146
EXERCISE 5 160

CHAPTER SIX - PER UNIT SYSTEMS

6.1 INTRODUCTION 163

6.2 PER-UNrT QUANTTTTES 163
6,3 ADVANTAGES OFTHE PER-UNIT SYSTEM 165
6.4 DISADVANTAGES OF THE PER-UNIT SYSTEM 165
6.5 THE PER-UNIT SYSTEM 165
6.5.1 THREE-PHASE EQUIPMENT 167
6.5.2 BASE SELECTTON FOR PER_UNrT
QUANTTTTES 168
6.5.3 CHANGING BASE VALUES 168
6.5.4 PER-UNIT IMPEDANCE OF A TRANSFORMER 169
6.6 APPLICATION IN NETWORK CALCULATIONS L7O
EXERCISE 6 IB7

ii

---
CHAPTER SEVEN - ALTERNATING AND DIRECT CURRENT DISTRIBUTION
7.I INTRODUCTION 191
7.2 REQUIREMENTS FOR GOOD DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS !92
7.3 CLASSIFICATION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS T92
7.3.T NATURE OF CURRENT T92
7.3.2 TYPE OF CONSTRUCTION 193
7.3.3 CONNECTION SCHEME 193
7.4 CONNECTION CIRCUITS OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 193
7.4.L RADIAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 193
7.4.2 RING DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM 194
7.4.3 INTER-CONNECTED SYSTEMS 195
7.5 DIRECT CURRENT DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 196
7.5.1 DIRECT CURRENT RING DISTRIBUTOR T97
7.6 ALTERNATING CURRENT DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 205
EXERCISE 7 2TB

CHAPTER EIGHT _ ELECTRIC LIGHTING

8.1 INTRODUCTION 227

8.1.1 LAMPS 227
8.1.2 DICHROIC COLOUR CHANGE 222
8.1.3 FIXTURES AND PARTS 222
8.1.4 MECHANICAL LUMINAIRES 222
8.1.5 TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS 222
8.1.6 ELECTRONIC HIGH-FREQUENCY BALLASTS 223
8.2 TROUBLE SHOOTING WITH LUMINAIRES 224
8.2.1 FAULT CONNECTION OF LAMP WIRES 224
8.2.2 LAMP WIRES NOT CONNECTED 224
8.2.3 CATHODE BROKEN 225
8.2.4 COLD ENVIRONMENTS 225
8.2.5 POOR WIRE CONTACTS 225
8.2.6 TOO LONG LAMP WIRES 226
8.2.7 HUMIDITY IN THE AIR 226
8.3 LIGHTING DESIGN 226
8.3.1 VISUAL RESPONSES 227
8.3.2 VISUAL PERFORMANCE 227
8.3.3 CHARACTER OF LIGHT 228
8,4 PRODUCTION OF MDIATION 230
8,5 LAMP MATERIALS 23I
8.5.1 GLASSES 237
8.5.2 METALS 237
8.5.3 GASSES 232
8.6 DEFINITIONS 232
8.6.1 LIGHT OUTPUT 232
8.6.2 AVEMGE LIFE 232
8.6.3 EFFICACY 232
8.6.4 COLOUR-RENDING INDEX 232
8.6.5 LUMINOUS FLUX 233
8.6.6 LUMINOUS INTENSIW 233
8.6.7 LUMINOUS EFFICIENCY 233
8.6.8 ILLUMINANCE 233
8.6.9 SPECIFIC OUTPUT 233
8.6.10 SPECIFIC CONSUMPTION 234
8.7 LAMPS 234
8,7.1 INCANDESCENT LAMPS 234
8.7.2 COMPACT FLUORESCENT LAMPS 237
8.7.3 FLUORESCENT LAMPS 237
8.7.4 MERCURY VAPOUR LAMPS 243
8.7.5 METAL-HALIDE LAMPS 245
8.7,6 SODIUM-XENON LAMPS 246
8.7.7 ELECTRODE-LESS INDUCTION LAMPS 246
8.8 LIGHTING CONTROLS 246
8.8.1 LOCALISED MANUAL SWITCHING 247
8.8.2 TIME-BASED SYSTEMS 247
8.8.3 DAYLIGHT-LINKED SYSTEMS 247
8.8.4 OCCUPANCY-LINKED SYSTEMS 247
8.8,5 LIGHTING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 247
8.9 EMERGENCY LIGHTING 248
8.9.1 ESCAPE LIGHTING 248
8.9.2 SAFETY LIGHTING 248
8.9.3 STANDBY LIGHTING 248

CHAPTER NINE - HARMONICS IN POLY-PHASE CIRCUITS

9.1 RELATIVE MAGNITUDES OF LINE AND PHASE CURRENTS AND OF LINE AND PHASE VOLTAGES
OF BALANCED POLY-PHASE CIRCUITS WHEN THE CURRENTS AND VOLTAGES ARE NOT
SINUSOIDAL 249
9.1.1 STAR CONNECTION 25L
9.T.2 DELTA CONNECTION 254
9.1.3 EQUIVALENT STAR AND DELTA VOLTAGES OF BALANCED, THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS WHICH
HAVE NON-SINUSOIDAL WAVES AND THAT CONTAIN ONLY ODD HARMONICS 256
EXERCISE9 262

ANSWERSTO EXERCISES 264

iv
 CHAPTER ONE

THREE.PHASE ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT

1.1 WATTMETERAPPLICATIONS

a \o
I(E
lo
t-
l(1)
l(^
lftt
\_c
ao,-
ldr
IE
l-c
lP
/lio

Figure 1.1: Connection of a wattmeter between two lines of a

three-phase system

The basic instrument used to measure ac power in three-phase systems is the

wattmeter, The wattmeter contains a low-impedance current coil that is connected in
series with the load, and which ideally has zero impedance. The wattmeter also has a '
high-impedance voltage coil that is connected across the load, and which ideally has
infinite impedance. The connection of a wattmeter is shown in Figure 1,1, The current
in the voltage coil and the resulting magnetic field in this coil are directly proportional
to voltage applied to the circuit. The current in the current coil and the resulting
magnetic field in this coil are propoftional to the current flowing into the circuit. Thus,
the reading on the wattmeter is directly proportional to the active power:

P = V.Lcos 0

Where: 0 = the angle between the voltage and the current

= the load angle or the power factor angle
= the angle of the voltage minus the angle of the current
The connections in Figure 1.1 will produce a reading of power delivered to the load.
Since the two coils are completely isolated from one another, they could be connected
anywhere in the circuit and the reading may or may not have any meaning. If one of
the coils on the wattmeter is reversed, the equations for the power are the negative of
what they were before the coil was reversed. This is due to the change in the variable
reference as related to the + terminal.
 Due to the physical construction of wattmeters, the + terminal of the voltage coil should
always be connected to the same line as the current coil. Any one of the two coils can
be reversed if becomes necessary to reverse a winding to produce an upscale
it
reading.

r0
li P_
J J
(J (J
L L
U U

Figure 1.2: Wattmeter connections for the reversal of current

For example, if the current coil is reversed, it results in the network shown in
Figure t.2.. tthe+terminal of thepotential coil isconnectedtothelinecontainingthe
current coil and the meter is reading upscale, the power is flowing through the
wattmeter from circuit A to circuit B. If a wattmeter indicates a reverse reading when
it is normally phased, i.e. the + ends of the voltage and current coils are connected
together, it means that the voltage and current are more than 90' out of phase' In
sulh cases the terminals of either the current coil or the voltage coil can be reversed.
for the reading to be fonruard and of the correct value'

1.1.1 ONE.WATTMETER METHOD

A single wattmeter can be used to measure the power of any balanced three-phase
systeir without breaking the phases, The system can be star-connected or delta-
connected. Figure 1.3 shows tire connection of a single wattmeter in a star-connected,
three-phase lold when a neutral wire is available. The wattmeter measures the phase
power that is then multiplied by three to find the total power in a balanced load'
Figure 1.4 shows the connection of a single wattmeter in a delta-connected, three-
phase load. The current coil of the wattmeter is connected in one line and the voltage
coil is connected alternately between this line and the other two lines' The total power
is then determined from the two readings on the wattmeter, This method is not of as
much universal application as the two-wattmeter method, because it is restricted to
balanced loads onlY,

t
 Figure 1.3: Single wattmeter connected in a balanced, three-phase, star-connected
system

Figure 1.4: Single wattmeter connected in a three-phase, delta-connected load to

determine the total power

The current Iu through the current coil of the wattmeter is the phasor difference of Iu5
and I.u, i.e. the phasor sum of I35 ond I.u reversed.
F

V.u

Figure 1.5: Phasor diagram for the voltages and currents of Figure 1.4

When the voltage coil of the wattmeter is connected to line b, the voltage will be V"u
and the phase difference between this voltage and the current will be (30' - 0). The
reading on the wattmeter will be:

W6 = Vu6.Iu. cos lY"b

= Vao.Ia.cos (30'- O)

= J3 .Von.Io6.cos (30'- S)

Where: =
Vor., phase voltage in V
Iph = Phase current in A

When the voltage coil of the wattmeter is connected to line c, the voltage will be V".
and the phase difference between this voltage and the current will now be (30' + 6).
The reading on the wattmeter will now be:

Wu = Vu..Iu .cos z!"'

= Van.Ia.cos (30' + 6)

= J3 .von.Ioh.cos (30' + O)

L.L.2 BLONDELL'S THEOREM

In general it takes (n - 1) wattmeters to measure power in a transmission system with

n number of lines. This phenomenon was described by Blondell and is generally known
as Blondell's theorem.

Lr
The voltage return for each wattmeter is connected to the line with no wattmeter in it.
In single-phase systems one wattmeter is required to measure the power. It is clear
that two wattmeters are needed to measure the total power in a three-wire, three-
phase system. This method will work whether the system is balanced or not, The
readings of the wattmeters are simply added together and the sum is the total power
going down the three-phase (or n-phase) line, Using instantaneous values for an
unbalanced, three-wire, star-connected load can prove Blondell's theorem.

Figure 1.6: Two wattmeters connected in a star-connected system to prove Blondell's

theorem

Wa+Wc = Vab,!a+vcb,ic

But: V66 = V6n-V56

And: V66 = V6n-V6n

wa * wc = (vun -vbn)ia+ (v.n - v5n)i.

= Yan,ia- tbn,ia * v.n.ir- v5n.i6

= Van.ra * v.n.i" + v6n(-i, - i.)

In a star-connected system:

is* i6 -f i. = Q

16 = -16-16
 And:

1.1.3 TWO.WATTMETER METHOD

The two-wattmeter method gives true power in the three-phase circuit without regard
to balance the waveform provided in the case of a star-connected load. The neutral of
the load is isolated from the neutral of the power source. If there is a neutral
connection, the neutral wire should not carry any current. This is possible only if the
load is perfectly balanced and there are no harmonics present'

Figure 1.7: Two-wattmeter method of measuring three-phase power

The two-wattmeter method can also be used for a three-phase, four-wire system in
which the neutral wire carries the neutral current. In this method, the current coils of
the wattmeters are supplied from current transformers insefted in the principal line
wires in order to get the correct magnitude and phase differences of the currents in the
current coils of the wattmeter, The reason being that in the three-phase, four-wire
system, the sum of the instantaneous currents in the principal line wires is not
necessarily equal to zero/ as is the case in a three-phase, three-wire system.
 0

The power delivered to a three-phase, three-wire, star- or delta-connected balanced or

unbalanced load can be found by using only two wattmeters, The basic connections
are shown in Figure 1.7. To show the application of the two-wattmeter method to
unbalanced loads, a star-connection is considered. Considering instantaneous values:

Voltage across wattmeter ? = Van

= Vun - Vbn

Voltage across wattmeter c = Vcb

= V.n - Vbn

Total active power = Vun.Iu + V6n.I6 + V.n,I.

The current Iu does not pass through a wattmeter and can be eliminated. In any three-
phase system:

I.+16+I. - 0

.'' Ib = -Iu-I.
.'. Total active power = Vun.Iu + Vnn(- Iu * I.) + Vcn.Ic

= (Vun - Vnn)Iu + (V.n - Vun)I.

= Vab.Ia * Vs6.Is
W = Wu+W.
Where: W = total active power measured by two wattmeters in W
wa = active power reading on wattmeter a
w. = active power reading on wattmeter c

Thus, at any instant the total active power is given by the sum of the two wattmeter
readings, This is true for balanced or unbalanced loads as well as star- or delta-
connected loads. To find the power factor from the two-wattmeter readings in
balanced loads, the star-connection of the three equal impedances shown in Figure 1.7
must be considered. The phasor diagram for the abc sequence is shown in Figure 1,8,
A lagging current with phase angle 0 is assumed.
 V.u Vu.

V.n

V.u

Figure 1.8: Phasor diagram (abc phase sequence) for the voltages and currents of
Figure 1.7

With the wattmeters in lines a and c (Figure 1.1), their readings are:

W3 = Vu5.I;.cos Zrvjb

And: w6 = V.5.I..cos ll'b

1.1.3.1TWO-WATTMETER METHOD OF OBTAINING THE POWER FACTOR

From the phasor diagram in Figure 1.8:

tY:'= 3oo+o

And: z{:o = 3oo-o

When these equations are substituted into the previous equations:

w6 = V35.I6.cos (30o + 0)

And: W. = V.6.I6.cos (30o - $)

This will be the reading on the wattmeter if the two-wattmeter method is used on
balanced loads, Writing the expressions for W" and W" and using the cosine of the
sum of the two angles:

Wu = V1.I1(cos 30o.cos$ - sin 30o.sin $)

And: W. = V1.I1(cos 30o.cos$ + sin 30o.sin $)

Then: Wu + W. = J3 .VL.IL.cos O

And: Wu - W. = JE .Vr.tr.sin O

Therefore:

tan d = Jtf*'-*')
(.W. + W. J

Thus, the tangent of the impedance angle is J5 times the ratio of the difference
between the readings on the two wattmeters and their sum. With no knowledge of the
lines in which the wattmeters are connected nor of the phase sequence, it is not
possible to distinguish between + $ and - $, However, when both the meter location
and the phase sequence are known, the sign can be fixed by the following equations.
For a positive phase sequence (abc):

tan d = nltfw' -wt ]

[W.+WoJ

or: tan6=
"[tr#)
or: tan d = J3f
*'-w')
[W. +W. J
For a negative phase sequence (cba):

tand = J5f*t-*.)
(W. +Wb J

Or: tan d = *.
Jrf(.W5 -*t )
+w, )

Or: tan 6 = Jrf

*. -*. )
l.W. + W. J
L.L,4 THREE-WATTMETER METHOD
The total power in a three-phase system can also be found by connecting a wattmeter
in each phase of the system to measure the power in each individual phase. These
readings are then added together to find the total power in the system. When the
power delivered to a three-phase system is measured, each voltage coil may be
connected across each load voltage. Similarly, each current coil may be connected in
series with each load current. However, these connections are not always possible in
practice, i.e,, a three-wire, star-connected load would require access to the neutral point
to make connections to the voltage coils. Similarly, in a three-phase, delta-connected
motor winding, it would not normally be possible to open the windings internally, as
would be necessary to inseft the current coils in series with each winding. Due to these
factors, a three-wattmeter method was introduced to measure the power in a three-
phase system using line voltages and currents instead of load voltages and currents.

!(o
a
!q.)
P(J
qJ
c
o
(J
I
rO
E
o
!
L
o
I
L

P
o
(t

Figure 1.9: Three-wattmeter method of measuring power in a three-phase system

Figure 1,9 shows that the current coils are connected in series with the lines, which
means that the currents in the wattmeters are \ne currents. One terminal of each
voltage coil is connected to a line, and the othdr terminals of the voltage coils are
connected together. The voltage coils are therefore connected in a star configuration.
Thus, the voltage coils form a balanced, star-connected system. The voltage across
each coil is therefore
5, *" voltage across each voltage coil lags the line voltage by
30" in a positive phase sequence system, and leads the line voltage by 30' in a
negative phase sequence system.

10
 ---
)

The power rneasured

by each watbneter
is then:

w -f 'tr'.o, 1zl't so"1

+ 30.: negative phase sequence

_ 30" = positive phase
sequence

# 1fi+l, Ji,''.".i;o # g-"? il:":" #".11x",iil!"k;!,1i.fl: se, ro u r- w re, sta r.

i

Il'no'ii"';l?;"Jiil:'"xnf il:#H*:ln::u;"#i"T"#,'ffrr:,?,.1*:.;ml,jl

Figure 1'10; Three

wattmeters *nn:T;o ,o u{ru-ohase, four-wire, star-connected
From Figure 1.10:

Wu = %n.Iu n.cos z!"n

Ian

Wo = V6n.I6n.Cos ZFn
lbn

11 :

t__ I
I
t
t
I

I
 W. = V.n.I.n,cos ,rY^
-Im

Figure 1.11: Three wattmeters connected to a three-phase, delta-connected load

Since the voltage coils form a balanced, star-connected system, the voltage across each
voltage mil lags the line voltage by 30' for a positive phase sequence and leads the line
voltage ry 30" for a negntive phase sequence. Thus, the reading on the wattmeter in
each line:

wa = .r".*.(zicbt3o.)
f
%= (zf-t to")
H:r-m
w. =
f;+*(zi%i3o.)
Where: +: rcgilhphffiqsEe
- : FdiE Fl e serFlentB

L2
 CHAPTER TWO

THREE.PHASE ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

2,L INTRODUCTION
The generation, transmission and distribution of electricity are accomplished by three-
phase alternating currents. An alternating current circuit having a single alternating
current voltage source is called a single-phase circuit. Electrical power is delivered from
a source/ such as an alternating current voltage generator, to a load by means of two
wires, This arrangement is called a single-phase, two-wire system.

Vun Vo.

-.__r
\/ L--rrJ w
Three-phase, Single-phase Single-phase
three-wire supply (V11n")
supply (V1'n") ,roor, [I+.'l
(J:;
Figure 2.1: connection of different supplies to a three-phase, four-wire system
(equivalent circuit to Figure 2.4)

Most consumers are fed from a single-phase alternating current supply. One wire is
called the live conductor and the other wire is called the neutral conductor. The neutral
conductor is usually connected to earth via protective gear. The standard voltage for a
single-phase alternating current supply is 220 V. The majority of single-phase supplies
are obtained by connection to a three-phase supply as shown in Figure 2.1. A poly-
phase circuit is a circuit containing more than one alternating current source and three
or more wires, Upon these wires appear alternating current voltages having different
phase angles. The most common poly-phase circuits are those containing three
alternating current sources and three or four wires.

13
 These three-phase circuits are widely used in the electrical power industry to transmit
power from generating stations to metropolitan areas and to distribute that power to
individual consumers.

2.2 THREE.PHASESYSTEMS

Three-phase systems have some advantages over single-phase systems:

. More efficient use of copper wire for the distribution of power

o More constant power from generators and motors

. More constant torque on generators and motors

. Fewer ripples in the direct current output when alternating current is conveted to
direct current

A three-phase supply is generated when three coils are placed 120' apaft and the
whole rotated in a uniform magnetic field as shown in Figure 2.2. A three-phase
voltage is basically three single-phase voltages. Each voltage is separated from the
next by a phase angle of 120'. The same basic structure found in the single-ffise
generator can therefore be used to generate the three voltages simply by equipping the
rotor with three separate windings. If the windings are spaced 120" apaft, the voltages
induced in these windings will then be shifted from each other by 120' of phase, as
required. This concept is implemented in practical three-phase generators, but the
physical structure is somewhat different. Electromagnetic induction occurs when there
is relative motion between a conductor and a magnetic field, In other words, either the
conductor or the field may be moving while the other is stationary, In practical three-
phase generators however, the three windings (conductors) are stationary and the
magnetic field is rotated, as shown in Figure 2.2.

.o ^t^. a

Figure 2.2: Displacement of voltages in a three-phase system

14
The windings are embedded in the stator and direct current (the excitation) is passed
through brushes and slip rings to the field winding on the rotor, The field produced by
the rotor as it turns, cuts the conductors of the three stator windings. Since the stator
windings are 120" apart, the rotating magnetic field induces voltages that are separated
in phase by 120'. A three-phase generator commonly located in a power station
produces three-phase power. The rotor is driven by a prime mover, i.e. a turbine, and
the rotor poles are excited by direct current. The stator has a three-phase distributed
winding. The axes of the phase windings are displaced from each other by 120
electrical degrees, as shown in Figure 2.2.

Sinusoidal voltages are induced in the stator phases when the rotor is rotated, For a
balanced system, the voltages have equal amplitudes and are 120" displaced in phase,
as shown in Figure 2.4. The equivalent circuit of the stator windings is shown in
Figure 2.3. In this case the windings have a common connection labelled n, called the
neutral, and the windings form a star-connected network. Since the neutral line n is an
output, the output is said to be three-phase, four-wire. The windings can also be delta-
connected.

Figure 2.3: Equivalent circuit of the stator windings of a three-phase generator

Figure 2.1 shows a circuit equivalent to Figure 2.3 and consisting of three alternating
current generators. Shown in Figure 2.3 is the plot of the three voltages, v36, v6 dhd
V"n. Each voltage is taken with respect to the neutral n. Three wires, called lines,
therefore carry a three-phase, alternating current supply. The currents in these wires
are known as line currents and potential differences between the lines are known as
line voltages. The fourth conductor, known as the neutral, is often used with a three-
phase supply,

15
 V.n
I

i
t--'' )(i "-
: 120. L20
"
Figure 2.4: Sinusoidal form of the phase voltages of a three-phase generator, each
with respect to the neutral

If the three-phase windings shown in Figure 2.3 are kept independent, then six wires
are needed to connect a supply source to a load. The three phases are usually
interconnected to reduce the number of wires. This can be done in two ways, namely a
star-connection and a delta-connection. Sgglgg1_qilhlggpha5_9- Supdies, are usually
c91n_eq!9^Q i0-.St?Lwhereas three-phase loads may be connected either in delta or star.

2.2.L PHASE SEQUENCE OF THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS

The double-subscript notation is used to avoid confusion in the direction of voltage and
current. When the double-subscript notation is applied to alternating current circuits,
the sequence of the subscripts indicates the direction in which the current or voltage is
assumed to be positive. Figure 2.5 represents an alternating current source connected
in series with an impedance. The voltage across the impedance is designated V"o to
symbolise that the potential of a is positive with respect to b. Thus, if an arrow
representing the direction of this voltage is drawn alongside the impedance, the head
of the arrow should point towards the end that is at higher potential, i.e. towards a in
Figure 2.5,
Vao

Iao H
H -

f \,_,/ _

Figure 2.5: Double-subscript notation of voltage and current in alternating current

circuits

IO
 t

The current through the impedance flows from a to b and is therefore designated f"s.
The phase sequence is the order in which the three phases attain theii maximum
values. The phase sequence can be determined by the order in which the phasors
representing the phase voltages pass through a fixed point on the phasor diagram if
the phasors are rotated in an anti-clockwise direction. The phase seque:nce in
Figure 2.6 is positive or abc. The phase sequence is quite important in the thiee-phase
distribution of power. In a three-phase motor for example, if two phase voltages are
interchanged, the sequence will change and the direction of rotation of the molor will
be reversed.

V."

Figure 2.6: Phasor diagram for a positive phase-sequence, showing phase and line
voltages (Vu as reference)

The phase sequence can also be described in terms of the line voltages. Drawing the
line voltages on a phasor diagram, the phase sequence can be determined by Jgain
rotating the phasors in an anti-clockwise direction. The sequence can be determined
by noting the order of the passing first or second subscripts. In the system of Figure
2'6, the phase sequence of the first subscripts passing the fixed point is abc, itre
phasor diagram is always started with the reference, from where the rest
of the
voltages are drawn according to the specified sequence. The voltages in Figure 2.6 will
be:

%= VpnZO'V
V6 = Vp6Z-120" V
Vc = Vpnl120" V
Van = VrZ3Oo V

Vn. = Vr-Z-9Oo V
Vca = VrZ150" V
I

t7

-
 Where: Vpr, = phrevolbge
Vr- = line volbge
The phase sequence can also be negative or cba as shown in Figure 2.7.

(D

V.u

Figure 2.7: Phasor diagram fgr a negative phase-sequence, showing phase and line
voltages (Vu as reference)

The voltages in Figure 2.7 will be:

Va = VpnZ0o V
Vo = Vpr.Z120'V
Y, = Yp6l-120" V
Vau = VrZ-30" V

Yo, = VtZ-150'V
Vca = VlZ90" V

Remember:

The voltage giyen is always the line voltage, unless othenvise stated.

The voltage is always the reference, unless othenruise stated.

The referene is always 0", unless otherwise stated,

In a posiUve phase sequence system, the line voltage leads the corresponding
phase voltage by 3O".

In a negaUve phase sequelrce system, the line voltage lags the corresponding
phase voltage by 3O".

1B
L2.2 BALANCED STAR-CONNECTED,
THREE.PHASE SYSTEMS
Figure 2,8 shows^the
windings of a three_phase
be three or rour output generatol
rines, whicrrL[::fl?;:rt":lTll?:-.onnected in star. rhere can
three-phase, three-wire .on"L.tui
ii''r""lprffi:?:ilT,.?:id*l ou u
'nrllr'.un
"'

Stator
Rotor
Field winding

Neutral n
Direct current
excitation

c
rnree- [
Phase 1 b
output I a

Figure 2.g: Structure

and wiring of a three-phase,
star_connected generator
The voltage induced .

,?"lJ:f ,:,rl;:
;Iti:i"",""",:Eni?t:il#:'titi,,1:?itTffi :Ji;:",:ff fi
rl";ffi :*iililI,ffii:lil"il:,..,,:""i';:t-l'r'ttr#nril1+.r1hll$;tr

19
 Eun
za a(tr
In
o
c)
V,
(E
-c
o-
I
o
OJ
L
-c
I
o
F

/ Figure 2.9: Phase and line quantities in a symmetrical, three-phase, four-wire, star-
connected supply

Figure 2,4 shows the three phase voltages in sinusoidal form, The corresponding
phasor diagram is shown in Figure 2.10. The maximum value of each phase voltage in
Figure 2.4 is E^, so that:

€an = Ean(m1 sin rrlt

= E6n161Z0o V

enn = Ebn('y sin (rot - 120")

= Em@)Z-LZlo Y

ecn = Ecn(m) sin (<ot + 120')

= Ecnln)ZI2lo Y

The srn dte phase voltages is:

e-' + q" * €"n = t/0' + tZ-120 + LlI20'

-0

z0

\
"q
 E
Lbn

Figure 2.1O: Phasor diagram of the phase voltages shown in Figure 2.9

Thus, the sum of the phase voltages is zero, regardless of the nature
of the load'
rigui! 2.11 show that the line voltage E65 cdh be determined by using Kirchhoffs
voltage law.

Figure 2.11: Determining line voltages using Kirchhoffs voltage law

Using to Kirchhoffs voltage law considering Figure 2'11:

E*-Eun+E6n - 0 . 6b
i:.

E
Lab - Lan Lbn

= ll0 - Ll-r20
= iE Epr,1'f30" V
i"u
Similarly: Lbc - Eun - E.n

J5 Epr.1'yZ-90'V

2L
And: E.u = fu,-E=.
= J3 Epn1.12150'V

If these three Kirchhoft equations are added, the sum of the line w{1zqes is also zerro.
is .,'3 times Ereater
These equations also show that the magnitude of the line vollages
than the magnitude of the phase voltages. Thus, in a three-phase, startonnected
system:
n

EL = 6-on

Eun

I" = I.n

Figure 2.12: Voltages and currents in a four-wire, star-connected system (pps)

with Eun as reference

Frgure 2.12 shows a phasor diagram of the line and phase voltages. From the phasor
diagram (positive phase sequence) it can be seen that:

. The line voltages, like the phase voltages, are 120o apaft.

. The line voltages lead their respective phase voltages by 30',

. The angle between the line currents and the corresponding line voltages is
{30' + 0) with the current lagging the voltage.
:mm Frgure 2.9 it is apparent that each line current equals the phase current in the
rr*rndirg to which the line is connected. This means that:

Iu = Iun
Iu = Iun
I. = I.n
 in general, in a three-phase, star-connected system:

11 = Ipn

Using Kirchhoffs current law at the star point n, the current in the neutral conductor,
flowing towards the neutral point, is:

In= Iu+I5*I.
When the phase currents, as well as the line currents, are equal in magnitude, the
system is balanced. This also means that the impedances of the load are equal. In
this case, the current in the neutral wire will be zero,

2,2,3 BALANCED, DELTA-CONNECTED, THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS

Figure 2.13 shows the windings of a three-phase generator connected in delta. There
are just three output lines, which means that every delta-connected system is a
three-phase, three-wire system.

Stator
Rotor
Field winding

rnree- [a -)' Direct current

phase I b excitation
output [6 ts-
+

Figure 2.13: Structure and wiring of a three-phase, delta-connected generator

Figure 2.13 shows the phasor diagram for the output voltages of a three-phase, delta-
connected system.

Ean = EtlOo Y
eab = Eab(my Sin <Ot

Eo.^ = Etl-120'V

en. = Eu.(r) sin (rrtt - 120') V

23
 Lca -
ELllzT v
A_
Lca -
E646y sih (CIt + 120') V

E.u

E
Lah

E
Lbc

Figure 2.14: Phasor diagram for the output voltages of a delta-connected system
(pps)

Figure 2.15 shows a delta-connected system. The phase quantities are those within the
source and the line quantities are those in the output lines connected to the load. It is
eminent from Figure 2.15 that the line and phase voltages are equal.

FlEure 215: Phase and line quantities in a three-phase, delta-connected system

24
 when Kirchhoffs current raw is appried at
node a of the derta road in Figure 2.15:

Ia-IaO*Ica=0

Iu=136-I.g
Similarly: 16=I5s-166
And: I.=Is6-16.
By adding these equations, it will be seen
that:

Ia+Ib*I. = Q

This means that the sum of the line currents

in a derta-connected system is always
zero' The sum of the phase currents will only
oe zero*r,er tr," rvri"rii;##;..
when the phase currents have equar magniiudes
and ur" ,"pu,,utud in phase by 120"
from one another. In this speciar .ur" *riun
the system i; i6; 2.15 is baranced, the
magnitude of each rine current is J3 times
the magnitude of each phase current.
Thus:

Ir = 6ton
Figure 2.16 shows a phasor diagram of
the rine vortages and currents.

Figure 2.16: Vortages and currents in a

derta-connected system (pps) with
Eu6 as
reference
From the phasor diagram of Figure
2,16 (pps) it can be seen that:
. The line currents, like the phase currents,
are 1200 apart.

25

-
 The line currents lag their respective phase currents by 30o.

The angle between the line currents and the corresponding line voltages is
(30o + $) with the current lagging the voltage.

2.2.4 UNBAIANCED DELTA-CONNECTED, THREE-PHASE LOAD

The output of a star- or delta-connected source (generator) may also be connected to

an unbalanced, delta-connected load.

2,2.4.19f AR- DELTA (Y-A) CON FrG U RATTON

Figure 2.17 shows a star-connected source driving an unbalanced delta-connected load'

It is eminent that the magnitude of the voltage across each of the impedances of the
load (phase voltage) is equal to the magnitude of the line voltage'

Supply Load
aIa a

za
l''\t:'
E." Ean Vau V.u '/r".
26
I.u

b
I5
Iu. b

En. u"t
Ic

Figure 2.17: Star-delta configuration

26
Example 2.1

In a star-delta system the following apply to the load:

Z1o = (L2.8 + j9.6) o

Zy = (18.2 - j6.9) o
7- = (15.3 + jzL.q a

Vun is given as 24010" V. Use a negative phase sequence and calculate the line
currents. Draw a phasor diagram of the line and phase currents,

Figure 2.18: Negative (cba) phase sequence with Vu as reference

Current in each phase:

Vab = IarZuo

(Ji)Q+oz-30') = (I"bX12.B + j9.6)

Iab = 25.9812.-55.87. A

\,vbc
- Ia*Za,
(Ji)Q+ozeo') = (rbcx1B.2 - j6.9)
Ib. = 2L.3572L1O.750 A

%u = I.u.Z.u

(Ji )e+oz-lso.) (Ic"X15.3 + j21.4)

I.u L5.8022155.560 A

27
 Current in each line:

= Iab - Ica

= 25.9BLl-66.87' - 15.8021155.56'
= 39.L251-51,O5" A
I6 = In. - Iub

= 2L.357 2LL0.76 - Z5.9BLZ-66.87'

= 47.3282112.06" A

Ic = I.u - Ib.

= L5.8022I55.56" - 2L.357 tI10.76'

= 15.O631-115.9o A

tgure 2.19: Phasor diagram for phase and line currents (not to scale)

2. 2.4. 2 DELTA{TELTA (A-A) CON FrG U RATTON

Figure 220 sftors a delta-connected source driving an unbalanced delta-connected

load.

28
 Supply
Load
a Ia a

zru Z"u \\ E.u E

Lah Vau V.u / /2, z";
I.u
Za,

c b c _Iu.b
I6

Eu. Vn.

Ic

Figure 2.20: Delta-delta configuration

Example 2.2

In a delta-delta system the following apply to the load:

Zao= 1B'B 163'4 Q

Zn"'= 24.2139.6't)
2,. = L5.LZ-76.6" Q

The load is supplied from a 50-Hz, symmetrical, three-phase supply with vca =
and a positive phase sequence. Calculate the line currents,
- 44ay

%u

V.u

Vn.

Figure 2.21: Positive (abc) phase sequence with Vca = - 440v

29
 V35 = 136.235

440160" = (I"bX1B.B 163.4")

Ian = 23.4O42-3.4 4

V56 = I6s,Z5s

4402_60 = (Ib)(24.2239.6)
Iu. = 18.1822-99.6'A
V.u= I.u,Z.u
440ZIB0' = (IcaX15.1 2-76.6)
I.u = 29.1392-LO3.4'A

16 = 166-166
= 23.4042-3.4' - 29.139 l-103.4"
= 4O.4L9241.83" A

15 = 156-165

= L8.I822-99.6' - 23.404 1-3.4

= 31.L492-t47.93o A
Is = IG-I6s
= 29.139t-103.4' - tgJgzt-ggs
= LL.O63Z-109.65" A

2.2.5 UNBALANCED STAR-CONNECTED, THREE-PHASE LOAD

The output of a star- or delta-connected source (generator) may also be connected to

an unbalanced, star-connected load.

2.2.5.L DELTA-STAR (A-Y) CON FrG U RATIO N

Figure 2.22 shows a delta-connected source driving an unbalanced star-connected load,

It is eminent that the magnitude of the line currentsis equal to the magnitude of the
phase (load) currents.

30
 Supply Load
a Ia a

u"l za

Z,u Z"o\\ E'u E

Lab %n V.u V

b
% N-
c b
I6

Eo. Vu.

Ic

Figure 2.22: Delta-star configuration

Using Kirchhoffs voltage law around the terminals in the star-connected load, the
relationships between the phase and line voltages are:

V36+V6-Vu= 0
Vao = Va-Vu

Vs6*Vs-Vu = 0

V56 = V5-Vg
V.u+Vu-V.= 0

V.u = V.-Vu
When the load is unbalanced, Millman's theorem or star-delta conversion can be used
to do any calculations regarding the load.

Example 2.3

A three-phase, three-wire, star-connected load is connected to a balanced, three-

phase, 380-V, 50-Hz, delta-connected generator. The impedances of the load is given
by:

Zu = (28.2 - j18,2) o
26 = (22.4 + j16.4) O
Z, = (32.6 + j12.6) O

31
 Take V5. as reference with an abc-rotation.

2.3.L Calculate the voltage drop in phase a if the impedance in this phase suddenly
risesto infinity.
2.3.2 Calculate the current in phase c if the impedance in this phase becomes short-
circuited.

2.3.7

Figure 2.23: Three-phase, three-wire star-connection with phase a open-circuit

vc

Figure 2.24: Positive (abc) phase sequence with Vss oS reference

32
 Vcb = Icb(Zc + zb)
3802180" = (Id)(22.4 + jL6.4 + 32.6 + j12.6)
T-
lcb - 6.tI2Zt52.2 A
= r"

Vr= Ir.Z,
= (6.712tI52.2)(32.6 + jL2.6)
= 213,6162L73.33V
Using Kirchhoffs voltage lawl

%-V.*V." = 0
Vu = V.-V.u

= 2I3.6I6t173.33" - 3B1t-LZO"
= 354.589Z93.S8 V
This example can also be solved using line b:

Vao

l"

c
Figure 2.25: Three-phase, three-wire star-connection with phase
a open-circuit
Y6r= 16r(Z6+Zr)
38020' = (16)(22.4 + jI6.4 + 32.6 + jIZ.6)
I6s = 5.11.22-27.8 A

-f6

33

F
 V6 = Is.Z6
= (6.LIZI-27.8')(22.4 + j16.4)

= 169.6828.4L V

Using Kirchhoffs voltage law:

Va-Vun-Vn = 0
* Vu= V66 * V5

= 3B0lL20 + L69.6818.4'
354,597293.58" V

2.3.2 r

vac
)
tur t'/4

Figure 2.26: Three-phase, three-wire star-connection with phase c short-circuited

Vu.= Iu.,Zu

380260" = (IacX2B.2
-j18.2)
Iac = 11.322292.84'A

V66 = I6a.Z6

3ffitr = (tN)(72.4 + j15,4)

It = 13.6882-36.21 A

34\
.-r' \FY
ib " 'i\'
-
-t--
 1

I.= - (I". + I5.)

- (II.322292.84 + 13.6882-36.2L)
= to,967z-162.920 A

225,2 STAR-STAR (y-y) CO N Frc U RATTON

Flgure 2.27 shows a star-connected source driving an unbalanced star-connected load.

Since the neutral is connected between the load and the source, this is called a three-
phase, four-wire system. The other systems are all three-phase, three-wire systems
because of only the three connection points on the delta.

Supply Load
a I" a

za za

E
E.u Lab Van V.u

zc Zo zc 26

c b
I5

Eo. Vn.

Ic

Figure 2.27: Star-star configuration

Four-wire systems are useful when two different load voltages are required. These
voltages are the line voltage and the phase voltage that is J3 times smaller than the
line voltage. It is eminent from Figure 2.27 that the voltage across each impedance of
the star-connected load is equal to the phase voltage of the source, Since these load
voltages equal the phase voltages of the source and the sum of the phase voltages is
zero, the sum of the load voltages is also zero, whether the load is balanced or not.

2.2.5.3 MILLMAN'S THEOREM

In a four-wire system, the neutral is available to keep the star point at earth potential.
With only three lines connected to an unbalanced, star-connected load, the star point of
the three load impedances is not at earth potential and is marked with s instead of n.
 The voltages across the three impedances can vary considerably from line to neutral.
The voltage V.n is known as the displacement neutral voltage or the star-point
potential.

Figure 2.28: Representation of the star-point potential in relation with the phase
voltages in an unbalanced, three-phase, three-wire, star-connected load

Refer to Figure 2.9 and Figure 2.28. Millman's theorem states that if any number of
linear impedances, i.e.2u,26 and 2", meet at a common point n, and the voltages from
another point s to the free ends of these impedances are known, the voltage drop
between the neutral of the source (generator) and the floating neutral of the load is
given by:

E"n,Yu + E* .Y6 + E"n.Y"

V"n =
Y" +Y6 +Y.

The admittance in each phase, in Siemens, is:

1
Yu=
1
1
Yu=
z,
1
t- -
?

I-lis s -:'+: ':'ir. h'lillman's theorem states that parallel-connected current sources
c?- r€ '?=,=:=::, a single equivalent current source. This is also applicable in the
r3-r ,,,-t-i :'E-= t -::rneced voltage sources can be reduced to one equivalent
ir r3J€ :":,-= --*s i an unbalanced, three-wire, star-connected load, the star-point
:i::e-:,? --- 1r= --,1- e:e: dlrectly by using Millman's theorem. In triangle ans in
Fg-'e I -! -s.E *.*:l-,:Fs 'r'cltage law:

*r -:---

36
 Vb" = Eun - Vrn

Similarly, in triangle ans:

%n+%r-Ern = 0

Va" = E.n - V.n

And in triangle cns:

%n+V.r-Ecn = 0

V". = E"n_V"n

Example 2.4

In a delta-star system the following apply to

the load:
Za = 17.52-34.2. e
Za = 13.9268.1'O
Za = 74.22-49.7. e

The load is supplied from 380-V, 50-Hz,

symmetricar, three-phase suppry, Take
a nesative pr,ur" ,"qr"ni.. use Miitman,, [n"or", Eu5 as
,r,;5:il::r[lh and catcutate the

Figure 2.29: Negative (cba) phase sequence

with Eu6 as reference

37

D
 Using Millman's theorem to find the neutral displacement voltage:

E".Yu + En.Y6 + En.Y.

'vsn - Y.+Yb+Y.
380130"r3802150.r3801-90
r r
(E)w st-34z) (E)run.*u rEroou-*rt
r1r1
17.51-34.2' r3.9t68.r' t4.21-49.7"
= 213.363232.32'V
Voltage in each phase:

Vu, = Eu-Vrn

= 3BoJsz:o' - 2t3.363 z3z.3z

= 1..O.635Z-24.31.V
Vo.
=
Eu - Vrn
3Bo z-150'
=
J3
- 213.363/32.32

= 37O.3342-L79.32V
v., = E.-Vrn
*_ fio l-90" 1r
-.,3.363132.32.
./3
-.--
= 379.093Z-II.8.4' V
Current in each phase:

Vu' = Iu'Zu
10.635 /._24.31o = (I)(I7.52_34.2.)
Ia = 0.60829.89" A

V55 = 16.2g
370.334t_179j2 = (IbX13,9Z6B.1.)
Io = 26.4232LL2.58 A

V., = I.,2.
379.093 t_L1B.4o = (I)(I4.2t_49.7")
I. = 26.6971-68.7'A

3B
 eJ.5i4 DELTA-STAR (A-y) coNvERSIO N

some electrical circuits have no components in

series and no components in parallel,
These circuits can therefore not be reduced to
simpi"riircuits that contain equivalent
impedance of the series or parallel combinationil -
possible to convet a circuit, or part
rn runy cases, however, it is
of a circuit, in luch a way tl.rat irre resulting
configuration does contain series- and parallel-.onnuit"o
components. The equivalent
circuit is produced by the conversion in the sense
that the currents and voltages in the
converted components remain the same. In view
of the relationship o"t*""n the line
and phase cullents and voltages, an equivalent star
may replace any delta-connected
system, such that the impedance measured.between
any two terminals is unchanged.
For example, a three-phase, delta-connected system
having a phase voltage of Vs and
a phase current of may be replaced by a star-connected system having
#, a line
voltage Vr and a line current 11. similarly, a balanced
delta-connected load in which
each phase impedance is 3zl$ ohms, may be replaced
by an equivalent star-connected
load having equal branch impedances of Zlg ohms.

Zn,

Figure 2.3o: Impedance in star- and derta-connections

consider the delta and star networks of impedance

shown in Figure 2,30. In the delta
network, the impedance measured between terrinuf,
a in; ;;;,
7, Zuo(Zo, +Zu)
Lao - I;+zb, +z;
In the star network this impedance is (Zu + 26).
Hence, for equivarence:

Zun(Zo' +ZJ
Z" + Zn-= Zao +2y- +Z*

39

F
 Z,rr(Zu +Z^t)
Similarly: 76*7, =
7"6 +26, +Z*

Z*(7,0, +Zuo)
And: 7u+2" =
Zu6 +76..+Zn

Thus: 7u-26 =
Zor.7
- + Z u.Z - Z,o,Z u,o - Z,or.Z
-
",o
2"6 +26.- +7o
z7zab -zbc.zab
Zu6 +76.. +Zo

7u,Z* +Zo.Z"t +Zu.Zu,o -Z,or.7"n

And: 2Zu =
2"6 +26r+Zu

Zab'2""
Therefore: 7"=
Zaa *Zy +2.^

7^a'Z*
Similarly: '' Zaa -Zg -Z.u

tLc Z*'2.
And: - Z"b +Ze +2.

Note that each of the impedances is equal to the product of the impedances in the two
closest branches of the delta network, divided by the sum of the impedances in the
delta network,

Example 2.5

The network in Figure 2.31 connected to a 380 V, 50 Hz ac supply.

2.5.L Calculate the total impedance of the network, using delta-star conversion,
2.5.2 Calculate the current drawn from the supply,

40
 (7.8 + j12.3) o

(B.B + jB.B) o j7"2) a

(13.4 - je.3) o (e.s - j16.2) o

Figure 2.31: Delta_star

conversion
2.5.1 Convert the delta to an
equivalent star:

Z"o'Zu
Zu = lu6 + 26,- +Zo

(14.4 + j7.2)(B.B + jB.S)

= 74.4_j7.2%
= 6.127271.920 e
Zt = -1"6 Zao'Zo'
+26, +Zo

= 9.2462-32.70 t,

7 -
L?- <
Z^..2-^
2"6 +26, +Zo

= 7.1472_14.26o e
The star as shown in
Figure 2.32 nowrepraces
the derta in Figure 2.31.

47

-
 (7.8 + j12.3) o

6.12727r.92'O

7.147t-r4.26 0 9.246t-32.7" O
(13.4 - je,3) o

Figure 2.32: Equivalent star circuit diagrann

Zt= 7u+(7.8+j12.3)
= 2O.558261.840 O
Zz= 7,+(13.4-j9.3)
= 23.L4LZ-28,55o O

a- -
La-
Zt'Zz
Zr+2,
t6r.84")(23.r4rt -28.55")
= (20.558
20.558 z6L.U" + 23.I4I t 28. 55'
-
15.42L220.O50 cr
a_
z-- 76+23
= 9.246 z-32.7o + L5.421 220.050
22.26910.750 d2

2.5.2 L- LZ
38020'= (r)(22.26s20.7s") '
l= L7.O6424.75 A

42
1" 25s STAR-DELTA (y-A) coNvERSTON

The star-delta conversion is normally derived from the

delta-star conversion. From
FiEure 2'30 and by forming three possible products
rrom the oerta-star eqruiion*

z2-
7 7. z;b'zbc.zca
(Zao +Zo, +Zu)2

z2=
Z6c'Zcd'Zab
7, 7
(Z"a +Z.6,- +Zo)2

7 7-
1c'La
zz*,zuo,zo,
G;irrn;f
Adding these three equations give:

Z (Z ao + Zo.^ + Z
Z*Z6+Z6Zr+Zr.Zu = ^o.Z,or.Z
o u)
(Zua + 6.- +Zu)z

zab'Zbc.zca
Zu6 +2y- +Zu

Thus: 7_ Z^.Za +Z,o,Z, +Zr.Z"

aab -
zc

Or: z.a= zu*26t+

Similarly: za" = zb+zc.-+
And: Zn = Z"tZ^-+
Thus,. a star of impedancest zat 26 and 2", may be repraced
by the derta of
impedances, zat, zb. and 2"", if the above relaiions
are satisiieo. Note that the value
of each of the impedances of the delta is equal to
the sum of the possible product
combinations of the impedances of the star,
divided by the impedances of the star
fathest from the impedance to be determined.

43
 Example 2.5

A three-phase, three-wire, star-connected load with a phase sequence of abc, is

connected to a symmetrical, three-phase, 360-V supply. The load has the following
impedances:

Za = I2.0IZB7 35' a
Zo = 19'57145'54'{>
7, = L6.92/-6L7B Q
Conveft the load to an equivalent delta-connected load to find the phase currents and
then calculate the star-point potential. Take V5 as reference.

Solution:
vulr2lo
Eo,l30o
Ea6ZL50o

Y6200

vc/-r20o

Figure 2.33: Positive (abc) phase sequence with Vb as reference

Delta-con nected im pedances:

Zu'70
7,x = 7.-r 7x *
zc
.35') (L9 .57 245,
(L2.01 zB7 54 ")
= t2.01187.350 + 19.57145.540 + 16.922-61.78"
= 22,462287.90 O
a a r 1 r
77
-C'-d
L^--L.aL-A
-
zb
(16.92t - 6t.78.)(tz.0ttg7 .35")
= 16.92'-$1,78o + t2.0I287.350 +
19.57 245.54"
= L9.42!l-19.42o O

44
Current in each phase of the delta-connected loadr

r-Vao
rab_
d
3601150"
= 22.452287.9"

= L6.O27262.1o A

r-Vca
l^.
-
/' cA

360 t-90"
19.42rt-19.42
= 18.5372-70.58'A

Ia = Iuo-Ica
= 16.027162.10 - LB.537l-70.58"
= 31.675187.580 A

Vu, = Iu.Zu
= (3I.675 zB7.5BoX12.0 I tB7 .35o)

= 380.4172174.93V
V'n = Vu-Vu'

= l-l[:ooz]zo"l - 3*o.4t7tt74.s3"
\J3)
= 311.5375228'030 V

Example 2.7

The load of a three-phase, delta-star system consists of the following impedances:

Zu = (L5.6 + j12.4) o
26 = (I5.2 - 18.3) o
Z" = (24.I + j16.7) o

E6u is 440 V and a negative phase sequence is used.

45
2.7.r use star-delta conversion to calculate the currents drawn from the supply,
2.7.2 Calculate the voltage across each impedance in the load.

2.7.t
E,"160o

Ev6lIB0o

v^l-L50" vbz-30
o

E,orZ-60

Figure 2.34: Negative (cba) phase sequence with Eba as reference

Delta-connected im pedances :

7"n= 7^+2,6+'4"
Lc
(15.5 + jtz.4)(Ls.2- j18.3)
= 15.6 + j12.4 + I5.2 - j18.3 +
24.1+ j16.7

= 45.25652-22.270 Q

7or= Zn+zc+t+
la
(1s,2 - j18.3X2a.1+ j16.7)
= 15.2 - j18.3 + 24.I + j16.7 +
15.6 + j12,4

56.9192-26.570 C)

7_
L+z-*7''7u
zb
(24.1+ j16.7x1s.6 + jt2.4)
z4.t + j16.7 + 15.6 + j12.4 +
ls.2 - j18.3
56.457262.20 A

46
 lr
F

C.ru.r"ent f
in each phase of the
delta_connected load:
,i

Iao = %!-
Zao
4402780"
= as.ag22 _ 22fi
= 9.6742_157.190 A
T, -
.DC -
Vu.
zo,
4402_69.
66sl6z_16r;r
= 6.5752_33.430 A

T-Vca
rca
-
z^_
k

440Zffi,
id.os? z6n"
= 7.8492_2.20 A
Current in each line of
the delta_connected load:

Iu = Iuo-I.u
= 9.6742_LS7.Ig" _ 7.B4gZ_2.2o
= t7.tt2Z_169.37o A
Io = Io.-I"n
= 6.5752_33.430 _ 9.6742_757.tgo
= I4.4OSZO.51o A
I. = I.u-Ib.
= 7.8492-2.20 - 6.575Z_33.430
= 4.O72ZS4.OSo A
2'7.2 %s = I6.Zu
= (17.1122_168.37)(1s.6 + j12.4)
= 341.0O64_t2g,ggo V

47

E
 Vb, = Ia'Zo
= (74.40s t0.s1ox ls.2 - j 18.3)

342.685t49.780 V

V., = Ir.7"
= (4.0722s4.6sox24, 1 + jL6.7)
LLg.394289.370 V

2.3 COMPLEX POWER

Apparent power consists of real (active) power and reactive power, This power
ignores the phase relationship between the current and the voltage, When this phase
angle is 0o, the apparent power equals the active power. When the phase angle is 90',
the apparent power equals the reactive power, The apparent power is defined to be:

S= E.I

Complex power also consists of real (active) power and reactive power, However,
the phase relationship between the current and voltage is included in this power.
Active power is unidirectional and reactive power reverses direction twice each field
cycle and results in reactive energy near the oscillating source. This energy directly
i nfl uences, affects a nd im its operationa I characteristics.
I

Ite

,tul zz+

Figure 2.35: Circuit for the explanation of power relationships

To develop a relationship between complex power and other power quantities,

consider the circuit shown in Figure 2.35. The complex power is defined to be:

Sx = E.Ix
Where: E = the rms value of the supply voltage
Ix = the complex conjugate of the rms value of the current

4B
The conjugate of a quantity is the mirror image of that quantity. If the current is
T. = l0 A, the conjugate of this current will then be I = l-0 A, as shown in Figure 2.36.

I*:Il-e
Figure 2.36: Phasor diagram showing I and its conjugate I*
The complex power is then:

S* = EL\.IZ-j
= E.Iz(9 - 0)
= PljQ
P = E.I.cos$ = I2.R
Q = E.I.sin$ = r2.x
Where: P = real or active power in W
cos$: powerfactor
Q = reactive power in VA'r

Where: $ : power factor angle

Gos$ = cos Zl
The magnitude of the complex power is simply what was called apparent power, and
the phase angle of the complex power is the power factor angle. The relationship
between the complex power, active power and reactive power is shown in Figure 2.37
and in Figure 2.38. In Figure 2.37 it is shown that the phasor current in be split into
two components. The active component that is in phase with the voltage and the
reactive component that is 90' out of phase with the voltage:

factive = I.cos $
Ireactive = Lsin d

49
 figurd Z.Zl: Representation of the active and reactive components of current

The in-phase component produces the real (active) power and the quadrature
component produces the reactive power, In Figure 2.38 it can be seen that, if the
reactive power Q is positive, the load is inductive, the power factor is lagging and the
complex power S lies on the positive side of the positive real x-axis.

Q (lagging power factor)

\J -Q (leading power factor)

Figure 2,38: Power triangles showing lagging and leading power factor

If the reactive power Q is negative, the load is capacitive, the power factor is leading
and the complex power S lies on the negative side of the positive real x-axis. If the
reactive power Q is zero, i.e. the load is resistive, the power factor is unity and the
complex power S lies along the positive real x-axis. It is impoftant to know that
complex power is conserved like energy. This means that the total complex power
delivered to any number of individual loads is equal to the sum of the complex powers
delivered to each individual load, regardless of how the loads are interconnected,

50
2,4 REACTIVE POWER

E
Figure 2.39: A pure resistive circuit

Figure 2.40: Waveforms generated when an alternating voltage is applied to the

circuit in Figure 2,39

Figure 2,39 shows a pure resistive circuit with a switch. Figure 2.40 shows the
resulting waveforms when an alternating voltage is applied to this circuit, The current
waveform is exactly like the voltage waveform, which means that at each time instant
Ohm's Law is obeyed. The power dissipated in the resistor is the instantaneous
product of the current and voltage. The power is therefore a direct current component
that alternates at double frequency. However, the power dissipation is always positive,

51
 -t

Figure 2.4L= A simple alternating current transformer

The waveforms of the voltage and current, shown in Figure 2.42, show that, due to the
inductance of the coil, the current can't keep up with the voltage at the moment when
the switch is closed. The current therefore lags the voltage for a few cycles and then
attains a steady alternating value, with its waveform lagging the voltage waveform by
90'.

Figure 242: Waveforms generated when an alternating voltage is applied to the

transformer in Figure 2.41

The mean product of the voltage and current is zero, as the magnetising current in this
case carries mo power. Power flow oscillates positively and negatively at twice system
frequency amd hence the name reactive power. When an open-circuit transmission
line is connerted tn a voftage source/ the line can absorb a large amount of electric
charge dure b rapffiihnce. When the switch is closed, a surge of current into the line
occurS.

52
 This current reduces to a steady alternating value that is required
to keep the line
electrically charged atthe applied voltage. In ttris case, the current
waveform leads the
voltage waveform by 90'. There is theiefore again no transfer
of real power. 1y5;.
load is connected to a transformer or transmission line, the load
current is added to the
reactive current' This means that the total current iags or leads
ilre vortaje ty-an
angle less than 90', depending on the ratio of the current corresponding
to t-he active
power loss in the load and the reactive power required to energise
the transmission line
or the transformer' The instantaneous power flow therefore cJnsists of
a constant level
plus an offset alternating reactive power. All practical electrical
components have
resistance' The current flowing in these components therefore causes resistive
losses
and heating. The heating can restrict the load-carrying capability of a transmission
line
or transformer or the output capability of a generator. Reactive power involves
current
flow and therefore creates losses just like aitive power. However, the total current
is
the phasor sum of active and reactive components of the currents. Therefore,
component ratings have to be carefully chosen to match the reactive requirements
of a
circuit.

53

.d
EXERCISE 2.L

1. An unbalanced, three-phase, four-wire, star-connected load is connected to a 3BO-V,

symmetrical, three-phase, star-connected supply. The value of the neutral current
flowing away from the neutral point- is 35.55176.40 A. The load consists of
Za = 8.961-33,20 f) and 26 = 10.12161.3" o. Z. is unknown. With a positive phase
sequence, take$as the reference phasor.

1,1 Calculate tlre value of the impedance in phase c.

t.2 Calculate the active reactive and complex power absorbed by this impedance.

2. Refer to Figure 2.43 and calculate the line current I.. The load is connected to a
symmetrical, three-phase, cba-rotation supply with Eu = 24010o Y.

18256.3"O

7'O

Figure 2.43: Three-phase star-connected load with line c short-circuited

3. An unbalanced star-connected load is connected to a symmetrical, three-phase, three-

wire, abc-rotation supply with Ea = 24BZ.IB0o V. The impedances of the load are the
following:

z" = (33,6 - j42.8) fJ

Z,o = (27.7 + j18.4) O
z, = (9.7 + j14,5) o
If the impedance of 4 sgddenly rises to infinity, calculate the voltage between the
neutral point n of the load and phase c of the supply.

54
ll A balanced, three-phase, 360-V, four-wire, negative phase sequence supply with E5 as
reference, is connected to a star-connected load with the following load impedances:

7u= L2.Bz-32.8o o
Zo= 2I'412I'4o e)
4 = 37.92-87.90 f)
",u I Calculate the line currents.
4e Calculate the neutral current.
.r43 Calculate the total complex, real and reactive power in the load.

= The phases of an unbalanced, four-wire, star-connected load consists of the following

components:

Phase a: 28.4-7tF capacitor in parallel with a 45.2-a resistor

Phase b: 39.6-prF capacitor in parallel with a 22.4-fl- resistor
Phase c: 1B.B-prF capacitor in parallel with a 31.6-ft resistor

This load is connected to a thr,ee-phase, 400-V, 50-Hz supply, Take Enu as reference
with a positive phase-sequence.

Calculate the line currents.

i"2 Calculate the complex, real and reactive power in each phase of the load.
53 Calculate the total active, reactive and complex power in the load.

The phases of an unbalanced, four-wire, star-connected load consists of the following

components:

Phase a: 28.4-ttF capacitor in series with a 45.2-A resistor

Phase b: 39.6-pF capacitor in series with a 22.4-0 resistor
Phase c: 1B.B-pF capacitor in series with a 31.6-fi resistor

This load is connected to a three-phase,3B0-V,60-Hz supply. Take Eu5 as reference

with a negative phase-sequence.

6"1 Calculate the line currents.

6"2 Calculate the power absorbed per phase.
6"3 Calculate the total active, reactive and complex power in the load.

55
7. A balanced, three-phase, three-wire, cba-rotation supply with V"r =- 360 V, is
connected to a star-connected load with the following load impedances:

za = 12.81-32.80 Q
26 = 2lAl2L4o e)
zc = 37.91-87.9" Q
7.t Calculate the line currents.
7.2 Calculate the total power consumed.
7.3 Draw a coniplete phasor diagram of the voltages and the currents.

B. An unbalanced, three-wire load is star-connected to a three-phase, 440-V symmetrical

supply of which the neutral is eafthed. The phase sequence is positive and the
reference phasor is E5u. The impedances of the load are:

za = (13.6 - j12.8) o
26 = (L7.7 + j19.4) O
Z, = (12.7 + j10.5) O
8.1 Use Millman's theorem and calculate the voltage between the neutral point of the load
and eath.
8.2 Calculate the line currents.

9. The unbalanced, three-phase, delta-connected load in Figure 2.44 is connected to a

360-V ac supply.

9.1 Calculate the total input impedance of the circuit.

9.2 Calculate the input power,

56

1il
 (8.4 + j3.6) o

(4.s + j9.6) o (8.4 + j3.6) o

(12.4 -j7.s) o

-l (7.5 +j4.8) o

Figure 2.44t Circuit diagram for

euestion 9
A balanced, three-phase, star-connected
con nected to a derta-con nected road with .source
with a negative phase sequence
is
*re- i"rr"*i,' g' r*o',:#["ou
n.u*
Zao = 72.82-32.80 o
Za, = 27.422L4o t)
Zru = 37.92-B7.go t)

The source emf is given by:

eb(t) = 339,411 sin (rot _

#)V
Calculate the line currents.
calculate the totalcomplex,
rearand reactive power in
the road.

57

IT
11. The phases in the load of an unbalanced, star-delta system consists of the following
components:

Phase ab: 28.4-stF capacitor in series with a 45.2-o resistor

Phase bc: 39.6-pF capacitor in series with a 22.4-0 resistor
Phase ca: 1B.B-pF capacitor in series with a 31.6-f) resistor

This load is connected to a positive phase sequence, three-phase, 60-Hz supply with:

e6(t) = 381.'b3B sin (rot - #) v

11.1 Calculate the line currents.
Lt.z Calculate the power absorbed per phase.
11.3 Calculate the total active, reactive and complex power in the load'

L2. A three-phase, star-delta system with a negative phase sequence and V6. = 390l25o V
at 50 Hz, has the following load impedances:

Zac = 1B.B z75o Q'

Zou = 15.62200 {'
7co = 2L'4250o Q

tz.L Calculate the line currents. t\

I2.2 consumed,
Calculate the total power ti\
t2.3 Draw a complete phasor diagram of the voltages and the currents

13. Consider Figure 2.45. Use delta-star conversion and calculate the current drawn from
the supply.
73.25t42.25" O

14.5239.4" O B.tt57.L O

16.55250.6'O L0.22r0.2 0

E = 360V,50H2

-
Figure 2.45: Parallel network for Question 13

5B
2"5 POWER MEASUREMENT IN THREE.PHASE SYSTEMS

Example 2.8

A single wattmeter is used to determine the power in phase cof an unbalanced, three-
phase, delta-connected load. The load is supplied from a balanced, three-phase,
380:V, alternating current source. The voltage coil is connected to lines b and c. The
load consists of the following impedances:

2"6 = (3.1+ j3.9) O

26.^= (6.2 + j9.6) CI
Z,u = (4.8 - j7.2) a

Take E.u as reference with a positive rotation and calculate the reading on the
wattmeter.

Figure 2.46(a): Circuit diagram for Example 2.8

59
 Figure 2.45(b): Positive (abc) phase sequence with E.u as reference

Consider the load:

r-Vn.
Ihr
-
Lb,
380 1L20"
6.2+ j9.6
= 33.252262.86. A

T_ Vca
rca - zca
38020
=
4.8-W
43.914256.310 A

I.= I.u - Iu.

= 43.914 t5631' - 33.252t62.86"

rL.52r237.O90 A

W.= V.5.I..cos zf
= (380X11.52l)cos(- 60' - 37.09')
= - 540.367 W

50
Example 2.9

A balanced, three-phase load is connected to a supply of 440 V with a positive phase

sequence, The load has a power factor of 0.39 lagging, Two wattmeters are
connected in lines a and c to measure the active power. The wattmeters show the
input to be 64 kW. Determine the readings on the two wattmeters.

cos 0= 0.39

0= 57.050

tand = J5f*.-*..]
l.W. *W. l

tan 67.050 = .;El*' ,

*')
lu)
W.-Wu = 87.261*kW
But: W.+Wu = 64
W.= 64-Wa
W.-Wu 87.26r
64-Wa-Wu 87,26L
2Wu - 23.261
W, - 11.6305 kW
W.*Wu = $4
W.-11.6305 = 64
Wc = 75.6305 kW

Since the reading on Wu is negative, it means that the wattmeter in line a reads down
scale. It is therefore obvious that, when the power factor is less than 0,5, the reading
on Wu must be negative.

61
 Example 2.10

2.10.1 A 380-V, three-phase, delta-connected induction motor has an output of

18.04 kW at a power factor of 0.82 lagging. The efficienry of the motor is B2o/o.
Calculate the readings on each of the two wattmeters connected in lines a and
c to measure the input. The motor is connected to a symmetrical, three-phase
supply with a positive phase sequence.

2.L0.2 Another star-connected load of 12.81 kW at a power factor of 0.86 lagging is

then added in parallel to the induction motor. Determine the current drawn
and the power taken from the line.

Pout
2.10.1 n = D.
'ln
18.04
0.82
Pin

Pin = 22 kW

W"+W. = 22kW
cos0 = 0.82
0= 34.920

tan0 =
n(w, - w" )
t'[w.
*.1
tan34.e2o=

=
"[ry)
8.867 kW
W. - Wu

But: W.+Wu = 22
W. = 22-Wa
And: W.-Wu = 8.867

Or: D-W=-Wa = 8.867

2W_ - 13.133

And: W= = 5'5555 kW

62
 Wa+Wc =22
6.5665 + Wc =22
And: Wc = 15.4335 kW
D
I motor
2.70.2 c-
Jmotor -
a"torotor
22
=
0s2
27.8482-34.920 kVA

CoS = 0.86
$636

Otoao = 30'680

Sload =
loaa
COS $1es6

72,8r
0,86

= L4.8952-30.680 kVA

Stot = S6e1e1 * S1s36

27 .B4B Z.-34.92o + 14.8952-30.68'

= 42.7L6t-33,440 kVA
= (3s.644 - j23.s41) kVA
D- 35.644 kW

'Stot J3 ,v..I,
42.7L6 x t03 ( Js Xseoxr,)
.'. Ir LL2.4LT A

Example 2.11

Refer to Figure 2.47 and prove Blondell's theorem. The load is supplied by a balanced,
three-phase, three-wire supply system with a positive phase sequence at
Eu. = 48010'V,

63

i
 (8.2 + j17.4 a (18,3 + j1s.1) o

(24.2-j16.4) f)
c

Figure 2.47tTwo wattmeters connected to a delta-connected load

E""
60'

Flgure 2.48: Positive (abc) sequence with Eu. as reference

O.rrert h €ad! ehffi of the load:

r-Val
r*- =-
/aa
_ ffi1ffi"
18.3 - 115.1
: *?5l.LAA7o A

64
 T- Vn.
rbc - zn
4E0z-ffi"
=
24.2- jr6.4
L6.41952-25.880 A

T_ Vca
rca - za
4BOIIffi"
=
8.2 + jIn
= 25.L9121L5.490 A

Active power in each phase of the load:

P65 = V36.Iso.cos Zls

= (480x20.231)cos (60o - ZO.4to)
= 7489.919 W
Pb. = V6.,I5..cos Z[h
(480X16.4195)cos (- OOo + 25.BBo)

= 6524.699 W

D_
rca - V.u.I.u.cos Zrv;

= (480X25.19l)cos (1800 - 115.49o)

= 5203.698 W

D- Ps6*P6s*P63
= 7489.9L9 + 6524.699 + 5203.698
19218.316 W

Current in lines a and c:

Iu= Ian - Ica

= 20.23I t20.47 0 - 25.I9LzLL5.4go

33.66t2-27.730 A

65
 I.= I.u - Io.

= 25.t9t tLL5.49" - 16.4195 t-Z\.BB"

39.3752L30.580 A

Readings on wattmeters in lines a and c:

W3 = V65.I3.cos zi%b
= (480X33.661)cos (600 + 27.73o)
= 639.967 W
W.= V.5.I.,cos z['o
(480X39,375)cos (120o - 130.58o)
18578.591W

W= Wa+Wc
= 639.967 + 18578.691
19218.658 W

P = W, which proves Blondell's theorem.

Example 2.12

An unbalanced, three-phase, three-wire, star-connected load is supplied from a

balanced, three-phase source with a negative phase sequence at 380 V, 50 Hz. The
phase impedances of the load are the following:

za = 24.8/36" Q
26 = 721-75" Q
zc = 18.61840 Q
Use Millman's theorem and determine the power absorbed by the load using the two-
wattmeter method if the wattmeters are connected in lines a and c respectively. Take
E" as reference.

66
 vbclgjo
vb1l20o

valjo

vcaz-rs}" vubl-30"

vcl-Izgo
Figure 2.49: Negative (cba) system with Eu as reference

Millman's theorem to find neutral displacement voltage:

Vrn = %.%+V6.Y6+V..1
Yu +Y5 +Y.

38020",3802120",3901-720
(43)(24.8236") (J3)(722-7s) (J:xra.6ze+.)
=1rl_!1
24.8236"' I2l-75"' 18.6zg4"
= 356.5112-169.59"V
Voltage in each phase of the load:

Vu, = Vu-V.n
= 3Bo
lo" - 3s6.6rrt-169.59.
J3
= 573.76426.45"V
%, = V.-Vrn
380 z -I20"
= _-_E- _ 356.6Lr2_169.s9"

= 27L,7882-27.52V
Current in each phase of the load:

Vu, = Iu.Zu

573.764t6.45. = (Iu)(24.8t36.)
Iu = 23.1362-29.55 A

67
 V., = Ir.Z"
27I.7BBZ-2752 = (IcX1B.6ZB4")
I.= [4.6L2Z-L11.52' A

Readings on the wattmeters in lines a and c:

Wu= Vu6.Iu.cos z1%o

(380X23.136)cos(- 30' + 29.55')

8791.409 W

w. = vgs.Is.cos zYd

= (380x14.612)cos(- 90" + 111.52')

= 5165.489 W
!{= Wa+W.
879L.409 + 5165.489
= 13955.898 W

Example 2.13

2.L3.t An unbalanced, three-phase, delta-connected load is connected to a 380-V,

50-Hz supply with a positive phase sequence. The load impedances are the
following:

Zao = (11.45 + j 14.44) a

7n, = (17.53 + j24.22)o
7ru = (20.08 + j L6.77) a
Take Eu5 as reference and calculate the total power delivered to the load by
using the load voltages and current.

2.13.2 If a wattrneter is connected in each line of the load in Question 2.I3.L,

calculate the readings on the wattmeters and show that the sum of these
readings is equal to the total power calculated in Question 2.13.1.

6B
 Eo"

Figure 2.50: positive (abc) phase sequence with Eab as reference

2.13.1 Current in each phase of the load:

r-Vao
raD- =-
laa -

36010"
= 11.45 + j14.44
= 19.5352-51.59. A

I5. = -Ss-
lb,
3@t-L20"
= 17.53 + j24.22
= L2.O4lZ-l74.l A

T-Vca
rca - =-
lca
3ffi2120"
= 20.08 + jI6.n
= 13.761280.13. A
Active power in each phase of the load:

P35 = V66.I6 b.COS /.y"b

rab
-
= (360X19,535)cos(0. + 51,59.)

= 4369.246W
 Pb. = V5..16.,cos Z[tr
(360X12.04l)cos(- 120" + 174.t')
254t,783 W

P.u = V.u.I.u .cos zl'

= (360x13.761)cos(120" - 80.13")
= 3802.159 W
P =Pan*P66*P66
= 4369.246 + 254I.783 + 3802.169
= 10713.198 W
2.13.2 Current in each line:

16=I36-Is6
= 19.5352-51.59' - l3.76tl90.l3
= 3O.4762-7t.29" A
= Iu. - Iub

= I2.04IL-I74.L - 19.5351-51.59'
= 27.9182149.74'A
= I.u - Ib.
= 13.761 t80, 13' - I2.04LIL7 4.I'
= 2O.5OtZ45.9o A
Since the voltage coils form a balanced, star-connected system, the voltage across each
voltage coil lags the line voltage by 30" (positive phase sequence). Thus, reading on
6:;." d!*e++'r""**'..w
wattmeter in each line:

u+
w. = J3
.Iu,.o, 1 zf,o
ra
t :0")

= fry.l(30.476)cos (0, + 7r.zs

'. r,3
- 30-.)
./

= 4759.475W

70
 wn = $.t6..o, ( zr;%.r 3o')
rr
J3
= (#),r r18)cos(- 120" - 14s.74.- 30")
= 2878.49 W

w.=
f.t.,.or1zl"tso";
= ro1)cos(120. - 4s,e. - 30.)
[#),m
= 3O74.9 W

W = Wa *W5 +W.
= 4759.475 + 2878.49 + 3074.9
= LO7L2.865 W

Example 2.14

36.5t36.6 A

25.5t25.5"a

Figure 2.51: Three wattmeters connected to an unbalanced star-connected load

77
 Refer to Figure 2.51. The unbalanced, three-phase, four-wire load is connected to a
symmetrical, three-phase supply of 440 V. Calculate the readings on the wattmeters to
find the total power drawn by the load, Use E5. as reference with a negative phase
sequence.

Figure 2.52: Negative (cba) phase sequence with Ebc as reference

Current in each phase of the load:

Vun = Iun,Zun

4401-90' ( J5 X1.,Xs6.6236.6')
I"n 6.94'-Z-126.60 A

Vun Iun'Zon

440/,34' (.''6 Xro.X+s.sz-4s.5")

Iun 5.583275.5'A

V.n = Irn'Zrn

4402150' = dt)e,)(25.522s.5.)
I"n = 9.9622124,5" A

T2
Wu= Vun,Iun.cos z{an

(#)(6.e41)cos(- eo' + 126.6")

1415.s69 W

Wu= V6n.I6n,cos ZIM

= - 7s.s')
t#)(5.583)cos(30'
= 994.08 W

W. = V.n.I.n.cos ZtV;

= (#)(e.e62)cos(lso' - 124.s")

= zzellszw
W = Wu *Ws +W.
= 1415.569 + 994.08 + 2284.L62
= 4593.811W

73
EXERCISE 2.2

1. Calculate the readings on two wattmeters connected in lines a and c of a three-phase

system. The load is star-connected to a symmetrical, three-phase, delta-connected source
with eu5(t) = 622.254 cos (ot + 90o) V with a positive rotation. The impedances of the
load are:

za = L2.4139" A
26 = 18.6l-56'A
zc = 2L.726I" {l
2. Two wattmeters are connected to an unbalanced, three-phase, star-delta system with a
positive phase sequence. The following readings were taken:

T-
rab - 10,55231.50 A at a power factor of 0.85264 lagging
a-
Lbc - 20.23t25.20 A
Zr" = 30.34t-90.90 0

The load is connected to a 360-V, 50-Hz supply. Prove Blondell's Theorem if the current
coils of the wattmeters are connected to lines b and c.

3, The following impedances are connected in delta in the load of a three-phase sytem:

Zou = (I2.4 + j15.5) O

Zco = (15.6 + j9,3) O
zu, = (9.5 - j18.2) o
The coils are connected across a symmetrical, 480-V, three-phase supply with a negative
phase sequence and Eu. = - 480 V,

3,1 Calculate the line currents.

3.2 Calculate the readings on each of the two wattmeters connected in lines a and b to
measure the total power.
3.3 Convert the delta to an equivalent star-connected load,
3,4 Calculate the readings on each of the two wattmeters connected in lines a and b of the
star<onnected load to measure the total power.

74
 -the following
three impedances are connected in the load of a three-phase, delta-star
system with a positive phase sequence:

1 = (72.4 + j15.5) O
1 = (15.6 + j9.3) O
L = (9.6 + j18.2) o
The voltage measured between lines a and c 1.25 ms after passing through zero was
205.6545 V,

4,1 Calculate the line currents.

4.2 Prove Blondell's Theorem if two wattmeters are connected in lines a and b to measure
the total power.

I Calculate the readings on two wattmeters connected in lines a and c of a three-phase,

three-wire system. The load is unbalanced and star-connected to a symmetrical, three-
phase supply with Eou = 390l15o V with a negative phase sequence. The impedances of
the load are:

Z, = (12.4+ j21.3) o
Zy = (18.6 + j28.4) o
7- = (21.7 - j9.9) o
5.1 Use Millman's theorem and calculate the readings on the wattmeters.
5.2 Use the given and calculated values and prove Blondell's theorem.

6, A 330-V, three-phase, delta-star system has the following load impedances:

z, = 22.22390 Q
26 = 15.52550 O
za = 16.21-450 Q
A wattmeter is connected in the system with its current coil in line b and its voltage coil
between lines a and b, Take Vu6 as reference with a positive phase sequence and calculate
the reading on the wattmeter.

7. A three-phase, star-delta system has a positive phase sequence source with

e6(t) = 3L0.2785 cos (ot - +) V. The phase impedances of the load are the following:

7_
Lbc - 42.6172 0
a_
Lab 272-4Bo o
-
Zru = 1832360 A

Prove Blondell's theorem when two wattmeters are connected in lines b and c respectively.

75

i
B. The circuit in Figure 2.53 is connected to a 440-V, 50-Hz, symmetrical, three-phase supply
with a positive phase squence. The complex power in 25. is 18.28 kVA with a power factor
of 0.76 lagging. Use E6. as the reference phasor.

8,1 Calculate the current in line c.

8.2 Calculate the values of the circuit elements in 25..
8.3 Calculate the reading on the wattmeter.

(ls.s - j31) o (27.7 -j14.8) o

Figure 2.53: One wattmeter connected in an unbalanced delta-connected load

9, Prove Blondell's theorem for a load that is supplied by a sinusoidal, balanced, three-wire,
three-phase, cba-rotation supply system that is represented by the equation:

eb.(t) = 380 sin (ot- $) volt

The impedances of the load are given by:

Za = 21'5129" {>
7o = 15.8242 Q
Z< = 25j182 A

10. A three-phase load has a power factor of 0.72lagging, The power in the load is known to
* 27 .6 kW. Calculate the reading on each of two wattmeters connected in lines a and b of
the load to measure the total power. The load is connected to a symmetrical, three-phase
suppty with a positive phase sequence,

76
:L. The power supplied to a three-phase, delta-connected induction motor is measured by two
wattmeters connected in lines a and c. The motor is supplied from a three-phase,
cba-rotation , 440-V, 50-Hz source. When the motor is running on a light load the
wattmeter readings are 564 W in line c and 358 W in line a.

:l.1Calculate the power taken by the motor.

:1..2 Calculatethe power factor of the motor.
:i.3 Calculate the line current.

-1. When a no-load test is performed on the motor in Question 11, the wattmeter readings are
now 924 W and - 444 W respectively.

-2.1Calculate the power taken by the motor.

1.2 Calculate the power factor of the motor.
1.3 Calculate the line current.

J. Refer to Figure 2.54. The system is connected to a symmetrical, three-phase, star-

connected supply of 380 V at 50 Hz. Take Ebc as reference with a positive phase sequence
and calculate the line currents drawn from the supply.

Ia r3.92-sz o

L3.6t45" O I5.723L" O

Ic tB.L/28'o 12.It52 0

I6 I5.6t77" O

Figure 2.54: Delta-connection in a three-phase system

14, Two wattmeters are now connected in lines a and c between the supply and the load tn
Figure 2.54. Use the given and calculated values and prove Blondell's theorem.

77
15, The two-wattmeter method is used to measure the active power drawn by a balanced,
three-phase, delta-connected load. Each branch of the load draws 3260 W at a power
factor of 0,82 lagging. The load is supplied from a 240-V, 50-Hz, positive phase sequence
supply. Take Eu6 as reference and calculate the readings on two wattmeters connected in
lines a and c to determine the total power.

16. An unbalanced, three-phase, delta-connected load is connected to a 480-V, 50-Hz supply

with a positive phase sequence. The load impedances are the following:

7u6 = (12.6 + j18.4)CI

26. = (15.3 + j24.2) O
7,u= (21.8+j16.2)O
Take Eu. as reference and calculate the total power delivered to the load by using the load
voltages and current.

17. If a wattmeter is connected in each line of the load in Question 16, calculate the readings
on the wattmeters and show that the sum of these readings is equal to the total power
calculated in Question 16.

18. An unbalanced, three-phase, four-wire, star-connected load is connected to 380-V

symmetrical supply. Calculate the readings on the three wattmeters if a wattmeter is
connected in each line of the load, Use E5n as reference with a positive phase sequence.
The phase impedances are the following:

za = 455236$ {l
26 = 25.51-45.5" Q
zc = 36.6225.5 Q
19. The two-wattmeter method is used to measure the active power drawn by a balanced,
three-phase, star-connected load. Each branch of the load draws 2970W at a power factor
of 0.856 lagging. The load is supplied from a 380-V, 50-Hz, cba-rotation supply. Take E5.
as reference and prove Blondell's theorem when two wattmeters are connected in lines b
and c to determine the total power.

20, An unbalanced, three-phase, delta-connected load is connected to a 380-V, 50-Hz supply

with a negative phase sequence. The load impedances are the following:

1n = 22.65258,3'Q
Zy = 19j5145.1'O
z= = 24.85169.8 Q
Take E= as reference and calculate the total power delivered to the load by using the load
voltages and cunent.

7B
 I
j

21. If a wattmeter is connected in each line of the load in Question 20, calculate the readings
on the wattmeters and show that the sum of these readings is equal to the total power
calculated in Question 20.

79
 CHAPTER THREE

SYM M ETRICAL COM PON ENTS

3.1 INTRODUCTION
',1

An unsymmetrical fault on a three-phase system is that fault on a power system that

gives rise to unsymmetrical currents, i.e. unequal fault currents in the lines with
unequal displacement, When the unsymmetrical fault occurs, the currents in the three
lines become unequal, as well as the phase displacement among these currents,
However, the term unsymmetrical applies only to the fault itself and the resulting line
currents. The system impedances and the source voltages are always symmetrical
through the main elements (generators, transmission lines, etc')'

A proper analysis of unbalanced conditions in three-phase networks, i.e. unsymmetrical

faults on transmission lines, is made possible by the fact that any given set of
unbalanced three-phase components can be represented by the sum of three sets of
balanced or symmetrical components. These components may be currents or voltages.
Both diagrams shown in Figure 3,1 represent balanced systems since there is no
resultant in either case, However, only the diagram in Figure 3.1(a) is symmetrical
since all the phasors are equal in magnitude and equally. spaced.

Ec Ec

(a) (b)

Figure 3.1: Representation of symmetrical and unsymmetrical phasors

In order to resolve a system into symntetrical components, it is necessary to use a

factor called operator a. a is defined as an operator that advances the position of a
phasor anti-clockwise through 120o.

BO
Consider Figure 3. 1(a):

E. = EaZOo
;LA

Eo = Eal24oo
= crz, Eu

E. = EalIzOo
= o,Eu

Since these phasors form a symmetrical, balanced system:

[u+eo+E6= Eu(1 +cx+u2)

=0
Therefore:

1+o(+cx,2 = 0

Expressed in terms of the j notation:

a2. Eu = (_ 0.5 _ jo,B66)Ea

And: o. Eu = (- 0.5 + j0.866) Ea
Hence: s. + s2 = (- 0.5 + j0.866) + (- 0.5 - j0.866)
- -1
And, as shown before:

1+cx,+cr2 = 1-1
-0
Also, multiplying any phasor by a3 is the same as multiplying by 1. In the j notation:

cr.c2 = (- 0.5 + j0.S66X- 0.5 - j0.866)

= 0,25 + 0.75
=l

B1
3.1.1 POSTTTVE PHASE-SEQUENCE

There are three systems of symmetrical arrangement of phasors, One of these

arrangements is the positive phase-sequence, p.p.s. lhis is defined as a system of
three equal phasors, 120o apart, which rotates anti-clockwise in the sequence
Eu -+ Es -) E., as shown in Figure 3'1(a)'

3.L.2 NEGATTVE PHASE-SEQUENCE

Another symmetrical arrangement is the negative phase-sequence, n.p.s. This is

defined as a system of three equal phasors, 1200 apart, which rotates anti-clockwise in
the sequence E. -+ E6 -+ E6, as shown in Figure 3.2. Alternatively, a negative phase-
sequence may be considered as a system of three equal phasors, 1200 apaft, rotating
in the opposite direction to that shown in Figure 3.1(a). This will give the same
negative phase-sequence'

Ea

E5

Figure 3.2: Negative phase-sequence, n'p.s

3.1.3 ZERO PHASE-SEQUENCE

The third symmetrical arrangement is the zero phase-sequence, z,p.s. This is

defined as a system of three equal, coincident, rotating phasors as shown in Figure 3.3,
This is a symmetrical system since the phasors are equal in length and the same angle
displacement, i.e. 0o. However, because of the resultant, this system is unbalanced
whilst the p.p.s. and n.p.s. systems are both symmetrical and balanced.

Eu

Eu

Ec

Figure 3.3: Zero phase-sequence components, z.p,s

82
RESOLUTTON OF AN UNBALANCED, THREE-PHASE SYSTEM OF
PHASORS INTO ITS SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS

Figure 3.4: Phasor diagram of an original system with a positive phase-sequence

The original system shown in Figure 3.4 can be resolved into three symmetrical
component systems as shown in Figure 3.5,

Original system = z.p.s. + p,p,s, + n.p.s.

Ea = Vao+Vu1 +Vu2

Eo = Vuo*V61 +V62

Ec = V.o * V.1 -F V62

Vnz

Vco

Vaz Voo

Vao

p.p,s n.p.s

Figure 3.5: Positive, negative and zero phase-sequence components

Rewriting above mentioned equations in terms of Eu only, using the g-operator:

Ea = Vu6 + Vu1 -F Vu,

B3
 Eu Vus+u2.V.1 *o.Vs2

E. Vss*cx,,V31 +cr2.Vu2

Adding these equations:

[u+ Eo+ E. = 3.Yo

So that: e
%o = *( Ea + 56+ E.)
- Voo

=%o
Multiplying by o and by a2:

\ o. Eu = cx.Vao + Val + o'.Yu,

o2. E. - o2.Vjs + V31 * o,V32

.'. E, + cx. Eo + cr2, E. = 3.Var

From which:

Val l(r. * cr.Eo + 612,E.)

Hence: Vor cr2,Vut

And: Vcr cx.Var

Thus: o', Eo cx2,%o+cr.Vu1 *Vu2

cr. =
Ec uVus*cr2.Vu1 +Vu2

Eu + o', Eu + c.Ec 3.%z

And hence:

Vuz =
+
(E" + a2.Eu + u,E6)

Thus: Vnz = cr.V"z

84
And: Vc2 = az.Yuz

It can be seen from Figure 3.6 that the symmetrical components of each phase sum to
the original phasors,

Vat

Vco

Figure 3.6: Symmetrical components of each phase summed to the original phasors

Figure 3,7 shows that the resultant of the original system is equal to the sum of the
zero phase-sequence components. This is true of any unbalanced, three-phase system.
A balanced, three-phase, asymmetrical system will resolve into p.p.s and n.p.s
components only, A three-phase, symmetrical system will have positive phase
sequence components only. These components will be equal to the original phasors.

Ec \Eu+E.

Ea

-u:h E5+Es

Eoh
Figure 3.7: Resultant of the original system equals the sum of the zero phase-
sequence components

SIGNIFICANCE OF SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS IN PROTECTIVE

SYSTEMS

r The currents in a balanced three-wire system with no earth fault present will
resolve into p.p,s components only.

. The currents in a three-wire system with no earth fault but supplying an

unbalanced load, will resolve into p.p.s and n.p,s components only.

B5
 . The currents in a three-wire system with an eafthed star-point will resolve into
p.p.s, n.p.s and z,p.s components when a single-phase to earth fault is present.

The growth of an earth fault current will therefore be indicated by an increase in the
z.p,s components. The growth of an unbalanced load in a three-wire system will be
indicated by an increase in the n.p.s components. If the growth of an eadh fault
current or unbalanced load can be detected and measured separately from the other
components, relays can be arranged to trip the suitable circuit breakers when the level
of unbalance exceeds reasonable limits. Minor unbalance is normally caused by
unequal ph6se loading but harsh unbalance will be caused when a phase-to-phase fault
occurs.

3.4 DETECTION OF P.P.S AND N.P.S COMPONENTS OF CURRENT

In the circuit shown in Figure 3,8, the resistance and inductance of the impedance 21
are such that the current through this impedance lags the voltage across the
impedance by an angle of 60". 22 is a pure resistor and the resistance value of Zz is
equal to that of 21. The circuit in Figure 3.8 detects n.p.s components but not p.p's
components since the relay measures the phasor sum ( Er + Ez ).

<_<-
E1 Ez

Figure 2.62

In order to detect p.p.s components and not n.p,s components, the impedances 21 and
22 must be interchanged, as shown in Figure 2.63. '

B6
 +<-
E2 E1

Figure 3.8

The detection of p.p.s components can be used in overload protection. The detection
of n.p.s components can be used to limit the level of unbalance, To limit the degree of
unbalance is mainly important when referring to the currents in the stator windings of a
three-phase alternator, If the stator currents consist of p.p.s components only the
magnetic field that is set up by these currents rotates at synchronous speed in the
same direction as the rotor. There is therefore no relative motion between the stator
field and the rotor, If the stator currents contain some n,p.s. components, the field
that is due to the n.p.s components only, rotates at synchronous speed in the opposite
direction to that of the stator. This is due to the fact that a negative phase sequence is
equivalent to a symmetrical system of phasors rotating in a clockwise direction.

---r--

Figure 3.10

87
i
 If the n,p,s component field exceeds limits set by the design of a machine, extensive
rotor damage may result from overheating. Eddy currents that are induced in the rotor
iron mainly cause overheating. In four-wire systems, the circuits shown in Figure 3.8
and Figure 3.9 will be disturbed by z.p.s. components. Cross-connected current
transformers, as shown in Figure 3.10, are used to exclude z.p.s components from the
detecting relays. Since the z,p,s component currents of each phase are synchronized,
each cross-connected current transformer secondary provides a low impedance path
that diverts practically all of the z,p.s components from the measuring circuit.

3.5 DETECTION OF P.P.S AND N.P.S COMPONENTS OF VOLTAGE

+ +
12 I1
22 71

Figure 3.11

In the circuits shown in Figures 3.11 and 3.12, the resistance and inductance of Zldre
such that the current through this impedance lags the voltage across it by an angle of
60". Zz is a pure resistor. The resistance value of this resistor is equal to that of Zt
The circuit shown in Figure 3,11 is arranged to detect p.p.s components only. The
circuit shown in Figure 3,12 is arranged to detect n.p.s components only,

8B
 _+

I1
71

Figure 3.12

Several important points may be noted.

. The positive phase-sequence voltages (Vur, V61 and V.1), the negative phase-
sequence voltages (Vuz, Vuz and V.2) and the zero phase-sequence voltages (Vus,
V56 and V.6) separately form balanced systems of voltage. Hence, they are called
symmetrical components of the unbalanced system.

. The symmetrical components do not have separate existence. They are only .

mathematical components of unbalanced voltages, or currents, that actually flow in

the system,

. The symmetrical component theory applies equally to three-phase voltages and

currents both line and phase values.

. The negative and zero phase-sequence currents are zero in a balanced, three-
phase system.

o The presence of negative and zero phase-sequence currents in a three-phase

system introduces un-symmetry and is indicative of an abnormal condition of the
circuit in which these components are foundj

. The vector sum of the positive and negative phase-sequence currents of an

unbalanced three-phase system is zero. The resultant consists of the three zero
phase-sequence cu rrents only.

o In a three-phase, four-wire, unbalanced system, the magnitude of the zero phase-

sequence component is one-third of the current in the neutral wire.

B9
 . In a three-phase, unbalanced system, the magnitude of the negative phase-
sequence component cannot exceed that of the positive phase-sequence
component, If this would happen, the phase sequence of the resultant system
would be reversed.

. The current of a single-phase load drawn from a three-phase system comprises

equal positive, negative and zero sequence components.

Example 3.1

Calculate the positive-, negative- and zero-sequence components of the following set of
three unbalanced voltage phasors:

Y" = 2252-38" V
Yo = 775169" V
Y, = !4021150 V
Indicate on approximate diagrams how the different sequence components are located.

Vur = *(Vu + a.V6 + a2.v.;

= +(225t-39o + r7sz189o + t40z3ss")
76.329Z-51.060 V

vbl - cr2.V"r

= 7 6.329 t(-51.06" + 240")

76.329z-t71.060 V

vc1 - ct'Var

= 7 6.329 2(-51.06" + 120')

= 76.329268.940 V

Var

Figure 3.13: Positive phase-sequence components for Example 3.1

90
 Yaz = +(%+a2.V5+a.V.)
= +(22st-3Bo + r7sz309o + L4ozz3so)
= 146.9642-61..980V

Vu, = CLVa2

= L46.964/.(-61.98' + 120')
= 146.9642.58.020 V

Vcz = d2.Vaz

= 746.9642(-61.98' + 240')
= 1'46.9542178.020 V
Voz

V.z

V"z
Figure 3.14: Negative phase-sequence components for Example 3.1

Vao= *(V.*V5+V.)
= !{zzsz-zeo + r75t69o + r4ottrso)
= 78.69L24Oo V
= Vuo

= V.o

%o Vuo %o

Figure 3.15: Zero phase-sequence components for Example 3.1

:,i

i.(i
1l {' i
i

.ti 91 :l
!

;fr
ii
I
a
lfl
-J
 Example 3.2

A three-phase, four-wire, symmetrical supply, with a phase sequence of abc, supplies a

load which impedances are unequally distributed between the three phases. An
analysis of the currents flowing in the direction of the loads in line a shows that the
positive phase-sequence current is 1452-450 A and the negative phase-sequence
current is 22.521050 A. The current .flowing back in the neutral is 27.31640 A.
Calculate the current in each phase.

rrao- In
-
T
27.31ffi"
3

= 9.Ll64o A

Ia= Iao+Iu1+Iu2
= 9.L1640 + i+.SZ-+So + 22.511050
= 21.386266.820 A
In= 156+I51+I52
= Iu6+cx2.Iu1 *o,162
= 9.1 z640 + 14.5 t(-45o + 2400) + 22.5 t(L05o+ 1200)
28.3562-L56.110 A

I.= Ico+Ic1+Ic2
I6e*cx,I31 +a2.lu2
9.Lt64o + 14.52(-450 + 1200) +22.51(L05o + 2400)
33.7L2229.O30 A

92
 Example 3.3

In a three-phase. four-wire. star-connected load. the symmetrical components of the

current in line a are the following:

Iar = 16.4 l-24o A

Iaz = L2.6 136" A
Iuo = 18.7 Z72o A
The voltage drops across the phases of the load are the following:

Vun = I72l7BoV
Vbn = 196 Z4Bo V
Vcn = 185 l-702o V
3.3.1 Use a positive phase-sequence and calculate the impedance of the load.
3.3.2 Calculate the complex powelin each phase of the load,
3.3.3 Calculate the total complex power in the load.

3.3. i Iun = Iu
= Iao * 161 * 162
= l9.7l72o + L6.42-24o + 12.61360
= 36.O72230.890 A
Inn = Iu
= Iuo * 161 * I52
= Iao * cx2,Iu1 + cr,Iu2
= 18.72720 + 16.42(-240 + 240") + 12.62(360 + 120")
= 23.L751L45.O7o A

I.n = I.
= Ico * Is1 * Is2
= Iao * + a2,Iu2
cr,Iu1
I = !8.7172" + L6.41(-24o + 120") + L2.61(36o + 240')
= 22.225275.99o A

z - V.n
"
La-
I.n
I72l7B"
36.072t30.89"
= 4.768247.110 O

93
 a - Von
"
LA_
Inn

L96Z4B"
?3.L75 2145.07"

8.4572-97,070 c)

%n
zr=
I.n
t85/-r02"
22.225t75.99"
8.3242-177.990 c,

3.3.2 -an Vun.Iln

= (17 2 z7 Bo ) (36 .07 2 z-30 .89 o

)
= 5204.384Z47.LLo VA

Siln = Vnn'I[n

(196 z4go )(23.r7 s t-r45 .07 o

)
4542.32-97.O70 VA

\=
-cn V.n.Iln

= (tgs z- t02o )(22.225 z-7 5. 9 9 " )

= 4LLL.625Z-177.990 VA

3.3.3 c*- Sln+Sin+Sin

6204.384 t47 .IIo + 4542.3 2-97.07" + 41IL.625 z*t77 .990
458.005Z-166.5850 VA

94
Example 3.4

In a star-connected/ three-phase, four-wire, positive phase sequence load a current of

IB.6l-45" A is flowing back into the neutral. The positive and negative symmetrical
components of the current in line a are:

Ial = 12.62-10" A
Iaz = 15.3 l72 A
The voltage drops across the phases of the load are:

va = B4IBZ"Y
V5 = L26l-60"Y
vc = I04I4BV
3.4.1 Calculate the impedances of the load.
3.4.2 Calculate the total active and reactive power in the load using the symmetrical
vofta ge. a nd cqf rgn!:
99-mp91gnt9 .o[ !l-e_.

In
3.4.I I"n = 3
18.62-45"
= 3
= 6,22-450 A

Iu= Iao4Iur+Iu2
= 6.22-45' + L2.61-70 + 153272
= 22.952220.34'A
In= Iuo*I51+I52
= Iao * o2,Iu1 + cr,Iu2
= 621-45 + 12.62230' + I5.32I92'
= 25.4052-137.33'A

I.= Ico*161*162
= Iao * a.Iu1 + cx2.Iu2
= 6.21-45" + I2.6ZLL0" + 15.31372.
= LL.O3Z-2O.78" A

95
 va
Z"=
Ia
84ZB2"
=
22.952t20.34"
3.6626L.65. Q

7_V
V^
"
LA
Ib
t26t-60'
25.405 t - 137.33.

= 4.96277.330 c)

1_
Lr
4
" Ic
I04 Z4B"
fl.432-20.78"
9.429168.780 c)

3.4.2 Vao =
*(v.*V6+V.)
= t {a+zez + Lz6t-60' + Lo4t4B)
5L.O492t9.59. V

Va1 =
I ry. * '.vb + *2.vc)
= t {e+zez' + 126z60' + ro4z299')
= 47.298z4L.150 V

va2 -
I {v. + a2,v6 + a,v.;
= ! {e+zez + tz6ztlo" + ro4z168')
= 80.0392154.!20 V

Cx 3(V.o.I:o + Vu1.Il, + Vur.Il, )

-

= 3l(51.049 219.59')(6.2 t45") + (47 .298 z4Lt6)(12.6 zI0")

+ (80,0392154. 12"X 15 .3 t-72)l
6234.L37270.96. VA

2032.355 W
And: Y 5889.324 VAr

96
Example 3.5

The current flowing to a delta-connected load through line a is 12.55 A, Calculate the
symmetrical components of the line currents if line c is open circuit. Take the current
in line a as reference.

Iu = 12.5510" A

I.=0A
H
Io = 12'551180'A

Figure 3.16: Delta-connected load with line c open circuit

Refer to Figure 3.16:

Iu, = {(Iu+a.Is+u2.I.;

t {tz.sszo" + tz.Ssz3ooo + o)
7.246/-300 A

Iut cr2,Iur

7.2462(-30' + 240')
7,246z-'-500 A

I.t 0'Iat
7.2462(-30 + 120')
7.246z900 A

97
 Iaz = | {I, * cx2.I6 + a.I.;

= ! {tzsszo. + r2.55t420o + o)
= 7.2462300 A
T-
Lb2 ct'Iaz
-
= 7.2461(30' + 120')
7.246t1500 A

Ic2 = o2.Tu,
7.2462(30 + 240')
= 7.246z-900 A

Iao = Ino = Ico= 0A (noneutral)

Example 3,5

A three-phase, four-wire, symmetrical supply with a phase sequence of abc supplies an

unbalanced, star-connected load of the following impedances:

zun = (t2 + j15) o

Z5n = (15 - j15) O
Z.n = (18 + j12) fJ

An analysis of the currents flowing in the direction of the load in line b shows that the
positive and negative phase sequence currents are2L6l-48" Aand 27.31II2'A. The
current flowing in the neutral towards the star point of the supply is 33.3242' A.

3,6.1 Calculate the current flowing in each line.

3.6.2 Calculate the line voltages in the system.

3.6.1
.
lM-
In
5
33.3t42"
=
3

= IL,LZ42o A

9B
 Ibn = I5s*I51*162
ILLt4zo + 2L6l-4Bo + 27.3tII2o
20.835t53.220 A
T_
ran - I6s*I31*I32
156*cr.I51 +u2.I62
IL.L z42o + 2L.6 t(-48o + 1200) + 27 .3 t(IIzo +2400)
48.422229.9450 A

Icn = I.6*I.1*I.2
= 156*cr2.151 *o.Inz
LL.IZ4Z" + 2t.62(-48o + 240") + 27.32(rl2o + 1200)
= 35.O22-L47.960 A

3.6.2 Vun = Iun.Zun

= (48.422 t29.945ox 12 +j 15)

930.Ls6/.81.285" V

Vbn = Idn'Zan
= (20.835 t53,22.X 1 5 -j 1 5)
44L.97728.22'V

V.n = Irn'Zrn

= (35.02 t-747.96oX 1B +j 12)

757.s982-Lt4.27'V
Val = Vun - Von

= 930.156281.285" - 44t.977 t8.22

906.1o92L09.1'V

Vn. = Vnn - V.n

44r.977 t8.22 - 7 57 .sgg z-r14.27'

= 1062.553245.190 V

99
 V.u = V.n - Vun

757 .598 t*Lr4.27' - 930.156 tB1.2B5'

= L672.39Ls2-LOs.69" V

1m
EXERCISE 3

1.. A three-phase, four-wire, star-connected supply with a positive phase sequence supplies
* loads that are unequally distributed on the three phases. An analysis of the currents
flowing in the direction of the load are the following:

. The positive phase-sequence current in phase a is 14.82390 A

o The negative phase-sequence current in phase a is 9.52-610 A
. The current flowing back in the 24t-ILLo
[eu!|9!,js A '
The phase voltages across the loads are:

Va = 1502-1Bo V
V5 = I3BZ72oV
Vc = 190147oV
Using the symmetrical components of the voltage and current in phase a, calculate the total
reactive power in the three-phase system.

2. The symmetrical components of the aphase in an unbalanced, three-phase, star-connected

load are the following:

Iao = 22'8l-670 A
Iar = I2'9135o A
Iaz = LB.3l123o A

Calculate the line currents in the load.

3. Resolve the following three-phase system of voltages into its symmetrical components:

Va = 2402510 A
V6 = 2I5l-Il0o A
V. = 2601930 A

101
 4. In a three-phase, four-wire, star-connected load, the symmetrical components of the
current in line a are:

Iar = 2'62-10o A
Iaz=2ZIBloA /
Iao = L'4175o A

The phase sequence is abc and the voltage drops across the phases of the load are the
following:

Yan = I27lL27"V
Van = 145l-610 V
Yrn = 16521080 V

4.1 Calculate the impedances of the load.

4.2 Calculate the complex power of the load using the symmetrical components of voltage
and current.

LS.i n three-phase, four-wire, symmetrical supply with a phase sequence of abc supplies an
unbalanced, star-connected load of the following impedances:

7un = I2.6t63" A
Znn = L4.51-4B Q
zrn = 72.9145" Q
An analysis of the currents flowing in the direction of the load in line b shows that the
positive and negative phase sequence currents are 18.6l-42' A and 2L.3IL0B' A. The
current flowing in the neutral towards the star point of the supply is 27.6239" A.

5.1 Calculate the current flowing in each line.

5,2 Calculate the line voltages in the system.

6. A three-phase, four-wire supply is coupled to an unbalanced load, The positive phase-

sequence component of the current in phase a is 2052360 A and the negative phase-
sequence con'lponent of the current in phase a is I2.91640 A. The current flowing back in
the neutal Is 3C,2--69' A. Calculate the current in each line.

r02
7. A three-phase, four-wire, symmetrical supply with a phase sequence of abc supplies an
unbalanced, star-connected load of the following impedances:

Zu = (12.9 + j15.1) O
26 = (t6.4 - j12.6) o
Z. = (15.8 + j11.9) O
An analysis of the currents flowing in the direction of the load in line c shows that the
positive and negative phase sequence currents are 24.61-42' A and 2I.92702' A. The
current flowing in the neutral towards the star point of the supply is 36.9242' A.

7.1 Calculate the current flowing in each line.

7.2 Calculate the line voltages in the system,

103
 CHAPTER FOUR

INTER.CON N ECTED SYSTEMS

4.L INTRODUCTION
Any connection between two points of a power system is an inter-connector, but the
name is usually used for a connection between two alternators, power stations or
supply network. Inter-connection increases the amount of current which flows when a
short circuit occurs on a system and requires the installation of breakers able to
interrupt a larger current. The disturbance caused by a short-circuit on one system
may spread to inter-connected systems unless proper relays and circuit breakers are
provided at the point of inter-connection. Not only must the inter-connected system
have the same nominal frequency, but also the synchronous machines of one system
must remain in step with the synchronous machines of inter-connected systems.

Power station A Power station B

r_ Bus_bafs___-, r
ll

*T*ry*T*
Transformers

tnter-connector
J I
To the load on the bus- To the load on the bus-
bars of power station A bars of power station B

Figure 4.1: Two power stations joined by an inter-connector

F@ure 4,1 shot''"s a line diagram of two power stations joined by an inter-connector.
Tlne inter--ccnnector is connected to the bus-bars of each power station through
Fansfor'ners, Each power station also has a feeder-load connected through a
transfo,rrer ro nts hus-bars. The power sent across the inter-connector will depend on
the $earr s*Ftrf'r, tc c"e iurbines of each power station.

104
 For example, if the feeder load on the bus-bars of power stations A and B are each 50
MW and the output of the generators on the bus-bars of power station A is 30 MW, the
output of the generators on the bus-bars of power station B must then be 70 MW. 20
MW must therefore be transmitted across the inter-connector from power station B to
power station A. The output of the generators depends only on the power supply to
their prime movers. Thus, the power transmitted from point to point in an inter-
connected network depends ultimately on the steam supplies to the prime movers.

When more than one path is available between inter-connected points, the proportion
of power transmitted by each path may be controlled. The total remains, however,
depend on the load conditions. The control of the power transmitted over the country
is centralised in the control rooms of the generating divisions and in the national control
room. These maintain communication with the generating stations coming under their
control and issue instructions to station engineers to increase or reduce the load on
stations. The control room engineers thus control the frequency and the loading of
transmission links in the network.

Reactive power devices, i.e. reactors, capacitors and synchronous machines are used to
control the bus-bar voltage for improved power transfer and stability, A major
requirement of voltage control devices is to counteract voltage variation across the
supply network components. The supply network is mainly inductive and when power
is transmitted across the inter-connector, there will normally be a large reactive voltage
drop in the inter-connector. The magnitude of this voltage drop will depend on the
impedance of the inter-connector and on the power factor at which the power is
transmitted. This voltage drop may be accommodated in a number of ways. Assuming
that power is being transmitted from power station B to power station A, Figure 4.1:

. The bus-bar voltage at power station A or at power station B may be so adjusted

that the difference in the bus-bar voltages is equal to the voltage drop in the inter-
connector and associated transformers, The disadvantage of this method is that it
affects the voltages at which the loads, connected to the station bus-bars, are
supplied.

. The inter-connector transformers may be equipped with on-load tap-changing gear.

The voltage drop in the inter-connector may then be supplied by adjusting the
secondary emfs of the inter-connector transformers, and the bus-bar voltages may
be maintained constant. This method is commonly used where main transformers
are, in any case/ necessary.

. A voltage boost in the appropriate direction may be injected into the inter-
connector. This can be done either by an induction regulator or by a series
boosting-transformer, The series boosting transformer is now of less impoftance
due to the modern practice of incorporating on-load tap-changing gear in main
transformers, This, in effect, pedorms the same function as the series boosting-
transformer,

r05
 . The secondary terminal voltages of the inter-connector transformers may be held
constant. The voltage drop in the inter-connector may be accommodated by
adjusting the relative phase of the voltages at the sending and receiving ends of
the inter-connector by means of a synchronous phase modifier. Synchronous
phase modifiers are only used on transmission links of some hundreds of kilometres
in length.

A further use of voltage regulating equipment is to control the division of power

between two or more feeders or transmission lines operating in parallel. The voltage
regulation for a typical load bus-bar wit a lagging power factor is shown in Figure 4.2,
The exact voltage drop is given by the equation:

V = Vn.coS6+Vx'Sin6
Or: V = I.R.cos6+LX,sin6

Where: I = load current in A

R and X= resistance and reactive supply impedances in Q
6= load angle of the current with respect to the supply
voltage
cos 6 = power factor of the supply

Vp.cos 6 is the resistive voltage drop that is in phase with the load current. Vx.sin 6 is
the reactive voltage drop that is 90" out of phase with the load current. If the power
factor is leading, the reactive voltage drop is negative and in the opposite direction.
The ratio of the reactive voltage drop to the resistive voltage drop is larger than one
until a power factor of 0,98 is reached. In this case the ratio will be one. The
magnitude of the resistive voltage drop is larger than that of the reactive voltage drop
when the power factor is larger than 0.98. That means that, the lower the power
factor, the worse the voltage regulation.

Capacitor banks, synchronous machines, shunt reactors and tap-changing transformers

are typical voltage control devices, Voltage control is used to make the magnitude of
the bus-bar voltage equal or larger than the magnitude of the supply voltage. As a
result of the load current that is always flowing, there must be a voltage drop. The
magnitudes of the bus-bar and supply voltages can be equal as long as a phase shift
between the voltages is allowed. Normal voltage control where reactive power devices
are used is the same as improving the power factor to 0.98 or better, which shows that
voltage and power factor control are similar for constant supply voltages.

r06
 LR.cos 5

Regulation

I.X.sin 5

Bus-bar voltage

I (lagging power factor)

Figure 4.2: Voltage regulation

In the absence of voltage regulating equipment, their respective impedances determine

the division of the load between two lines. This division of the load may be modified by
the introduction of a voltage boost in one line. The control of the power division
between lines in parallel by voltage boosting has the important advantage that both
lines may be utilised to maximum capacity. When lines are operated in parallel, one
line may become fully loaded before the other line has taken up its full load because of
disproportionate impedances. A voltage boost of the appropriate magnitude and
direction in such under-loaded lines may allow them to take up their full load.

4.2 REASONS FOR INTER.CONNECTIONS

Generating sets are becoming increasingly large. Not only is the initial cost per kVA of
power stations of very large capacity lower than that of smaller power stations, but
their efficiencies are substantially higher. Hence, regardless of geographical position, it
is more economical to use these efficient power stations to full capacity twenty-four
hours a day and transmit energy considerable distances, than to use more and less
efficient local power stations. Therefore, the main base load met by these large power
stations, must be inter-connected so that they feed into the general system and not
into a particular load.

In order to meet sudden changes in load, a cetain amount of generating capacity

known as spinning reserve is required. This consists of generators running at normal
speed and ready to supply power instantly. If the machines are stationary, a
reasonable time is required to run up to speed, which can approach approximately one
hour. This is especially so for steam turbo-alternators. It is more economical to have
ceftain power stations only serving this function, than to have each power station
carrying its own spinning reserve. The electricity supplies over the entire country are
synchronised and a common frequency exists.

ro7
 In an inter-connected network consisting essentially of loops, continuity of supply is
maintained, since substations can be fed from either direction.

4.3 THREE-PHASE INDUCTION REGULATOR

In construction the three-phase induction regulator resembles a three-phase induction

motor with a wound rotor. In the induction regulator, the rotor is locked, usually by
means of a worm gear, to prevent its revolving under the action of the electromagnetic
force operating on it. The position of the rotor winding relative to the stator winding is
varied by means of the worm gear.

If the stator winding is connected to a constant-voltage, constant-frequency supply, a

rotating magnetic field is set up. This magnetic field will induce an emf in each phase
of the rotor winding. The magnitude of the induced rotor emf per phase is independent
of the rotor position. The reason is that the emf depends only on the speed of the
rotating field and the strength of the flux, neither of which vary with rotor position.
However, variation of the position of the rotor will affect the phase of the induced rotor
emf with respect to the phase'of the applied stator voltage. Figure 4.3 shows the
connection diagram of the star-connected stator winding of a three-phase induction
regulator. Each of the rotor phase windings is in series with one line of an inter-
connector.

,rrrr{

l',-*"nnector
Rotor phase winding

Figure 4.3: Connection diagram of the star-connected stator winding of a

three-phase induction regulator

In Figure 4.4, the phasors OA, OB and OC represent the input values of the line-to-
neutral voltages of this inter-connector. The circles drawn at A, B and C of these
phasors, represent the loci of the rotor phase emfs as the rotor position is varied with
respect to the stator.

108
 Figure 4.4

The phasors Aa, Bb and Cc in Figure 4.4 represent the voltage boosts introduced by
the induction regulator when the rotor position is such as to cause these voltage boosts
to lead on their respective line-to-neutral voltages by 90o, The phasors OA, OB and
OC represent the resultant voltages V. , Vo and V.. It will be seen that the induction
regulator has altered the phase of the voltages as well as introducing a voltage boost.
To eliminate this phase displacement, a double poly-phase induction regulator is
employed. Two rotors are assembled on a common shaft in the regulator, The
connection diagram for this regulator is shown in Figure 4.5. The rotor windings of
each regulator are connected in series with the inter-connector, The stator windings
are star-connected but the phase sequence of one regulator stator is reversed with
respect to the other.

Figure 4.5: Connection diagram for a double poly-phase induction regulator

The reversal of phase sequence to the stator of one regulator has the effect of
eliminating any phase displacement in the resultant voltage boost in the inter-
connector,

109
 Thus, when the shaft of the double regulator is displaced, both rotors move by the
same angular amount. However, if the emf induced in one rotor leads its former value,
then the emf induced in the other rotor lags by the same amount, The reason for this
is that the rotating fields in the regulators rotate in opposite directions. It is often
convenient to reverse the functions of the stator and the rotor windings in induction
regulators used for boosting. The rotor then carries the primary winding. This has the
advantage of requiring only three connections to the rotor instead of six, and the inter-
connector current flows in the stator instead of the rotor,

4.4 TAP.CHANGI NG TRANSFORM ER

Figure 4.6 shows a transformer having variable tappings in the secondary windinb, nt
the position of the tap is varied, the effective number of secondary turns is varied.
Hence, the emf and output voltage of the secondary winding can be altered. In supply
networks, however, tap changing has normally to be peformed on load. That is,
without causing an interruption to supply. The arrangement shown in Figure 4.6 is
unsuitable for this purpose.

Figure 4.6: Transformer with variable tappings in the secondary winding

If the tapping position is to be altered from position a to position b and the contact
with position a is broken before contact with position b is made, an open circuit results.
If, on the other hand, contact with position b is made before contact with position a is
broken, the coils connected between these two tapping points are short-circuited. The
coils will then carry damagingly heavy currents. In both cases, switching would be
accompanied by excessive arcing. The diagram in Figure 4.7 shows one type of an on-
load tap-changing transformer. With switch e closed, all the secondary turns are in
circuit. If the reactor short-circuiting switch is also closed, half the total current flows
through each half of the reactor. Since the current flow in each half of the reactor is in
opposition, no resultant flux is set up in the reactor and there is no inductive voltage
drop in the reactor. If it is now required to alter the tapping point to position d, the
reactor short-circuiting switch is opened, The load current now flows through one-half
of the reactor coil only so that a voltage drop occurs in the reactor, Switch d is now
closed, so that the coils between tapping point d and tapping point e are now
connected through the whole reactor winding, A circulating current will flow through
this local circuit. The value of this current is be limited by the reactor, Switch e is now
opened and the reactor short-circuiting switch is closed, thus completing the operation.

110
 Reactor

Mid-point tap

Short-circuiting switch

Figure 4.7: On-load tap-changing transformer

The tapping coils are placed physically in the centre of the transformer limb to avoid
unbalanced axial forces acting on the coils. These forces would arise if the coils were
placed at either end of the limb. Electrically, the tapped coils are at one end of the
winding, The practice is to connect them at the earth potential end.

4.5 SYNCHRONOUS PHASE MODIFIER

Variation in the excitation of a synchronous motor alters the power factor at which the
motor works. As the excitation of the motor is increased, the power factor passes from
a lagging, through unity, to a leading power factor. This characteristic of the
synchronous motor is used to correct the power factor of loads taking a lagging
current, When it is used in this way, the motor always acts with a leading power factor
and is often referred to as a synchronous capacitor. When the synchronous motor
is used as a means of controlling the voltage of a transmission line, the name
synchronous phase modifier is usually preferred. The reason being that, in this
application, the machine may be adjusted to take either leading or lagging current.
The motor is connected in parallel with the load at the receiving end of the line. The
action of the synchronous phase modifier in controlling the voltage of a transmission
line is best understood by reference to the phasor diagram shown in Figure 4.8. For
simplicity, the phasor diagram shown is that of a short line where the effects of
capacitance are neglected.

It should be understood, however, that this method of control is mostly applied to long
lines where, with other methods of control, the voltage drop along the line would be
excessive.

111
 ]H

Figure 4.8

In Figure 4.8, OA represents the receiving-end voltage V',. OE represents the receiving-
end current, I,, lagging on the receiving-end voltage by phase angle $,1. OF and OG
represent the active and reactive componeflts (I3.s;u" and l,..u.s;u.) of the current,
respectively. AB represents the voltage drop I*7 caused by the active component of

current that leads V, by the phase angle of the tine impedan.u, *fon-'i+l'lZ is the
L l.R/l
line impedance. BC represents the voltage drop IB,Z caused by the reactive component
of current. BC is lagging I*7 by 90o since I, is lagging Iu by 90o when the load power
factor is lagging. In an unregulated line the sending-end voltage V,1, is the phasor sum
of Y,,Iu.Z and I,.2. If the sending-end and receiving-end voltages are now to be held
constant at the same value, then, line OD, representing the new value of the sending-
end voltage V52, Irust be at some point along the arc AD, whose centre is O and radius
is OD. If the same power is to be sent along the line as previously, the voltage drop
iu.Z will remain the same. The reason is that the active component of current must
remains the same,

However, if the excitation of a synchronours phase modifier, connected to the receiving

end, is adjusted so that it takes a leading current - the current will lead by almost 90o
since the modifier works on no-load - then as this leading current is increased, the
lagging reactive current drawn along the line, will be reduced and the voltage drop I,.Z
tvill be reduced, The extremity of the phasor representing the sending-end voltage will
move along the line CB towards B. When the leading reactive current taken by the
modifier is equal to the lagging reactive current of the load, there will be no reactive
r,'-ent drawn along the line. There will also be no voltage drop I,.2. Hence, the
:,:'enity of the phasor representing the sending-end voltage will be at B.
 If the leading current taken by the modifier is further increased, the overall power
factor of the load and the modifier together becomes leading and the extremity of the
vector representing the sending-end voltage lies along the line BD between B and D.
Thus, if the leading current taken by the modifier is made sufFiciently high, the phasor
of the sending-end voltage takes up the position OD.

'The synchronous phase modifier may therefore be used to control the voltage drop of a
rtransmission line. If the sending-end voltage is maintained constant, then the modifier
will be over-excited to take a leading current at the usual condition (on full-load at a
lagging power factor). If the line has been unregulated, the receiving-end voltage will
increase compared with its value. On no-load, on the other hand, the modifier would
be under-excited and would take a lagging current in order to offset the voltage rise
that occurs at the receiving en of a long unregulated line when the load is removed.

The power that may be sent along a transmission line is limited by either the power
loss in the line reaching its permissible maximum value, or by the voltage drop in the
line reaching the maximum value which can be conveniently dealt with. In long
transmission lines it is the voltage drop which limits the power that-can be sent. Thus,
if synchronous phase modifiers are used to regulate the voltage, the line can deal with
more power, Since voltage drop in the line and associated plant is not the first
consideration when synchronous phase modifiers are used to control the voltage,
current limiting reactors may be incorporated in the system to reduce the maximum
shott-circuit current should a fault occur, The principal disadvantage apart from cost of
using synchronous phase modifiers is the possibility of their breaking from synchronism
and causing an interruption to the supply.

4.6 VALUE OF THE SENDING.END VOLTAGE

In constant-voltage transmission systems using synchronous phase modifiers, the

sending-end and receiving-end voltages are held constant, However, they do not
necessarily have to be equal. There is an advantage in having the sending-end voltage
higher than the receiving-end voltage, particularly in short lines. Under such
conditions, a smaller synchronous phase modifier capacity will satisfactorily regulate the
voltage. For example, referring to Figure 4.8, if the sending-end voltage had been
higher than the receiving-end voltage, the reactive voltage drop CD, due to the reactive
current of the synchronous phase modifier, would have been smaller and a smaller
capacity for the synchronous phase modifier would have been required, On longer
lines, the capacitive effect tends to cause a voltage rise on light loads and no load,
Therefore, the synchronous phase modifier has to work with a lagging power factor in
order to hold the voltage constant. Thus, the longer the line, the less are the
advantages of having the sending-end voltage higher than the receiving-end voltage.

113
4.7 AUTOMATIC LOAD DISPATCHING
In some systems a computer monitors the outputs and inter-connected loadings
continuously and automatically control the output of the power station and of each
plant within the power station. This compares the net transfer of power with the
scheduled transfer, Any difference between the scheduled and the actual power
transfer is called system requirement, which may be negative or positive. The function
of the computer is to determine the desired generation for each power station and to
send a signal to the power station. This signal will cause each station to work at the
desired outfiut. The difference between the actual and required output of a power
station is called the power station requirement. If each of the power stations is
delivered the required output for economical loading and the net power transfer over
the inter-connector is the scheduled value, both the system requirement and the sum
of the station requirement will be zero. When an increase of load on the system
occurs, the additional power will flow into the system through the inter-connector.

4.8 POWER TRANSFER

Power can basically flow from one point to another if there is a difference in voltage
between those two points. The potential difference causes active and reactive power
to flow between the two points. It can happen that P flows from a and that Q flows
from b. However, it can also happens that P is transferred from a while Q is
transferred to a. The potential difference between two points can be as a result of a
magnitude difference, as shown in Figure 4.9. It can also be as a result of a phase
difference, as shown in Figure 4.10.

Vau

V5 v"

Figure 4.9: Difference in magnitudes of two voltages

The voltage V3s will cause a current flow between points a and b.

Figure 4.1O: Phase difference between voltages

t--
The angle 6 is known as the load angle, Power will flow from the leading to the
lagging voltage.

Some standard formulas can be derived to calculate the power flow between two
points. It must be kept in mind that these standard formulas are actually based on the
principle of complex power. The positive and negative signs in Figure 4.11 show the
polarities during the positive cycle.

Figure 4.11
)
Machine A is the leading machine and machine B is the lagging machine. Consider the
"flow" of active power and reactive power of machine A in Figure 4.II. If the values of
the active power and reactive power are positive, it means that the direction of the
current flow is correct and that this machine will transfer active power and reactive
power. If these values were negative, it means that the direction of the current flow
will be in the opposite direction and that this machine will actually receive active power
and reactive power. The opposite will obviously happen to machine B in Figure 4,11.
These statements can be summarised as follows:

Leading machine:- + r transfer - : receiving

Laggingmachine:- f : receiving - :transfer

This concept can be better understood by considering two synchronous machines

connected in parallel, as shown in Figure 4,12,

ft, E,t

Figure 4.12: Two synchronous machines connected in parallel

The impedance Z can be the synchronous impedance of the machines or the

impedance of a transmission line. The current must be known to determine the power
and the direction of the current must also be considered.

115
 If current Iu5 is considered, the voltage drop Vu5 is used. If current I6u is considered,
the voltage drop V5u is used, Consider the phasor diagrams in Figures 4.L3 and 4.14.

E6

Figure 4.13: Phasor diagram using the voltage drop Vu6

According to Kirchhoff's voltage law:

Vuo-Eu+E5 = Q

Vao = Eu-Eu (Eu > En)

,7
./\
=^/\
\"
E5

Figure 4.14: Phasor diagram using the voltage drop V6u

According to Kirchhoff's voltage law:

V56*E6-Et = 0

Vbu = Eu-Eu (Eu > Eu)

Consider the layout of an inter-connection in Figure 4.15. iis

the subscript
j
represenUng the leading voltage and the subscript representing the lagging voltage.
To calculate the power transfer between machines A and B, the current will flow from i
toj. Thus:

Vrj = Iij'Z
Vni = Vi1pt)-V:fonl

116
 Ejl0
E16

Sl=Pu+iQu Si=Pn*iQu

SIfrouO = Pa(load) * iQaooaa)

Sltrouo = Pn(toao) i iQn(rouo)

Figure 4.15: Two power Stations joined by an inter-connector

will lag the voltage V; by an angte p ana ) will lag the voltage V; by an
angle B.
) as the load angle'
The angle between the voltages V; and V; is S' This angle is known
Figure 4.t6 shows a phasor diagram of these conditions'

Figure 4.16: Phasor diagram for the voltages and currents in the
inter-connected system shown in Figure 4'15

The real power at i will be:

Pi = Vi.Iii.coS 0
Where: $ : angle between Vland I;1

Lt7
 But I1i consists of the two components I; ( * ) anA I, 1) ). fnus:
P; = V1.Ii;.cos $

= Vi(Ii - I1)cos S
= Villi cos B - I; cos (B + 5)l

. = u'[]*"F - ]*"G.0)]
Also: Q; = V;,I11,sin $
= Vi(Ii - I;)sin Q

= Vi[Ii sin p - I; sin (B + 6)]

- u,[]." n F - ]."i" (o +o)]

At j the following standard equations are obtained:

Pi = V'[I, cos (B - 6) - Ii cos p)]

= n[+.*"(p-6) - ].*"ul
And: Qi = Vi[Ii sin (B - 6) - I; sin B)]
= u[].",n(B-6) - ].''"u]
From Figure 4.15 it can be seen that:

SI= Sjrro.o+ SI

Si=Silr,ouo-si

It is impodant to remember that these four formulas are derived under the following
assumptions:

. Vi is leading V;,

. The current flows from i to i, namely I;,.

118
 Ifphase values are used in the standard formulae, the complex power per phase is
obtained. If line values are used, the total complex power is obtained.

Example 4.1

Two power stations, A and B, work at BB kV and deliver power to their respective
consumers as follows:

Power station A: 720 MVA at a power factor of 0'819 lagging

Power station B: 640 MVA at a power factor of 0'766 lagging

An inter-connector with an impedance of (1.25 + j5.69) ohms per line is connected

between power station A and power station B. The voltage at power station A is
advanced with an angle of Bo with respect to the voltage at power station p.

4.IJ Use the complex power method to calculate the active and reactive power
received and transferred.
4.LZ Calculate the final loadings on the two power stations'

, V'(on) - vitonl
4.L.t
'z
t.. =

BBZB'_ BB

(5(t.zs + j5.6e)

= L,2L7ZL6.39o kA

Vi = BBzB" kV Vi = BBz0' kv

(1.25 + js.6e) o

Slrroro = 720135'02" MVA Siltro.O = 640t40" MYA

Figure 4.17: Line diagram for Example 4.1

119

j i. o,i
 sI- J5.v', r;
= ( JE Xsazs ")(L.2r7 t-t6.39o)
L85.4962-8.390 MVA

/ transfers 183.511 MW and receives 27.066 MVA'r

s; = J5.v,.Ii
= ( J5 Xsezo
o)(r.2r7 t-L6.39o)
ta5.4962-16.390 MVA

Breceives L77.958 MW and transfers 52.342 MVA'r

4.1.2 Ja - sjrrouor * sl
= 720t35.02o + L85.4962-8.390
864'.208z.26.540 MVA

Sil= Slrro.or - Si

640 t400 - 185.496 t-16.390

559.088256.O40 MVA

Example 4.2

Two power stations, A and B, supply individual loads of respectively 465 MVA at a
power factor of 0,8064 lagging and 395 MVA at a power factor of 0.715 lagging, The
two power stations are in phase at 96 kV. Power stations A and B are linked by an
inter-connector with an impedance of (1.63 + j6.72) ohms per line, The phase of the
inter-connector at power station A is advanced by means of a phase regulator, in order
to increase the real power load of the power station to"6qg"UW,

4.2.I Calculate the advance angle at power station A.

4.2.2 Calculate the inter-connector current.
4.2.3 Calculate the final loads of the power stations.
4.2.4 Calculate the transmission line power loss.

r20
 Vi = 9626 kV V = 9620"kV
Pu = 600 MW

(1.63 + j6.74 a

slrro"o = 465t36.25' MVA Sitro"o = 395t44'36' MVA

Figure 4.18: Line diagram for Example 4.2

c*
4.2.L Ja(loa0 - 465236.250
= (37s + j27s) MVA

o= Pa - Pa(toad)

600 - 375
225 MW

\t.2
Pi = *lcosp-cos(p +6)]
L

225 = g - (76.37" + a)]

6,915 ' 76.370
fcos cos

5- 9.80

4.2.2 V,j= V;1p1,y - V1pr.;

9629,8
-T---E- 9620"

9.469294.90 kV

V:
Iu=
z
9.469294.9"
L8 + jdn
1.369218.530 kA

tzL
 4.2.3 "
Qi= Str,nB-sin(B+s)l
z'
= 9g fsin 76.370 - sin (76.370 + 9,Bo)]
6.915 '
= -34.557 MVAr

tt.2
Pr=
.L *lcos (p - 6) - cos B]

= g* [cos (76.37o - 9.Bo) - cos 76.370]

6.915 '

= 215.876 MW

tt.2
Qi.L= *[sin(B-S)-sinB]
= 9g [sin (76.37o - 9.Bo) - sin 76.370]
6.915 '

= -72.357 MVAr

s]= S]rro.or* SI
= 465t36.25o + (225 - j34.557)
= 646.366221.8350 MVA

S; ^*
LL
Jb(loa0 - ^*
Jj

= 395244.360 - (2L5.876 - j72.357)

= 354.821279.190 MVA

4.2.4 PU = 3.Ii .R
= (3X1.36e)11,63)
= 9.165 MW

r22
Example 4.3

Two three-phase generating power stations, A and B, are linked together through a
4B-kV inter-connector. Power station B supplies a load to its consumers of 375 MVA at
a power factor of 0.875 lagging. The impedance of the inter-connector is
(1.86 + j8.42) ohms per phase. The load on the generators at power station A is 1BB
MVA at a power factor of 0.86 lagging. The local load taken by consumers of power
station A is 131i5 MW.

4.3.1"Use standard formulae and calculate the phase difference between the voltages
of power station A and power station B.
4.3.2 Calculate the active power received by power station B.
4.3.3 Calculate the power factor of power station B.
4.3.4 Calculate the power factor of the load supplied to the consumers of power
station A.

Vi = 4BZ5 kV V: = 4820" kv

SI = lggz:0.68' MVA

(1.86 + j8.42) o

Pa(road) = 131.5 MW

Figure 4.19: Line diagram for Example 4.3

4.3.t t,= 1BBZ3O,6BO

(151.586 + j9s.926) MVA

Pi = Pa - Pa(load)

161.686 - 131.5

30.168 MW

r23
 \/.2
Pi =
)tcosB-cos(B+s)l
30.168 = g* lcos77.54o - cos (77.s4o * a)l
8.623'
$= 6.560

tt2
D.-
4.3.2 rJ -
I t.or (P - 5) - cos Bl

g* -
=
8.623 'lcos (77.54o- 6.s6") cos77.54of

= 29.429 MW

lt.2
4.3.3 e;= I trin (B - s) - sin Bl
=
gf gin (77.54o - 6,s6o) - sin 77.5401
8.623'
= -8.294 MVAr

Jb- Silrrouo - si
= 375 t28.96 - (29.429 - j8.294)
= 35392L232.440 MVA

COS $5 = cos 32.440

0.844lagging

tt.2
4.3.4 Qr =
I ttin B - sin (B + 5)l
g* lsin77.54o - sin (77.s4 + 6,s6")l
8.523'
- 4.878 MVAr
c* - sltrorot
Ja - * sl
188230.68' = Slrro.o + (30.168 - j4.B7B)
c-
Ja(load) - 465.705237.470 MVA

724
 COS $21636; = COS 37.470

= 0.794lagging

Example 4.4

Two power stations, A and B, are in phase at 132 kV. These power stations supply 840
MVA at a power factor of 0.791 lagging. An inter-connector with an impedance of
12.61860 ohms per phase, links station A with station By means of a phase B.
regulator at B, the phase of the inter-connector at B is advanced so that station A
receives 221.3 MW from station B.

4.4.L Use standard formulae and calculate the angle of advance at power station B.
4.4.2 Calculate the final loading on each power station when the load is divided
equally between the two stations.

v?
4.4.L Pi= [cor (P - 5) - cos B]
I
227.3 = ryLfcos
L2.6
(86" - b) - cos 86.]

5- 9.2850

4.4.2 Qi =
$tr'no-sin(B+s)l
Wlsin
12.6
86. - sin (86. + 9.285.)l

2.51 MVAr

D.-
rl-
I ti'B - cos (B + s)l

= Wfcos
12.6
86" - cos (86. + 9.285.)]

223.838 MW

v,2
trin (P - s) -
Q= f sin Bl

ryLfsin
12.6
(86" - 9.28s") - sin 86"]

= - 33.638 MVAr

r25
 c-,. q-
Ja - "a(load) -
= 420t37.72o -(22r.3 - j33.638)
3tt.o46269.120 MVA

Sil= slrrouo + sl
420237.72o + (223.838 + j2.51)
= 6L3.6r9t25.010 MVA

Example 4.5

Two power stations, A and B, work at I3ZltB" kV and L32lI2" kV respectively. The
two power stations are connected via an inter-connector with an impedance of
7.5275" o/line, The power stations supply their separate consumers as follow:

Power station A: 750 MVA at a power factor of 0.6691 lagging

Power station B: 344.7 MW at a power factor of 0,766 lagging
4.5.7 Use the complex power method and calculate the total active and reactive
power received or send at each bus-bar.
4.5.2 Calculate the final power factor at each power station.
4.5.3 Calculate the operating angle of power station B if the phase regulator at
power station B is advanced to reduce the loading on power station A to
590 MW.

4.5.1 vij = V4p6y - Vilpny

r32lIB" t32zr2
=
J: J:
7.9772LO5" kV

VU I,:.7

7.977 Z!05" (rij)Q.5275")

Iij 1.0635230'kA

Sl= JgVIi
(Ji Gzz ztB " X 1.06362-30' )
243.L722-12" MVA

126
''. / Pi = 237.858 MW
And: Qi = - 50.558 MVAr
si = Js v, ri
(i ztz" )(L.0636 t-30'
Gsz )
= 243.!721-18'MVA
D.=
.J 23r.27 MW
And: Qi = -75.L44 MVAr

4.5.2 sl= Siroro + Sl

750t48" + 243.L72t-12"
896.667234.42" MVA

5b= ^*
Su(toao - ^*
5j

344'7t4o" z43.L7z t rB,

=
0.76 - -
= 38L.65L272.71' MVA

cos 0" cos 34.42"

O.7855lagging

cos 0b = cos 72.77"

O.2972lagging

4.5.3 Pi = Pa - Pa(toad)

= 690 - 501,848

= 188.152 MW

tt2
D- + s)l
ll -
I t.or P - cos (P
l-r.-.r21
188.152 = I t"? |lcos zs'- cos (75" + s)l
l7.s I'
f= 4.76'

r27
 Power station B should be operating at:

rB'-4.76" = L3.24'

Example 4.6

Two power stations A and B are synchronised at BB kV, Power station A delivers
424 MVA to its consumers at a power factor of 0.7L93 lagging. The final loading on
power stati6n B is 545139" MVA, The two power stations are inter-connected by a
transmission line with a resistance of 2.4 o and an inductive reactance of 7.6 o. The
excitation voltage of the generator at power station A is increased with 5.6820/o and the
input power to the generator is changed as such that the load anqle - is 72.5oh of the
phase'impedance angle. c

4.6.r Use standard formulae and calculate the final loading on power station A.
4.6.2 Calculate theggpg***.rumco._.El.l"gXp,,Syr1gl that can be delivered to the congume15
at power station B. --'-
4.6.3 Calculate the total reactive power absorbed by the transmission line.

1-
4.6.1 z-- 2.4 + j7.6

= 7.97272,47" A

$= !2.5o/o x 72.47"

9.06'

D.-
lt - ''z
v'[!,cosp-Scos(B+5)]
z

tt
[#) *'
os(72.47')- (72.47'+ e,06")]
[[ #).
= 175.52 MW

V. V.
Qi = vif
7f
.sin P -; sin (B + s)]

e3
= g3lI )rinrzz.47.\-i
* )r,n o2.47"-e.06")
L\7.e7) \7.e7) ')
I

= 19.145 MVA'r

128
 sjrrouo r si
= 424t44o +(175.62 + j19.146)
573.926.133.130 MVA

4.6.2 R= vit
f ,.o, (B - 5) -) cos ot

rr os(72.47'- e.06") - stz.+t "'t)

[(#). [#}."
165.957 MW

q= \/..sin (B - s) v sin
vit
f - ;f 01

tt
[(#)'
in(72.47"- e.06') -
[#),''"
rr.o, tf
- 8.277 MVA'r

5b silrro.o - sl

545t39" Silrrouo - (166.957 - i}.z77)

5n(toaO 678.762229.550 MVA

4.6.3 eu = Qi-Q
= 79.146 + 8.277
= 27.423 MVA'r

Example 4.7

The individual loads on two power stations A and B are:

Power station A: 660 MVA at a lagging power factor of 0,6293

Power station B: 325 MVA at a lagging power factor of 0.809

The two power stations are in phase at BB kV and is inter-connected by means of a

transmission line with an impedance of (2 + j10) O/phase. A tap-changing transformer
is adjusted at power station B to send 38.2 MVAr from power station B to improve the
power factor at power station A. The loads to the consumers remain the same.

t29
 4.7.L Usg standard formulae and calculate the percentage tap changing of the tap-
changing transformer at power station B.
4.7.2 Calculate the final loadings on both power stations.
4.7.3 Calculate the power factor at both power stations.
4.7.4 Calculate the percentage power factor improvement on the load of power
station B,

4.7.r Qi = vi[].rin P -+sin (B + s)l

, = !.sin g$i- vj)

7
\
38.2= f V 7B'6e'XVi - BB)
tro'rgs J(tin
= 0.096Vi(Vi- BB)
= 0.096 vi2 - B.462vi
0= 0.096 v,2 - B.462Vi- 38.2

Vi =
-ut.6t-+ac
2a

8.462!@
=
(zxo.oe6)

8.462+9.28
0.t92
= 92.45 kV

o/o taP =
V -vi
vj
92,45 - BB
=
BB
5.O57o/o

\/.
D-
4.7.2 lt- *.cos
L
B(Vi- Vi)

= i'?'.9lf*s
\10,198 r'
78.6e")(e2,4s - BB)
7.912 MW

130
 V.
Pj.L = j.cos F(Vi- Vi)
/ ss-- \.l(cos 78.69'X92.45 - BB)
= I( 10.1s8 /'
= 7.531 MW
V.
q.L= j.sin F(V,- Vi)

= [- ]tr'n 78.6e")(e2.4s - BB)

=t9==
li0.1eB l'
= 37.654 MVA'r

Sl=Slrro.o-Sl
= 66At5f - (7.531 + j37.654)
= 626,2522.49.37" MVA

sil= Sirro.o+ sl
= 325136 + (7.9t2 + j38,2)
= 354.827140.24" MVA

4.7.3 cos $u = cos 49.37"

= O,6512lagging
cos $5 = cos 40'24'
= 0.7633lagging
0'809:9'1633
4.7.4 -=
Acosgo
0.7633

= 5.987o/o

131
EXERCISE 4

1. Two power stations, A and B, work at BB kV and deliver power to their separate consumers
as follow:

Power station A: 540 MVA at a power factor of 0.809 lagging

Power station B: 480 MVA at a power factor of 0.8387 lagging

An inter-connector with an impedance of Z = 7.25177" ohms per line joins power station A
with power station B, The voltage at A is advanced with an angle of 9.3o with respect to
the voltage of B.

1.1 Use the complex power method and calculate the active power and reactive power
received and transferred.
1.v Write down the final distribution of active and reactive power between the two power
stations.
1.3 Calculate the final power factor at the generators of each power station.

2. Two power stations, A and B, which are in phase at 132 kV, supply 650 MVA at a power
factor of 0.9063 lagging. An inter-connector with an impedance of (1.45 + j8,35) ohms
per line, links station A with station B. By means of a phase regulator at B, the phase of
the inter-connector at B is advanced in order that station A receives 242 MW from station
B. Use standard formulae to solve the following questions.
2.1 Calculate the angle of advance at power station B.
2.2 Calculate the final loading on each power station when the load is divided equally between
the two stations.
2.3 Calculate the active power loss in the inter-connector.
3, Two power stations, A and B, work at 66 kV and deliver power to their separate consumers
as follow:

Power station A: 480 MVA at a power factor of 0.809 lagging

Power station B: 420 MVA at a power factor of 0,866 lagging

Power stations A and B are joined with an inter-connector with an impedance of

8.05178.3' o/line, The voltage at power station A is advanced with an angle of 9.60 with
respect to the voltage of power station B.

3.1 Use the complex power method and calculate the power and reactive power received and
transferred through the inter-connector.
3.2 Calculate the final loading on each of the two stations.
3.3 Calculate the power factor of the inter-connector.
3.4 Calculate the active power loss in the inter-connector.

r3z
4. Two power stations, A and B, which are in phase at BB kV, supply respective loads of
452.25 MVA at an inductive power factor of 0.7071 and 545.25 MVA at a lagging power
factor of 0,88295. An inter-connector with an impedance of 2.45274" ohms per line, links
station A with station B. By means of a phase regulator at A, the phase angle of the
voltage at A is advanced in order to increase the loading of station A to 715 MW.

4,1 Use standard formulae and calculate the angle of advance at power station A.
4.2 Calculate the transmission line power loss.

5. Two power stations, A and B, are linked by means of an inter-connector and transformers
having a combined impedance of (2.43L + jI3.7B7) ohms per line. The station voltages are
equal at 132 kV. Individual loads on stations A and B are 125 MVA at a lagging power
factor of 0.743I and 145 MVA at a lagging power factor of 0,8387 respectively. A
synchronous phase modifier is used to advanced the phase angle at A in order to tranfer
75 MW from A to B.

5.1 Use standard formulae and calculate the angle of advance at A.

5.2 Calculate the final loading on stations A and B.

6, Two three-phase power stations, A and B, are connected by a 66-kV inter-connector with
an impedance of (1.96 + j9.57) ohms per phase. The total load on the generators at A is
5B.B MW ht a lagging power factor of 0.8. The local load connected directly to the bus-bar
of A is 39.3 MW at a lagging power factor of 0.707L. Power station B delivers 42,8 MVA at
a power factor of 0.6 lagging to its consumers.

6.i Use standard formulae and calculate the phase difference between the voltages of stations
A and B,
6,2 Calculate the load, in MW, received by station B from station A.
6.3 Calculate the power factor of station B.

7. Two power stations, A and B, which are in phase at BB kV, supply 540 MVA at a power
factor of 0.8071 lagging and 450 MVA at a power factor of 0.71 lagging. An inter-connector
with an impedance of (1.351 + j10.398) ohms per phase, links station A with station B. By
means of a phase regulator at station B, the phase of the inter-connector at B is advanced,
This causes the loading of station B to increase by 215 MW.

7.1 Calculate the angle of advance at power station B.

7.2 Use standard formulae and calculate the final loading on the power stations,
7.3 Calculate the transmission line power loss.

133
B. The voltage of two power stations, A and B, is in phase at 132 kV. Power station A supply
loads with a rating of 720 MVA at a lagging power factor of 0.673. Power station B supplies
loads with a rating of 650 MVA at a lagging power factor of 0.798. The two power stations
are now connected through an inter-connector with an impedance of (1.288 + j12.455)
ohms per phase. The phase of the voltage at power station A is now changed so that the
total active power supplied by this power station increases to 750 MW.

8,1 Use standard formulae and calculate the change in phase angle of the voltage at power
station A.
8,2 Calculate the pbwer loss in the inter-connector.
8.3 Calculate the current flow through the inter-connector.
8.4 Calculate the total complex power supplied by each power station,

9. Two power stations, A and B, operate at 72 kY and deliver power to their respective
consumers as follows:

Power station B: 800 MVA at a power factor of 0.7 lagging

Power station A: 450 MVA at a power factor of 0.8 lagging

These two- power stations are joined with an inter-connector with an impedance of
(0.936 + j8.956) o/line. The voltage of power station A is advanced with an angle of 72o
lvith respect to the voltage of power station B.

-4,1 Use the complex power method and calculate the power and reactive power received and
tra nsferred th rough the inter-connector,
9.2 Calculate the power and reactive power absorbed by the inter-connector.
9.3 Calculate the final loading on each of the two power stations.
10. Two power stations, A and B, deliver power to their respective consumers of 408 MVA at a
power factor of 0.22495 lagging and 376 MVA at a power factor of 0.6018 lagging. A
current of 7045216.625" A flows through an inter-connector between the two power
stations, while a voltage of 6425293.625" V is measured across the inter-connector. The
voltage at power station A is advanced to deliver power through the inter-connector to
power station B. The power on the generators at power station A is given as 448 MVA at a
power factor of 0.559 lagging.

10.1Calculate the impedance of the inter-connector,

10.2 Use the complex power method and calculate the angle of advance at power station A.
10.3 Calculate the final loading on power station B.

134
 Two power stations, A and B, supply loads of 184 MVA at a power factor of O.7O7I lagging
ffi and 196 MVA at a power factor of 0.82 lagging respectively. The two power stations work
in phase at 66 kV. An inter-connector with an impedance of 3.9l\2o ohms per phase, link
the two power stations. The voltage at power station B is increasedtoT4 kV in order that
power station A receives 175 MW from power station B,

11.1Use the complex power method and calculate the final loading on each power station.
11.2 Use standard formulae and calculate the active and reactive power send by power
station B.

12. Two power stations, A and B, supply a load of 378 MVA at a power factor of 0.766 lagging.
The two power stations work in phase at 66 kV. An inter-connector with an impedance of
3.9z&2o ohms per phase, links the two power stations, The voltage at power station B is
increased to 69 kV to send 175 MW to power station A.

12.1Use the complex power method and calculate the final loading on each power station if the
load is divided equally between the two power stations,
12,2 Use standard formulae and.calculate the active power loss in the inter-connector.

13. Two powerstations, A and B, are in phase and supply the following loads:

Power station B : 565 MVA at a power factor of 0.7071lagging

Power station A : 365 MVA at a power factor of 0.804 lagging

An inter-connector with an impedance of (0.61 + j6.97) ohms per line, links power
station A with power station B. By means of a phase regulator at power station A, the
phase of the inter-connector at this station is advanced by 29.2L'to increase its loading to
1070 MVA at a power factor of 0.788 lagging.

13.l Calculate the voltage on the power stations.

13.2 Use the complex power method to calculate the transmission line loss.
13.3 Use standard formulae and calculate the final loading on power station B.

14. Two power stations A and B, are synchronised at 132 KV. The loading on the generators
of power station A is 820 MVA at a power factor of 0,809 lagging. Power station B delivers
640 MVA at a power factor of 0.7547 lagging to its consumers. The two power stations are
inter-connected by a transmission line with a resistance of 1.35 e and an inductive
reactance of 6.35 A. The excitation voltage of the generator at power station B is
increased with 3.03olo and the input power to the generators at power station B is changed
as such that the load angle at power station B is 10.9olo of the transmission line impedance
angle.

14.1use standard formulae and calculate the final loading on power station B.
14'2 Calculate the maximum complex power that can be delivered to the consumers at power
station A.
14.3 calculate the total reactive power absorbed by the transmission line,

135
15. Two power stations A and B, which are in phase at 132 kV, are inter-connected by means
of a 72 km aluminium transmission line with an effective conductor diameter of 25 mm.
Power station A delivers 450 MVA to its consumers at a power factor of 0.7193 lagging.
Power station B delivers 245 MW to its consumers at a power factor of 0.809 lagging. The
voltage at power station B is delayed by 6' with respect to the voltage at power station A.
The resistance yalue of the line is 25olo of the reactance value of the line. The resistivity of
the aluminium is 0.0285 pO.m, Use standard formulae:

15.1 Calculate the final loading on power station B.

15.2 Calculate the percentage power factor improvement of the load on power station A.

Use the complex power method:

15.3 Calculate the final loading on power station B.

15.4 Calculate the percentage power factor improvement of the load on power station A.

16. Two power stations A and B work at 8826' kV and 66275" kV respectively to supply their
separate customers as follow:

Power station A: 480 MVA at a power factor of O.7O77lagging

Power station B: 720 MVA at a power factor of 0,766 lagging

The two power stations are joined by an inter-connector with an impedance of

(3.32 + j8.46) A/phase. Use standard formulae:

16,1Calculate the total active and reactive power delivered or received at each bus bar.
16.2 Calculate the active and reactive power loss in the inter-connector,

Use the complex power method:

16.3 Calculate the final active and reactive power loadings on each power station.
16.4If the phase-regulator at power station A is adjusted such to reduce the loading at power
station A by 75 MW, calculate the operating angle of power station A.

r-1'!
17, Two power stations supply loads to their separate consumers as follow:

Power station A: 594 MVA at a power factor of 0.6691 lagging

Power station B: 360 MVA at a power factor of 0.777L lagging

The two.power stations are in phase at 96 kV and is inter-connected with a transmission

line with an impedance of (1.58 + j7.434) ohms per phase. A tap-changing transformer is
used to at power station B to send 42MYA'r from B to improve the power factor at power
station A, while the loads of the consumers stay the same. Use standard formulae:

17.1 Calcutate the percentage tap changing of the transformer at power station B.
17,2Calculate the final loading on both power stations.
17.3Calculate the final power factor of both power stations,
17.4Calculate the active and reactive power loss in the inter-connector,
17.5The percentage power factor improvement of power station A,

18, Two power stations supply loads to their separate consumers as follow:

Power station A: 540 MVA at a power factor of 0.7193 lagging

Power station B: 275 MW at a power factor of 0.809 lagging

The two power stations are inter-connected with an overhead aluminium transmission line
of 84.4 km with an effective diameter of 32 mm. The two power stations are in phase at
BB kV. The voltage at power station B is delayed by 5% with respect to the voltage at
power station A. The value of the resistance of the transmission line is 25olo of its inductive
reactance value. The resistivity of aluminium is 0.0284 pQ.m.

18.1Use the complex power method and calculate the final loading on power station B.
18.2 Use standard formulae and calculate the percentage power factor change of the loading on
power station A.
18.3 Calculate the active and reactive power loss in the inter-connector.

19. Two three-phase power stations A and B, are in phase at a voltage of BB kV. The two
power stations are linked by a transmission line with an impedance of B.IZB2'O/line. The
power stations supply power to two separate systems as follow:

Power station A: 480 MVA at a lagging power factor of 0.682

Power station B: 790 MVA at a lagging power factor of 0.8093

A synchronous phase modifier is used at power station A to increase the active power on
this power station to 42A MW while the demands from the consumers stay the same,

19.1Use standard formulae and calculate the value of the load angle at power station A.
19'2 Use the complex power method and calculate the final loadings on the two power stations.

r37
20, Two three-phase power stations A and B, are in phase and supply power to two separate
systems at 132 kV. The loads are:

Power station A: 720 MVA at a lagging power factor of 0.7193

Power station B: 325 MVA at a lagging power factor of 0.809

The voltage at power station A is delayed to transfer active power to the power station by
means of an inter-connector with an impedance of L2lB2' filline. The power loss in the
inter-connectoris 3.9 MW. Use standard formulae:

20.1Calculate the delayed load angle at power station A.

20.2 Calculate the final loading on both power stations.
20.3 Calculate the percentage power factor improvement at power station B.

21. Two power stations A and B work at BBZ5' kV and BBzl2 kV respectively to supply their
separate customers as follow:

Power station A: 550 MVA at a power factor of 0.7793lagging

Power station B: 640 MVA at a power factor of 0.7771lagging

The two power stations are joined by an inter-connector with an impedance of

8.75177" ohms per phase. Use standard formulae:

21.1Calculate the totalactive and reactive power delivered or received at each bus bar.
21.2 Calculate the active and reactive power loss in the inter-connector.

Use the complex power method:

21.3 Calculate the final active and reactive power loadings on each power station.
2L.4If the phase-regulator at power station B is adjusted such to reduce the loading at power
station B by 45 MW, calculate the operating angle of power station B.

22. Two power stations, A and B, which are in phase at 132 kV, supply 720 MVA at a power
factor of 0.707t lagging. A transmission line with an impedance of BAZB2" o/phase link
the two power stations. By means of a phase regulator at power station B, the phase of
the inter-connector at power station B is advanced such that power station A receives
124 MW from power station B.
The loads to the consumers remain the same. Use
standard formulae:

22.1Calculate the load angle at power station B.

Z2.2Calculate the final active and reactive power on each power station when the load is
divided equally between the two power stations.
22,3 Calculate the active and reactive power loss in the inter-connector.
22.4 Calculate the percentage power factor improvement of power station B.

138
 CHAPTER FIVE

POWER ECONOMICS

5.1 INTRODUCTION
The objectin the design and operation of a power station is to generate electric energy
safely, efficiently and economically. The economical success of any electricity company
depends on the economic viability and reliability of the supply. The supply and demand
of electrical energy is very different from any other product produced to be sold to
consumers. Electrical energy has to be supplied on the time that it is demanded by
consumers. There is no simple storage system that can be used to supply additional
energy during peak time demands. This is a unique situation end necessitates the
production of sufficient electrical energy to meet the demand of consumers at any time.
This means that accurate forecasting of load requirements at various given times must
be maintained in order to recommend the necessary power output for a certain time of
the day, week, month or year.

5.2 MAXIMUM DEMAND

The maximum demand to be made on a power station determines the size and cost of
the installation. If the maximum demand is high compared to the average load i,e. the
load factor (power factor) is low, the cost per kW-h will be high. The maximum
demand on a power station can be reduced by the encouragement to diversify the load
or by the encouragement of power factor correction.

5.2.1 ENCOURAGEMENT TO DIVERSIFY THE LOAD

The maximum demands of various consumers are not likely to occur all at the same
time. This means the maximum demand on the power station is always much less than
the sum of the maximum demands of the various consumers. The diversity factor is
therefore:

sum of the maximum demands of variousconsumers

le=
max imum demand on the powersbation

This ratio is always higher than one and should be as high as possible. This factor can
be increased by offering tariff incentives to consumers using energy during off-peak
times.

139
5.2.2 ENCOURAGEMENT OF POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

The full-load output of a generator is determined by the voltage at which it is designed

to generate and the current that can be carried by the stator windings without
overheating. A generator that is capable of generating 100 MW will have a full-load
output of 100 MW at unity power factor, The full-load output will decrease to B0 Mw
with a power factor of 0.8 and 60 MW with a power factor of 0.6. This is also
applicable on other equipment such as feeders, transformers and switchgear. If the
overall power factor of the system is therefore 0.8, the amount of plant required is 1.25
times more'than necessary had the overall power factor been unity. To encourage
consumers to improve a lagging power factor by fitting static capacitors or synchronous
condensers, industrial tariffs include a maximum demand charge as well as a kW-h
charge. The maximum demand charge is usually based on the highest kVA-h supplied
during any thity consecutive minutes in the month of the account.

5.2.3 LOAD AND FORM FACTORS

A power station should ideally supply power at full load, but for technical and
economical reasons this is not achieved. The load is therefore not constant for the
whole year. A measure of the effective use of a power station over an arbitrary period
of time is required and this is called the load factor. It can be defined in terms of
power as:

average active power o utput (W)

k,=
max imum active poweroutput(W)

average active power o utput (W)

This often means the ' It can also be defined in
installed capacity of the station (W)
terms of energy:

anualoutputin kW- h
ko=
max imum possible anauloutputin kW- h
anual energy converted
(in stalled kW capacity )(n umber of ho u rs in one year)

The rms and average values of the annual load curue can be found in the usual way
and should not be confused with the sinusoidal waveform of the load current. The
form factor can be found by the equation:

rms value of the anual load curve

kf=
average value of the anual load curve

,l+ru"
 When using Kelvin's Law to find the most economical c.s.a. (cross-sectional area) of a
transmission line, the rms value of the annual load curve is used. This can be found by
multiplying the maximum value of the load current per annum by the load and form
factors, since:

,Imax^ Irr. Iu*rug.

= IrmS
Iat'erage Ima*

-
s.2.4 LOSS FACTOR

The loss factor for a transmission system consists of the following ratio:

average power losses per annum

Loss factor =
maximum powerlosses per annum

The loss factor differs from the load factor as the copper losses vary as the square of
the load current. There are, however, losses that are independent of the load current.
This can be dielectric losses in cables or iron losses in transformers. These losses
increase the value of the overall loss factor when combined with the copper losses.
Since the loss factor differs from the load factor, the cost of transmitting each kW-h
varies with load in a different way from the cost of generating each kW-h.

5.3 MOST ECONOMICAL CROSS.SECTIONAL AREA OF A CONDUC.

TOR OR TRANSMISSION LINE

The c.s,a. of a distributor is generally determined by the maximum voltage drop that
can be tolerated. In the case of feeders and transmission lines, the initial cost and the
cost of energy loss are more important, The larger the c.s.a., the higher the initial cost
but the lower the energy loss, The initial cost on a complete transmission line
comprises:

. The cost of the conductor itself and is directly proportional to the c.s.a, of the
conductor.

. The cost of towers, insulators and erection of the overhead lines, or in the case of
underground cables, the cost of insulation, laying and jointing of the conductors.

These costs depend to some extend on the conductor c,s.a. but are considered
constant when deriving Kelvin's Law.

L47
5.4 KELVIN'S LAW
the most economical c.s.a. of a conductor is that which
Kelvin's Law states that
makes the annual cost of the energy losses equal to the annual interest and
depreciation charges on the initial cost of the conductor material only.

C=Cr*Cz
Where: c: total annual cost of operating the transmission line
Cr= total annual interest and depreciation charges
Cz= annual cost of energy losses

Cr=P.A+Q
Where: P = constant that depends on the cost per unit volume of the
conductor material used
A= the conductor in cm2
rTrost economical c.s.a. of
Q= constant that depends on the cost of the towers, insulators
and erection

Both the constants P and Q also depend on the interest rate and depreciation charges,
Ignoring leakage resistance, dielectric losses and corona, the annual cost of energy loss
is directly proportional to 12.R.t. I is the load current, R the conductor resistance and t
the time that the current is flowing. Since R is directly proporiional to A:

Where: K = constant depending on the cost of energy

Thus: C=P.A+ o+5

.A

dc
For C to be a minimum, = 0. Hence:
dA

P- {A2 = o

And: P.A= !
A

L42
5.4.1 LIMITATIONS TO THE APPLICATION OF KELVIN'S LAW

. Kelvin's Law is derived on the assumption that the cost of towers, insulators and
erection are independent of conductor c.s.a. In practice, the cost of these items
increases with conductor c.s.a.

. In the case of very high voltage, steel-cored aluminium overhead lines, the cost of
the conductor material is not a major paft of the initial cost.

. In deriving Kelvin's Law, only the copper losses are considered. At the higher
voltages, corona losses may be comparable with the copper losses.

. When applying the law to underground cables, the c.s.a. obtained may be too small
because dielectric losses are ignored and heat dissipation is more difficult.

o The correct value of the load current is difficult to estimate in advance.

. The c.s,a, obtained using the law is based on financial considerations and must be
checked for current densityT voltage drop, corona and mechanical strength.

In general, Kelvin's Law is most useful up to 33-kV lines, However, the concept of
economic current density is sometimes worth considering for higher voltages, The
curve of total cost against conductor c.s.a. is usually very flat near the minimum point,
as shown in Figure 5.1. Therefore, an error of the order of 20olo either way does not
usually make much difference to total annual operating costs. For an impoftant line, at
least two standard conductor sizes on either side of the most economical c.s.a. can be
used to calculate the total annual costs for each, including towers, insulators and
erection.

r43
 Total cost (C)

(a
F
a
o
(J
J
Cost cr c.s.a. (P.A)
f
zz.
Constant cost (Q)

CON DUCTOR CROSS-SECNONAL AREA

Figure 5.1: Variation of annual costs with conductor c.s,a

5,4.2 TRANSMISSION VOLTAGE

of conductor material required is

As the transmission voltage is raised, the amount
reduced. However, the cost of transformers, switchgear, and other equipment
increases with voltage so that there is an optimum voltage of transmission. The most
economical transmission voltage increases with the length of the line and the size of
the load, The only satisfactory method of arriving at the most economical voltage is to
take at least two probable standard voltages and to calculate the total annual costs for
each. The generation voltage, the length of the line and the size of the load are first
decided upon. The costs of transformers at both ends, switchgear/ over-voltage surge
diveders, insulators and towers are then considered for each voltage. The most
economical conductor c.s.a. is calculated for each voltage using Kelvin's law and hence
the annual costs of the conductor material and the energy losses are found.

t44
 5.4.3 GENERATING COSTS

The annual cost of running a steam power station may be divided into the following:

. Fixed costs that is independent of the maximum power and annual energy outputs
and is pat of the cost of the central administrative organization and the capital cost
of the station site.

. to the maximum possible power output but is

Costs which is directly proportional
independent of the annual energy output and consist of the salaries of charge
engineers and maintenance staff and the cost of buildings, plant and spares.

. Costs which is directly proportional to the annual energy output and is mainly that
of fuel and water.

Since the first two costs are independent of the number of kW-h generated per annum/
these costs are called the standing charges and the last cost is called the running
I
charge. It is difficult to separate these charges precisely. For example, the cost of
maintenance does paftly depend on the kW-h generated per annum. The greater the
load factor, the lower is the cost of each kW-h because the standing charges will be
distributed over more units. In the case of a hydro-electric station, the capital costs are
very high and the running costs are very low. In order to keep down the cost per
kw-h, it is therefore even more important to maintain a high load factor than it is for a
steam station.

5.5 MOST ECONOMICAL POWER FACTOR

Static capacitors and synchronous condensers also have an annual cost charge.
Therefore, as the cost of the maximum demand charge is reduced, the annual cost of
the capacitors or condensers is increased.

C
sin 0 =
A

Where: e: most economical angle

C: annual cost on capacitors or condensers
A= maximum demand charge per kVA

145
5.6 TARIFFS

Tariffs may be divided into the following groupsl

. Agricultural

. Combined premises

. Commercial

Domestic premises

Industrial

. Off-peak

Tariffs are also designed for special circumstances:

1, It applies to the electrical energy

used for domestic purposes in a private residence.
Itusually consists of a kW-h charge and plus a fixed quarterly charge based on the
number of rooms or floor area.

2. It applies to electrical energy supplied to any premises during ceftain times of the
day and night. It consists of a kW-h charge lower than (1) plus a fixed quarterly
charge.

3. It applies to electrical energy used for trade, business or professional purposes as

well as for domestic purposes. It does not apply to premises in which items are
manufactured or grown to be sold. It consists of a kW-h charge similar than the
tariff in (1) plus a higher fixed quafterly charge.

4 Itapplies to electrical energy supplied to premises used solely for commercial

purposes/ but not to premises in which items are manufactured or grown to be
sold, The tariff is similar to that in (1) except that there is an additional fixed
quarterly charge based on the maximum kVA required.

5, itapplies to electrical energy supplied to a farm, market garden or agricultural

holding. The tariff is similar to that in (4).

A nt applies to electrical energy supplied to industrial premises and is a monthly

Te:c'r-n um dema nd ta riff .

145
Example 5.1

A 120-MW power station delivers 120 MW for three hours and 60 MW for nine hours
and is shut off for the rest of the day. The station is shut down for maintenance for
45 days of each year. Calculate the annual load factor of the power station,

anualoutputin kW- h
Load factor =
max imum possible anauloutputin kW- h
(120 x 103X3X36s - 4s) + (60 x 103X9X36s - 4s)
(120x103X365"24)
= O.274

Example 5.2

A 33-kV, transmission line transmits a three-phase, balanced load that varies

throughout the year as follows:

2.4 MVA for 1600 hours

1.8 MVA for 1800 hours
No load for the remainder of the year

Electrical energy costs 68.4 c/kW-h and the total interest and depreciation charges is
I2o/o. The copper conductor has a cross-sectional area of 12 mmz and costs R34.50
per kilogram. The copper has a density of 8860 kg/m3 and the resistance of one
kilometre of single conductor is 0.I77 filkm.

5.2.1 Calculate the most economical conductor c.s.a.

5.2.2 Calculate the diameter of this conductor.
5.2.3 Calculate the maximum current density.
5.2.4 Calculate the load and form factors.

5.2.L Consider one kilometre of single conductor:

2.4 MVA: Ir = -S
J:.v'
2.4xl}6
(6xgs x 103)
= 41.989 A

L47
 Energy loss = 12.R.t
( o.vt 10-3 )
"
(41.e8e)'zI A
Jtroool
499,303
kw_h
A

S
1.8 MVA: Ir=
Js.v,
- 1.8 x 106

31.492 A

Energy loss = 12.R.t

( o.vl,,1o-3 )
= (31.4e2)'zI A Jtrsool
315.97
kw-h
A

Annuat cost of enersy toss = *)fo.utol

it=Tt
_ -557.647
A

o.LA
m=:--
10b
(BB6oX1o3 x 1O2XA)
= 106
= 88G(A) k9

Annual charges on the initial cost of the copper

= (34.s0x0,12XBB6XA)
= R36680.4(A)
Using Kelvin's Law:

557.647
(3668.04XA) =
A
A_
F\- O.3899 cm2

I4B
 . TE.d2
5.2.2 /-\-
4
n'dz
0.3899 = 4
d = 0.7O5 cm

5.2.3 r-t A

= 4r.989
0.3899
= 107.692 Alcm2

5.2.4 Average value of the load per annum

(a1.989X1600) + (31.a92X1800)
= (36sX24)
= t4.L4 A

Rms value of the load per annum

=
X (36sxr4)
= 22.9305 A
L4.14
k,=
41-989
0.33675

, 22.9305
' 74.74
= L.622

Example 5.3

A 1.5-MVA transformer supplies a rural area and is fed by a 33-kV, three-phase

overhead transmission line. The load and form factors are 0.58 and 1.11 respectively.
The hard drawn copper conductors cost R38750,00/m3, The cross-sectional area of the
conductors is 12 mm2 and has a resistance of 0,181 c/km, The interest and
depreciation charges form 11olo and the cost of electrical energy is 72.4clkW-h. Use
Kelvin's Law and determine the most economical c.s.a. of the conductor.

149
 Consider one kilometre of single conductor:

-S
Js.v.
1.5 x 106
(J5Xsr x 103)
= 26,243 A
,
Rms value of the load per annum
= (26.243)(0.s8X1,11)
= 16.743 A
Annual energy loss = I2.R.t
(o.tat * 1o-3 )
= (16.743)2[ n )rzos>rz+l

= 444,477
.A kw-h

Annuat cost of energy toss = (* .o'\(0.724)

\A)
_
-^_
3211801
A

Annual charges on the initial cost of the copper

(103 x 192 xA)
= (3a7so) (0.11)
10b
= 425.25(A)
321.801
(426.2sXA)
A
A 0.868 cm2

150
Example 5.4

A certain load varies as follows for 275 days per annum:

300 kVA at a power factor of 0.809 lagging for eight hours per day
120 kVA at a power factor of 0.866 lagging for eight hours per day
75 kVA at unity power factor for eight hours per day

For the remaining time of the year the load varies as follows:

. 90 kVA at a power factor of 0.809 lagging for eight hours per day
o 25 kVA at a power factor of 0.866 lagging for eight hours per day
r No load for eight hours per day

5.4.L Calculate the annual load and form factors.

5.4.2 Calculate the efficiency at full load and a power factor of 0.809 lagging, the two
all-day efficiencies and the all-year efficiency for each of the following 300-kVA
transformers:

Transformer Initial cost Iron loss Full-load copper loss

A R24000 1.4 kW 5.6 kW

B R22000 2.5 kW 4.2 kW

5.4.3 Calculate the total annual running cost of each transformer. The cost of
electrical energy is 75c/kW-h and the annual interest and depreciation charges
are L2o/o.
5.4.4 Calculate the annual lost factor for each transformer.

5.4.1 Average value of the load per annum

(300 X27s XB) + (120 ) (27s XB) + (7sX27s XB) + (e0 Xe0XB) + (2sXeoXB)
(36sX24)
= 133.767 kVA

Rms value of the load per annum

(:oo)2(zzoo ) + (rzo)2 (zzoo) + (zs)2 (zzoo) + (go)2 (zzo) + (zs)2 (zzo)
(36sX24)
= 168,3715 kVA

151
 r33.767
kl=
300
o.446

168.3715
k/=
133.767
1.259

5.4.2 Transformer A:

Full-load efficiency = 1-
(300X0.809) + 7
= o.9727

Transformer B:

Ful-toaderriciency - 1- Cm119*#r+e,
= O.9731

For each of 275 days per annum:

Transformer A Transformer B

Iron loss (1.4)(24) = 33.6 kW-h (2.s)(24) = 60 kw-h

Copper loss at 300 kVA (s.6XB) = 44.8 kW-h (4.2X8) = 33.6 kw-h

/ rzo \2
Copper loss at 120 kVA t-l
\300/
(s.6XB) = 7.168 kW-h flq)'
\300 /
(4.2X8) = 5.376 kW-h

( ts\2
Copper loss at 75 kVA t-l
\300 /
(s'6XB) = 2'B kw-h (#)' (4.2X8) = 2.1 kw-h

Toial daily copper loss 54.768 kw-h 41.076 kw-h

Total daily losses 88.368 kw-h 101.076 kw-h

Daily output (300x0.B0exB) + (120x0.866x8) + (7sx8)

3372.96 kw-h

r52
Transformer A:

BB,368
All-day efficienry 1- 3372.96 + 88.368
o.9745

Transformer B:

" All-day efficiencY - 1 -

101.076
3372.96 + 101.076
= O.9709

For each of 90 days Per annum:

Transformer A Transformer B

Iron loss (t.4)(24) = 33.6 kW-h (2.s)(24) = 60 kw-h

/so)2 (s.6xs) 4.032 kW-h /so)2 (4.2X8)

Copper loss at 90 kVA l-l = l-l = 3.024 kW-h
\300 / \3ooi

(zs\2
Copper loss at 25 kVA t-l
\300/
(s.6XB) = 0.311kW-h
[#)'
(4.2X8) = 0.233 kW-h

Total daily copper loss 4.343 kw-h 3.257 kw-h

Total daily losses 37.943 kw-h 63.257 kw-h

Daily outPut (eoxo.Bosx8) + (2sxo,B66XB)

755.68 kw-h

Transformer A:

37.9+3
All-day efficiency 1-
755.68 +37.913
o.9522

Transformer B:

63.257
All-daY efficiencY = 1-
755.68 +63.257
= o.9228

153
 Transformer A Transformer B

(BB.36BX27s) + (37.s43X90) (101.076X27s) + (63.2s7)(90)

Total annual losses
= 27776.07 kW-h = 33a89.03 kW-h

Annual output (3372.96)(27s) + (7ss.68xe0) = ee5575.2 kW-h

27716.07 33489.03
1 1
All-year elficiency 995575 .2 + 27716.07 995575 .2 + 33489.03
= O.9729 = 0.9675

5.4.3

Transformer A Transformer B

Annual cost of losses (27716.07)(0.75) = R20787.05 (33489.03X0.75) = R25116.77

Annual interest and

depreciation charges
(24000x0.12) = R2BB0 (22000x0.12) = R2640

20787.05 + 2880 25116.77 + 2640

Total annual cost
= R23667.05 = R27756.77

5.4.4 Transformer A:

Average copper loss per annum

_ (s.6x27sx8) + (#f (s.6x27sx8) + (#f (s.6x27r(s) + (*%f (s.6xe0x8) + (#f (s.6xe0x8)

(36sX24)

= 1.764 kW

Average iron loss per annum

(1.4X36sX24)
= (36sX24)
1.4 kW

L.7& +1.4
Overall loss factor =
1.4 + 5.6
= o.452

154
 Transformer B:

Average copper loss per annum

(4.2x27sxs) + (*3r(4.2x27sx8) + (#r(4.2X27r(8) + (#r(4.2xe0x8)
_ er(4.2xeox8) +
(36t(24)
= 1.323 kW

Average iron loss o"' unl1r.sx36sxz4)

(36sX24)
= 2.5 kW
r'323 +2'5
overall loss factor = 2.5 + 4.2
= O.571

Example 5.5

An industrial consumer has a constant load of 2.25 MW at a power factor of 0.809

lagging for eight hours per day for 23 days in a month of 30 days. For the remaining
time there is a constant load of 150 kW at unity power factor,

5.5.1 Use the following tariff and calculate the monthly cost:

Unit (kw-h) charge per month:

The first 200 kw-h per kVA of maximum demand in the month 75clkW-h
The next 200 kw-h per kVA of maximum demand in the month 65c/kW-h
Additional kW-h supplied 55c/kW-h

Maximum demand charge per month:

The first 300 kVA of maximum demand in the month R12.90/kVA

The next 450 kVA of maximum demand in the month R11.90/kVA
The next 750 kVA of maximum demand in the month R10.00/kvA
Additional kVA of maximum demand R9.00/kvA

5'5'2 The consumer now improves the power factor of the main load to 0.9455
lagging using loss-free static capacitors with a cost of R1200.00 per month,
Calculate the monthly saving due to this action.

155
 5.5.1 For maximum demand:

P = S,cos 0
2250 = (SX0.809)
S = 2781.211 kVA

Maximum demand charge

= (300X12,90) + (4s0X11,90) + (7s0X10) + (I271.211X9.00)
o = R28155.9O

kW-h used in one month

= (22s0)(23X8) + (1s0)[(23X16) + (7X24)]
= 4944OO kw-h
First amount of kW-h = (200)(2781.211)
= 556242.2 kw-h
Which is more than the actual amount of 494400 kW-h used.

kW-h charge = (4g44OO)(0.75)

= R370800.OO
Total monthly cost = R28165.90 + R370800.00
= R398955.90
5,5.2 For maximum demand:

P = S.cos 0
2250 = (SX0,9455)
S = 2379.693 kVA

Maximum demand charge

= (300X12.e0) + (4s0X11.90) + (7s0)(10) + (879.693X9.00)
= R24642.24
kW-h used in one month
= (22s0)(23X8) + (1s0)l(23x16) + (7)(24)l
= 4944OO kw-h
First amount of kW-h - (200X2379.693)
= 475938.6 kw-h
kw-h charge = (4s7938.6X0.75) + (494400
- 475938.6X0.65)
= R358953.86

156
 Total cost = R24642.24 + R368953.86 + R1200
R394795.10

Monthly saving R398965.90 R394796.10

R4169.80
-

Example 5.6

A sub-statioh transformer supplies 480 kW at a lagging power factor of 0.6428.

5.6.1 Calculate the kVA'r rating of loss-free static capacitors required for constant kW
correction to 0,9455 lagging ,
5.6.2 Calculate the kVA'r rating of a synchronous motor required for constant kVA
correction to 0.9455 lagging.

/l

Figure 5.2

5.5.1 cos-1 0.6428 = 5oo

cos-l 0.9455 = l9o

Qc= P(tan $1 - tan g2)
= 480(tan 50" - tan 19o)
= 406.7645 kVA',r (cg in Figure 5,2)

5.6.2 Before correction: D- S.cos $

480 = (sx0.6428)
S- 746.733kVA (ac in Figure 5,2)

L57
 After correction: P_ S,cos $
= (746.733)(0.94ss)
706.036 kW (ad in Figure 5,2)

Pin = 706,036 - 480

226.036 kW (na in Figure 5.2)

Before correction:

Stagging = (7a6.733Xsin 0r)

= (746.733)(sin 50o)
= 572.031 kVA (bg in Figure 5.2)

After correction:

c.
Jlaggrng - (746.733)(cos {2)
= (746.733)(sin 19o)
243.1125 kVA (G in Figure 5.2)

Sleading = 572.03r - 243.tt25

328.9185 kVA (ef in Figure 5.2)
c-
Jtn - P_JQ
= 226.036 - j32B.91Bs
399.099z-55.50 kVA (ce in Figure 5.2)

Example 5.7

A load with a maximum demand of 750 kVA at a power factor of 0.707I lagging is to
be improved to the most economical power factor. The annual tariff is R35.09 per kVA
and the annual interest and depreciation charges is 12% total. The initial cost of the
loss-free static capacitors is R100.00 per kVA'r.

5,7.7 Calculate the most economical power factor,

5.7.2 Calculate the kVA'r rating of the capacitors required.
5.7.3 Calculate the annual net saving.
5.7.4 Calculate the time taken to save the initial cost of the capacitors.

5.7.r c- (100x0.12)
= R12.00

158
 C
sin e
A
LZ
35,09
0.342
e 200

cos e 0.9397lagging

5.7.2 P S.cos 0r
(7s0x0.707)
530.25 kW

0t= cost o,7o7

450

Qc= P(tan 0r - tan $2)

(530.25Xtan 45" - tan 20o)
= 337.255 kVA',r

5.7.3 Before correction: S = 750 kVA

After correction: P = S,cos 0

s30.2s = (sx0.9397)
S = 564.275 kVA
Reduction: S = 750-564.276
= 185.724 kVA

Annual tariff saving = (L85.724X35.09)

= R5517.06
Cost of capacitors (100x0.12x337.2ss)
R4047.06

Annual net saving R6517.06 - 4047.06

R2470.00

5.7.4 Time taken to save the initial cost of the capacitors

(337,255X35,09)
= 2470
= 4.79lyears

159
 i

EXERCISE 5

1, A load has a maximum demand of 770 kVA at a power factor 0,7 lagging. The power
factor is improved by connecting a 407 kVA'r static capacitor in parallel with the load,
The capacitor losses are 5.5 W/kVA'r, This capacitor is permanently connected to the
supply, Electrical energy costs 83,3 c/kW-h. The annual tariff is R105.00 per kVA
maximum demand and the annual interest and depreciation costs are R5555.00.

1.1 Calculate the'kVA maximum demand after power factor correction.

r.2 Calculate the annual net saving,

2. A load of 120 kVA has a power factor of 0.7 lagging. An additional motor load of 24 kW
that includes the losses, is added to the existing load. The new load can either be:

2.t An induction motor fitted with loss-free capacitors to improve the power factor from
0.809 to 0.95 lagging, The motor costs R2000.00 and the capcitors cost R50.00/kVA.
2.2 A synchronous in duction motor, costing R100.00/kVA, that can be excited so that the
overall total kVA-load remains the same as before the extension of the load.

The tariff is R40,00 per kVA maximum demand plus 62.4clkW-h. The annual interest
and depreciation charge is 10% for Question 2.L and I2o/o for Question 2.2. The load
remains constant for 150 days and zero for the remainder of the year.

3. A balanced, three-phase load of 180 kW at a power factor of 0.707 lagging is supplied at

440 V for 100 days per year. The load is connected to the suppy through a tree-core
cable with a resistance of 0.06 O/core.

3.1 Calculate the power factor at the supply.

3.2 Calculate the annual cost if the tariff is R40.00 per kVA maximum demand and
62.8 c/kW-h.

Static capacitors are now connected to to the load end to improve this power factor to
0.9455 lagging. The annual interest and depreciation cost is l2o/o.

3.3 Calculate the new annual cost.

3.4 Calculate the time taken to save the initial cost of the capacitors,
4. A 900-kVA transformer is fed by an 33-kV, three-phase overhead transmission line. The
load and form factors are 0.63 and 1.21 respectively. The hard drawn copper conductors
cost R36500.00/m3. The cross-sectional area of the conductors is 1 cmz and has a
resistance of 777 mfi/km. The interest and depreciation charges form 110/o and the cost
of electrical energy is R0.69/kW-h. Use Kelvin's Law and determine the most economical
c,s.a. of the conductor,

160
 A cetain load varies as follows for 248 dTER SIX
270 kVA at a power factor of 0.809 lagg
96 kVA at a power factor of o.7O7L tagglT SYSTEMS
60 kVA at a power factor of 0.9455 lagg

For the remaining time of the year the l<

72 kVA at a power factor of 0.809 laggir

20 kvA at a power factor of a'707r laggrctrical power systems are almost always required
No load for eight hours per day I kvA. In the process of computation, it is more
5.1 carcurate the annuar road and,ro* r..,:X;:T?:ffi:?:::rTr-,il"[
5.2
l"J]il:J"fi""';"?:
Calculate the efficiency at full-.load and 6 as the ratio of the quantity to its base value
efficiencies and the all-year efficiency foi percent is 100 times the value in per unit. The
are usually specified by the designers and
unit.
Iron loss
the power system is heavily dependent on circuit
1.2 kW tems are three-phase, is a major complication.
2.5 kW rr is the large number of components. Typical
'ators and hundreds of transmission lines and

5.3 ca rcu ate

I i *"
the tota I a n n ua I r u n n ns d::"' ;x1i:TJ'j?'ffi::,*Tj?[f :ffitilrul:
is R0'72lkw-h and the annual interest
lrheir complicating effects have to be minimised as
5.4 Calculate the annual lost factor for each >f the powe,
system is the one line diagram. The
6. A 66-kv, transmission rine transmi"..iif,.,IfTtrJff*1"$"j1fi1"":r#t:.ff,i'J:il
the year as follows: per-unit system simplifies numerical analysis and
4s00 kvA for 75 days ffi5f:Jl:fi'ol.lx,j["r]"
representations are very
3200 kVA for 90 days
900 kVA for the remainder of the year

The total interest and depreciation

R0.71lkw-h and, The copper conductor
Percentage system except that all quantities are
- -' o-1S
R52,40/kg. rne coppli r.,ur-u a"niitv
orsinsre lonductor i, ize ;f,/k'.
ffiT88:ij"ii Jn"":ff.1,,?JIffi$"JrL:H
6.1 Calculate the most economical conducto/d
facile in the use of the system because of its
Calculatethediameterofthisconductor.' They also take advantage of its analytical
6.2
6.3 Calculate the load anO form ia;;.
-- 'xpressed on a per unit
base by the equation:

le
6

163
5, A ceftain load varies as follows for 248 days per annum:

270 kVA at a power factor of 0.809 lagging for eight hours per day
96 kVA at a power factor of 0.707L lagging for eight hours per day
60 kVA at a power factor of 0.9455 lagging for eight hours per day

For the remaining time of the year the load varies as follows:

72kVA at a power factor of 0.809 lagging for eight hours per day
20 kVA at a power factor of 0.707I lagging for eight hours per day
No load for eight hours per day

5.1 Calculate the annual load and form factors,

5.2 Calculate the efficiency at full load and a power factor of 0.809 lagging, the two all-day
efficiencies and the all-year efficiency for each of the following 240-kVA transformers:

Transformer Iron loss Full-load copper loss Initial cost

A 1.2 kW 4.8 KW R21 000

B 2.5 kW 3.6 kW R1B 000

5.3 Calculate the total annual running cost of each transformer. The cost of electrical energy
is R0.72/kW-h and the annual interest and depreciation charges are 10olo.
5.4 Calculate the annual lost factor for each transformer.
6. A 66-kV, transmission line transmits a three-phase, balanced load that varies throughout
the year as follows:

4500 kVA for 75 days

3200 kVA for 90 days
900 kVA for the remainder of the year

The total interest and depreciation charges is l0o/o and electrical energy costs
R0.7llkw-h and. The copper conductor has a cross-sectional area of 10 mm2 and costs
R52.40/kg. The copper has a density of 8.9 Mg/mt and the resistance of one kilometre
of single conductor is 178 ma/km,

6.1 Calculate the most economical conductor c.s.a.

6.2 Calculate the diameter of this conductor.
6.3 Calculate the load and form fadors.

161
7. A sub-station transformer supplies 1.2 MW at a power factor of 0.707I lagging.

7.L Calculate the kVA'r rating of loss-free static capacitors required for constant kW
correction to 0.9563 lagging ,
7.2 Calculate the kVA'r rating of a synchronous motor required for constant kVA correction to
0.9563 lagging.

B. An industrial consumer has a constant load of 1800 kW at a power factor of 0,8 lagging
for eight hours per day for 25 days in a month of 30 days. For the remaining time there
is a constantload of 180 kW at a power factor 0.9 lagging.

8,1 Use the following tariff and calculate the monthly cost:

Unit (kW-h) charge per month:

The first 200 kw-h per kVA of maximum demand in the month 69c/kW-h
The next 200 kw-h per kVA of maximum demand in the month 6lc/kW-h
Additional kW-h supplied 52clkW-h

Maximum demand charge per month:

The first 240 kVA of maximum demand in the month R13.20lkVA

The next 480 kVA of maximum demand in the month R12.10/kVA
The next 720 kVA of maximum demand in the month R10.80/kvA
Additional kVA of maximum demand R9.00/kvA

8.2 The consumer now improves the power factor of the main load to 0.96 lagging using
loss-free static capacitors with a cost of R1310.00 per month. Calculate the monthly
saving due to this action.

9, A load with a maximum demand of 600 kVA at a power factor of 0.8 lagging is to be
improved to the most economical power factor. The annual tariff is R40,00 per kVA and
the annual interest and depreciation charges is 10olo total. The initial cost of the loss-free
static capacitors is R110,00 per kVA'r.

9.1 Calculate the most economical power factor.

9.2 Calculate the kVA'r rating of the capacitors required.
9.3 Calculate the annual net saving.
9.4 Calculate the time taken to save the initial cost of the capacitors,

152
 CHAPTER SIX

PER.UNIT SYSTEMS

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Answers to problems pertaining to electrical power systems are almost always required
in terms of volts, amperes, ohms and kVA. In the process of computation, it is more
convenient to express voltage, current, impedance and power in terms of percent or
per unit, of a selected base or reference value of each of these quantities. The per-
unit value of any quantity is defined as the ratio of the quantity to its base value
expressed as a decimal. The ratio in percent is 100 times the value in per unit. The
electrical characteristics of machines are usually specified by the designers and
manufacturers in terms of percent or per unit.

Any attempt to mathematically model the power system is heavily dependent on circuit
concepts. The fact that power systems are three-phase, is a major complication.
Another important complicating factor is the large number of components. Typical
systems can consist of tens of generators and hundreds of transmission lines and
transformers. Another factor to consider is that transformers distribute the system into
many different voltage sections. These methods of representation must therefore
particularly deal with these factors. Their complicating effects have to be minimised as
much as possible. The basic picture of the power system is the one line diagram, The'
diagram communicates the essential interconnection information with maximum
simplicity, The per-phase equivalent circuit takes advantage of the symmetry inherent
in balanced three-phase circuits, The per-unit system simplifies numerical analysis and
eliminates the paftitioning effect of transformers. All these representations are very
useful in displaying and formulating power system problems.

6.2 PER-UNTTQUANTTTTES

The per-unit system is similar to the percentage system except that all quantities are
expressed as decimal fractions instead of percentages. The base quantities then have
the value of unity (one per unit) instead of 100o/o. It is necessary for power system
engineers to become familiar with and facile in the use of the system because of its
wide industrial acceptance and use. They also take advantage of its analytical
simplifications. Any quantity can be expressed on a per unit base by the equation:

actualvalue
Per unit value =
base value

163
 The actual value is the actual value of the voltage, current, power or impedance as it
appears in the power system. The new base value is determined and is usually the
value that leads to confusion in the early stages of applying the per unit system,

To help prevent this confusion, it will help to remember the following rules;

The value of Sno is the same for the entire system concerned once it's been chosen.

The ratio of the voltage bases on either side of a transformer selected, to the same
as the rbtio of the transformer voltage ratings.

The value of Vn5 is a chosen value, but will vary from one zone to another zone,

Once these rules are obeyed, all other base values are related to the power quantities
chosen as base values. This means that the usual electrical laws, as they are known,
still applies. Voltage, current, impedance and power are so related that the selection of
base values for any two of them determines the base values of the remaining two. The
base impedance is that impedance which will have a voltage drop across it equal to the
base voltage when the current flowing in the impedance is equal to the base value of
the current. The base apparent power in single-phase systems is the product of the
base voltage and the base current. Base voltage and base apparent powers are the
quantities usually selected to specify the base.

The actual value is also a value in volts, amperes, ohms, etc. In a power system, a
base power and voltage are selected at a specific point in the system, A transformer
has no effect on the base apparent power of the system, The reason for this being that
the apparent power into the transformer equals the apparent power out of the
transformer. On the other hand, voltage changes when it goes through a transformer,
so the value of V5ur. changes at every transformer in the system according to it turns
ratio. Because the base values change in passing through a transformer, the process
of referring quantities to a common voltage level is automatically taken care of during
per-unit conversion. The per-unit system has the distinct advantage that, with it, all
basic circuit relations apply.

Suauut = Spu.Snu

The per-unit system simplifies many of the problems of circuit analyses. In the
conventional form of calculation using volt and ampere, the solution of a system
involving power lines of several different voltage levels, requires that all impedances
that are to be added, to be transferred to a single voltage level. In the per unit system,
the different voltage levels entirely disappear and a power network involving
generators, transformers and lines (of different voltage levels) reduces to a system of
simple impedances. Further more, machines such as generators and transformers,
when described in the per unit system, have their characteristics specified by almost
the same number, regardless of the rating of the machines.

164
 ADVANTAGES OF THE PER.UNIT SYSTEM

In many engineering situations it is useful to normalise dimensioned values. As said, it

is commonly done in power system analysis and the standard method used is the per-
unit system. Advantages include the following:

. Device parameters tend to fall in a relative narrow range, making inaccurate values
prominently,

. The method is defined so as to eliminate ideal transforme?s as circuit components.

Since the typical power system contains hundreds of transformers, this is an
inconsiderable saving.

. Related to this advantage, the voltage throughout the power system is normally
close to unity.

. Both the percent and per-unit methods of calculation are simpler than the use of
actual volts, amperes and ohms.

6.4 DISADVANTAGES OF THE PER.UNIT SYSTEM

The per-unit system also has some disadvantages. Disadvantages may include the
following:

. The system modifies component equivalent circuits, making them somewhat more
abstract. Sometimes phase shifts that are clearly present in the un-scaled circuit,
vanish in the per-unit circuit.

. Some equations that hold in the un-scaled case are modified when scaled into per
unit. Factors such as J: and 3 are removed or added by the method.

6.5 THE PER.UNIT SYSTEM

As discussed, the per-unit system is very handy to use in the analysing of large power
systems with different voltage levels. In the per unit system, the voltages, currents,
powers and impedances are not measured in there actual SI units as we know them i,e.
volts, amperes, VA or ohms. Instead, each electrical quantity is measured and
expressed as a decimal fraction of some base level. A given per-unit value for an
impedance is the ratio of the voltage drop across the impedance when it is carrying the
rated current of the section of the circuit in which it is connected, and the rated voltage
of that section of the circuit.

165
 a
Lpu -
Zactua l'Irated
, ,. , ..,.., (i)
Vrated

As shown, a per-unit quantity is the ratio between the actual quantity and the chosen
base quantity. It therefore follows that:

uou= ii)
#
(

n
Alsol Ipu = grnb .,........ (iii)

And: Zpu = '+

Lnb
..........(iv)

Itis usual to take the rated values, i,e, the nameplate values, as the base values.
Ohm's law:

7 Vno
apu(nb) - ..,..,....(v)
L"

Substitute Equation (v) into Equation (iv):

Zacual'Ibase(rated;
a - (vi)
-Pu
vbase(rateO

It is known that:

rrbase(rated) - Sbaselrated; (vii)

vr._a.*

Substitute Equation (vii) Equation (iv):

-"'
Lbase = l!t* (viii)
5brr"

Substitute Equation (viii) into Equation (iv):

-7 Zactual'Sbase
'
-l)U -
V#'"
(ix)

166
6.5.1 THREE-PHASE EQUTPMENT

Since three-phase systems are solved as a single line with a neutral return, the bases
for quantities in the impedance diagram are kVA per phase and volts from line to line.
Although a line voltage may be specified as a base, the voltage in the single-phase
circuit is still the voltage to neutral. The base voltage to neutral is the base voltage
from line to line divided bV JS . This is also the ratio between line to line and line to
neutral voltages of a balanced, three-phase system, As a result of this, if the system is
balanced, the per-unit value of a line to neutral voltage on the line to neutral voltage
base is equal to the per-unit value of the line to line voltage at the same point on the
line to line voltage base. Similarly, the three-phase kVA is three times the kVA per
phase and the base value of the three-phase kVA is three times the per-phase value of
the base kVA. The per-unit value of the three-phase kVA on the three-phase kVA base
is therefore identical to the per-unit value of the kVA per phase, on the kVA per phase
base. The impedance of three-phase equipment is always given as per-phase
quantities. From Equation (i):

a - Zactual/ph'Irated/ph
-pu ,.........(x)
Vated/ ph

But: Ipr' = IL
S b.r" .,........(xi)
-JE.v'
VL
And: Vph = ..,....... (xii)
J3

Substitute Equations (xi) and (xii) into Equation (i):

7 - -Vfu**,
4PU
Zactual'Sbase
(xiii)

Substitute Equation (xiii) into Equation (v):

V'irtin"t
-
Lnb = -=-
5nn

t67
6.5.2 BASE SELECTTON FOR PER-UNrT QUANTTTTES

The selection of base values is made to reduce the work required by calculations as
much as possible, A base is first selected for some part of the circuit. The base
selected should be one that yields per-unit values of rated voltage and current
approximately equal to unity to simplify calculations. When the manufacturer gives in
percent or per unit the reactance and resistance of a component, the base is
understood to be the rated voltage and kVA of the component, A great advantage in
making per-unit calculations is realised by the proper selection of different bases for
circuits conhected to each other through transformers. To achieve the advantage in a
single-phase system, the voltage bases for the circuits connected through transformers
must have the same ratio as the turns-ratio of the transformer, With such a selection
of voltage bases and the same kVA base, the per-unit value of an impedance will be the
same when it is expressed on the base selected for its own side of the transformer, as
when it is referred to the other side of the transformer and expressed on the base of
that side of the transformer.

6.5.3 CHANGING BASE VALUES

ifnetwork calculations need to be done using per-unit values, all the per-unit values
must be caleulated using the same base values. The base units for any electrical
equipment are Sn5, Vn5 ond Zn5. Let:

gb = given base (base at which Zo, is given)

nb = new base (base at which the new Zp, has to be
calculated)

From Equation (xiii):

7
Aactual -
Zpr1q51'Vfi
-------=-
5sn

And: 7
Aactual -
Zpuln6y'V'fu
--------=-
5nn

Therefore:

Z prtgul 'V;b Z pu(nul 'Vnzu

Ssu = Snn

168
 If Vn6 and Snu change, then:

Zpulnb) = r,,.r[*)[#),
If Sn6 changes and Vnu stays the same (Vn5 = Vsu):

a_
apu(nb) -
',*'[+)
If Vn6 changes and Sn6 stays the same (Sn5 = Ssn):

a-
epu(nb) -
'rr,rr[*)
The equation for the new base impedance shows that the same equation is valid for
either single-phase or three-phase circuits. In the case of three-phase, line-to-line
voltage must be used with kVA per phase.

6.5.4 PER.UNIT IMPEDANCE OF A TRANSFORMER

All impedances in any part of a system must be expressed on the same impedance.
base when calculations are done. Sometimes the per-unit impedance of a system
component is expressed on a base other than the one selected as base for the pad of
the system in which the component is located, It is therefore necessary to have some
means of convefting per-unit impedances from one base to another. Reference will
always be made to the high voltage (HV) and low voltage (LV) side of the
transformer.

Example 5.1

Consider a 24-kVA, 4801220 volt transformer with a leakage impedance of

(0 + j0.055) ohm referred to the low voltage winding of the transformer. Nameplate or
rated values are used as base values,

169
 High voltage (HV) side Low voltage (LV) side

Ssn = 24 kVA Sbur. = 24 kVA

Vso =480V Vs35s = 220 V

v&("nt) ,'2
vgb(line)
7sa = a
abase -- ---
Ssu ^-
5sn
.t
(4Bo)2
= 24 xL03
= Q2O)2
24 xL03
= 9.6 C) = 2.O17 Q

Zlr, = 0.055 f)
Znv = (0.055)fgl'
\220 )
0.0s5
= 0.262 O 7pu =
2.017
0.262 O.O273Z9O'pu
7ru
9.6
= O.O273190" pu

This shows that the per-unit impedance of a transformer is the same when referred
from one winding to the other. If the per-unit values are used, the equivalent circuit of
the transformer can now be drawn as shown in Figure 6.23.

Zpu = 0.0273190. pu

Vou=1pu Vor=1Pu

Figure 5.1: Equivalent transformer circuit of Example 6.1

6.6 APPLICATION IN NETWORK CALCULATIONS

The selection of base values in a power system is used in network calculations.

t70
Example 6.2

Figure 6.2 shows a schematic diagram of a radial transmission system. Use the
nameplate values of the generator as base values and draw the equivalent circuit for
the system.

Generator Transformer 1 Line Transformer 2

11 kV r32lrl kv (0 + j2.9) o 732166 kV

60 MVA 40 MVA 30 MVA
X=20o/o X=8Vo X = 7o/o

Figure 6.2: Single-line diagram for the radial transmission system of Example 6.2

Generator: Transformer 1: Transformer 2:

Sbur" = 60 MVA Sbur. = 60 MVA Sbu.. = 60 MVA

V565g = 11 kV Vbur. = 132 kV V62ss = 66 kV

Refer all impedances to the common base values:

Generator: Sn6 = Sso

And: Vn6 = Vsn

Zpu(nb) = O'2ZSO Pu
Transformer 1: Sn6 r Ssn

And: V65 = Vs5

Zpulnb) = ,r".r[Fl
[5su /
= (ooB)(#)
= O.L2Z9O pu

L7T
 Z tine,S nb
Line: Zpu =
v&
(2.9X60 x 106 )
(t32 x t03)2
= O.OlZ9Oo pu
Transformer 2: Snb # Sso

Andr Vnb = Vsn

1_
apu(nb) - trrar[Fl
/ l)su
(o oD(#)

0.056290" pu

Zpulsen) = 0'2190" Pu Zpu(tine) = 0'01290" PU

Zpufi1) = 0.72190 Pu Zp,r(rz) = 0'L4290'

Vpu(sen) = 1 Pu

Figure 5.3: Equivalent circuit for the network of Example 6.2

Example 6.3

Figure 6.4 shows a schematic diagram of a radial transmission system. Use the
nameplate values of Transformer 1 as base values and draw the equivalent circuit for
the system.
Generator Transformer 1 Transformer 2

13.8 kV 132/11 kV (0 + j2.9) o t32/66 kV

60 MVA 40 MVA 30 MVA
X = 20c/c X= 8olo X= 7o/o

Figure 5.4: SinEle-line diagram for the radial transmission system of Example 6.3

772
Generator: Transformer 1: Transformer 2:

Sbuse = 40 MVA Sbu.. = 40 MVA Sbase = 40 MVA

V535s = 11 kV Vbr." = 132 kV Vh5s = 66 kV

Refer all impedances to the common base values:

Generator: Sn6 + Ssu

d
And: Vn5 + Vsn

a_ _
apu(nb)
''*'[+J[*)'
= ,",(#l#)'
O.2t,/9Oo pu

Transformer 1: Snb = Ssn

And: Vnb = Vso

.a apu(nb) _ O,O8Z9O. pu

a_ Z line,Snu
Line: apu(nb) -
v&
(2.9X40 x106)
=
(t32 x t03)2
O.OO67290'pu

Transformer 2: Sn5 + Seu

And: Vng = Vsn

Zpulnb) = t-."[+J
= (o oa[#)
= 0.0933290. pu

173
 Zpulsen) = 0.21190" Pu Zpu(rine) = 0'0067290' Pu

Zpu[t) = 0.08290" Pu Zpug2) = 0'0933290" Pu

Vpulsen) = 1 PU

Figure 6.5: Equivalent circuit for the network of Example 6.3

Example 5.4

Determine the Thevenin equivalent circuit for the network shown in Figure 6.6. Take
Sbur" = 150 MVA ahd Vsssg = I32 kV in the transmission lines.

11 kV t32l7t kv
lOO MVA 1OO MVA
X = 1B%o X= 9o/o

13.8 kV t3zltr kv
150 MVA 150 MVA
X = 22o/o X = 9o/o

22 kV r32l22kV
250 MVA 250 MVA
X = 25o/o X = 10%o

Figure 6.6: Line diagram of the network for Example 6.4

174
 Refer all impedances to the common base values:

Generator 1: Zpulnb) =

"*"[+)
(o 1s)[i#-)
= O.27Z9O'pu
6

Transformer 1: Zpulnb) =
'rrar[+)
(oor)(i#)
0.135290" pu

Z ttn"'S nu
Line 1; Zpu =
Vrt
(2.9X1s0 x 106 )
(132 x 103)2
0.02529O'pu

- (vno)'
' Generator 2: Zpulnb) = znurool[*
J

rc.22\fE!)'
' '[ 11 ,l
= O.24629O pu

Transformer 2: Zpu(nb) = 0.0829O" pu

Ztin"'Sno
Line 2: 7p, =
vto
(4X1s0 x to6)
Trl, " lo1f
O.O34419O" pu

t75
 Generator 3: Zpulnb) =

"".,'[+)
= (o2s)t#)
0.1529Oo pu

Transformer 3: Zpplnb) = t,,-r[+)

(0 1)[#)
0.O629O'pu

7_ Z tine.S nb
Line 3:
v&
(sx1s0 x t06)
lrgtlo'tr
O.O43I9O" pu

0.27190 pu 0.135t90" pu 0.025290" pu

0.346190" pu 0.08290' pu 0.0344/90' pu

t'ry 0,15290. pu 0.06Z90. pu 0.043290. pu

Figure 6,7: Equivalent circuit for the network of Example 6.4

7_ 02s)//(0. 346+0.
z-pg(TH) - (0. 27 + 0. 1 35 + 0. 0B + 0.0344)I I Q.1 s +0. 06 +0.043)
= 0.11829O'pu
1pu
0.118290" pu

Figure 6.8: Thevenin equivalent circuit for the network of Example 6,4

176
 I

Example 6.5

Figure 6,9 shows a schematic diagram of a radial transmission system. Use the
nameplate values of the transformer as base values and calculate the terminal voltage
on the generator if the load takes full load current at 0.9 pu volts.

Generator Transformer

11 kV 11/3.3 kV (o'48 + j2'B) CI 600 kw

2MVA 1 MVA cos 0 = 0.8
X=18o/o X=7o/o lagging

Figure 6.9: Line diagram of the network for Example 6.5

Pload = J5.V1ou6.I6u6.cos $

600 x 103 = ( Jl Xt,s x lo3xlbidxo,B)

t-
rload L3L.2L6Z-36.87' A

T- S b.r.
rbase -
J3,Vour.
1x106
(J3X3,3 x 103)

L74.955 A

T_ Itoad
rpu - I b.."

131.216
=
L74.955

O.752-36.87'pu

Transformer:

Zpulnb) = O'O7Z9O Pu

177
 Line: Zpu =
e
(0.48 + i12.8)(1 x 106 )
= (3.3 x to3)2

= O.25Ll8O.27o pu
Vpulsen) = Vpu(toad) * Vpufi) * Vpu(tine)

0.9 a0. + (0.7 5 2-36.87')(0.07 t90.)+(0.7 5 1-36.87 ")(0.26t tBO.27 ")

1.08829.335'pu

Vterminal = Vpu1ggny,V535g

= (L088t9.335"X11)
= tL.95819.335'kV

Example 6.6

Figure 6.10 shows a schematic diagram of a radial transmission system. Use a base of
120 MVA and calculate the terminal voltage of the generator in per unit and in kV if the
voltage on the load is to be maintained at 33 kV.

Generator Transformer Line Transformer

11/66 kV (1.86 + j12.8) o 66/33 kV 60 MW

60 MVA 75 MVA cos $ = Q.31
X = 9o/o X = I2o/o lagging

Figure 5.1O: Single-line diagram for the radial transmission system of Example 6.6

Ptoad J3 .V6u6.I6u6,cos $

x
"6 X::
60 106 ( x 1o3XIbadXo.B1)
Itoao t295.96Z-35.9" A

178
 rrbase - ---Sbu..
J3.Vbase

120 x 106
---------------------
(J3X33 x 10')

= 2099.455 A

r - Itoad
tse
lb.r"

L295.962 - 35.9'
2099.456

O.6L7l-35.9o pu

Transformer 2: -
Zpulnb) = apu(sb)
(,s^o
|^
)
I

l)so J

(0.12)f!q)
' '17s,/
O.L92Z9O'pu

Vpulno) = Zpulno)'Ipu

(o.r92 t9o)(0.6r7 /-35.9")

O.LL85Z54.1o pu

a- Ztin"'Snb
Line: Lpu -
v&
(1,86 + j12,8X120 x 106 )
=
(66x103)2

O356ZaL73'pu
Vpu(tine) = Zpultine).Ipu

(0.3s6 tBL.7 3')(0.677 t-3 5, 9")

O.2L97Z45.83o pu

179
 Transformer 1: Zp.,1nu1 = trr,rr[+j
= (o.oe)fEq.)
' '[ 60 ,
= 0.1829O. pu

Vpu(nb) = ZpulnU;'Ipu
,
= (0.18290')(0.617 t-35.9')
= O.tLtLZS4.l'pu
Since the load is used as reference, the per-unit voltage across the load will be
Lzj" pu.

Vpulgen) = Vpu(load) + Vpt,(rz) * Vpu(line) * Vpufil)

LZj" + 0.LL85t54.1 + 0.2L97t45.83' + 0.1tIIz54.I

= L.3332L4.94'pu

Vlterminat) = Vpgqsgn;'V535s

= (r.3332t4.94"X11)
= 14.653214.940 kV

Example 6.7

Consider the radial transmission system in Figure 6.11. Use the nameplate values of
Transformer 2 as base values and calculate the terminal voltage on the generator if the
load takes full load current at0.942 pu volts.

Generator Transformer 1

kV (1.69 + j11.7) o
66/33 kV
33/11 36 MW
MVA
24.5 MVA
27.5 cos g = Q,796
X=9o/o X=I2o/o lagging

Figure 6.11: Single-line diagram for the radial transmission system of Example 6.7

180
 Ptoad = J3 ,V1ou6'I6u6.cos $

t J6 x 106 = ( J3 )(11 x 103XIbadX0,7B6)

Iroad = 2403'9571-38'19' A

rbase= +!ttt-
J3.Vbase

27.5 xL06
=-
(J:Xtt"
103 )

= 1443.376 A

rrpu - Iload
r base

Z-38.L9"
= 2403.957
rqa376
= I.6662-38.19o pu

Transformer 2: Zpulnb) = O,!2l9O Pu

Ztint:snu
Line: 7-ou =
v6
(1'69 + j1l,7X?.-5 x 106)
= (33x103)2

= O.2985281.78o pu

Transformer 1: Zpulnb) = ,rr,rr,[+)

= (o.oe)
' eE\
'\24.s )

= jo.lol pu

The per-unit voltage across the load is given as 0.94210 pu.

181
 Vpu(sen) = Vpu(load) +Vpu6z) *Vpu(tine) *VpuG1)

= 0.94220" + (0.L2t90,)(t.666t-38. 19")

+ (0.2985 tB 1, 7B.X 1. 66 6 Z.-38. L9.)
+ (0. L}r t90")(L666 t-38. 19")
= I.655222.455. pu

Vlgen) = Vpu1gg6y.Vg65s

o = (L.655t22,45S.X66)
= 109.23222.455. kV

Example 6.8

Figure 6.12 shows a schematic diagram of a radial transmission system working at

50 Hz. Use a base of 120 MVA and calculate the resistance and inductance of the line
when the load takes full-load current.

Generator Transformer 1 Line Transformer 2

157.537 z\0.97. kV 132/BB kV BB/33 kV 48 MW

144 MVA 96 MVA cos $ = Q.991
X= 10.8olo X= B.4o/o lagging

Figure 6.12: Single-line diagram for the radial transmission system of Example 6.8

Ptoad = J3 ,V1ou6.I1ou6.cos $

48 x 106 = (J5)(33 x 103XIbadX0.B91)

Iroad = 942.5L71-27" A

r-ud\e - Sb.r.
J3.vor..
120 x 106

= 2099.455 A

TB2
 -t

I toad
Ipu =
Ib.r"
942.517 Z-27"
2099.456
= O.44891-27" pu

Transformer 1: -
Zpulnb) = zpu(qb) I
(s.o )
I

-- /
l)su
o.LoBzsoofgq)
\r44 )
jo.o9 pu

(s''o )
Transformer 2: Zpulnb) = 1e(sb) -
[sqb J

o.os4tsoofEql
\.e6i
j0.105 pu

757.537 2L0,97"
Vpu(sen)
r32
I.L9351LO.97" pu
\,vpg(gen) _ Vpu(load) + Vpugr; + Vpu6zl * Vpu(line)

LL9351L0.97" = 7 Z0o + (0.09290"X0.4489 t-27 o)

+ (0. 105290)(0.4489 l-27o) + Vpu(rine)

\,v pu(line)
- O.lg9LZ48.5o pu
Vpu(tine) = Ipg.Zpultine)

0.I99I 248.5. = (0.4489 Z-27.)( Zpulrin.))

Zpu(rine) = O.4436275.5o Pu

- _ril_
_
7 Ztin.'Snb
apu(rine)

0.4436275.5. = (2,,,.'"X120 I lo6)

(BB x 103)2

Ztin" = 28.625275.5" O

183
 R = 7.169 C)

And: L = 88.213 mH

Example 6.9

Refer to the single line diagram of a radial transmission system in Figure 6.13. Use a
voltage-base of 273 kV and a kVA-base of 210 MVA and calculate the actual voltage on
the termindls of the generator. The impedance of the transmission line conductors is
(0.05 + j0,1s) o/km.

Generator Transformer 1
Transformer 2
Transformer 3
Line 1
Line 2
48 km
132/BB kV 12 km
24slr32kv
125 MVA 96 MVA BB/11 kV 36 MW
X = I2o/o X = 9o/o 72MVA cos $ = Q.7gg
X = 10o/o lagging

Figure 6.12: Single-line diagram for the radial transmission system of Example 6.9

Pload = J3 Vrouo Ilou6 CoS $1s66

36x106= ( J: Xrr x lo3XIbadXo.TBB)

T-
rload 2397.8552-38'A

T- Snu
lbase -
J5.vno
210 x 106
(J3X11"103)
tto22,t4L5 A

T- Itoaa
Ibur"

?397.B5st-38"
=
17022.1415

= O.2L75Z-38. p.u.

LM
 =7go*t*l
_ (o',)[#l#l
= jO.1624 P.u.

Vgb =
[#),"',
147.086 kv

z- (0.0s +j0.1sx48)
7.589527'.s'ss6'o

ZIine'Sno
Lnb
v;b
u
(7.s8ss z71.s6q')919 )
= "10
1r+Z.OaOxfO'1'

= O.O7g7l7t'565" P.u'

Transformer 2: 7no = zgo'+t*l

-(ooe)[#l#-)'
= j0.1586 P.u.

vsu =
[F-J*r,
= 98.057 kV

z = (0,0s +j0.1sX12)
= 1,897271.565" O

185
 \_(

a_ Ztine,Snu
Lnb
va
(1.897 z7 L .565 ") (2IO xLO 6 )
=
(98.057xtO3)2

= 0.04t427L555" p.u.

snb
Transformet 3: a_
Lnb z^". ryq)'
"" Ssb [%o j
= (o1)(#)[*b-)'
jo.2349 p.u.

Load: vgb -
[tr),",
= t2.257 kV
( tt )
Vo, = t_t
Itz.zst )
o.8972o" p.u.

Vp.u.(rt) * Vp.u.(t-ine1) * Vp.u.gz) * Vp.u.(t-ine2) * Vp.u.63) * Vp.u.ltoad)

(0.217 5 z-38" )(0.1624 t90 " + 0.07 37 27 1.565' + 0. 1 586290'

+ 0.0414t71.565" + 0.2349t90") + 0.89720"
0.998326.28' p.u.

Vgen = (0.9983/:6.28"X24s)

244.583525.28" kV

.i
. 186
 '.-(

EXERCISE 6

a Figure 6.13 shows a schematic diagram of a radial transmission system. Use a base of
96 MVA and calculate the terminal voltage of the generator if the terminal voltage on the
load is to be maintained at 32 kV.

Generator Transformerl Transformer 2 Load

66/88 kv (o'92 + i9'7s) o BB/32 kv 48 MW

54 MVA 69 MVA cos $ = Q'91
X = ILo/o X = L2o/o lagging

Figure 6.13: Single-line diagram for the radial transmission system of Question 1

2. Refer to Figure 6.14, Use a base of 55 MVA and calculate the terminal voltage of the
generator.

Generator Transformerl Transformer 2 Load

33/66 kV ('2 + j9'6) o 66/11 kV 24 MW

75 MVA 90 MVA cos 0 = 0'707L
X=0,1 pu X= BVo lagging

Figure 6.14: Single-line diagram for the radial transmission system of Question 2

Consider the network in Figure 6.15. The load takes full load current at 0.936 pu volts,
{3 Use a base of 700 kVA and calculate the terminal voltage on the generator.

Generator Transformer 1 Line Transformer 2 Load

6.6/11 kv (2.24 + i0.36) o 11/3.3 kv 7BO KW

1.2 MVA 1.8 MVA cos $ = 0'7193
X= 9o/o X= 7.5o/o lagging

Figure 6.15: Single-line diagram for the radial transmission network of Question 3

187
 4" Consider the radial transmission system in Figure 6.16. Use the nameplate values of
Transformer 2 as base values and calculate the terminal voltage on the generator if the
load takes full load current at 0.92 pu volts.

Generator Transformerl Line Transformer 2 Load

33/48 kV (1.05 + j1o.s) o 4Bl11 kV 32.4 MW

28 MVA 42 MVA cos $ = Q.399
X = l2o/o X = 10olo lagging

Figure 6,16: Single-line diagram for the radial transmission system of Question 4

'\-/1 210
{r5. Figure 6.17 shows a schematic diagram of a radial transmission system. Use a base of
MVA and calculate the resistance and inductance of the line.

Generator Transformerl Line Transformer 2 Load

Vsen = 15619.7" kV 132lBB kV BB/33 kV 51 MW

120 MVA 150 MVA cos $ = Q.916
X= B.Bolo X = 10.4o/o lagging

Figure 6.17: Single-line diagram for the radial transmission system of Question 5

6. Consider the radial transmission system in Figure 6.18. Use the nameplate values of
Transformer 1 as base values and calculate the resistance and reactance of the line if the
load takes full load current at 0.945 pu volts.

Generator Transformer 1 Line Transformer 2 Load

Vsen = 21,34623.7'kV 11/33 kV 33/5,6 kV 18 MW

60 MVA 45 MVA cos 0 = 0.8
X= 9o/o X= 8olo lagging

Figure 5.18: Single-line diagram for the radial transmission system of Question 6

1BB
 l

7. Refer to the three-phase network shown in Figure 6.19. Use a base of 48 MVA and
determine the value of the generator terminal voltage.

Generator Transformer 1 Line Transformer 2 Load

BBi66 kV (1'15 + j11.s) f, 66/11 kV 54 MW

, 64 MVA 78 MVA cos $ = Q.7gg
X = LZo/o X= 9o/o lagging

Figure 6.19: Single-line diagram for the three-phase network of Question 7

B. Figure 6,20 shows a schematic diagram of a radial transmission system. Use the
nameplate values of the transformer as base values and calculate the terminal voltage on
the generator if the load takes full load current at 0.915 pu volts.

Generator Transformer Line

33/11 kV @.22 + j2'2) o 6MW

75 MVA cos $ = Q.399
X= Bolo lagging

Figure 5.20: Line diagram of the network for Question B

9, Figure 6,21 shows a schematic diagram of a radial transmission system, Use the
nameplate values of the generator as base values and draw the equivalent circuit for the
system.

Generator Transformerl Line Transformer 2

66 kV 11/132 kV (0.24 + j2.4) o 132/33 kV

48 MVA 32 MVA 60 MVA
X = 18o/o X = 100/o X = 9o/o

Figure 5.21: Single-line diagram for the radial transmission system of Question 9

189
 a

10. Figure 6.22 shows a schematic diagram of a radial transmission system. Use the
nameplate values of Transformer 1 as base values and draw the equivalent circuit for the
system.

Generator Transformerl Line Transformer 2

13.8 kV 11/BB kV (0.18 + j1'B) o 88/6,6 kV

7s MyA 50 MVA 90 MVA
X=15o/o X=11olo X= Bolo

Figure 6.22: Single-line diagram for the radial transmission system of Question 10

11. Determine the Thevenin equivalent circuit for the network shown in Figure 6.23. Take
= 90 MVA dfld V6u." = BB kV in the transmission lines.
Sbur"

11 kV BB/11 kV (0,36 + j2.4) a

60 MVA 60 MVA
X = l5o/o X = 8o/o

13.8 kV BB/11 kV j4.B o

90 MVA 90 MVA
X = 18o/o X = 100/o

24 kV BBl24 kV 0.54 + j5.9 o

150 MVA 150 MVA
X = 27o/o X = L2o/o

Figure 5.23: Line diagram of the network for Question 11

190
 EXERCISE 2.t EXERCTSE 2.2 {CONTTNUED}

1.1 9.643r{54.8" f,) 32 999.986 W

1.2 4991.6321s4.8" VA 22.372]y.i$
2877.338 W 10.6992-20.8050 o
4078.8865 VA'r 9.4435t72.190 Q
z. ^#Stazvs.cz n 9.789Z4L.340 0
3. 228.3381-93.63" V 3.4 1000.106 w
4,t 15.2382-87.2: A 22.37 kw'...,,
9.712t-21.4" A 4.1 9.2s91-76.73 4
5..3ea;-rsz.tp n 12.5551169.42 A
4.2 22.8791-77.405. A 12.22t33.28 A
4.3 4758.114 W
"
4.2 4955.35 W ,

5.1 5.5091-158.04" A 5.1 17V5.246W,

10.703275.57, A 3250.254 W
7.434t4933 A 5.2 5025.5 W
s.2, 1179.941 W 6. 8.021 kW
,,:, 88r.047W
*571.105 W
7. 3S06,933 W
8.1 29.5522t46.27" h
5.3 4067.849/.42.69" VA 4.2 8.05 {)
2989.883 \jv 21.9125 mH
*2758,26 VA? 8.3 19.468 kW
6.1 2.114t94.L9'A 9. 2156.844 W
3.106r*138.49" A 10. 21.4805 W
1.5172-t2.62' A 6.1195 W
6.2 202.00s w 11.1 922W
216.11 W 11.2 0,9326 lagging
72.716 W 11.3 1.297 A
6.3 7472.73/r7A.53' VA 12.1 480 W
490.83 W 12.2 0.1985 lagglng
-1388.532 VA? 12.3 3.173 A
7,1 76.2382-tt7.7 A 13. 18.2982103.060 A
9.7r2t-51.4. A 17.7752-76.38 4
5.484t177.9" A o.5522-9s.29 A
7.2 4308,114 W 14. 6670,881 W
8.1 796.262t-rr2.55 V 15. 2919.3795 W
8.2 78.2352158.41" A 6860.620s W
16.2552-t.39 A 16. 16945.575 W
6.35352-83.62" A 17. 16945.922W
9.1 , 72.266t27.44 0 18. 849.3115 W
9.2 . 9376.598 W 1323.077 W
10.1 29.543t-722,55a A 1186.937 W
3Q.24621.940 A 19. 6008.s31 W
27.246/L20.97" A 2907.627 W
10.2 21.A2rz-25.r20 AlA 70. 10,679 kW
19.033 kW 21. 10.679 kW
* 8.923 kVA? : :

11.1 30.341242.74" A
EXERCISE 3

1. 635,473 VA'r
EXERCISE 2.2 ,

2. 9.672t0.480 E
L 50.17351*88.03" A
948.1155 W
9209.2155 W 11,5.416.t-L5.78 A
2. 8967.Jg4W
3.1 7.814tL37.76" A
47.6462-13;L98" A
47.7L6t44.64. A

264
EXERCISE 3 (CONTINUED) EXERCISE 4 (CONTINUED)

75133" V 5.1 3.490

10.09. v 5.2 182.9805223.43' MVA
201.259t-109.91'V 105.632263i34r MVA
201.259-z130.09' V 6.1 2.55"
97,781tr34.39" V 6.2 19.347 MW
97.7811=105.61" V 6.3 0.162 lagging : '
s7]81tL439' V ' 7.1 76.74
4.1 98,45282.69'n ,
7.2 441,288258.76' MVA
60.631t36.42'A 623.242230.95" MVA
29.74222.89 0 7.3 8.t)71 MW
4.2 r353.472tt2.36" VA 8.1 11.32"
5,1 37.375231.55' A 8.2 5.723 MW
19,801143.39'A 8.3 1208.1294'
29.392t-147.51 4 8.4 925.7t6t34.95 MV4
5.7. 585.2822123.3'V s12.136260.85'MVA
s06.083143.3'v 9.1 120.343 MW
840.7892-93.05" V LLV-726 MW
o. 29.513128.86'A 63.011 KVA'r
31.501r-103.06' A -24.959 MVA',?
r4.L66t-123.925' A 9.2 2.617 MW
7.7 33.598r*155.33'A 2s.022 MVA"r
43.3865136.04'A 9.3 930.18243'MVA
26.40L229.98'A 381.704250.6" MVA
7.2 1243.8031150.18'V 10.1 6.748177" A
856.644216.A4'V t0.2 7.275
LL87.164271. V 10.3 353.817278.23 |,v1V4
11.1 40.875t4.73 MVA
416.8935138.64' MVA
TL,2 175.005 MW
EXERCISE 4 12.1 109.7482103.97' MVA
3s8.75t26.97" MVA
1.1 171.3145 MW
L2.2 3,6915 MW
-2s.145 MVAI 13.1 88t29.21 kV
164.999 MW
L3,2 24.315 MW
-52.499 MVA? 13.3 600.2252t02.r45 MV{
1.2 A: receives 608.184 MW and
t4. 6670.881 W
receives 292.259 MVA'r
15.1 253.722255.47" MVA
B: sends 237.627 YIW and 15.2 14.760/o
sends 313.926 MVA?
15.3 253.725t55.465" MVA
1.2 0.9013 lagging 74.75t/o
15.4
0.6035 lagging
16.1 37.563 I\4W
5.935.
2.2 201.606274.89' MVA -177.92AMVA'I
12.355 MW
552.7005111.45" MVA
5.1535 MW
-242.152MVA"r
2.3
L6.2 25.208 MW
64.224 MVA"|
3.1 89.90s MW
16.3 667.25260.65' MVA
-10.88 MVA? 654.371225.805' MVA
86.831 MW
t6.4 22.92.
3.2
-25.721 lt'lvA?
v9.801229.56" MVA
17.3 3.208% ' :

r7.4 560.6s245.01' MVA

363.6445t48.41" MVA
393.872t42.99 MV{
J.J 0.2028 lagging
3.4 3.074 MW
4,L 7j3
4.2 14.4725 MVt

265
 EXER.CTSE4 (CONTTNUED) EXERCISET

LV.7 0.6945 lagging , L'1:,:::=, 551571 A

''.;;:;;1;;., ., :,, 80,429 A
0.7315 lagging ,
'
77:2 6,2340/0 ..:-:.-::.:.:,.=..,," =':,:=: :,',lQfi, 1g pt

18.1 352.217240:52? MYE: L.7 236.672V

18.2 2,978o/o. :.::,=.'':' :: :':: 228.27 V.
18.3 382.3Kw,''', 231.873 V:
59.615 MVA1 2"r 2r6.ore v
,:,.:.:- , 213;061 V
::,:,:='::: t,,
19,1 S:;W7-i
l:213;154 V
19,2 542:006239.205' MVA
v29.429/4L.3' 2.:2=.....:: zfiAA3V
.:* IrIUA
',':::::,
-
:t,
:::.:) ) 2L6,362:ll:-
,: 2L4.96f.V,,.
3.1 92.6345 A
EXERCISE 5 :, 30,6345 A
,,,,, 77;3655 A
1.1 559.7832-14.79e kVA :::::: : 209,3655 A
11 R5738.28 -t=,.;:,,.- 5;r'.. .' 221,.63v
2.1 R248327.44 :. . ::::=::::
,,.._:
: 210,437 V
7.2 R243140.54 :,:a,a..: a::,204,947, V
4. 0;,7823 crn?
qt I --.:::219.801 V
0.394 3.3, ,:::,::::,:=184;d98 V ,

1,331 .::
::., .1j5.364 i;_,
5.2 0.9733 : 182.729 V :
0;9746 170.802V :

0.9736 4.L 3116.11321.385" V

0.97 2948.781/?.LLV
0.948 2842.65824.26V
o.9167 4.2 3173,4M2L.O8V
o,t 0.3599 cm2 9042.838 W
*1 0.6769 cm 1U76.561:{-0,01" V
5.
6: 0.11
1064.710:25e V :::
5.414s 1071,8410;18'V ,,
833.123 kVA'r ,
6= 8.588/-179.39: A,,,
7J 821.12052*590 kVA
59:3181*40.84o A,l
R341345.00 .
7.1 47:;$$$2:9.4o Y ::,
E_2 Rl1473,00:' 7.2 28i.3792-r7;29e Y'
J.L 0.9614 lagging
227.708 kVA?
=t
an579.33:.'
4.7185 years

ErmExsE6

795 31_380 kv
7- 5-tri3j_120kY
a.&97_4,4r kY
€-#{17.560kv
LJITS*
sf; qf7
-*l
f{-E4{!
s-g?3c
7". tr13-4kl:J1e kv
*_ 41 .is-E-F 1Y

]1E6