T ERAHERTZ W IRELESS C OMMUNICATIONS
THz Channel Modeling: Consolidating the Road to THz
Communications
Shanyun Liu, Xianbin Yu* , Rongbin Guo, Yajie Tang, Zhifeng Zhao
Zhejiang Laboratory, Hangzhou 311121, China
*
The corresponding author, email: xyu@zhejianglab.com
Abstract: For the sake of meeting the demand of data
rates at terabit (Tbit) per second scale in future net-
works, the terahertz (THz) band is widely accepted as
one of the potential key enabling technologies for next
generation wireless communication systems. With the
progressive development of THz devices, regrading
THz communications at system level is increasing cru-
cial and captured the interest of plenty of researchers.
Within this scope, THz channel modeling serves as an
indispensable and fundamental element. By survey-
ing the latest literature findings, this paper reviews the
problem of channel modeling in the THz band, with an
emphasis on molecular absorption loss, misalignment
fading and multipath fading, which are major influ-
ence factors in the THz channel modeling. Then, we
focus on simulators and experiments in the THz band,
after which we give a brief introduction on applica-
tions of THz channel models with respects to capacity,
security, and sensing as examples. Finally, we discuss
some key issues in the future THz channel modeling.
Keywords: terahertz (THz); channel modeling; sur-
vey; sixth-generation (6G); molecular absorption loss;
misalignment fading; multipath fading
I. INTRODUCTION
Referring to the Edholm’s law, the bandwidth de-
mand almost doubles every 18 months [1]. With sharp
growth of the demand of end-users for ultra-high data
rate services in the recent years, the fifth-generation
Received: Jan. 15, 2021
Revised: Mar. 19, 2021
Editor: Chong Han
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(5G) will not be sufficient to meet all the requirements
in future generations [2–4]. According to the predic-
tion of the ITU, the demand of data rate in the wire-
less networks will even reach terabit (Tbit) per sec-
ond by 2030 [5]. To target this, many studies have
suggested that the terahertz (THz) technique is one of
potential key enabling technologies in 6G [6–8]. In-
deed, the THz frequency band (0.1-10 THz) has the
potential to carry information at a scale of terabit (Tbit,
1Tbit/s=1000Gbit/s) [9, 10].
The comparison between THz technology and sev-
eral rivals such as millimeter-wave (mmWave), in-
frared, visible light, and ultra-violet, was discussed
detailly in [11], which confirms that THz-wave serves
as a good candidate in future communication systems,
with wide application prospects in wireless backhaul,
wireless local access, and the Internet of nano-things,
etc [12, 13].
Nevertheless, there are a lot of obstacles on the
way to establish a Tbit THz wireless communication
link. One of the main bottlenecks is THz device, es-
pecially in effectively generating THz signals. In last
decade, a bunch of efforts have been placed to focus
on the development of THz devices, and have defi-
nitely made great progresses based on photonic and
electronic technologies [14–18]. As a benefit, the re-
search about THz communications at a system level
recently attracts more and more attentions. Amongst
them, it is worth noting that THz channel modeling is
an indispensable and fundamental element in analyz-
ing THz communications.
Since there is extremely large molecular absorption
fading and reflection loss [19], it is not suitable to
33
directly adopt the existing channel models in the ra-
dio/mmWave band for THz communication systems.
One issue is that the energy of a THz wave can be eas-
ily absorbed by the atmospheric molecules, resulting
in absorption peaks at resonant frequencies and mak-
ing the THz frequency band split into several transmis-
sion windows [20]. Usually, high gain antennas are
widely needed in THz systems owing to the presence
of severe path loss, leading to misalignment fading
[21]. Besides, the multipath fading in the THz band
is also different from that in the radio/mmWave band
[19]. In fact, the spreading loss, molecular absorption
fading, misalignment fading, multipath fading, as well
as loss in the propagation pose huge challenges for
THz channel modeling, as an excellent channel model
is expected to take all of them into account properly
and accurately.
Up to date, there have been a lot of review work
on modeling THz channel. For instance, the reviews
represented in [22–24] aim at presenting a comprehen-
sive introduction of THz techniques, with a special at-
tention to THz channel modeling and its applications.
The THz channel is also described briefly in reviews
like [25] by focusing on the channel model in 6G in-
stead of the THz band. Besides, a larger number of
literatures concentrate on channel modeling in a cer-
tain situation rather than doing comprehensive review,
such as [26–28]. In this sense, a systematic review on
the THz channel modeling is expected to be of great
importance for the THz communication community.
In this paper, we present an overview on THz chan-
nel modeling by surveying the latest literature find-
ings, with an intension to provide crucial difference
between this tutorial and the existing reviews. We
hope this paper can timely generate knowledge on
THz channel modeling by summarizing and analyz-
ing the latest findings, and hence is interesting for re-
searchers to find potential directions in this specific
field. The contents in the existing surveys about THz
channel modeling are listed in Table. 1.
The remaining of this paper is organized as follows.
In Section II, the significance and the basic methods
of channel modeling is first provided. In Section III,
key aspects concerning the loss in THz channel mod-
eling is given in details, such as molecular absorption
gain, misalignment fading, and so on. The simulators
and experiments about THz channels are also intro-
duced in this section. A brief introduction on applica-
34
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tions of THz channel models is presented with respects
to capacity, security, and sensing as examples in Sec-
tion IV. In Section V, the key issues in the future THz
channel modeling are also discussed. Finally, the pa-
per is concluded in Section VI.
II. THE BASIC PROPERTIES OF CHAN-
NEL MODEL
As we know, accurate and efficient wireless commu-
nication channel modeling plays an indispensable role
in communication system design and performance op-
timization. This is due to the fact that we have to de-
sign the communication systems only by experience
and experiment without channel models [31]. Electro-
magnetic radiation from a transmitter to a receiver is
the typical work pattern of a wireless channel, and the
change of channel strength with time or frequency is
its major characteristic [31].
Roughly, channel modeling can be divided into two
main classes: deterministic modeling and stochastic
modeling [22]. Deterministic modeling can be derived
from the transmission equation of radio waves accord-
ing to electromagnetic wave theory. It features a high
accuracy as it is confirmed to agree well with the ac-
tual measurements. Generally, deterministic models
are suitable for scenarios that require realistic chan-
nel data, such as vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) com-
munications and an accurate prediction of coverage in
network planning. Alternatively, the stochastic models
were proposed to avoid complex and time-consuming
modeling. In fact, it models a channel by extract-
ing the statistical characteristics of a channel based on
plenty of measurement data. By avoiding heavy de-
pendency on the geometric knowledge of application
scenarios, the stochastic channel modeling usually has
high universality and low computational complexity,
while with less accuracy as a penalty. Eventually, the
pros and cons of each modeling method depend on ap-
plication scenarios.
In general, the performance of a channel model
can be evaluated in terms of three aspects: accuracy,
complexity and generality [25]. An excellent channel
model is expected to meet the best compromise be-
tween these three aspects. Therefore, in recent years,
hybrid channel models have been proposed in order to
take the advantages of both methods [23, 32]. For ex-
ample, the deterministic strategy in a THz multi-path
China Communications · May 2021
 Table 1. The contents in existing surveys about THz channel modeling.

Title Year Published Survey Content

This survey introduces the current research progress of THz
Survey of terahertz communication technology, including channel modeling, channel
1 2020
technology [22] measurement, channel estimation, communication scenario
analysis and future research directions.
An overview of signal processing
This article provides a detailed and complete introduction to
2 techniques for terahertz 2020
THz signal processing technology.
communications [23]
This paper gives a comprehensive and detailed review of
A survey on terahertz
3 2019 THz communications, and introduces several key
communications [24]
technologies in THz communications.
6G oriented wireless
communication channel This survey presents a detailed introduction of channel
4 2020
characteristics analysis and modeling and channel sounding in 6G networks.
modeling [25]
MAC protocols for terahertz
5 communication: A comprehensive 2020 This survey introduces the THz MAC protocols in details.
survey [29]
This article discusses the key technologies to greatly
Scoring the terabit/s goal:
6 2020 increase the transmission rate in the future 6G
Broadband connectivity in 6G [30]
communication network.
This paper presents a comprehensive and detailed
THz channel modeling:
introduction to THz channel modeling technology, and
7 Consolidating the road to THz 2021
summarizes some key issues in the future THz channel
communications
modeling.

environment is adopted in the dominant paths, while
other paths use the stochastic model generally [23].
III. THZ CHANNEL MODELING
This section presents the THz channel modeling in
details. Although, some channel model derived in
the mmWave band can been used in the THz band in
practice, such as Saleh-Valenzuela (S-V) model [33],
there is a certain deviation in the high-frequency THz
band. Generally, the current channel models in the ra-
dio/mmWave band are not suitable for THz communi-
cation systems, due to the exceedingly large molecular
absorption fading and reflection loss [19]. Roughly,
the loss in a THz link can be divided into large-scale
and small-scale fading. A lot of studies have exam-
ined the large-scale fading in THz channels, such as
path loss [26] and shadow fading [34]. The small-
scale fading in the THz band was also studied in the
past several years, with regarding to multipath fading
[28]. Also, the spatio-temporal characteristics are cru-
cial attributes of channels. The authors in [35] pro-
posed a THz stochastic model based on the tempo-
ral and spatial characteristics. In THz V2I scenarios,
a geometric-based stochastic time-varying model was
presented to analyze the non-linear temporal-spatial
correlation in spherical wave propagation [36]. Based
on the measurement data in the 130-140 GHz band in
an indoor environment, the temporal and spatial char-
acteristics can be characterized by the log-normal dis-
tribution [37].
The main classification of THz channel models is
shown in Figure 1. Since different parameters should
be considerably taken into account in various THz
communication scenarios, most of the research on
THz channel modeling in the last decade examine the
propagation model for a specific scenario. So far,
the work on THz channel usually emphasizes outdoor
channel models, indoor channel models and nanoscale
channel models with the deterministic and stochastic
approaches as stated earlier.
In this paper, we will provide classified discussions
on the THz channel modeling based on the key aspects

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 Terahertz Channel Model

By Scenarios By Methods
By Type
of Loss

Outdoor Channel Model Propagation Gain Model Stochastic Model

[132] [26][38] [35][66]

Indoor Channel Model Molecular Absorption Deterministic Model

[37][55] Loss Model [27][48] [28][45]

Nanoscale Channel Misalignment Fading

Model [41] Model [21][61]

Multipath Fading Model

[47][74]

Rain Attenuation Model

[93]-[95]

Figure 1. THz channel model classification.

on loss. In general, a system model is given by
y = hx + n,
where n is the additive white Gaussian noise, and h is
the channel coefficient, which is given by [26]
h = hp hmol hmis hw hmul ,
It is easy to check that the propagation gain in the
THz band is much smaller than that in a radio band.
(1) Actually, such high spreading loss is a serious con-
straint to THz transmission [39]. Since only Gt and
Gr could be increased by improving hardware com-
ponent performance, and hence the high gain antennas
become essentially important in developing THz sys-
tems in order to overcome the high spreading loss.
(2)

where hp , hmol , and hmis denote the propagation gain,

the molecular absorption fading, and the misalignment
fading, respectively. Besides, hw represents the effects
of weathers, and hmul is the multipath fading.
3.1 Propagation Gain
According to the Friis equation, the propagation gain
in the free space can be given by [38]
√ peaks at resonant frequencies, which makes the THz
c Gt G r
hp = , (3)
4πdf
where c, Gt , Gr , d, and f respectively represent the
velocity of light, the transmitting antenna gain, the
receiving antenna gain, the transmission distance and
frequency.
3.2 Molecular Absorption Loss
The molecular absorption loss is one of the main
fading sources in a THz channel. The energy of
electromagnetic wave can be absorbed by the atmo-
spheric molecules, such as water vapor and oxygen
[40]. When the operation frequency is higher than 200
GHz, the molecular absorption mainly originates from
the water vapor [26], resulting in several absorption
frequency band split into several transmission win-
dows, as shown in Figure 2.
According to the Beer-Lambert Law, the molecular
absorption gain is given by [41]
1
hmol = e− 2 k(f )d , (4)

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where absorption coefficient k(f ) can be calculated by
104
X p TST P

Specific attenuation (dB/km)

k (f ) = Qi,g σ i,g (f ) . (5)
p0 T
i,g 102

The total absorption coefficient k(f ) is the sum

of those for isotopologue i (i ∈ {1, 2, ..., Ni }) of gas 100

g (i ∈ {1, 2, ..., Ng }) [41]. Besides, T and p are the

temperature and the pressure respectively, while TST P
and p0 denote the standard temperature and the stan-
dard atmospheric pressure respectively. Furthermore,
Qi,g and σ i,g stand for the total number of molecules
per volume unit and the absorption cross section of the
given gas mixture. The computing methods or defini-
tion of these parameters are detailed in [41].
In actual calculation, we can usually extract these
parameters from some specific database. In most
studies of THz channel modeling, the high resolu-
tion transmission molecular absorption database (HI-
TRAN) [42] is adopted.
However, the accurate computation of above models
is quite complex and tedious. Recently, a simplified
but fairly accurate model has been proposed to com-
pute the molecular absorption loss in the 275-400 GHz
band [27]. In this model, the absorption coefficient is
approximately written as
k (f ) = y1 (f, u) + y2 (f, u) + g (f ) ,
where
A (u)
y1 (f, u) =  2 ,
f
B (u) + 100c − c1
C (u)
y2 (f, u) = 2 ,

f In fact, the atmosphere can affect THz communi-
D (u) + 100c − c2
g (f ) = p1 f 3 + p2 f 2 + p3 f + p4 .
The evaluation expressions of A(u), B(u), C(u),
D(u) and the values of parameters c1 , c2 , p1 , p2 , P3 , p4
refer to [27]. Besides, u stands for the volume mixing
ratio of water vapor, and it can be evaluated as [27]
φ pw (T, p)
u= , (10)
100 p fects of the air motion and the inhomogeneous distri-
where pw denotes the saturated water vapor partial
10-2
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Frequency(GHz)
Figure 2. Specific attenuation in the THz band according to
the ITU [44].
pressure, which is given by
pw = 6.1121 1.0007 + 3.46 × 10−6 p


 
17.502T
× exp , (11)
240.97 + T
according to the Buck equation [43]. Besides, φ stands
for the relative humidity.
On this basis, the approximate formulas of transmis-
sion windows were also presented in [27]. Actually,
this simplified model has been used in lots of THz
studies, such as channel modeling [45], performance
(6)
evaluation [46] and reconfigurable intelligent surface
(RIS) [47]. Furthermore, the state-of-the-art work in
[48] presented a novel simplified model for molecular
absorption loss in the 100-450 GHz band, and exhib-
(7) ited six absorption peaks in this band, including 119
GHz, 183 GHz, 325 GHz, 380 GHz, 439 GHz and
448 GHz.
(8)
cations in three ways [49, 50]. The first is to cause
(9) the atmospheric attenuation, or molecular absorption
loss, which has been introduced detailedly in this part.
Secondly, since the phase velocities and refractive in-
dexes are different in different frequencies, the arrival
time of waves in different frequencies will be different,
which leads to the waveform broadening [51]. This
phenomenon is also known as atmospheric dispersion.
Furthermore, the atmospheric turbulence refers to ef-
bution of air parameters, which typically brings ran-
dom fluctuations for THz signals [50].

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3.3 Misalignment Fading
y

As aforementioned, high gain antennas are required

and indeed widely adopted in THz systems owing to Beam footprint
the presence of severe path loss. For instance, the
corrugated conical horn antennas with gain of 55 dBi wd
are adopted to achieve a 850 m link at 240 GHz [52].
r
Since the antenna beam width is inversely proportional
to the antenna gain, the THz systems usually need
highly-directional and narrow beam width antennas x
a
[53]. Nevertheless, the highly-directional antennas are The effective area
extremely susceptible to the random motion of anten- of Receiver
nas, which originates in traffic, wind, and so on. As a
consequence, it easily causes the problem of antenna Figure 3. The effective area of receiver and the beam foot-
alignment, and hence the pointing error is one of the print with misalignment [26, 60].
paramount factors influencing the performance of THz
wireless communications [21]. cient, which is approximated as
The relationship between reflectarray antenna gain
2r2
 
and beam width was discussed in [54]. Moreover, [55]
hmis (r, d) ≈ A0 exp − 2 , (12)
suggested that the misalignments induced by the mo- weq
bility user-end devices may result in severe deteriora-
tion of channel capacity and outages in THz wireless where A0 is the fraction of received power, which
communications with highly-directional antennas, and is determined by the radius of the receiver’s effec-
[56] presented a mathematical framework to analyze tive area and the maximum radius of the transmission
this issue. In [57], the effect of antenna directivities beam at the distance d [26, 60]. Besides, weq denotes
on the THz links in indoor scenarios is examined. Be- the equivalent beam width. A0 and weq are studied in
sides, the authors in [58] put forward a misalignment details in [60].
model based on statistics, and suggest an optimum an- As stated in the previous work [21, 64], the ran-
tenna configuration to minimize the transmission at- dom motion of antennas can be modeled as the Gaus-
tenuation. Since the THz wave is quasi-optical [59], sian movement. Furthermore, assuming the elevation
the study in [26] argued that the misalignment fading and the horizontal sways follow independent identi-
can be modeled from a pointing error model in free- cal Gaussian distributions, the radial distance obeys
space optical communications [60]. After this statisti- a Rayleigh distribution [60]. Therefore, the probabil-
cal misalignment fading model is proposed, it has been ity density function of the misalignment fading can be
used in many subsequent studies [47, 61–63]. evaluated as
As shown in Figure 3, according to [26, 60], the re-
ceiver’s effective area is assumed to be a circle with γ2 2 −1
fhmis (x) = 2 xγ , 0 ≤ x ≤ A0 , (13)
a radius of a. Also, the beam of a transmitter is cir- Aγ0
cle, and its radius changes with the distance. The ra-
dius at the distance d is denoted as ρ, which meets where the parameter γ is the ratio between the re-
0 ≤ ρ ≤ wd where wd denotes the maximum radius of ceiver’s equivalent beam width and the radial displace-
the transmission beam. Moreover, the antenna move- ment standard deviation [60].
ments from building sways give rise to pointing er- Although the misalignment fading induced by
rors between transmission and receiving beams [64]. highly-directional antennas triggers a drastic decrease
The radial distance between such beams is denoted of the received power [65], such as up to 13 dB power
as r. On this basis, a statistical model can be uti- decrease for 20◦ tilts [66], it is still worth of reward-
lized to characterize the misalignment fading coeffi- ing for THz wireless networks with particular respects.

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A quintessential example should be cited that a host
of previous work claims that the security in the THz
band has been improved compared to the lower fre-
quency bands [67–69], due to the fact that an antenna
of eavesdropper must be within the narrow beam of a
transmitter.
In fact, the propagation gain and the molecular ab-
sorption loss are both deterministic variables, while
the above misalignment fading is a random variable.
However, if antennas move regularly rather than meet-
ing random motion, the performance of stochastic mis-
alignment fading models will be degraded. For ex-
ample, in an eavesdropping scenario, the angle be-
tween the antenna of a legitimate user and that of an
eavesdropper may be constant. In this case, an exact
characterization of the misalignment fading is urgently
needed. The impact of antenna directivity at 300 GHz
is studied in [57] by means of a Gaussian beam model
based on ray tracing (RT). So far, there is limited re-
search investigating deterministic models of misalign-
ment fading, and it is extremely meaningful to further
construct a more comprehensive and accurate deter-
ministic misalignment fading model in the future.
3.4 Multipath Fading
The multipath fading is definitely one of the key as-
pects, and it is of great significance to develop a novel
multipath channel models for THz communications
[19]. In fact, the power difference between the line-
of-sight (LoS) and non-line-of-sight (NLoS) is larger
in the THz band than that in the mmWave bands [70].
On average, when compared to the LoS path, the at-
tenuation of the power of the first-order reflection path
is larger than 10 dB, and that of the second-order re-
flection path is larger than 20 dB in the 275-325 GHz
band in an indoor environment [35]. Furthermore, ac-
cording to the previous study, there are an exceedingly
limited number of NLoS paths [33, 71]. Hence, THz
channels are generally considered to be LoS-dominant
and NLoS-assisted, and sensitive to obstacles [72]. A
lot of research on THz channels so far focuses on the
LoS path, and neglects NLoS paths since the LoS path
usually plays a decisive role in THz propagation, while
a multipath channel should be considered in several
specific scenarios, the indoor THz communication just
as an example, since the multipath effects are often ob-
vious in such limited spaces [73].
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A lot of studies of THz multipath channels espe-
cially indoor channels, have been indeed done, and
suggest that the S-V channel model [74] can be
adopted for THz communications [33, 63, 75–77].
Moreover, a 2-D geometrical propagation model for
THz indoor scenarios was provided in [78]. Based
on RT, the authors in [28] discussed multipath chan-
nels in details, including the LoS, reflected, scat-
tered and diffracted ray propagation schemes. To be
more specific, the Kirchhoff theory [79], the modi-
fied Beckmann-Kirchhoff theory [80] and the Fresnel
Knife Edge Diffraction theory [81] are used to char-
acterize the reflected, scattered and diffracted paths,
respectively. In [45], a new two-path channel model
was proposed in the 275-400 GHz band, which is com-
posed of the LoS path and one reflected path. In addi-
tion, the work in [82] presented an analytical model for
a THz multipath channel, which analytically derives
the number of multipath components and the proba-
bility of the LoS.
On the other hand, quite a few studies characterize
the THz multipath fading by means of stochastic mod-
els. For instance, the authors in [66] presented a THz
multipath channel model. According to [66], the first-
order statistics of its attenuation factor can be charac-
terized by the Nakagami-m or Rician distribution in
the LoS-dominant scenarios, while they should be de-
scribed by the Rayleigh or Nakagami-m distribution
when there is no LoS path. In [26], the α − µ distri-
bution [83] is suggested to model the THz multipath
channel, and the channel capacity and outage prob-
ability are presented based on it. Very recently, the
work in [47] stated that the fluctuating two-ray (FTR)
distribution [84, 85] can characterize the small-scale
amplitude fading well, since the FTR distribution fits
the measurement data much better than the Rician,
Gaussian, Nakagami-m distributions in the train-to-
train scenarios at 304 GHz [86].
3.5 Hardware Imperfections
In THz high-rate communication systems, the radio-
frequency (RF) imperfections, such as phase noise
and in-phase and quadrature imbalance, are extremely
harmful, and their effects cannot be neglected in these
cases [87]. According to the Bussgang theorem, such
effects of the RF imperfections can be modeled by
a complex Gaussian process [88]. Since these hard-
39
ware imperfections occur in both transmitters and re-
ceivers, two complex Gaussian noises are usually used
to model them, which is written as [26]
y = h (x + nt ) + nr + n,
where
nt ∼ CN 0, κ2t P ,


and  
nr ∼ CN 0, κ2r P |h|2 ,
denote the distortion Gaussian noises in a transmitter
and a receiver respectively [89]. According to [26], κt
and κr stand for non-negative impairment coefficients,
and we use P to denote the average transmitted power.
So far, this model has been extensively used in analyz-
ing THz communication systems [26, 47, 90–92]. For
example, a low-complexity channel estimator for THz
communication systems is built based on it in [90].
3.6 The Effects of Weather
THz channel models is significantly affected by the
weather. Rain attenuation is a quintessential example,
which is caused by the absorption and scattering of
raindrops. Recently, rain attenuation of a THz channel
has been reported in outdoor rainy conditions [93–95].
In fact, the attenuation through raindrops exists widely
in a multitude of links when carrier frequency is above
10 GHz [40]. Some estimation methods on rain atten-
uation were presented in [96]. Recently, the work in
[97] focused on the rain attenuation at 300 GHz, and it
shows that the Mie scattering and the Weibull distribu-
tion are exceedingly suitable for calculating the wave
attenuation through rain in this case, due to the fact
that the results based on this model well agree with
the measurement data. Usually, rain attenuation must
be taken into account when modeling a channel above
100 GHz in beyond (B5G) or 6G [98].
Furthermore, the authors in [99] compared the ef-
fects of dry snow, sleet and rain on THz radiation
based on Mie theory, and they stated that water vapor
is the primary source of loss in dry snow condition.
The actual measurement shows that there is about 2 dB
attenuation at 200 GHz in 8 m of propagation during
a snow fall [100]. The effect of snow on THz links is
also investigated in [101], which argues that the snow
leads to higher loss than rain at a same fall rate. Foggy
40
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weather is another important factor, and the effect of
fog on THz links has been reported in [102, 103]. In
addition, the THz attenuation caused by dust increases
with the dust cloud’s particle density [104].
(14) It is noted that the effects of weather are relatively
stable in comparison to other small-scale fading ef-
fects. Therefore, the activation of compensation mea-
(15) sures in the THz communication transceivers could be
a solution according to weather forecast.
(16) 3.7 The Effects of Scattering and Frequency
Dispersion
Since the wavelength in the THz frequency band is
at millimeter level or even less, the diffuse scattering
is paramount in the THz channel modeling [28, 105].
Many previous studies have also focused on the effects
of scattering on THz transmission [106–108].
Frequency dispersion is also a fundamental factor
of channels, which is usually characterized by the
Doppler spread. It decides whether the channel is fast
fading or slow fading. A lot of literatures have ex-
amined THz channel modeling with taking frequency
dispersion into account [109, 110]. Also, frequency
dispersion is considered in a communication system
at 300 GHz [111]. Besides, authors in [35] proposed a
stochastic indoor channel model in THz band with tak-
ing frequency dispersion into account. It is also noted
that the cumulative distribution function of dispersion
coefficient was shown in [35].
3.8 Other Channel Models
Recently, a THz channel model for aerial communi-
cations was first proposed in [112], since space-air-
ground integrated network captures researchers’ atten-
tion increasingly [113]. It is noted that the authors
in [112] consider the frequency-selective THz chan-
nel and the non-flat Earth geometry, and the numerical
results indicate that the channel capacity may be up to
120 Gbit/s in this case.
Moreover, the novel multiplexing and coding of or-
bital angular momentum (OAM) waves provide a new
degree of freedom to realize ultra-high capacity com-
munication [114]. The channel model of an OAM
beam at 70 GHz was presented in [115], while an
OAM multipath channel model based on uniform cir-
cle array in the mmWave band was reported in [116].
Despite the increasing attentions on using the OAM
China Communications · May 2021
technique in the THz band [117, 118], the research
on THz OAM is still underdeveloped due to the huge Applications
multi-connectivity high-resolution
challenges in the generation and detection of THz vor- analysis [148] localization [149]
tex beam. Up to now, neither there is an OAM channel
Resource Allocation Communication
model confirmed by experimental data [25], and nor [146] Reliability Analysis[147]
do a widely accepted OAM channel model exists in Precoding Beamforming
the THz band, to the best of the authors’ knowledge. [71] [72]

THz Sensing Reconfigurable

[23][145] Intelligent Surface[47]

3.9 Experiment and Simulator Channel Capacity Security

[25][27][34][40] [64][131]

In addition to theoretical analysis, the experimental

measurements are essentially important to validate
performance. To approach to this, channel sound-
ing is inevitable, and the common techniques were
briefly introduced in [119]. The authors in [120] mea-
sured the actual path attenuation at 300 GHz in a data
center, which verifies the feasibility of THz transmis-
sion in this scenario. Moreover, a short-range channel
measurement experiment in 275-325 GHz was con-
ducted in [121], and a THz channel measurement for
kiosk applications by using a vector network analyzer
was presented in [122]. Besides, there are also some
more experiments to analyze and validate THz channel
models in [123–128].
Nevertheless, the measuring equipments in the THz
band are generally extremely expensive, and the oper-
ating frequency range is usually below 400 GHz [25].
Additionally, due to high directionality and path loss,
only a few effective samples can be obtained in a sin-
gle measurement [30]. In this context, simulations as
a supplemental understanding, are necessary and are
more interesting before any actual costly and time-
consumable THz measurements, as what researchers
do in the mmWave band [129]. A quintessential ex-
ample is the Cloud-RT [130], which intends to simu-
late, predict and model time-varying multi-input and
multi-output (MIMO) channels in different frequency
bands. In fact, the validity of the Cloud-RT is verified
in an intra-wagon communication system at 300 GHz
by the measurements obtained by the channel sounder
[131]. The Cloud-RT simulator has successfully sup-
ported lots of 5G applications, and the details can be
found at http://cn.raytracer.cloud:9090/. Based
on the RT simulator, a THz vehicle-to-infrastructure
channel in sunny/rainy/snowy weather has also been
investigated [132].
Terahertz Channel Model
Figure 4. Applications of THz channel models.
IV. APPLICATIONS OF THZ CHANNEL
MODELS
In this part, we will briefly introduce the applications
of THz channel models, and the channel capacity and
security are emphatically highlighted as key indicators
with regard to supporting THz communications. Some
typical applications based on THz channel models and
their representative literatures are summarized in Fig-
ure 4.
4.1 Channel Capacity
As we know well, the fundamental metric of channel
performance is channel capacity [31], which can be
obtained based on channel models. Previously, the au-
thors in [41, 133] investigated a THz channel in elec-
tromagnetic nanonetworks. In such a model, the over-
all capacity of a wideband THz channel is the sum of
channel capacities of all sub-bands, which are sliced
from a broadband, but highly frequency-selective THz
channel. On the basis of that, the wideband THz
channel capacity in multipath was straightforward pre-
sented in [28], and the results show that the capacity
of a THz multipath channel can be 4.8 times of that in
a THz LoS channel.
Recently, based on the simplified molecular absorp-
tion fading model in the 275-400 GHz band [27], THz
channel capacities in different transmission conditions
have been examined. For example, when only the LoS
light component is considered, the capacity for a chan-

China Communications · May 2021 41

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nel in 275-400 GHz is given in [46], while the case
counting one LoS component and one reflective com-
ponent is presented in [45]. Furthermore, when tak-
ing the misalignment fading and hardware imperfec-
tions into account, the ergodic capacity and the outage
probability is also estimated with the multipath fading
described by the α − µ distribution [26]. This work
aims at proposing a theoretical analytical framework
for THz communication systems, and it claims that the
descending order of the detrimental effects on channel
capacity is hardware imperfections, misalignment fad-
ing and multipath fading.
In fact, there are occasionally few studies with inten-
sions to reveal the capacity of a THz MIMO channel
based on channel modeling. For instance, the chan-
nel capacity was numerically evaluated based on an
ultra-massive MIMO channel model in [134]. Based
on a THz channel model presented in [135], the au-
thors in [136] calculated the MIMO channel capacity
using graphene-based MIMO antennas.
4.2 Security
Due to the explosive growth of user connections and
wireless services, the security of next generation wire-
less network becomes prominently important. In
viewpoint of the fact that THz technique serves as the
next frontier of the future networks [19], the research
on THz security is thereby exceedingly important and
valuable. It is generally assumed that THz systems
have a unique advantage in confidentiality attributed
to its highly-directional narrow beam and short trans-
mission distance [22]. However, more and more recent
literatures suggest that the THz eavesdropping is pos-
sible [69, 137, 138].
In fact, physical layer security is an effective solu-
tion to improve communication security, and it cap-
tures a great deal of researchers’ attentions. The sys-
tem secrecy capacity is a basic indicator of secure
communications, relying on a channel model as well
[139]. Recently, by taking the multipath components
into consideration and using the channel model in
[41], the authors in [69] gave the eavesdropping prob-
ability and the secrecy rate in a typical urban sce-
nario. In [138], the security of RIS aided THz com-
munications was analyzed and improved by designing
the beamformer and the phase shifters when the S-V
channel model is adopted. Moreover, the security per-
42
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formance of RIS aided THz communications was also
studied in [140] based on the integrated THz channel
model in [141].
As one of key aspects of security, covert communi-
cations are also dependent on the propagation model-
ing. A new distance-adaptive modulation scheme for
covert communications in the THz band was proposed
in [142]. To be more specific, the studies on THz
channel suggest that the THz band can be split into
several transmission windows with several absorption
peaks at resonant frequencies as stated earlier. Based
on it, [142] implemented covert communications with
the aid of the high attenuation at absorption peaks.
4.3 Sensing
A high-frequency THz wave holds high photon en-
ergy and is quasi-optical [59]. Similar to photons,
it generates unique electromagnetic fingerprints when
interacting with other substances, which is interest-
ing for THz sensing application [23]. So far, THz
time-domain spectroscopy has been widely adopted
in many THz sensing applications, such as art con-
servation, pharmaceutical industry and paper industry
[143]. Beyond, the convergence of THz sensing and
THz communications is the trend of future develop-
ment [144]. In order to emulate and analyze a THz
sensing system, the channel modeling in THz sens-
ing is also crucial and necessary. The propagation of
THz waves in sensing was preliminarily discussed in
[145]. Besides, the authors in [23] presented a chan-
nel model in THz gas sensing in the ultra-massive
MIMO arrays-of-subarrays scenarios. Generally, the
frequency of THz wave in sensing applications is high,
but most of current channel models are derived in the
low-frequency THz bands. Therefore, the research on
channel modeling in THz sensing is inadequate yet,
which is certainly worthy of in-depth study in the fu-
ture.
4.4 Other Applications
Except the applications mentioned above, channel
modeling in the THz band has been widely used
in many areas as a basic approach for communica-
tions, such as RIS [47], precoding [71], beamform-
ing [72], resource allocation [146], communication
reliability analysis [147], multi-connectivity analysis
[148], high-resolution localization [149], and so on.
China Communications · May 2021
Thus, THz channel modeling is the cornerstone in sup-
porting of THz research in this sense, and it is crucially
important the development of THz technologies and
their applications.
V. KEY ISSUES IN THE FUTURE THZ
CHANNEL MODELING
In this part, we summarize the lessons of channel mod-
eling learned in the past years, and then discuss some
key issues in the future THz channel modeling in de-
tails based on channel performance evaluation.
As far as the accuracy is concerned, there is still a
room for improving current THz channel models. For
instance, although the THz wave is quasi-optical [59],
errors are inevitable when a Gaussian beam model
is adopted to characterize the misalignment fading in
THz band. In addition, there is considerable reflection
attenuation difference among different reflective mate-
rials for THz signals [22]. Therefore, a THz multipath
model taking reflective materials into consideration is
more rational than current models. Furthermore, quite
a few channel models in the THz band are derived
from theoretical hypothesis, lacking experimental con-
firmations, especially above 400 GHz.
Generally, the stochastic channel modeling in the
THz band is the basic method for complexity re-
duction, while less accuracy is the penalty. Indeed,
stochastic models for misalignment fading, multipath
fading, and hardware imperfections reduce the channel
complexity to a certain extent. Besides, two simplified
models for molecular absorption loss were presented
in [27, 48] to avoid high computational complexity of
a comprehensive model in [41]. However, these sim-
plified models are so far fairly accurate in the 275-400
GHz band and the 100-450 GHz band. Therefore, it
is of great significance to find simplified models for
molecular absorption loss above 450 GHz. Since there
is a trade-off between accuracy and complexity, a prac-
tical THz channel model should meet the best compro-
mise between them.
Up to data, there has not yet been a widely accepted
universal propagation model in the THz band [22].
Most researchers model THz channels in terms of low-
frequency THz bands for a few specific scenarios. In
the future, it is meaningful and challenging to find a
widely accepted universal channel model in THz band,
which can work well in various scenarios and multiple
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frequency bands.
With respects to the THz experimental verifications,
limited by the currently available devices of chan-
nel sounding, most of THz experiments are carried
out at around 300 GHz or below 450GHz [22, 25].
Usually, the deterministic models need measurement
data for verification, and the stochastic models require
measurement data for feature extraction. Since it is
difficult to obtain measurement data above 450GHz,
most of current studies focus on channel modeling
in the low-frequency THz bands. As a consequence,
the knowledge about THz channels is seriously inad-
equate in the high-frequency THz bands. Therefore,
establishing channel sounding in high-frequency THz
bands is one of the fundamental points in the future
THz channel modeling.
VI. CONCLUSION
This paper provided an overview on THz channel
modeling. We mainly presented the models and sum-
marize the recent studies on propagation gain, molec-
ular absorption loss, misalignment fading, multipath
fading, hardware imperfections, as well as the effects
of weather, scattering, and frequency dispersion. In
addition, to further emphasize the significance of mod-
eling THz channels, the applications of THz channel
models were comprehensively reviewed considering
capacity, security, and sensing as key performance in-
dicators. Finally, we discussed some crucial issues
in the future THz channel modeling based on channel
performance evaluation.
By modeling the THz channel in a hybrid manner,
THz channels have been well studied in terms of loss
types and frequency bands, creating some outstand-
ing models for a few specific scenarios. However, to
the best of the our knowledge, there has not yet been
a universal THz channel model. On the other hand,
there is a serious lack of channel sounding at high-
frequency THz bands, since most of THz experiments
are done at around 300 GHz for verifications. Indeed,
the channel modeling at high-frequency THz bands re-
lies on the measurement data in such cases. There-
fore, the main challenge of modeling THz channels
in the near-future is to establish channel sounding at
high-frequency THz bands. Besides, it is challeng-
ing to find a widely accepted standard THz channel
model that can meet the great compromise among ac-
43
curacy, complexity and generality, which is expected
to be highly beneficial for the development of THz
communications.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work is supported by Zhejiang Lab (no.
2020LC0AD01 and no. 2020LC0AA03) and the
National Key Research and Development Program
of China (2020YFB1805700, 2018YFB1801500 &
2018YFB2201700), in part by the National Natural
Science Foundation of China under Grant 61771424
and the Natural Science Foundation of Zhejiang
Province under Grant LZ18F010001.
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Biographies
Shanyun Liu received the B.S., M.S.,
and Ph.D. degrees from the Department
of Electronic Engineering, Tsinghua Uni-
versity, Beijing, China, in 2014, 2016
and 2020, respectively. He is currently
an assistant professor with Research Cen-
ter for Intelligent Network, Zhejiang Lab,
Hangzhou, China. His current research
interests include terahertz communications, integrated terrestrial-
satellite communications, and information theory.
Xianbin Yu (M’09-SM’15) received
his MSc. degree in 2002 from Tianjin
University and his PhD degree in 2005
from Zhejiang University in China. From
2005 to 2007, he was a postdoctoral
researcher in Tsinghua University, China.
Since November 2007, he was employed
at DTU Fotonik of Technical University
of Denmark in Denmark, where he became an assistant professor
in 2009 and was promoted to be senior researcher in 2013. He is
China Communications · May 2021
currently a Research Professor at Zhejiang University, China. He
has co-authored 2 book chapters and 180+ peer-reviewed interna-
tional journal and conference papers in the fields of microwave
photonics and optical fiber communications. He has given 30+
invited international conference presentations and served as a ses-
sion chair/TPC member for a number of international conferences.
His current research interests are in the areas of mm-wave/THz
photonics and its applications, THz communications, ultrafast
photonic RF signal processing and high speed photonic wireless
access technologies.
Rongbin Guo received the B.S. de-
gree in Communication Engineering from
Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu,
China, in 2013, and the Ph.D degree in
communication and information systems
from Zhejiang University, Hangzhou,
China, in 2018. He is currently an as-
sistant professor with Research Center for
Intelligent Network, Zhejiang Lab, Hangzhou, China. His re-
search interests include terahertz communications, algorithm de-
sign for MIMO communication systems, and signal processing for
wireless communications.
China Communications · May 2021
Authorized licensed use limited to: Cornell University Library. Downloaded on June 26,2021 at 17:21:45 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
Yajie Tang received her B.S. degree
from Beihang University, Beijing, China,
in 2017, and the M.S. degree from the
Delft University of Technology, Delft, the
Netherlands, in 2020. She is currently
working at the Research Center for Intelli-
gent Network of Zhejiang Lab, Hangzhou,
China. Her research interests include sig-
nal processing and algorithm design for communications.
Zhifeng Zhao is the director of Scien-
tific Research and Development Depart-
ment of Zhejiang Lab, the deputy director
of Intelligent Network Research Center of
Zhejiang Lab. He received the Ph.D. de-
gree in Communication and Information
System from the PLA University of Sci-
ence and Technology, Nanjing, China. He
serves as a member of the National “Broadband China Strategy”
drafting expert group, a member of the National Next Genera-
tion Radio and Television Network expert group, a member of the
State Radio and Television Administration’s three network inte-
gration expert group, and the chief scientist of Zhejiang “Software
Defined Network Technology and Application Innovation Team”.
He is also the vice president of IEEE VTS Society Nanjing Chap-
ter. His research interests include broadband wireless networks,
software-defined networks, swarm intelligence, mobile edge com-
puting, and next-generation broadcast television networks. He has
published more than 100 papers in journals, and applied for more
than 30 patents.
49