CHAPTER 3

ELECTRIC CURRENT AND

DIRECT-CURRENT CIRCUITS

1
 CHAPTER 3 : ELECTRIC CURRENT AND DIRECT-
CURRENT CIRCUITS

3.1 Electrical Conduction

3.2 Ohm’s Law & Resistivity
3.3 Variation of resistance with temperature
3.4 Electromotive force ( emf ) , internal resistance
and potential difference
3.5 Resistors in series and parallel
3.6 Kirchhoff’s Laws
3.7 Electrical energy and power
3.8 Potential Divider
3.9 Potentiometer
2
 Course Cognitive Domain Lecture Tutorial
Framework C1 = Remembering
C2 = Understanding
C3= Application
C4= Analysing
ELECTRIC CURRENT AND DIRECT-CURRENT CIRCUITS
3.1 (a) C2 /
3.1(b) C1 /
3.1(c) C3 /
3.2(a) C1/C3 / /
3.2(b) C1/C3 / /
3.2(c) C2 /

3
3.2(d) C2 /
3.2(e) C3 /
3.3(a) C2 /
3.3(b) C3 /
3.4(a) C2 /
3.4(b) C2 /
3.4(c) C3 /
3.4(d) C3 /
3.5(a) C3 /
3.6(a) C1 /
3.6(b) C3 /
3.7(a) C3 /
3.7(b) C3 /
3.8(a) C2 /
3.8(b) C3 /
3.9(a) C2 /
3.9(b) C3 /
3.9(c) C3 ( LAB ) / 4
 Learning Outcome
Lesson 1
3.1 Electrical conduction
At the end of this chapter, students should be able
to:
a)Describe microscopic model of current.
• Emphasise on the flow of free electrons in a
metal. Include concept of drift velocity.
b)Define electric current dQ
I
dt

c)Use electric current , Q=ne

5
 LESSON 1
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION
Microscopic Model of Current
• In metals, free electrons act as charge
carriers.
• When the electric field is set up in the circuit,
or when a potential difference is applied
across a piece of metals, free electrons drift
towards the end which is at a higher electric
potential.
• It cause all free electron drift along the
conductor.
• As they drift, they collide with the ions in the
lattice and accelerated. 6
• Thus, difference free electron have difference
drift velocity , vd.
• No net transfer of free electron in any
directions.
• The mean / average velocity is 0 ms-1.
• Where, vd = mean velocity of free electron in a
direction opposite to the direction of electric
field, E.
• A flows of current in the direction opposite to
that of the electron drift.
• This motion is analogous to the motion of gas
molecules.

7
Electrons in the volume Al will all pass through the cross
section indicated in a time Δt where l = vdΔt.
If there are n free electrons (each of charge e) per unit
volume V
(n = N/V),
The total charge ΔQ that passes through the area A in
a time Δt is
ΔQ = (no. of charges, n) x (charge particle)
Q = ne 8
Electric Current ( I )
• An electric current is the flow of charge
carriers in a conductor. The charge carriers
may be electrons, positive and negative ions
or holes.
• Electric current, I : the rate of charge flow
through a conductor

• dQ
I
dt

• SI Unit I = A (Ampere) @ C s-1

• Scalar quantity
• Can be measured using an ammeter

9
• Charges flow only when they are ‘pushed‘ or ‘driven’

Current, I

electron
flow _

• The flow of charge ( current ) persists for as long as

there is a potential difference.
• The direction of the current is opposite the direction
of flow of electron.
• Adding a battery cause an electric potential
difference.
battery produce electric field.
• Field cause charge to move around the loop.
• The movement of charge produce current. 10
Example 1
Explain the difference between drift velocity and
velocity of electron which is related to the random
motion in the conductor.
Solution :
drift velocity, vd = average / mean velocity of all
the free electrons in the current carrying conductor
opposite to
the direction of electric field.
velocity of electron = displacement traveled per
unit time of each electron moving at random
motion in the conductor.

11
 Learning Outcome
Lesson 2
18.2 Resistivity and Ohm’s law
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

a)State and use Ohm’s law.

b)Define and use resistivity formulae, RA
ρ
l
c)Sketch V-I graph. ( Experiment 2 : Ohm’s Law )
d)Verify Ohm’s Law (Experiment 2 : Ohm’s Law )
e)Determine effective resistance of resistors in series
and parallel by graphing method. (Experiment 2 :
Ohm’s Law )
12
 Ohm’s Law
State and use Ohm’s law.
- Ohm’s Law state that a potential difference ( V ) is
directly proportional to the current( I ) if its temperature,
T is constant.
V I
- Combine these proportion, we have

V  IR
Where :
R = resistance of a wire or other device (Ω)
V = potential difference across the device (V)
I = the current that flows through it (A) 13
 Sketch V-I graph. ( Experiment 2 : Ohm’s Law )

Ohm’s Law state that a potential difference ( V ) is

directly proportional to the current ( I ) and the
gradient is resistance ( R )

14
 Ohmic Materials
• Obey Ohm’s law

• The gradient of graph is ( 1/resistance )

15
 Non Ohmic Materials
• Do not obey Ohm’s law

• Nonlinear current–potential difference

relationship.
• Such as semiconductor, carbon and
electrolyte. 16
I-V Relationships For Various Devices

17
Verify Ohm’s Law (Experiment 2 : Ohm’s Law )

Can Refer to Experiment 2 ( In Lab )

18
 UPS 2012/2013

Solution:

19
 Define and use resistivity formulae,
•It is found experimentally, that The resistance, R of a
metal wire is directly proportional to it’s length, l and
inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area, A.
l
R
A
-It is a scalar quantity and its unit is ohm meter ( Ωm)
-It is a measure of a material’s ability to oppose the
flow of an electric current.
-It also known as specific resistance.
-Resistivity depends on the type of the material and on
the temperature.
-A good electric conductors have a very low resistivities
and good insulators have very high resistivities.
20
 Relationship between Resistance (R) & Resistivity (ρ)
Consider a uniform conductor of length l & cross sectional area, A

RA

l

where R : resistance
ρ : resistivity of the type of material
L : length of conductor
A : cross sectional area
21
 PSPM 2009/2010
• The dimensions of two copper wires, P and
Q are given in TABLE 1.

• Calculate the ratio of resistance of P to Q.

22
 SOLUTION :
Both wires P and Q are copper wire thus
Apply :

For wire P:

For wire Q:

Ratio RP to RQ :

23
 Learning Outcome
Lesson 3:
3.3 Variation of resistance with temperature
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
a) Explain the effect of temperature on electrical
resistance in metals.

b) Use

R  R 0 1    T  T 0  

24
 VARIATION OF RESISTANCE WITH TEMPERATURE
IN METAL
Since the resistivity of a material depends on the length, l
and the cross-sectional area, A which are affected as
temperature changes, the resistivity also changes as
temperature changes.
Consequently, the electrical resistance in metal must be
influenced by the temperature change.
Briefly, the electrical resistance ( resistivity) in metal always
increases with increasing temperature.
As the temperature increases,
 the ions of the metal (conductor) vibrate with greater
amplitude,
 making that a moving electron will collide with an ion,
 the drift velocity of electrons through the metal become
slower
 hence reduces the current but the resistance in the metal
increases.
25
The temperature coefficient of resistivity ( ) is the
ratio of the change of resistivity in a material due to
a change of temperature of 1C to its resistivity at
0C. 1 
 
Where:
 0 T
    0 : the change in resistivity in the temperature T  T  T0
interval,
The unit for  is degrees celsius-1 [(0C-1)] at
20oC
 l
 
Because resistance is proportional to resistivity ,  R
 A
we can write the formulae of resistance as:

 
R  R 1   T  T 
26
 Example 2
• Explain the effect of temperature on
electrical resistance in metals.
Solution
When temperature increase,
-Kinetic energy of free electron increase.
-Amplitude of metal vibration increase causes
the difficulty for the electron to flow.
-Hence, the resistance increases.

27
 UPS 2012/2013

Solution:

28
 UPS 2012/2013

Solution:

29
 • Figures a, b, c and d show the resistance R against
temperature T graphs for various materials.

R R

R0

T T
Figure a : metal Figure b : semiconductor
R R

Tc T T
30
Figure c : superconductor Figure d : carbon
 Learning Outcome
Lesson 4
Electromotive force ( emf ), internal resistance
and potential difference.
a) Define emf , ε internal resistance, r of a
battery.
b) State factors that influence internal
resistance.
c) Describe the relationship between emf of a
battery and potential difference across the
battery terminals.
d) Use terminal voltage, V = ε-Ir
31
 Electromotive force (emf), potential
difference and internal resistance

Consider a circuit consisting of a battery

(cell) that is connected by wires to an
external resistor R as shown.

32
• A current I flows from the terminal A to the
terminal B.
• For the current to flow continuously from
terminal A to B, a source of electromotive
force (e.m.f.), ε is required such as battery to
maintained the potential difference
between point A and point B.
• Electromotive force (emf),ε is defined as the
energy provided by the source
(battery/cell) to each unit charge that flows
through the external and internal
resistances.

33
• Terminal potential difference (voltage), V is defined
as the work done in bringing a unit (test) charge
from the negative to the positive terminals of the
battery through the external resistance only.
• The unit for both e.m.f. and potential difference are
volt (V).
• When the current I flows naturally from the battery
there is an internal drop in potential difference
(voltage) equal to Ir. Thus the terminal potential
difference (voltage), V is given by
• Ohm’s law is so, the equation
become

34
Internal Resistance (r)

The symbol of emf and

internal resistance in the
electrical circuit.
Definition :
• the resistance of the chemicals inside the battery
(cell) between the poles
• In reality, when a battery is supplying current, its
terminal voltage is less than its e.m.f, ξ
35
 Internal Resistance, r
• Switch is closed now.

• The voltmeter’s reading, VT is smaller now.

• What we measure is the terminal voltage,
VT
• (ξ – VT) is ‘lost’.
• This ‘losing potential’ is used for current
flow through the source itself.
• When no current is drawn from the source

- the terminal voltage is equal the emf

VT   36
 Factors that influence internal resistance

Low resistance, delivers high High resistance, current is

current on demand; battery stays cool. restricted, voltage drops on load;
battery heats up.

Effects of internal battery resistance.

A battery with low internal resistance delivers high current on demand. High
resistance causes the battery to heat up and the voltage to drop. The
equipment cuts off, leaving energy behind.

37
 Example 3
A battery has an emf of 9.0 V and an internal resistance of 6.0 Ω.
Determine
a) the potential difference across its terminals when it is supplying
a current of 0.50 A,
b)the maximum current which the battery could supply.
Solution :
a)Given
By applying the expression for emf, thus
ε  V  Ir
9.0  V  0.50 6.0
V  6.0 V
b) The current is maximum when the total external resistance,
R =0, therefore
ε  I R  r 
9.0  I max 0  6.0
I max  1.5 A 38
 Example 4
• FIGURE shows a battery with ε= 15 V and internal
resistance r = 4 Ω is connected to resistance R = 6
Ω.

(i) What is the reading of the ammeter and

voltmeter in the circuit above?

(ii) Explain why the voltmeter reading is different

from the battery emf.
39
 Solution
• Given ε = 15 V, R = 6 Ω, r = 4 Ω
  VR  Vr
  IR  Ir

I 
Rr
15
I 
64
I  1.5 A( reading of ammeter)

Reading of the voltmeter, VR = IR

• VR = 1.5(6)
• VR = 9 V
40
 Learning Outcome:
Lesson 5
3.5 Resistors in series and parallel
At the end of this chapter, students
should be able to:
a)Derive and determine effective
resistance of resistors in series and
parallel

41
Resistors in Series

42
 Resistors in Series

•The current in resistors are same. I = I1 = I2 = I3

43
 Characteristics of resistors in series
• The same current I flows through each resistor
where
I  I1  I 2  I 3

• Assuming that the connecting wires have no

resistance, the total potential difference, V is given
by

• From the definition of resistance, thus

V1  IR1 ; V2  IR2 ; V3  IR3 ; V  IReff

• Substituting for V1, V2 , V3 and V in the eq gives

IReff  IR1  IR2  IR3
Reff  R1  R2  R3 44
Resistors in Parallel

45
 Characteristics of resistors in parallel
• There same potential difference, V across each
resistor where
V  V1  V2  V3
• The charge is conserved, therefore the total current
I in the circuit is given by
I  I1  I 2  I 3
• From the definition of resistance, thus
V V V V
I1  ; I2  ; I3  ; I
R1 R2 R3 Reff
• Substituting for I1, I2 , I3 and I in the eq. gives
V V V V 1 1 1 1
     
Reff R1 R2 R3 Reff R1 R2 R3
46
 Conclusion
Resistors In Resistors in
Series Parallel
Voltage Vtotal = V1+V2+V3 Vtotal=V1=V2=V3
Current Itotal= I1=I2=I3 Itotal=I1+I2=I3
Resistance Reffective = R1+R2+R3 1 1 1 1
  
Reff R1 R2 R3

47
 Example 5
4 .0  12 

2 .0 

8 .0 V

For the circuit in Figure above, calculate

a) the effective resistance of the circuit,
b) the current passes through the 12  resistor,
c) the potential difference across 4.0  resistor,
The internal resistance of the battery may be ignored.

48
Solution :
a)
R1 R2 R12

R3 R3

V V

The resistors R1 and R2 are in series, thus R12 is

R12  R1  R2 R12  4.0  12
R12  16 
Since R12 and R3 are in parallel, therefore Reff is given by

1 1 1 1 1 1 Reff  1.78 
   
Reff R12 R3 Reff 16 2 49
Solution :
b) Since R12 and R3 are in parallel, thus V12  V3  V  8.0 V

Therefore the current passes through R2 is given by

V12 8.0
I2  I2  I 2  0.50 A
R12 16
c) Since R1 and R2 are in series, thus I1  I 2  0.50 A

Hence the potential difference across R1 is

V1  I1 R1 V1  0.50 4.0
V1  2.0 V

50
Example 6

For the circuit in figure,

calculate
the effective
resistance
between the points A
and B.

51
 1 1 1
 
R123 10 10

52
Since R1234 and R5 are connected in
parallel , therefore the effective
resistance Reff is given by

53
 Learning Outcome:
Lesson 6
3.6Kirchhoff’s Rules
At the end of this chapter, students should
be able to:
a)State and describe Kirchhoff’s Rules.
b)Use Kirchoff’s Rules
*( i )Maximum two closed circuit loops.
*( ii ) Use scientific calculator to solve the
simultaneous equations.

54
Kirchhoff’s 1st Rule : Junction Rule

The sum of the currents entering any junction in a circuit

must equal the sum of the currents leaving that junction.

I in  I out at any junction

Example:
I2
I2 I3 I3
I1 I1

I1 I2  I3 I3 I2  I1
55
 Kirchhoff’s Second Rule (loop or voltage law)
• states in any closed loop, the algebraic sum of
emfs is equal to the algebraic sum of the products
of current and resistance.
OR In any closed loop,

    IR at any closed loop

Sign convention
• For emf, :
direction of loop direction of loop

- +
 ε + -
 ε
56
 • For product of IR:
direction of loop direction of loop

R R
 IR  IR
I I
Problem solving strategy (Kirchhoff’s Laws)
• Choose and labeling the current at each junction in
the circuit given.
• Choose any one junction in the circuit and apply the
Kirchhoff’s first law.
• Choose any two closed loops in the circuit and
designate a direction (clockwise OR anticlockwise) to
travel around the loop in applying the Kirchhoff’s
second law.
• Solving the simultaneous equation to determine the
unknown currents and unknown variables.
57
 PSPM 2006/2007

The internal resistance of all the batteries in

FIGURE 8 are negligible. Calculate the current
I1, I2 and I3 when switch S is
i) open.
ii) closed. 58
 When the switch S is
opened,

Thus the circuit can be sketched as

Apply Kirchhoff’s 2nd law for Loop L:

59
When the switch S is closed,

At point y,
Applying Kirchhoff’s 1st law:

Applying Kirchhoff’s 2nd law:

For Loop L1:

6  5  2 I 2  I 2  3 I1
60
For loop L2:
6  7  3 I1  4 I 3
3I1  4 I 3  13

Insert the equation into scientific calculator,

then I  2.52 A
1

I 2  1.15 A
I 3  1.37 A

61
 PSPM 2010/2011

FIGURE shows a circuit with unknown resistor R and

emf ε . If the currents in the circuit are as shown,
calculate the
(i) current IR.
(ii) value of R.
(iii) Value of ε. 62
 Solution :

 I  I
in out

IR  6  2    IR
IR  8 A    6  3   2  4 
   IR   10 V
16   2  4   8  R 
R 1  63
 Learning Outcome:
Lesson 7
3.7 Electrical Energy and Power
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
a)Use power,
P  IV PI R 2
2
V
and
P
R
( known as power loss )

b)Use electrical energy, W  V It

64
 Power, P
• is defined as the energy liberated per unit time in the
electrical device.
• The electrical power P supplied to the electrical device
is given by

P
W V It
 P  IV
t t
• When the electric current flows through wire or passive
resistor, hence the potential difference across it is
V  IR
then the electrical power can be written as
2
V
P  I R
2 OR P
65 R
The electric energy, W is the amount of energy given up
by a charge Q in passing through an electric device.

W  QV

But Q = It , so : W  VIt (1)

Applying V = IR to above equation gives :

W  I Rt
2

2
V t
W  (2)
R
66
 Example 7

In figure, a battery has an emf of 12 V and an internal

resistance of 1.0 Ω. Determine
a) the rate of energy transferred to electrical energy
in the battery, P  24 W
b) the rate of heat dissipated in the battery, P  4.0 W
c) the amount of heat loss in the 5.0 Ω resistor if the
current flows through it for 20 minutes. H  2.4  10 4 J
67
 Learning Outcome:
Lesson 8
3.8 Potential Divider
At the end of this chapter, students should be
able to:
a)Explain the principle of a potential divider.
b)Apply equation of potential divider,
 R1 
V1   V
 R1  R2  ......Rn 

68
 POTENTIAL DIVIDER
• A potential divider produces an output voltage that
is a fraction of the supply voltage V. This is done by
connecting two resistors in series as shown in figure
below.
V

R1 R2

V1 V2
• Since the current flowing through each resistor is the same, thus
V
I V
Reff I
R1  R 2
69 and R e ff  R 1  R 2
• Therefore, the potential difference (voltage) across
R1 is given by

V1  IR1  R1 
V1   V
 R1  R 2 
-- by using different values of R1 & R2 different
voltage can be obtained from a battery.

 R2 
V 2   V
 R1  R 2 

70
• From Ohm’s law,
 l 
V  IR  I  
 A 
V  l
l1
V1  Vo
l1  l 2
l2
V2  Vo
l1  l 2

71
 Example 8 :

8000 

12 V

4000  Vout

For the circuit in Figure above,

a) calculate the output voltage.
b) If a voltmeter of resistance 4000  is connected
across the output,
determine the reading of the voltmeter. 72
Solution :
a) The output voltage is given by
 4000 
 R2  Vout   12
Vout   V  8000  4000 
 R1  R2  Vout  4.0 V
b) The connection between the voltmeter and 4000  resistor
is
parallel, thus the equivalent resistance is
1 1 1
  Req  2000 
Req 4000 4000
Hence the new output voltage is given by
 2000 
Vout  12
 8000  2000 
Vout  2.4 V
Therefore the reading of the voltmeter is 2.4V 73
 Learning Outcome:
Lesson 9
3.9 Potentiometer
At the end of this chapter, students should
be able to:
a)Explain principles of potentiometer and its
applications.
b)Use related equations for potentiometer,
 1 l1

 2 l2
c)Determine internal resistance, r of a dry
cell by using potentiometer, ( Experiment 3 :
Potentiometer )
74
Potentiometer

-- used to measure an
unknown e.m.f. ξ x by
comparison with a
known e.m.f. ξ s
-- point d is a sliding
contact used to vary
the resistance between
point a & b
-- the sliding contact at d is
adjusted until the G reads
zero
( indicating a balanced
circuit ) I G  0 75
-- under this condition, the current in the
galvanometer is zero & the potential difference
between a & d equal the unknown e.m.f. ξ x

  IR
1 1  (1)
-- Next replaced the ξ x with a standard battery of
known e.m.f. ξ s & the procedure is repeated.
-- if Rs is the resistance between a & d when balance is
achieved :
 s  IR (2)
s

(1)  x IRx Rx
:   x  s
(2)  s IRs Rs
76
-- if the resistor is a wire of resistivity ρ, its resistance can
be varied by using the sliding contact to vary the
length, l indicating how much of the wire is part of
the circuit.

lx

77
Knowing that :
l l
Rx  Rs 
x s
&
A A
Substitute into equation we have above :

lx

 A 
lx
 s
l
x s
x
s
ls
A
where lx : resistor length when unknown ξ x in circuit
ls : resistor length when standard ξ s in circuit.

78
The potentiometer has a better
accuracy than a voltmeter.

 It is because the readings of the

potentiometer are measured from zero to 100
cm.
A large scale gives a more accurate reading.

Potentiometer can be used to

– measure emf of an unknown cell,
– measure the internal resistance of a cell,
– measure current
– measure thermoelectric emf
– calibrate a voltmeter,
– compare resistances
79
 PSPM 2010/2011

FIGURE 6 shows a simple potentiometer. Wire PQ has length 100 cm

and resistance 2.4 Ω. The galvanometer G shows no deflection
when the jockey is at X, a distance 60 cm from P.
(i) By neglecting the internal resistance of the 2.0 V battery,
calculate the emf εB of the battery B.
(ii) The galvanometer and battery B are replaced by a
voltmeter of internal resistance 20 Ω. Calculate the
reading of the voltmeter if the jockey is maintained at its
position, X.

80
 Solution :
The current I flows through the wire
PQ is

When the potentiometer is

balanced, thus

81
(ii) Given R=20 Ω
The resistances PX and XQ are given by

82
Example 9
Cells A and B and centre-zero galvanometer G are connected
to a uniform wire OS using jockeys X and Y as shown in figure
below.
The length of the uniform wire
OS is 1.00 m and its resistance is
12 Ω.When OY is 75.0 cm, the
galvanometer does not show
any deflection when OX= 50.0
cm. If Y touches the end S of
the wire, OX = 62.5 cm when
the galvanometer is balanced.
The emf of the cell B is 1.0 V.
Calculate
a) the potential difference across OY when OY = 75.0 cm,
b) the potential difference across OY when Y touches S and the
galvanometer is balanced, VOY2  1.56 V
c) the internal resistance of the cell A, r  0.65 
d) the emf of cell A. ε A  1.64 V

83
 Conclusion
Circuit with internal resistance Ohms’s law

84
 Conclusion
Potential Divider Direction of current flows

85