Research Article

Received: 2 July 2020 Revised: 16 December 2020 Accepted article published: 22 December 2020 Published online in Wiley Online Library:

(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI 10.1002/jsfa.11041

Texture, sensory properties and functionality

of extruded snacks from pulses and
pseudocereal proteins
Anna Martin,* Verena Schmidt, Raffael Osen, Jürgen Bez, Eva Ortner and
Stephanie Mittermaier

Abstract
BACKGROUND: The protein-rich fractions of pulses and pseudocereals exhibit a well-balanced amino acid profile, particularly
when combined in different portions, and are therefore high-value ingredients for the production of extruded snacks. However,
the impact of a combination of pulses and pseudocereals on the physical and sensory qualities of extruded snacks has not been
investigated up to now. Native or preconditioned protein isolates and concentrates from pulses – as single ingredients or in
combination with protein-rich flours of pseudocereals – were analyzed regarding their thermal and functional properties in
relation to extrusion characteristics. Low moisture extrusion cooking was used to investigate the impact of protein source (len-
til, lupin, faba bean), pseudocereal source (quinoa, amaranth, buckwheat) and protein content (30%, 50%, 70%) on sectional
expansion, specific hardness, density and sensory properties of the snacks.
RESULTS: With increasing protein content from 30% to 50%, the sectional expansion decreased and the density and specific
hardness of the extrudates increased, which could be counteracted by preconditioning of the protein-rich ingredients. Lupin
protein-based extrudates exhibited satisfactory texture and sensory properties. Extruded mixtures of pulses and pseudocereals
(70% protein) exhibited a smaller sectional expansion compared to pulses as single ingredients (30%, 50%), regardless of pseu-
docereal type. However, the texture and sensory properties of the extruded blends were satisfactory.
CONCLUSIONS: We show for the first time that protein-rich fractions of pulses and pseudocereals can be processed into
expanded snacks with favorable texture and nutritional properties such as increased protein contents (70%) and balanced
amino acid profiles.
© 2020 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of
Chemical Industry.

Supporting information may be found in the online version of this article.

Keywords: protein-rich ingredients; snack products; expansion; extrusion; grain legumes

INTRODUCTION ingredients with beneficial functional and sensory properties

Low moisture extrusion cooking has been used since the middle
of the last century to produce savory snacks.1 These products are
usually based on starch-rich ingredients (e.g. corn grits) and are
considered unhealthy, because they often exhibit a high energy
density, sugar and lipid content.2 A number of studies have
focused on the nutritional improvement of starch-based
(i.e. maize or rice starch) products in the last few years by adding
plant-based proteins to the blends.3 In order to enhance the
nutritional value of extruded snack products by protein fortifica-
tion, a wide range of proteins can be applied. Up to now, soy,
wheat gluten and whey protein have been the dominant protein
ingredients used in extruded snacks. However, an increasing
consumer awareness regarding GMO, allergenicity and avoid-
ance of animal protein limits their application, which in turn
increases the demand for the discovery of new protein
for such applications.
Promising protein sources for application in gluten-free vegeta-
ble extruded products are pulses (lentil, lupin, faba bean) and
pseudocereals (quinoa, amaranth, buckwheat). Mixtures of pulse
and pseudocereal proteins contain a complete and well-balanced
amino acid profile that fulfills the physiological requirements of
humans.4
* Correspondence to: A Martin, Department Food Process Development, Fraun-
hofer Institute for Process Engineering and Packaging IVV, Giggenhauser
Straße 35, D-85356 Freising, Germany. E-mail: anna.martin@ivv.fraunhofer.de
Department Food Process Development, Fraunhofer Institute for Process Engi-
neering and Packaging IVV, Freising, Germany
1

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 www.soci.org
Pulses like lentil, lupin or faba bean contain high amounts of
protein (20–40% in dry matter) and are rich in lysine, but deficient
in the sulfur-containing amino acids methionine and cysteine and
can be processed into protein isolates or concentrates by wet or
dry fractionation techniques.5–7 Lentils can be sustainably culti-
vated, are highly available and do not contain allergens and
anti-nutritional factors5; with lupins a very high protein yield com-
parable to soy can be achieved7; and the production of faba bean
protein causes a far lower environmental impact than the produc-
tion of cow milk protein.6
Quinoa, amaranth and buckwheat exhibit a similar nutritional
composition to rice and maize8 and lately they have been success-
fully cultivated on trial in Europe,9 although their origins are in South
America (Peru, Bolivia) and Central Asia.10 Limiting amino acids in
pseudocereals are isoleucine and leucine, whereas higher contents
of methionine are present compared to grain legumes.4 Therefore,
we assume that the combination of pulse and pseudocereal ingredi-
ents can contribute to a well-balanced amino acid profile of extruded
products, whereas the effects of the incorporation of both pulse and
pseudocereal ingredients on texture and sensory properties of
extruded snacks have not been systematically investigated up to
now. However, it is well known that lower starch contents or the
alteration of the starch sources impairs the texture of extruded snack
products by reducing the expansion properties due to interactions
with the swelling starches.11–13 Additionally, different legume
sources have different effects on extrusion properties in combina-
tion with corn starch. However, up to now, inclusion levels of up to
30% of legume flours have been investigated, while investigations
of higher inclusion levels are scarce.14
The aim of the work presented here was therefore to investigate
the use of protein isolates and concentrates from pulses (lentil,
lupin, faba bean) and pseudocereal flours (quinoa amaranth, buck-
wheat) in low moisture extrusion cooking for preparing expanded
snacks with protein levels of 30–70%. Chemical, functional and ther-
mal properties of the raw materials were analyzed and related to the
expansion and processing characteristics during extrusion cooking.
The effects of protein enrichment, while reducing starch contents,
on expansion, piece density, texture and flavor, as well as on the
extrusion process were investigated by varying the amount of pro-
tein isolates and concentrates from different pulses in combination
with gluten-free wheat starch. In addition, the impact of the addi-
tion of quinoa, amaranth and buckwheat flours to a pulse–starch
matrix was investigated regarding texture and sensory properties.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Preparation and characterization of protein ingredients
Ingredients
Protein isolates/concentrates of four different pulse species (faba bean,
lentil, blue lupin and white lupin) and flours of three different pseudo-
cereals (quinoa, amaranth and buckwheat) were used in this study.
Blue lupin (Lupinus angustifolius cv. Boregine) and white lupin (Lupinus
albus cv. Butan) protein isolates were produced by aqueous extraction
and isoelectric precipitation by Prolupin GmbH (Grimmen, Germany),
lentil (Lens culinaris cv. Itaca) protein isolate was produced by aqueous
extraction and ultrafiltration, whereas faba bean (Vicia faba cv. Imposa)
concentrate was produced by dry fractionation by Hosokawa Alpine
(Augsburg, Germany).5–7 Pseudocereal flours were produced by dry
fractionation according to Alonso-Miravalles and O'Mahony.40
The starches used were wheat starch (Kröner Stärke, Ibbenbü-
ren, Germany) with a dry matter of 87.7%, maize starch
(Ferdinand Kreutzer Sabamühle GmbH, Nürnberg) with 87.0%
2
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A Martin et al.
dry matter and pea starch (Emsland Group, Emlichheim,
Germany) with 87.4% dry matter.
Analysis of composition and functional properties
The raw materials were analyzed regarding dry matter as laid
down in the German Food Act.41 The protein content was deter-
mined using the Dumas method41 using a TruMac N protein ana-
lyzer (Leco Corporation, St Joseph, MI, USA). The lipid content was
analyzed with the method of Caviezel, DGF K-I 2c (00).15 The
starch content was analyzed photometrically after enzymatic
breakdown of starch into glucose in accordance with the hexoki-
nase method.16 All analyses were carried out at least in duplicate.
To investigate the effects of protein enrichment on the extru-
sion process and the physical properties of the extrudates, protein
isolates and concentrates were added to a wheat starch matrix to
obtain protein contents of 30% and 50%, respectively (Table 1) To
improve texture and expansion, a second experimental series was
carried out with the addition of 2.0% oil (vita-Rapsöl, P. Brändle
GmbH, Empfingen) and 0.5% NaCl (Alpen Salz, Bad Reichenhaller,
Heilbronn) to the mixtures. Additionally, in a third experimental
series 75% blue lupin and white lupin were mixed with 9.5%
starch and with 15% amaranth, buckwheat or quinoa and 0.5%
NaCl aiming at a protein content of 70% in the mix (Table 1).
Particle size distribution
A laser diffraction particle size analyzer (Mastersizer S Long Bed
Version 2.15, Malvern Instruments Ltd, Malvern, UK) was used to
analyze the particle sizes of the protein powders as described
elsewhere.18 Analyses were carried out in duplicate.
Thermal properties
Denaturation temperature (Td) and enthalpy of denaturation (ΔH)
of untreated and of preconditioned (120 °C) protein isolates from
pulses (described below) were analyzed using differential scanning
calorimetry (DSC). Samples (15–20 mg) of protein slurry (15% flour
w.b.) were weighed into aluminium pans (Tzero Hermetic pans and
lids, TA Instruments) and sealed hermetically. An air-filled pan was
used as reference. The pans were heated from 40 to 120 °C at a rate
of 2 K min−1 using a DSC instrument (DSC Q2000, TA Instruments,
USA). Each sample was reheated to verify that there was no revers-
ibility of denaturation. Analyses were carried out in triplicate.
Functional properties
Protein solubility
Protein solubility of the protein-rich ingredients was determined
according to the procedure used by Morr et al.42 and the determi-
nation of NSI values according to the official AACC method (1990)
after mixing the protein with 0.1 mol L–1 NaCl at pH 7.0.17 Samples
were analyzed in duplicate.
Water-binding capacity
The water-binding capacity (WBC) of the protein ingredients was
determined according to the AACC method (1982) as described
by Osen et al.18 Analysis was carried out in duplicate.
Emulsifying capacity
The emulsifying capacity (EC) was determined by continuous
addition of oil to an oil-in-water emulsion to the point of phase
inversion of the emulsion as described by Muranyi et al.43 Phase
inversion was detected by an abrupt collapse of the electrical con-
ductivity. The volume of oil needed for phase inversion was used
to calculate the EC (milliliters of oil per gram of protein product).
J Sci Food Agric 2021
Texture, sensory properties and functionality of extruded snacks www.soci.org

Table 1. Chemical composition of pulse–starch mixtures (wheat starch + protein isolate/concentrate) and pulse–pseudocereal–starch mixtures
(maize starch + blue lupin/white lupin + pseudocereals + NaCl); the chemical composition of the protein–starch mixtures was calculated based on
raw material dry matter

Mixture Dry matter (%) Protein (%) Starch (%) Lipid (%)

Blue lupin 30 91.4 30.0 66.6 0.9

Blue lupin 50 92.0 50.0 44.3 1.5
White lupin 30 92.8 30.0 66.6 0.8
White lupin 50 94.3 50.0 44.3 1.3
Lentil 30 91.9 30.0 68.0 1.4
Lentil 50 92.8 50.0 46.6 2.3
Faba bean 30 91.3 30.0 57.6 2.1
Faba bean 50 91.9 50.0 29.4 3.4
Mixtures
Blue lupin 30a 91.7 30.0 67.0 2.8
Blue lupin 50a 92.2 50.0 46.7 3.4
White lupin 30a 93.0 30.0 64.1 2.8
White lupin 50a 94.5 50.0 41.8 3.3
Lentil 30a 92.2 30.0 65.5 3.4
Lentil 50a 93.1 50.0 44.1 4.3
Faba bean 30a 91.6 30.0 55.1 4.1
Faba bean 50a 92.1 50.0 26.9 5.4
Mixtures
White lupin + amarantha 94.8 70.0 19.3 2.7
White lupin + buckwheata 94.7 70.0 19.7 2.5
White lupin + quinoaa 94.9 70.0 19.0 2.7
Blue lupin + amarantha 92.0 70.0 19.3 3.0
Blue lupin + buckwheata 91.8 70.0 19.7 2.8
Blue lupin + quinoaa 92.0 70.0 19.0 3.3
a
With additives (2% oil, 0.5% NaCl).

Pasting properties
The viscosity of the raw materials and mixtures was analyzed with a
rapid visco analyzer (RVA 4500, Perten Instruments GmbH, Hamburg,
Germany) in relation to the temperature in accordance with method
76-21.01 (AACC International, 1997). The samples were diluted with
deionized water in a ratio of 20:80, stirred with a speed of 960 rpm
in the first 20 s of the measurement and afterwards kept at 160 rpm.
The samples were heated to 95 °C, held isothermally for 3 min,
cooled to 50 °C and held isothermally for 1 min. Duplicate measure-
ments were performed for each sample.
Low moisture extrusion cooking
Preconditioning of mixtures
Prior to extrusion, the mixtures were moistened to a humidity of 15%
in a Thermomix (Thermomix TM31, Vorwerk & Co. KG, Germany) for
5 min at power stage 5. Additionally, preconditioning of the protein
isolates/concentrates was performed in a convection oven (Rational
SelfCookingCenter XS, Rational GmbH, Germany) for 30 min at 80 °C
and for 10 min at 120 °C, respectively. For the second experimental
series, the preconditioned protein–starch–oil–salt mixtures were
mixed in a Thermomix for 5 min at power stage 5.
Extrusion of high-protein snacks
Extrusion was performed using a laboratory co-rotating twin-screw
extruder (Haake Rheocord, Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc., UK). Both
extruder screws had a length of 40 cm, a diameter of 1.6 cm and a
length-to-diameter ratio of 25:1. Screw configuration, feeder, water
pump and heating zones were designed according to Osen et al.18
and a constant screw speed of 300 rpm was used. Products were
extruded through a 3.5 mm circular die. The moisture content was
kept constant at 33% (d.m.). A temperature profile from zone 1 to
zone 5 of 40, 60, 80, 130 and 140 °C was applied. The fourth temper-
ature zone was varied to 140 or 160 °C, further referred to as barrel
temperature. After extrusion, the samples were dried in a drying oven
(Thermo Scientific Heraeus UT 6760, Thermo Electron LED GmbH, Lan-
genselbold) at 65 °C to a dry mass of 95 ± 1%. The dry matter of the
extrudates was measured after drying with an infrared moisture ana-
lyzer (MA 40, Sartorius AG, Göttingen, DE). The samples were stored in
sealed vacuum plastic bags.
The effects of the interacting material, machine and process
parameters on the energy input into the product can be described
by the specific mechanical energy input (SME). The SME (Wh kg−1)
was calculated using Eqn (1) considering screw speed n (s−1), motor
torque T (N m) and mass flow rate (MFR; kg h−1):
2π×n×T
SME = ð1Þ
MFR
Analysis of extrudates
Expansion index
The sectional expansion index (SEI) of the extrudates was calcu-
lated according to Alvarez-Martinez et al.44 and describes the area
expansion in the radial direction. SEI was calculated from the ratio
of extrudate diameter dE and die diameter dD using Eqn (2):
3

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Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.
 www.soci.org A Martin et al.

 2 of the attributes was evaluated using on-way analysis of variance

dE
SEI = ð2Þ (ANOVA) (P value of 0.05) followed by Duncan tests (P ≤ 0.05).
dD

The diameter of ten pellets was measured with a digital caliper RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
(Holex, Hoffmann GmbH, Munich).
Characterization of protein ingredients
Chemical composition
Piece density The chemical composition of the pulse and pseudocereal ingredi-
The density of the extrudates was determined according to ents is summarized in Table 2. Protein isolates from lupins and len-
Eqn (3) by determining the displaced volume of cornmeal as til exhibited high protein contents of >90%, whereas the protein
described by Brümmer45: content of the dry fractionated faba bean concentrate was signif-
icantly lower at 67%. The pseudocereal flours had a far lower pro-

msample tein content of approximately 15% and exhibited a high starch
ρ g cm−3 = ð3Þ
V sample+corn −V corn content of >63%. The lipid content of lentil protein isolate and
faba bean concentrate was similar to the lipid content of buck-
where msample is the sample mass, Vsample+corn is the volume of wheat flour, whereas lupin isolates exhibited the lowest and ama-
sample and cornmeal and Vcorn is the volume of cornmeal ranth and quinoa flour the highest lipid content throughout all
replaced by the sample: samples.

Product texture properties
Texture properties of the extrudates were evaluated using a TA.XT
Plus texture analyzer (Stable Micro System, UK) equipped with a
50 kg load cell and a 25 mm diameter specimen according to
Tyapkova et al.46 The extrudates were placed horizontally under
the test probe and compressed to fracture. The specific hardness
of the samples was calculated using Eqn (4), where the maximum
force Fmax is divided by the lateral surface area of the pellets. The
length (Le) and the diameter (de) of five extrudates were deter-
mined with a digital caliper:

endothermic peak between 80 and 95 °C. Lentil had the lowest Td
F max
Hspec N mm−2 =
d e ×Le ×π
Sensory analysis
A group of 10–15 trained panelists (aged 22–54 years) from Fraun-
hofer IVV participated in the sensory analyses.
Approximately 3 g (±0.1 g) of each sample was placed in a 140 mL
glass vessel. The aroma profile analysis was performed in three
phases according to ISO 13299:2016. In the first session, the panelists
individually identified the distinctive retronasal aroma, taste and tex-
ture attributes. Those attributes detected by >50% of the panelists
were selected for intensity rating on a visual analogue scale, ranging
from 0 to 100 (0 = not present; 100 = maximum intensity). References
were presented in the form of sniffing sticks. Additionally, the overall
aroma intensity was rated. Both data collection and statistical analysis
were performed using RedJade® Sensory software. The significance
Thermal properties
The denaturing behavior of proteins can be characterized by the
enthalpy of denaturation (ΔH) and the denaturation temperature
(Td). Values of ΔH and Td of the untreated pulse protein materials
and the samples preheated at 120 °C are presented in Table 3.
Values of ΔH of the untreated samples ranged from 0.37 ± 0.01
to 0.71 ± 0.02 J g−1 and decreased in the order from lentil to faba
bean, white lupin and blue lupin. Among the four preheated sam-
ples, only faba bean and lentil exhibited an endothermic peak
(ΔH = 0.28 ± 0.04 and 0.43 ± 0.00 J g−1).
The protein isolates/concentrates from pulses exhibited a small
ð4Þ of 81.56 ± 0.11 °C and blue lupin the highest at 96.15 ± 0.14 °C.
The endothermic peaks obtained for the untreated protein iso-
lates/concentrates from pulses may represent the thermal transi-
tion of the partly native protein fraction. Absence of any peaks in
the thermograms of preheated blue and white lupin protein iso-
lates may indicate denaturation of the respective protein frac-
tions. However, the smaller peaks in the thermograms of the
preheated faba bean and lentil protein isolate/concentrate indi-
cate that proteins were only partially denatured, which might be
attributed either to the higher proportion of undenatured protein
in the untreated faba bean and lentil ingredients, or to the pres-
ence of protein fractions with higher thermal stability compared
to lupin proteins.
Functional properties and particle sizes
Functional properties and particle sizes of the ingredients play a
large role in extrusion cooking as they influence the extruder

Table 2. Chemical composition of protein isolates/concentrates from pulses (protein conversion factors: blue lupin and white lupin N × 5.7; lentil
and faba bean N × 6.25) and pseudocereal flours (protein conversion factors: amaranth and quinoa N × 5.85; buckwheat N × 6.25)

Raw material Dry matter (%) Protein (%] Starch (%) Lipid (%)

Blue lupin protein isolate 93.4 ± 0.8 89.8 ± 0.9 n.a. 2.7 ± 0.1
White lupin protein isolate 97.2 ± 0.3 89.7 ± 0.8 n.a. 2.3 ± 0.1
Lentil protein isolate 94.8 ± 0.2 93.4 ± 0.9 0.2 ± 0.0 4.3 ± 0.2
Faba bean concentrate 92.3 ± 0.4 67.3 ± 0.7 5.0 ± 0.1 4.6 ± 0.1
Amaranth flour 90.6 ± 0.3 15.3 ± 0.5 65.3 ± 1.2 6.7 ± 0.2
Buckwheat flour 89.5 ± 0.3 15.5 ± 0.3 67.9 ± 1.1 4.9 ± 0.2
Quinoa flour 90.8 ± 0.2 15.7 ± 0.4 63.1 ± 1.0 6.7 ± 0.2
4

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Texture, sensory properties and functionality of extruded snacks www.soci.org

response and textural properties of the extrudates.18 Protein solu-

state (preheating: 30 min at 80 °C and 10 min at 120 °C). Mean values with different superscript letters indicate significant differences (P > 0.05) based on a one-way ANOVA. Where appropriate, the mean
Table 3. Protein solubility, EC, WBC, particle size (D(0.5)), denaturation enthalpy (ΔH) and denaturation temperature (Td) of protein ingredients from pulses and pseudocereal flours in native or preheated

79.46 ± 0.34b
87.02 ± 0.68a
bility, EC, WBC and particle sizes are presented in Table 3.

Preheated
The protein solubility ranged from 60.4% to 76.1% for all raw

n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
—
—
materials except for amaranth and lentil with only 38.8% and
45.9%, respectively. The pulses had an EC of 505 to 530 mL g−1,
except for white lupin that had an EC of 245 mL g−1. Pseudocer-
Td (°C) eals had an EC of 155 to 185 mL g−1, which is strongly related to
the presence of non-protein constituents, especially a higher fiber

86.31 ± 0.33b

85.54 ± 0.51b
96.15 ± 0.14a

81.56 ± 0.11c
and starch content. Lentil and buckwheat had the highest WBC
Native

compared to the other pulses and pseudocereals (2.5 and

n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
4.2 g g−1).
The protein solubility depends on the intact secondary and ter-
tiary structure and the pH value. Furthermore, different protein
solubilities of the protein samples may result from different pro-
cessing conditions during protein extraction18 and different pro-
0.32 ± 0.01b
0.43 ± 0.00a

tein fractions present in the raw materials. In most cereals the

Preheated

alcohol-soluble prolamins represent the major storage proteins,

n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
—
—

whereas the main storage proteins in pulses and pseudocereals

are salt-soluble globulins and hydrophilic albumins.
ΔH (J g−1)

In general, pulses have a very high protein solubility and EC.7

The lower EC for white lupin may be attributed to the manufactur-
ing process as the EC is known to be influenced by partial denatur-
0.48 ± 0.01b

0.60 ± 0.08d
0.37 ± 0.01a

0.71 ± 0.02c

ation or hydrolysis.19,20
Native

n.a.
n.a.
n.a.

The WBC depends on the number of polar sites interacting with

water.18 The different WBCs may also be explained by the differ-
ent particle sizes of the raw materials as well as increased starch
contents and presence of dietary fibers, particularly in the pseu-
docereal flours.21 The average particle size of buckwheat was
the lowest, followed by amaranth and quinoa. The different parti-
98.5 ± 4.3b
204.0 ± 9.0a

210.8 ± 6.6a
D(0.5) (μm)

8.0 ± 0.2

cle size distribution of the raw materials can be traced back to dif-
Native
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.

ferent manufacturing processes, i.e. the milling and sieving to

different particle sizes for the pseudocereal flours (e.g. <710 μm
for quinoa and to >180 to <710 μm for buckwheat) as described
previously.22 The particle size distribution of pulses was not
analyzed.
WBC (g g−1)

2.5 ± 0.2b

4.2 ± 0.2b
1.4 ± 0.2a

1.6 ± 0.1a

1.6 ± 0.2a
1.1 ± 0.1c
Native

Pasting properties
n.a.

The pasting properties of pseudocereal flours and protein isolates

and concentrates from pulses in combination with wheat starch
(30% and 50% protein content) were determined using rapid
visco analysis. With rapid visco analysis, thermal and mechanical
stress is applied to the samples and indications can be identified
EC (mL g−1)

245 ± 15b

155 ± 10b
530 ± 10a

530 ± 10a
165 ± 15a
505 ± 15c

185 ± 10c

regarding the impact of temperature and shear on the pasting

Native
values were compared using Tukey's honest significance test

properties of the material. The pasting properties of protein iso-

lates/concentrates from pulses and pseudocereal flours are pre-
sented in Table 4.
Overall, the viscosities of pulses were lower than those of pseu-
docereals. The peak viscosity was highest for lentil, followed by
white lupin, faba bean and blue lupin. The low peak viscosity of
Protein solubility (%)

blue lupin can be attributed to poor gelling properties, which

65.1 ± 2.7b

76.1 ± 3.1d

60.4 ± 2.3b
71.1 ± 3.3a

38.8 ± 1.6a
45.9 ± 2.0c

67.8 ± 3.3c

were previously reported.47

Native

At 95 °C, buckwheat reached a significantly higher peak viscos-

ity of 7588 mPa s than the other pseudocereals. According to
Yoshimoto et al.,48 buckwheat starch consists mainly of long-
chain amylopectin, which exhibits an increased swelling and gel-
ling tendency and affects the gelatinization properties of the
n.a., not analyzed.

starch, increasing the viscosity. This effect has also been reported
in other studies.4,23,24 Furthermore, the small particle size of the
White lupin

Buckwheat
Faba bean
Blue lupin

Amaranth

buckwheat granules might have contributed favorably to the

Sample

Quinoa

WBC due to an increased surface, wherefore the viscosity of buck-

Lentil

wheat flour increased to a larger extent than that of quinoa and

amaranth flour, as also seen in previous studies.21
5

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An increase of viscosity in the pasting profiles of blue/white

Table 4. Rapid visco analysis of protein ingredients from pulses
lupin and lentil protein–starch mixtures can be attributed to pro-
(20% w/w), pseudocereal flours (20% w/w) and pulse–wheat starch
mixtures with protein content of 30% and 50% (20% w/w) tein unfolding, denaturation and aggregation, since these ingre-
dients contain >90% of proteins and their Td was lower than the
Peak Peak Final Pasting treatment temperature (95 °C) (as discussed above). Faba bean
viscosity time viscosity temp protein concentrate had a protein content of 67.3%, wherefore
Sample (mPa s) (s) (mPa s) (°C) the viscosity increase due to protein aggregation is lower com-
pared to the lupin and lentil ingredients.
Wheat starch 6234 604 6645 67
Faba bean 514 448 20 78
Impact of pulse source and preconditioning on extrudate
Lentil 1381 608 459 80
properties
White lupin 895 464 63 78
The impact of preheating and additive application on SEI and spe-
Blue lupin 103 604 49 65
cific hardness of blue lupin–wheat starch extrudates containing
Amaranth 1613 344 1200 80
30% protein is shown in Fig. 1. The SEI of the untreated samples
Buckwheat 7588 344 3920 80
was 5.81 ± 1.13. The SEI for extrudates increased to 12.41 ± 0.63
Quinoa 2511 344 1831 78
after adding NaCl and lipids and increased to 6.81 ± 0.52 when
Blue lupin 30 4057 520 4016 68
the blue lupin–wheat starch mixture was preheated before extru-
Blue lupin 50 2206 528 2577 67
sion. A combination of preheating and additive application
White lupin 30 4642 528 3874 68
increased the SEI to 11.33 ± 1.22.
White lupin 50 2851 512 2072 68
The specific hardness of the untreated samples was 1.05
Lentil 30 4080 480 3398 65
± 0.08 N mm−2. Addition of NaCl and lipids only slightly reduced
Lentil 50 3275 452 1489 66
the specific hardness of the extrudates (0.65 ± 0.21 N mm−2),
Faba bean 30 2500 520 1994 67
whereas it was effectively reduced to 0.17 ± 0.04 N mm−2 by pre-
Faba bean 50 1510 512 1080 67
heating of the blue lupin–wheat starch mix. With a combination of
preheating and additive application, a reduction in specific hard-
ness by 0.78 N mm−2 was determined compared to the untreated
samples.
The peak viscosities of the samples with 50% protein content The lipid and NaCl additive had a positive effect and increased
ranged from 2851 to 1510 mPa s (Table 4) and were lower than expansion and a reduced hardness of the extrudates. It is known
those of the samples with 30% protein content that ranged from from previous studies that starch–lipid interactions can increase
4668 to 2487 mPa s. Faba bean exhibited the smallest peak vis- expansion and stabilize the extrudate structure by counteracting
cosity among the protein–starch mixtures, regardless of the pro- the collapse of the formed gas.25,26 High expanded products are
tein content. less packed which leads to a reduction of the specific hardness.
Differences in the peak viscosities of the 50% protein mixtures According to Applewhite,49 the addition of NaCl tends to weaken
can be explained by varying starch contents of the mixtures, since the texture strength. On the other hand, the preheating of blue
all samples exhibited the same protein content but differed in lupin–wheat starch mixtures had only a minor influence on the
starch content. As evident from Table 1, the starch content of mix- expansion but a major influence on the specific hardness of the
tures with lupins and lentils was approximately 50% higher than extrudates. The addition of proteins to starch increases the num-
the starch content of mixtures with faba beans. ber of exposed sites for crosslinking and thus may have an effect

(a) (b)

Figure 1. (a) SEI and (b) specific hardness of extruded blue lupin–wheat starch mixtures containing 30% protein. Samples were either untreated, pre-
heated (30 min at 80 °C and 10 min at 120 °C) and/or mixed with additives (2% oil, 0.5% NaCl). Mean values with different superscript letters indicate
significant differences (P > 0.05) based on a one-way ANOVA. Where appropriate, the mean values were compared using Tukey's honest significance test.
6

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Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.
Texture, sensory properties and functionality of extruded snacks
Figure 2. SME of pulse–wheat starch mixtures (50% protein) and pre-
heated pulse–wheat starch mixtures (50% protein) with additives (2.0%
lipid and 0.5% NaCl). Preheating: 30 min at 80 °C and 10 min at 120 °C;
extrusion: barrel temperature = 160 °C, moisture content = 33%. Mean
values with different superscript letters indicate significant differences
(P > 0.05) based on a one-way ANOVA. Where appropriate, the mean
values were compared using Tukey's honest significance test.
on the textural properties. The reduced specific hardness of the
preheated mixtures may indicate that a part of the protein pool
was already denatured which may affect the crosslinking proba-
bilities of the proteins and thus reduce the extrudate stability.
Specific mechanical energy
The SME input is a measure of the severity of extrusion conditions
and is calculated using torque, screw speed and mass flow rate.27
The SME values for preconditioned mixtures of wheat starch and
protein isolates from blue/white lupin, lentil and faba bean with
30 and 50% protein content (untreated or preheating and addi-
tives) are reported in Fig. 2.
The range of SME at 160 °C was between 0.46 ± 0.04and 0.85
± 0.07 kWh kg−1 and decreased with preconditioning except for
faba bean. The SME values of untreated samples decreased in
the order lentil, white lupin, blue lupin and faba bean. Precondi-
tioned extrudates decreased in the order lentil, faba bean, white
lupin and blue lupin. The relatively high SME of lentil can be
explained by the high content of native proteins (Table 3). Forma-
tion of crosslinks in the melt causes an increase in viscosity and a
reduction in chain mobility. As a result, residence time, torque and
pressure in the metering zone increase and may result in protein
degradation and a high SME.27,28 Furthermore, the SME correlates
with the viscosity results discussed above, for which faba bean
exhibited a low viscosity due to heating which might have led
to a relatively low SME during extrusion.
Sectional expansion index
Figure 3 shows the SEI of the extruded pulse–wheat starch mix-
tures with either 30 or 50% protein content. Extrudates with
50% protein content exhibited a smaller SEI compared to samples
with 30% protein content, as shown for pulse–wheat starch mix-
tures with preconditioning (preheating and additives).
SEI in the unconditioned samples was highest for white lupin
and ranged from 1.57 ± 0.17 (faba bean 50) to 6.72 ± 1.62 (white
lupin 30).
J Sci Food Agric 2021 © 2020 The Authors.
Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.
www.soci.org
Figure 3. SEI as a function of protein content for pulse–wheat starch mix-
tures and for pulse–wheat starch mixtures with preheating (30 min at 80 °C
and 10 min at 120 °C) and additives (2.0% lipid and 0.5 %NaCl), marked with
*; extrusion: barrel temperature = 160 °C, moisture content = 33%. Mean
values with different superscript letters indicate significant differences
(P > 0.05) based on a one-way ANOVA. Where appropriate, the mean values
were compared using Tukey's honest significance test. Lines between mea-
surement points are drawn as guides to the eye.
Preheating of the raw materials led to a significant increase in
the expansion of extrudates with blue and white lupin isolates.
The SEI of blue lupin isolates with 30% protein increased from
5.81 ± 1.13 to 11.33 ± 0.29 (Fig. 3).In contrast to white and blue
lupin, preconditioning had no influence on the SEI of lentil- and
faba bean-based extrudates.
Expansion is the consequence of several events including mate-
rial (chemical composition), process and machine parameters.
While starch plays the major role in expansion, other ingredients
(e.g. protein and lipids) act mainly as diluents.29 SEI decreased
for all samples with increasing protein content, as the expansion
is directly proportional to the starch content. All mixtures had
the same protein content (30% or 50%) but differed in starch
and lipid content. The mixtures containing lupin and lentil protein
isolates had a similarly high starch content possibly promoting a
high expansion rate. In contrast, the mixtures with faba bean
exhibited lower starch content, resulting in lower SEI.
Furthermore, the mixtures with lentil and faba bean exhibited a
higher lipid content compared to the lupin mixtures. SEI of these
samples may be reduced due to reduced frictional heat formation
and starch gelation resulting from lubricant effects of lipids.30
Figure 3 illustrates that SEI increases in blue and white lupin-
based samples due to the addition of lipids in the preconditioning
phase. On the other hand, SEI decreased in faba bean- and lentil-
based samples due to lipid addition. This is in accordance with the
literature. While lipids slightly improved expansion at concentra-
tions of less than 3%, lipid contents of more than 5% significantly
reduced the expansion rate in previous studies.31,32 We assume
that in faba bean- and lentil-based samples the lipid content
exceeded the critical level to improve expansion.
Piece density and specific hardness
The extrudate density is influenced by the extrudate expansion at
the die and is crucial for the sensory properties of products. The
piece density for pulses with preconditioning (preheating and
additives) is shown in Fig. 4(a).
7
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 www.soci.org A Martin et al.

(a) (b)

Figure 4. (a) Piece density and (b) specific hardness as a function of protein content for pulse–wheat starch mixtures with preheating (30 min at 80 °C
and 10 min at 120 °C) and additives (2.0% lipid and 0.5 %NaCl); extrusion: barrel temperature = 160 °C, moisture content = 33%. Mean values with dif-
ferent superscript letters indicate significant differences (P > 0.05) based on a one-way ANOVA. Where appropriate, the mean values were compared
using Tukey's honest significance test. Lines between measurement points are drawn as guides to the eye.

The piece density increased with increasing protein content in
all samples and showed an inverse correlation to SEI. We observed
that the air bubble size of samples with high SEI increased,
whereas bubble wall thickness decreased. These observations
are in accordance with previous reports, stating that high protein
extrudates are smaller in diameter and denser compared to sam-
ples with lower protein contents.29,33,34
Specific hardness of pulse–wheat starch mixtures is illustrated in
Fig. 4(b). The specific hardness of the samples with 30% protein
content increased in the order white lupin, blue lupin, faba bean
and lentil. Furthermore, the specific hardness for all samples
increased with increasing protein content. Basically we observed
that the effect of protein source and protein content had similar
effects on the specific hardness and on piece density. Furthermore
the specific hardness was negatively correlated to SEI (Fig. 3) and
can be interpreted as follows. Protein aggregation due to heat
and shear might have led to increased specific hardness of the
extrudates, thus causing an increase in breaking force when the
protein content increased from 30% to 50%. When native proteins
(e.g. lentil and faba bean proteins) unfold and crosslink with other
molecules, such as starch and lipids, the stability and hardness of
the extrudates can be increased, as seen in previous studies.35
Sensory analysis
For sensory analysis, extrudates from preconditioned legume mix-
tures with 30% and 50% protein content were retronasally evaluated
by the trained sensory panel evaluating retronasal aroma, texture
and taste properties. The panel agreed on flour-like, rancid, fishy,
fatty/deep-fried, fatty/cardboard-like, pea-like, popcorn-like as
aroma attributes for all extrudates (Fig. S11, supporting information).
Retronasal aroma impressions were dominated by fatty/card-
board-like and fatty/deep-fried attributes for all extrudates fol-
lowed by flour-like and rancid-like aroma impressions. All these
aroma impressions may stem from autoxidation of fatty acids
and their derivatives, since all legume ingredients contain a small
amount of fat (Table 2) ranging from 2.7% to 6.7% dry matter.36
The lipid content cannot be directly correlated with sensory per-
ception, since other components cause synergistic and suppres-
sive effects on the overall aroma and oxidation-promoting as
8
well as inhibiting substances are present. Volatiles resulting from
fatty oxidation may also cause diverse smell effects such as fatty,
cardboard-like and fishy impressions, depending on their qualita-
tive and quantitative composition.37,38 Significant differences
were found for faba bean 50 with a significantly higher aroma
intensity for the flour-like impression and for blue lupin 30 for
the popcorn-like aroma compared to all other extrudates. More-
over, lentil 30 and lentil 50 were rated with significantly lower
intensities for flour-like, fatty/deep-fried, fatty/cardboard-like
and pea-like. Between the different protein contents differences
were observed only for faba bean and blue lupin. Faba bean
30 showed less flour-like, popcorn-like and pea-like aroma
impression as well as overall intensity compared to a protein con-
tent of 50%. Blue lupin 50 was significantly higher rated rancid
than blue lupin 30 but lower in the popcorn-like attribute.
The protein content also did not affect significantly the taste
attributes sweet, sour, bitter, umami and salty, only the bitter taste
being rated lower for the faba bean extrudate 30, which might be
correlated to the saponin content. Comparing the different
legume–wheat starch mixtures, faba bean and lentil were rated
less sweet than white and blue lupin. Moreover, both lupins were
rated with a higher salty taste impression.
Regarding texture properties, the porosity was higher rated in
blue lupin and faba bean with lower protein content of 30%
compared to 50%. (Bite) firmness and porosity showed the larg-
est variances. The textural properties of extruded snacks play an
important role in terms of quality and consumer acceptability.39
A principal component analysis gave further insight into the dif-
ferences between the legume–wheat starch mixtures (Fig. S2,
supporting information). The main difference for all attributes
was between lentil 50 and lentil 30 compared to all the other
legumes. Blue lupin 30 differed in particular with regard to the
attributes popcorn-like, sweet and porosity compared to faba
bean and lupin. Also faba bean 50 was characteristic for its pea-
like and sour impressions. The remaining textural and taste attri-
butes as well as the overall intensity were quite similar for white
lupins 30/50. For further product development blue and white
lupin were chosen, since they were correlated to the most pleas-
ant sensory attributes.

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Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.
Texture, sensory properties and functionality of extruded snacks
Table 5. SEI, density and specific hardness of preconditioned blue and white lupin protein isolate/pseudocereal flour–maize starch mixtures (70%
protein content); extrusion: barrel temperature = 140 °C, moisture content = 33%); preheating: 30 min at 80 °C and 10 min at 120 °C. Mean values
with different superscript letters indicate significant differences (P > 0.05) based on a one-way ANOVA. Where appropriate, the mean values were
compared using Tukey's honest significance test
Sample SEI
Blue lupin + amaranth 2.31 ± 0.29a
White lupin + amaranth 2.05 ± 0.29b
Blue lupin + buckwheat 2.23 ± 0.15a
White lupin + buckwheat 2.06 ± 0.15b
Blue lupin + quinoa 2.30 ± 0.35a
White lupin + quinoa 1.92 ± 0.17c
Pulses and pseudocereals
Extrudates based on blue and white lupin provided beneficial
results in terms of expansion, texture and sensory properties.
Therefore, the pseudocereals amaranth, buckwheat and quinoa
were mixed with blue and white lupin for further investigations.
In order to aim at a gluten-free product, wheat starch was
replaced by maize starch. The starch type had no impact on the
SEI of extrudates (data not shown). Based on the texture and sen-
sory results (discussed above), extrudates with 70% protein were
produced. Furthermore, due to the high lipid content of the pseu-
docereals, only NaCl and no lipids were added to the
pseudocereal–pulse–maize starch mixtures.
Texture properties
The effect of pseudocereal addition on the SEI, density and spe-
cific hardness of lupin-based extrudates is presented in Table 5.
The SEI of white lupin-based samples was lower than the SEI of
mixtures with blue lupin. Furthermore, no significant difference in
the SEI was observed in correlation to the pseudocereal source.
Overall, pulse–pseudocereal mixtures exhibited a lower SEI com-
pared to blue lupin-based extrudates with 50% protein content
(see above). The decrease in SEI of the pulse–pseudocereal sam-
ples compared to blue lupin samples can be explained by a lower
starch and higher fat content in these samples, as discussed
before.29 We furthermore assume that at an inclusion level of
15%, the effect of pseudocereal type was negligible.
Density values show that mixtures with white lupin were denser
and exhibited a higher specific hardness than mixtures with blue
lupin. Furthermore, there was no significant difference in extru-
date density between pseudocereals. Again, extrudate density
and specific hardness correlated negatively with the SEI.
Sensory analysis
In addition to the attributes given for the extrudates from precon-
ditioned legume mixtures (discussed above), the mixtures were
described as green/grassy, flour-like, savory-like and earthy. For
the latter attributes, no significant differences between the sam-
ples were found (Fig. S3, supporting information).
The overall intensity was significantly higher rated for the mix-
tures containing white lupin in combination with quinoa and
buckwheat. Furthermore, all three mixtures containing blue lupin
were rated less intense fishy, rancid and fatty/cardboard-like com-
pared to the white lupin mixtures. This results correlate with the
sensory analysis of the pure white lupin samples (see above). Only
the cheesy/sweaty impression was evaluated with higher intensi-
ties for the blue lupin mixtures than for the white lupin mixtures.
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Density (g cm−3) Specific hardness (N mm−2)
0.78 ± 0.03a 0.21 ± 0.08a
0.84 ± 0.04b 0.23 ± 0.03a
0.77 ± 0.03a 0.17 ± 0.05b
0.81 ± 0.12b 0.20 ± 0.08a
0.75 ± 0.11a 0.20 ± 0.04a
0.83 ± 0.01b 0.47 ± 0.10c
The roasty/popcorn-like attribute was evaluated with the highest
intensity for the blue lupin/buckwheat mixture.
For sweet, sour and bitter taste impressions, no significant dif-
ference was observed between the different pseudocereal–
legume–maize starch mixtures. Only the salty taste was rated
higher for white lupin/buckwheat, blue lupin/buckwheat and
white lupin/amaranth mixtures. Moreover, no significant differ-
ence was found for surface and stickiness. The porosity, on the
other hand, was lower rated for blue lupin/buckwheat and the
lowest firmness was found for the blue lupine/buckwheat and
blue lupin/amaranth mixtures. The significantly highest firmness
was obtained for white lupin/quinoa mixture. The results
obtained for sensory firmness are well correlated to the specific
hardness of the mixtures (see above). The crunchiness was evalu-
ated significantly higher for all three blue lupin mixtures. Further-
more, the panel was asked about their preference for the different
pseudocereal–legume–maize starch mixtures. Thereby, the blue
lupin/buckwheat mixture was evaluated with the significant high-
est preference, followed by the two other blue lupin mixtures
even before the three mixtures with white lupin.
For principal component analysis, the relevant intensities and
representative sensory attributes were correlated (Fig. S4, sup-
porting information). The first principal component successfully
differentiated between blue lupin and white lupin mixtures. Blue
lupin/buckwheat was essentially positively defined by roasty/
popcorn-like and crunchy sensory attributes, whereas white lupin
mixtures with amaranth and buckwheat were correlated to
umami, cheesy/sweaty, fishy, rancid and fatty/cardboard-like
impressions, which goes along with a higher overall intensity.
The white lupin/quinoa mixture was positively correlated with
the pea-like aroma impression and a porous and elastic texture.
CONCLUSIONS
Protein-rich extrudates from blue lupin, white lupin, lentil protein
isolates and faba bean concentrate were produced using low
moisture extrusion cooking. Thereby, lupin protein isolates from
both varieties were favorable for producing protein-rich snacks
with protein contents of up to 50% in terms of hardness and sen-
sory properties. Furthermore, mixtures of pulse protein isolates/
concentrates, particularly lupin protein isolates, and pseudocereal
flours were used to increase the nutritional value of the protein-
rich extrudates, while reducing the hardness of the snacks even
at protein concentrations of 70%.
Comparative descriptive sensory analyses of legume–wheat
starch mixtures showed significant differences in fatty-smelling
aroma attributes, which are regularly derived from fatty acid
9
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oxidation. The extrudates were additionally rated with weak taste
intensities except faba bean exhibiting a bitter taste. The
pseudocereal–legume–maize starch mixtures exhibited also weak
aroma impressions, although it needs to be mentioned that vari-
ous flavors can be added to the products to enhance acceptabil-
ity. The sensory evaluation of the firmness of all mixtures
corresponded very well with the analytical data of the specific
hardness. For the blue lupin/buckwheat mixture the significantly
highest preference was obtained.
Therefore, the present study shows the high potential of pro-
ducing protein-rich snacks at high protein concentrations up to
70% by low moisture extrusion cooking using pulse protein iso-
lates alone or in combination with pseudocereal flours. The results
obtained herein can be used by the food industry to provide nutri-
tionally improved, sensory attractive, high-protein snacks from
European raw materials. This enables the development of nutri-
tionally enhanced snack products for a wide range of consumers,
without sensory impairment.
In addition, the research reported could form the basis for fur-
ther investigations of targeted preconditioning of pulse and pseu-
docereal ingredients to accommodate for raw material specific
characteristics and optimize their behavior during low moisture
extrusion cooking.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are responsible for the content of this publication.
The authors thank Ms. Sigrid Gruppe, Ms. Elfriede Bischof and
Ms. Evi Muller for the chemical analyses and Mr. Michael Schott
for the particle sizing.
FUNDING
The work for this publication has been undertaken as part of the
PROTEIN2FOOD project. Both the work and APC were funded by
the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation pro-
gram under grant agreement no. 635727.
SUPPORTING INFORMATION
Supporting information may be found in the online version of this
article.
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