LESSON 2

TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION
Topics :

2.1 PRODUCT OF SINES AND COSINES

2.2 POWERS OF
2.2.1 SINES AND COSINES
2.2.2 TANGENTS AND SECANTS
2.2.3 COTANGENTS AND COSECANTS
2.3 RATIONAL FUNCTIONS OF SINES AND COSINES
2.4 TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTIONS
2.5 INTEGRANDS INVOLVING QUADRATIC EXPRESSIONS
2.6 ALGEBRAIC SUBSTITUTIONS
2.7 INTEGRATION BY PARTS
2.4 RATIONAL FRACTIONS
Product of sines and cosines
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒖 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒗 ; 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒖 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒗 ; 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒖 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒗
𝟏
𝟏. 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒖 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒗 𝒅𝒙 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒖 + 𝒗 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒖 − 𝒗 𝒅𝒙
𝟐

𝟏
𝟐. 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒖 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒗 𝒅𝒙 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒖 + 𝒗 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒖 − 𝒗 𝒅𝒙
𝟐

𝟏
3. 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒖 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒗 𝒅𝒙 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒖 − 𝒗 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒖 + 𝒗 𝒅𝒙
𝟐
Example(s):
Evaluate the following :
1. 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟓𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
2. 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟑 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 + 𝟓 𝒅𝒙
3. 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟐𝝅 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 + 𝝅 𝒅𝒙
4. 𝟒 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟖𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟑𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝝅 𝝅
5. 𝟓 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟒𝒙 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒅𝒙
𝟑 𝟔
Solution :
1. 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟓𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
Let : 𝑢 = 5𝑥 ; 𝑣=𝑥
𝟏
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟓𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟓𝒙 − 𝒙 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟓𝒙 + 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝟐
1
= cos 4𝑥 − cos 6𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2
1 1 1 1
= ∙
2 4
cos 4𝑥 . 4 𝑑𝑥 − ∙
2 6
cos 6𝑥 . 6 𝑑𝑥

cos 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = sin 𝑢 + 𝐶
𝟏 𝟏
= 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟒𝒙 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟔𝒙 +𝑪 𝒂𝒏𝒔.
𝟖 𝟏𝟐
2. 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟑 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 + 𝟓 𝒅𝒙
Let : 𝑢 = 4𝑥 − 3 ; 𝑣 =𝑥+5
𝟏
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒖 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒗 𝒅𝒙 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟑 + 𝒙 + 𝟓 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟑 − 𝒙 − 𝟓 𝒅𝒙
𝟐
𝟏
= 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟐 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟖 𝒅𝒙
𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
= 𝟐
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟐 𝒅𝒙 + 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟖 𝒅𝒙
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= ∙ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟐 ∙ 𝟓𝒅𝒙 + 𝟐 ∙ 𝟑 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟖 ∙ 𝟑𝒅𝒙
𝟐 𝟓

𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 = −𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒖 𝒅𝒖
𝟏 𝟏
= − 𝟏𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟐 − 𝟔 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟖 + 𝑪 𝒂𝒏𝒔.
 3. 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟐𝝅 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 + 𝝅 𝒅𝒙
Let : 𝑢 = 3𝑥 − 2𝜋 ; 𝑣 =𝑥+𝜋
𝟏
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟐𝝅 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 + 𝝅 𝒅𝒙 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟐𝝅 + 𝒙 + 𝝅 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟐𝝅 − 𝒙 − 𝝅 𝒅𝒙
𝟐
𝟏
= 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟒𝒙 − 𝝅 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟑𝝅 𝒅𝒙
𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
= 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟒𝒙 − 𝝅 𝒅𝒙 +𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟑𝝅 𝒅𝒙
𝟐
sin  A  B   sin A cos B  cos A sin B 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= ∙ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟒𝒙 − 𝝅 ∙ 𝟒𝒅𝒙 + ∙ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟑𝝅 ∙ 𝟐𝒅
𝟐 𝟒 𝟐 𝟐

𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒖 𝒅𝒖
𝟏 𝟏
= 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟒𝒙 − 𝝅 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟑𝝅 + 𝑪
𝟖 𝟒
𝟏 𝟎 -𝟏 𝟎
𝟏 𝟏
= 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟒𝒙𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟏𝟖𝟎° − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟒𝒙𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟖𝟎° + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒙𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟒𝟓𝟎° − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒙𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟒𝟓𝟎° + 𝑪
𝟖 𝟒
𝟏 𝟏
= 𝟖
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟒𝒙 − 𝟒
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒙 + 𝑪 𝒂𝒏𝒔.
4. 𝟒 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟖𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟑𝒙 𝒅𝒙
Let : 𝑢 = 8𝑥 ; 𝑣 = 3𝑥
𝟏
𝟒 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟖𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟑𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟒 ∙ 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟖𝒙 + 𝟑𝒙 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟖𝒙 − 𝟑𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝟏
=4∙ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟏𝟏𝒙 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟓𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝟐
= 2 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟏𝟏𝒙 𝒅𝒙 + 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟓𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝟏 𝟏
= 𝟐∙ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟏𝟏𝒙 ∙ 𝟏𝟏𝒅𝒙 + 𝟐 ∙ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟓𝒙 ∙ 𝟓𝒅𝒙
𝟏𝟏 𝟓

𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 = −𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒖 𝒅𝒖
𝟐 𝟐
= − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟏𝟏𝒙 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟓𝒙 + 𝑪 𝒂𝒏𝒔.
𝟏𝟏 𝟓
 𝝅 𝝅
5. 𝟓 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟑 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟔 𝒅𝒙
𝜋 𝜋
Let : 𝑢 = 4𝑥 + ; 𝑣 = 2𝑥 −
3 6
𝝅 𝝅 𝟏 𝝅 𝝅 𝝅 𝝅
5 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟑 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟔 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟓 ∙ 𝟐
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟑 − 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟔 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟑 + 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟔 𝒅𝒙
5 𝜋 𝜋
= 2
cos 2𝑥 + 2 − cos 6𝑥 + 6 𝑑𝑥
5 1 𝜋 5 1 𝜋
= ∙ cos 2𝑥 + . 2 𝑑𝑥 − ∙ cos 6𝑥 + . 6 𝑑𝑥
2 2 2 2 6 6

cos 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = sin 𝑢 + 𝐶
𝟓 𝝅 𝟓 𝝅
= 𝟒 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟐 − 𝟏𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟔 + 𝑪 𝟑
𝟏
𝟏 𝟐
𝟎 𝟐
𝟓 𝟓
= 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒙𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟗𝟎° + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒙𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟗𝟎° − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟔𝒙𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟑𝟎° + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟔𝒙𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑𝟎° + 𝑪
𝟒 𝟏𝟐
𝟓 𝟓 𝟑 𝟓
= 𝟒 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟔𝒙 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟔𝒙 +𝑪 𝒂𝒏𝒔.
𝟐𝟒 𝟐𝟒
Powers of sines and cosines
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎 𝒗 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏 𝒗 𝒅𝒙

1. Case I - When 𝒎 is a positive odd integer and 𝒏 is any number

𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎 𝒗 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏 𝒗 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎−𝟏 𝒗 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏 𝒗 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒗 ; Use : 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒗 = 1 - 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒗

2. Case II - When 𝒎 is any number and 𝒏 is a positive odd integer

𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎 𝒗 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏 𝒗 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎 𝒗 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏−𝟏 𝒗 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒗 ; Use : 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒗 = 1 - 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒗

3. Case III - When 𝒎 and 𝒏 are both even integers (either both positive or
one positive and one zero)
𝒎 𝒏
𝟏−𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝒗
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎 𝒗 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏 𝒗 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒗 𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒗 𝟐 ; Use : 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒗 =
𝟐

𝟐 𝟏+𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝒗
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒗 =
𝟐
Example(s):
1. 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟓 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟒 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
2. 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟒 𝟑𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟑 𝟑𝒙 𝒅𝒙
3. 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟒 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝟐
4. 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝟐
5. 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟑𝒙 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝒙 𝒅𝒙
6. 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝟒𝒙 𝒅𝒙
7. 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑 𝟐𝒙 𝒅𝒙

8. 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟕 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟑 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
Solution(s):
1. 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟓 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟒 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝟐 𝟐
Case 1 : = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟒 𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 use: 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥
= 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 1 − 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 6 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 8 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑛=4 𝑛=6 𝑛=8

𝑢 = cos 𝑥 ; 𝑑𝑢 = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

F𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 ∶ 𝑢𝑛 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑢𝑛+1 + 𝐶

𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
= − 𝟓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟓 𝒙 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟕 𝒙 − 𝟗 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟗 𝒙 + 𝑪 Ans.
𝟕
Solution(s):
2. 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟒 𝟑𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟑 𝟑𝒙 𝒅𝒙
Case 2 : = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟒 𝟑𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝟑𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟑𝒙 𝒅𝒙 use: 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 3𝑥 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 3𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 3𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛6 3𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 1
= 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 3𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥 ∙ 3𝑑𝑥 − 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛6 3𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥 ∙ 3 𝑑𝑥
𝑛=4 𝑛=6
𝑢 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 ; 𝑑𝑢 = cos 3𝑥 ∙ 3 𝑑𝑥

F𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 ∶ 𝑢𝑛 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑢𝑛+1 + 𝐶
1 1 1 1
= ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 − ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛7 3𝑥 + 𝐶
5
3 5 3 7
𝟏 𝟏
= 𝟏𝟓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟓 𝟑𝒙 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟕 𝟑𝒙 + 𝑪 Ans.
𝟐𝟏
Solution(s):
3. 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟒 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝟐 𝟏−𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝒗 𝟏+𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝒗
Case 3 : = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 Use : 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒗 = ; 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒗 =
𝟐 𝟐
2
1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥
2 2
1 − 2𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝑥 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥
4 2
1 − 2𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 − 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 2𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥
8
1 1 1 1
= 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
8 8 8 8
1 1 1 1 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥 1
= 𝑑𝑥 − ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 ∙ 2𝑑𝑥 − 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝑥 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
8 8 2 8 2 8
Continuation #3:
1 1 1 1 1
= 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 − 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
8 16 16 16 8
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 − 𝑥− ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥 ∙ 4𝑑𝑥 + ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 ∙ 2𝑑𝑥 − ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 ∙ 2 𝑑𝑥
8 16 16 16 4 8 2 8 2

F𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 ∶ cos 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = sin 𝑢 + 𝐶 ; 𝑢𝑛 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑢𝑛+1 + 𝐶

1 1 1 1 1 1
= 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 − ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 2𝑥 + 𝐶
16 16 64 16 16 3

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝟏𝟔
𝒙 − 𝟔𝟒 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟒𝟖 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑 𝟐𝒙 +C Ans.
Solution(s):
𝟐
4. 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
= sin 𝑥 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛1 2 𝑥 cos 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
= sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1+𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑣
F𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 ∶ sin 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠 u +𝐶 ; 𝑢𝑛 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑢𝑛+1 + 𝐶 ; 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑣 = 2

2 3 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥
= −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 2 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥
3 2
4 3 1 1 1
= −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 + ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 ∙ 2𝑑𝑥
3 2 2 2
𝟒 𝟑 𝟏 𝟏
= −𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐 𝒙+ 𝒙 + 𝟒 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒙 + 𝑪 Ans.
𝟑 𝟐
Solution(s):
𝟐
5. 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟑𝒙 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝒙 𝒅𝒙
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 3𝑥 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 2 sin 3𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑣 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑣 1
F𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 ∶ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑣 = ; 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑣 = ; 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑢 + 𝑣 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑢 −
2 2 2

1−𝑐𝑜𝑠6𝑥 1 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥 + 2 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 + 2𝑥 + sin 3𝑥 − 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥
2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= 𝑑𝑥 − ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠6𝑥 ∙ 6 𝑑𝑥 + sin 5𝑥 ∙ 5𝑑𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 + ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥 ∙ 4𝑑𝑥
2 2 6 5 2 2 4

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
=𝒙− 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟔𝒙 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟓𝒙 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟒𝒙 + 𝑪 ans.
𝟏𝟐 𝟓 𝟖
Solution(s):
6. 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝟒𝒙 𝒅𝒙
1+𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑣
F𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 ∶ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑣 = 2

1+𝑐𝑜𝑠8𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥
2
1 1 1
= 𝑑𝑥 + ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠8𝑥 ∙ 8𝑑𝑥
2 2 8
𝟏 𝟏
= 𝟐
𝒙 + 𝟏𝟔 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟖𝒙 +𝑪 Ans.
Solution(s):
7. 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑 𝟐𝒙 𝒅𝒙

𝑠𝑖𝑛3 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1 1
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 ∙ 2 𝑑𝑥 − − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝑥 −sin 2𝑥 ∙ 2 𝑑𝑥
2 2
1 1 1
= − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 2𝑥 + 𝐶
2 2 3
𝟏 𝟏
= − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒙 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟑 𝟐𝒙 + 𝑪 𝒂𝒏𝒔.
𝟐 𝟔
Solution(s):
8. 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟕 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟑 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 (Either case 1 or case 2)

(case 1)
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 1 − 3𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 + 3𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 6 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 7 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 9 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑛=3 𝑛=5 𝑛=7 𝑛=9
𝑛 𝑢𝑛+1
Formula : 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = +𝐶 ; 𝑢 = cos 𝑥 , 𝑑𝑢 = − sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑛+1
1 1 1 1
=− 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 3 ∙ 6 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 − 3 ∙ 8 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 10 𝑐𝑜𝑠10 𝑥
4 6 8
+𝐶
𝟏 𝟏 𝟑 𝟏
=− 𝟒 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 + 𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 − 𝟖 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 + 𝟏𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟏𝟎 𝒙 + 𝑪
𝟒 𝟔 𝟖
ans.
Another Solution for #8:
8. 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟕 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟑 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 (Either case 1 or case 2)

(case 2)
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛7 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛7 𝑥 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛7 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛9 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑛=7 𝑛=9
𝑛 𝑢𝑛+1
Formula : 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = +𝐶 ; 𝑢 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 , 𝑑𝑢 = cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑛+1

𝟏 𝟏
=
𝟖
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟎 𝒙 + 𝑪
𝟖
𝟏𝟎
ans.
Powers of tangents and secants
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒎 𝒗 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒏 𝒗 𝒅𝒙

1. Case I - When 𝒎 is any number and 𝒏 is a positive even integer greater than 2,
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒎 𝒗 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒏 𝒗 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒎 𝒗 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒏−𝟐 𝒗 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒗
Use : 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒗 = 1 + 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝒗

2. Case II - When 𝒎 is a positive odd integer and 𝒏 is any number,

𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒎 𝒗 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒏 𝒗 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒎−𝟏 𝒗 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒏−𝟏 𝒗 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒗 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒗
Use : 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝒗 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒗 − 1

3. Case III - When 𝒎 is a positive odd (or even) integer and 𝒏 is Zero,
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒎 𝒗 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒎−𝟐 𝒗 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝒗
Use : 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝒗 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒗 − 1
Example(s):
1. 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝟐𝒙 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟒 𝟐𝒙 𝒅𝒙
2. 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒙 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟔 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝟒𝟏
3. 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
4. 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙 + 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒙 𝟐 𝒅𝒙

𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝟑𝒙 𝟒
5. 𝒅𝒙
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝟑𝒙
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟑 𝒙
6. 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙
𝒅𝒙
Solution(s):
1. 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝟐𝒙 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟒 𝟐𝒙 𝒅𝒙
Case 1 : = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 2𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 2𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 2𝑥 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 2𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 2𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛4 2𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑛=2 𝑛=4
𝑛 𝑢𝑛+1
Formula : 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = +𝐶 ; 𝑢 = tan 2𝑥 ; 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 2𝑥 ∙ 2𝑑𝑥
𝑛+1
1 1
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 2𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 2𝑥 ∙ 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛4 2𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 2𝑥 ∙ 2 𝑑𝑥
2 2
1 1 3 2𝑥 1 1
= ∙ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 + 2 ∙ 5 𝑡𝑎𝑛5 2𝑥 +𝐶
2 3
𝟏 𝟑 𝟏 𝟓 𝟐𝒙 + 𝑪
= 𝟔
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏𝟎
𝒕𝒂𝒏 Ans.
Solution(s):
2. 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒙 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟔 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
Case 1 : = 𝑡𝑎𝑛1 2 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 1 2
𝑥 1+ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
2 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛1 2 𝑥 1 + 2𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛4 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛1 2 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛5 2 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛9 2 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑛=1 2 𝑛=5 2 𝑛=9 2
𝑛 𝑢𝑛+1
Formula : 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = +𝐶 ; 𝑢 = tan 𝑥 ; 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 ∙ 𝑑𝑥
𝑛+1

= 23 𝑡𝑎𝑛3 2 𝑥 + 2 ∙ 27 𝑡𝑎𝑛7 2 𝑥 + 11
2
𝑡𝑎𝑛11 2 𝑥 + 𝐶

𝟐 𝟒 𝟐
= 𝟑 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟑 𝟐 𝒙 + 𝟕 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟕 𝟐 𝒙 + 𝟏𝟏 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟏𝟏 𝟐 𝒙 + 𝑪 ans.
2 x x
tan 3  2 tan  x  C
3 2 2

Solution(s):
𝟒𝟏
3. 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
2 1 2 1
Case 1 : = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 1 2 1
= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 − 1 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 2
2 1 2 1 2 1
= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
21 21 1 21
= 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 ∙ 2 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 1 𝑑𝑥
𝟐 𝟑𝟏 𝟏
= 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒙 − 𝟐 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝟐 𝒙 + 𝒙+𝑪 𝒂𝒏𝒔.
𝟑 𝟐
2 tan x  2 sec x  x  C

Solution(s):
𝟐
4. 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙 + 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 + 2𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 2 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= tan 𝑥 + 2 sec 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 1 𝑑𝑥
= tan 𝑥 + 2 sec 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑑𝑥
= 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 + 𝟐 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 − 𝒙 + 𝑪

= 𝟐𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 + 𝟐 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 − 𝒙 +𝑪 𝒂𝒏𝒔.

 cot 3 3x cot 3x
  C
9 3

Solution(s):
𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝟑𝒙 𝟒 𝑠𝑒𝑐 4 3𝑥
5. 𝒅𝒙 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛4 3𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝟑𝒙
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−4 3𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 4 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Case 1 : = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−4 3𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 3𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−4 3𝑥 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 3𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 1
= 3
𝑡𝑎𝑛−4 3𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 3𝑥 ∙ 3𝑑𝑥 +3 𝑡𝑎𝑛−2 3𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 3𝑥 ∙ 3𝑑𝑥
𝑛 = −4 𝑛 = −2
𝑛 𝑢𝑛+1
Formula : 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = +𝐶 ; 𝑢 = tan 3𝑥 ; 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 ∙ 3𝑑𝑥
𝑛+1
1 1 1
= 3
∙ −3 𝑡𝑎𝑛−3 3𝑥 + 3
∙ −1𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 3𝑥 +𝐶
1 1
= − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−3 3𝑥− 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 3𝑥 + 𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑠.
9 3
𝟏 𝟑 𝟏
= − 𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝟑𝒙 − 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝟑𝒙 + 𝑪 𝒂𝒏𝒔.
𝟗 𝟑
Solution(s):
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑 𝒙
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟑 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟑 𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟏 𝟐 𝒙
6. 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒅𝒙 = ∙ 𝒅𝒙
𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙 𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟑 𝒙 𝟏
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙
𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −5 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 2 𝑥
Case 2 : = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −5 2 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −5 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −5 2𝑥 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −5 2 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 2 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑛 = −5 2 𝑛 = −1 2
𝑢𝑛+1
Formula : 𝑢𝑛 𝑑𝑢 = +𝐶 ; 𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 ; 𝑑𝑢 = − sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑛+1
2
=− − 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −3 2 𝑥 + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1 2 𝑥 + 𝐶
2 1 1 2𝑥 + 𝐶
= ∙ + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠
3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 2 𝑥
𝟐 𝟐
= ∙ 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟑 𝟐 𝒙 + 𝟏 𝟐 + 𝑪 ans.
𝟑 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙
Powers of cotangents and cosecants
𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒎 𝒗 𝒄𝒔𝒄𝒏 𝒗 𝒅𝒙

1. Case I - When 𝒎 is any number and 𝒏 is a positive even integer greater than 2,
𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒎 𝒗 𝒄𝒔𝒄𝒏 𝒗 = 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒎 𝒗 𝒄𝒔𝒄𝒏−𝟐 𝒗 𝒄𝒔𝒄𝟐 𝒗
Use : 𝒄𝒔𝒄𝟐 𝒗 = 1 + 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝟐 𝒗

2. Case II - When 𝒎 is a positive odd integer and 𝒏 is any number,

𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒎 𝒗 𝒄𝒔𝒄𝒏 𝒗 = 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒎−𝟏 𝒗 𝒄𝒔𝒄𝒏−𝟏 𝒗 𝒄𝒔𝒄 𝒗 𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝒗
Use : 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝟐 𝒗 = 𝒄𝒔𝒄𝟐 𝒗 − 1

3. Case III - When 𝒎 is a positive odd (or even) integer and 𝒏 is Zero,
𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒎 𝒗 = 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒎−𝟐 𝒗 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝟐 𝒗
Use : 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝟐 𝒗 = 𝒄𝒔𝒄𝟐 𝒗 − 1
Example(s):
1. 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝟒 𝒙 𝒄𝒔𝒄𝟒 𝒙 𝒅𝒙

2. 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝟓 𝟒𝒙 𝒅𝒙

3. 𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝟑𝒙 𝒄𝒔𝒄𝟒 𝟑𝒙 𝒅𝒙

𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟓 𝟐𝒙
4. 𝒅𝒙
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟖 𝟐𝒙

𝒄𝒔𝒄𝟒 𝒙
5. 𝒅𝒙
𝒄𝒐𝒕𝟔 𝒙
Solution(s):
1. 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝟒 𝒙 𝒄𝒔𝒄𝟒 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
Case 1. = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 4 𝑥 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑐𝑜𝑡 4 𝑥 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝑥 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑐𝑜𝑡 4 𝑥 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 6 𝑥 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑛=4 𝑛=6
𝑢𝑛+1
Formula : 𝑢𝑛 𝑑𝑢 = +𝐶 ; 𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 ; 𝑑𝑢 = − 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑛+1
𝟏 𝟏
= −𝟓 𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝒙 𝟓
−𝟕 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝟕 𝒙 + 𝑪 ans.
Solution(s):
2. 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝟓 𝟒𝒙 𝒅𝒙
Case 3 : = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 5 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑐𝑜𝑡 3 4𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑐𝑜𝑡 3 4𝑥 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 4𝑥 − 1 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑐𝑜𝑡 3 4𝑥𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 4𝑥 cot 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑐𝑜𝑡 3 4𝑥𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 4𝑥 − 1 𝑐𝑜𝑡4𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 1 1
=4 𝑐𝑜𝑡 3 4𝑥 ∙ −𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 4𝑥 ∙ 4 𝑑𝑥 − 4 cot 4𝑥 ∙ − 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 4𝑥 ∙ 4 𝑑𝑥 + 4 cot 4𝑥 ∙ 4 𝑑𝑥
𝑛=3 𝑛=2
𝑢𝑛+1
Formula : 𝑢𝑛 𝑑𝑢 = +𝐶 ; 𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 4𝑥 ; 𝑑𝑢 = − 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 4𝑥 ∙ 4 𝑑𝑥 cot 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑢 + 𝐶
𝑛+1
1 1 1 1 1
= 4 ∙ − 4 𝑐𝑜𝑡 4 4𝑥 − 4 ∙ − 2 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 4𝑥 + 4 𝑙𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥 + 𝐶
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= − 𝟏𝟔 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝟒 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟖 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝟐 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟒 𝒍𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟒𝒙 + 𝑪 ans.
Solution(s):
3. 𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝟑𝒙 𝒄𝒔𝒄𝟒 𝟑𝒙 𝒅𝒙
1
Case 1 : = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 3𝑥 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 3𝑥 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
= 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 3𝑥 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 3𝑥 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 5
= 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 3𝑥 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 3𝑥 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 5
𝑛= 𝑛=2
2
𝑢𝑛+1
Formula : 𝑢𝑛 𝑑𝑢 = +𝐶 𝑢 = cot 3𝑥 𝑑𝑢 = −𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 3𝑥 ∙ 3𝑑𝑥
𝑛+1
1 1 1 5
= 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 3𝑥 −𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 3𝑥 ∙ 3 𝑑𝑥) + − 3 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 3𝑥 − 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 3𝑥 ∙ 3 𝑑𝑥)
3
1 2 3 1 2 7
= − 3 ∙ 3 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 3𝑥 − 3 ∙ 7
𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 3𝑥 +𝐶

𝟐 𝟑 𝟐 𝟕
= − 𝟗 𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝟐 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟐𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝟐 𝟑𝒙 + 𝑪 𝒂𝒏𝒔.
Solution(s):
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟓 𝟐𝒙
4. 𝒅𝒙
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟖 𝟐𝒙
Case 2 : = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−8 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛−8 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝑥 2 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛−8 2𝑥 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2𝑥 2 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛−8 2𝑥 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 2𝑥 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛−8 2𝑥 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛−6 2𝑥 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛−4 2𝑥 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝟐 𝑠𝑖𝑛−8 2𝑥 cos 2𝑥 ∙ 2 𝑑𝑥 − 2 ∙ 𝟐 𝑠𝑖𝑛−6 2𝑥 cos 2𝑥 ∙ 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝟐 𝑠𝑖𝑛−4 2𝑥 cos 2𝑥 ∙ 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑛 = −8 𝑛 = −6 𝑛 = −4
𝑢𝑛+1
Formula : 𝑢𝑛 𝑑𝑢 = +𝐶 𝑢 = sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑢 = cos 2𝑥 . 2𝑑𝑥
𝑛+1
1 1 1 1 1
= ∙ − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 + ∙ − 𝑠𝑖𝑛−3 2𝑥 + 𝐶
−7 −5
2 7 5 2 3
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
=− 𝒄𝒔𝒄 𝟐𝒙 + 𝒄𝒔𝒄 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒄𝒔𝒄𝟑 𝟐𝒙 + 𝑪
𝟕 𝟓
𝒂𝒏𝒔.
𝟏𝟒 𝟓 𝟔
Solution(s):
𝒄𝒔𝒄𝟒 𝒙
5. 𝒅𝒙
𝒄𝒐𝒕𝟔 𝒙
Case 1. = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −6 𝑥 𝑐𝑠𝑐 4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −6 𝑥 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −6 𝑥 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝑥 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −6 𝑥 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −4 𝑥 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑛 = −6 𝑛 = −4
𝑢𝑛+1
Formula : 𝑢𝑛 𝑑𝑢 = +𝐶 𝑢 = cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑢 = −𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑛+1

=− 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −6 𝑥 −𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −4 𝑥 −𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥)

1 1
= 5 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −5 𝑥 + 3 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −3 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝟏 𝟏
= 𝟓 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟓 𝒙 + 𝟑 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟑 𝒙 + 𝑪 𝒂𝒏𝒔.
Rational Functions of sines and cosines

To integrate a rational function involving

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ sin 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 cos 𝑥
Use substitutions :
𝒙
z = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝟐
𝟏 − 𝒛𝟐
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 = 𝟏+ 𝒛𝟐
𝟐 𝒛𝟐
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 = 𝟏+ 𝒛𝟐
𝟐𝒅𝒛
𝒅𝒙 = 𝟏+ 𝒛𝟐
Example(s):
𝒅𝒙
1. 𝟏+𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙

𝒅𝒙
2.
𝟒+𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙
𝒅𝒙
3. 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙+𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙+𝟑

4. 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
Solution(s):
𝒅𝒙
1. 𝟏+𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙
2 𝑑𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑥 1+𝑧2 1+𝑧2
= = 1−𝑧2
= 1+𝑧2 +1−𝑧2
1+𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 1+
1+𝑧2 1+𝑧2
2 𝑑𝑧
= = 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑧 + 𝐶
2

𝒙
= tan + 𝑪 ans.
𝟐
Solution(s):
𝒅𝒙
2. 𝟒+𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙
2𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑥 1 1+𝑧2 1+𝑧2 𝑑𝑧
= = 2𝑧2
= 2+2𝑧2 +2𝑧2
=
2 2+sin 𝑥 2 2+ 2+4𝑧 2
1+𝑧2 1+𝑧2

𝑑𝑧 1 1 2 𝑑𝑧
= = ∙
2 1 + 2𝑧 2 2 2 1 + 2𝑧 2

𝑑𝑢 1 𝑢
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎: = arctan +𝐶 𝑎=1 𝑢 = 2𝑧 𝑑𝑢 = 2 𝑑𝑧
𝑎2 + 𝑢2 𝑎 𝑎
1
= ∙ arctan 2 𝑧 + 𝐶
2 2
𝟏 𝒙
= ∙ 𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝟐 𝒕𝒂𝒏 + 𝑪 𝒂𝒏𝒔.
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
Solution(s):
𝒅𝒙
3. 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙+𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙+𝟑
2𝑑𝑧 2𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑥 1+𝑧2 1+𝑧2 2𝑑𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧
= = 2𝑧2 1−𝑧2
= 2𝑧2 +1−𝑧2 +3+3𝑍2
= =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥+𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥+3 + +3 4+4𝑧 2 4 1+𝑧 2
1+𝑧2 1+𝑧2 1+𝑧2
1 𝑑𝑧 1
= 2 1+𝑧 2
= 2 arctan 𝑧 + 𝐶
1 𝑑𝑧 1 𝑥 𝟏 − 𝒛𝟐
= = arctan tan 2 +𝐶 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 = 𝟏+ 𝒛𝟐
2 1+𝑧 2 2

𝟐 𝒛𝟐
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 =
𝟏+ 𝒛𝟐

𝟐𝒅𝒛
𝒅𝒙 = 𝟏+ 𝒛𝟐
Solution(s):
4. 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝑧+1
1 = 𝑙𝑛 +𝐶
= 𝑑𝑥 𝑧−1
cos 𝑥
𝑥
1 2 𝑑𝑧 tan +1
= = 𝑙𝑛 2
𝑥 +𝐶 ans.
𝑡𝑎𝑛2−1
1 − 𝑧2 1 + 𝑧2
1 + 𝑧2
2 𝑑𝑧
=
1 − 𝑧2
1 𝑧+1
= 2 ∙ 𝑙𝑛 +𝐶
2 𝑧−1
Trigonometric Substitutions
1. When the integrand contains 𝒂𝟐 − 𝒖𝟐 ,
use substitution : 𝒖 = 𝒂 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽

2. When the integrand contains 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒖𝟐 ,

use substitution : 𝒖 = 𝒂 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽

3. When the integrand contains 𝒖𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 ,

use substitution : 𝒖 = 𝒂 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝜽

Note : For simplicity, we assume that  is an acute angle , and

𝒗 is a differentiable function of 𝒙 and 𝒂 is any number.
Example(s):
𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
1. 5. 𝟐
𝟒−𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟐 +𝟒

𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
2. 6.
𝒙 𝟗𝒙𝟐 +𝟒 𝒙 𝒙𝟐 −𝟗
𝟑
𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙 𝒙𝟐 −𝟏𝟔 𝟐 𝒅𝒙
3. 𝟑 7.
𝟗−𝒙𝟐 𝟐 𝒙𝟑

𝒅𝒙
𝟗−𝟒𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙 8.
4. 𝟐𝒙−𝟑 𝟓−𝟏𝟐𝒙+𝟒𝒙𝟐
𝒙𝟐
Solution(s):
𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙
1.
𝟒−𝒙𝟐
𝑎2 − 𝑢2 ; u = a 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 2 sin 𝜃 2 2 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 8 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 8 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
a=2 ; 𝑢=𝑥 = 2
= =
4− 2 sin 𝜃 4 1−𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 2 cos 𝜃
x = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑑𝑥 = 2 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑥 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
sin 𝜃 = 2
2 𝟐 =4 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 4 𝑑𝜃
𝑥 𝒙 2
𝜃 = arcsin
2
2
𝟒 − 𝒙𝟐 1
4−𝑥 =2 𝑑𝜃 − 2 ∙ cos 2𝜃 ∙ 2 𝑑𝜃 = 2θ − sin 2𝜃 + 𝐶
cos 𝜃 = 2
2
𝑥 𝑥 4−𝑥 2
= 2 𝜃 − 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 + 𝐶 = 2 arcsin 2 −2 2 2
+𝐶

𝒙 𝒙 𝟒−𝒙𝟐
= 𝟐 𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐 − 𝟐
+𝑪 ans.
Solution(s):
𝒅𝒙
2.
𝒙 𝟗𝒙𝟐 +𝟒
𝑎2 + 𝑢2 ; u = a 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 2
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
3 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
a = 2 ; 𝑢 = 3𝑥 = 2
=
2 2 2 4
3x = 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 ; 𝑥 = 3 tan 𝜃 tan 𝜃 9 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 +4 tan 𝜃 9 9 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 +4
3 3
2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 1 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = =
3 2 2 tan 𝜃 sec 𝜃
3𝑥 tan 𝜃 4 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 + 1
tan 𝜃 = 𝟑𝒙 𝟗𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒 1
2
2 1 sec 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 1 cos 𝜃
sin 𝜃 d𝜃 =
𝜽 = = csc 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
cot 𝜃 = 𝟐 2 tan 𝜃 2
3𝑥 cos 𝜃
2
9𝑥 + 4
csc 𝜃 = 1 1 2 9𝑥 2
+4
3𝑥 = − 𝑙𝑛 cot 𝜃 + csc 𝜃 + 𝐶 = − 𝑙𝑛 + +𝐶
2 2 3𝑥 3𝑥
1 𝟐+ 𝟗𝒙𝟐 +𝟒
= − 2 𝒍𝒏 +𝑪 ans.
𝟑𝒙
Solution(s):
𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙
3. 𝟑
𝟗−𝒙𝟐 𝟐

𝑎2 − 𝑢2 ; u = a 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 3 sin 𝜃 2 3 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 27 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 27 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

= 3 = 3 =
a=3 ; 𝑢=𝑥 9− 3 sin 𝜃 2 2 9 1−𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 27𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃
x = 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
𝑑𝑥 = 3 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 − 1 𝑑𝜃
𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
sin 𝜃 =
3 𝒙
𝟑
𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 − 𝑑𝜃
𝜃 = arcsin
3
𝑥 𝟗 − 𝒙𝟐
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 − 𝜃 + 𝐶
9 − 𝑥2
𝒙 𝒙
= − 𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟑
+C ans.
𝟗−𝒙𝟐
Solution(s):
𝟗−𝟒𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙
4. 𝒙𝟐

𝑎2 − 𝑢2 ; u = a 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 3
3 cos 𝜃 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃 3𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
a = 3 ; 𝑢 = 2𝑥
3 = 2 = =2 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2x = 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ; 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ; 3 3 2𝜃
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛
3 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2
𝑑𝑥 = cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2
2𝑥 𝟐𝒙
𝟑 =2 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝜃 − 1 𝑑𝜃
sin 𝜃 =
3
2𝑥 𝟗 − 𝟒𝒙𝟐
𝜃 = arcsin =2 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 − 2 𝑑𝜃
3
9 − 4𝑥 2
9−𝑥 2 2𝑥
9 − 4𝑥 2 = −2𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝜃 − 2 𝜃 + 𝐶 = −2 − 2𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 +C
= 3 cos θ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝜃 = 2𝑥 3
2𝑥

𝟗−𝒙𝟐 𝟐𝒙
=− − 𝟐𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒔𝒊𝒏 +C ans.
𝒙 𝟑
 1 x x
Arc tan  C
16  
2 8 x 4
2

Solution(s):
𝒅𝒙
5. 𝟐
𝒙𝟐 +𝟒
𝑎2 + 𝑢2 ; u = a 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 2𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
a=2 ; 𝑢=𝑥 = =
4𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 2 16𝑠𝑒𝑐 4 𝜃
x = 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 1 1
𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 8 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃
d𝜃
𝑥 1 1 1+cos 2𝜃
tan 𝜃 =
2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 d𝜃 = 8 d𝜃
𝑥 8 2
𝜃 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 1 1 1
2 𝒙 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒 = 𝑑𝜃 + ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 ∙ 2𝑑𝜃
2 16 16 2
cot 𝜃 = 𝜽
𝑥 𝟐
1 1 1 𝑥 1
𝑥2 + 4 = 16 𝜃 + 32 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 + 𝐶 = 16 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 + 32 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝐶
sec 𝜃 =
2 1 𝑥 1 𝑥 2
𝑥 2 + 4 = 2 sec 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 + +𝐶
16 2 16 𝑥 + 42 2
𝑥 +4
𝑥 2 + 4 = 4𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃
𝟏 𝒙 𝟏 𝒙
= 𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝟐 + 𝟖 𝒙𝟐 +𝟒 +𝑪 ans.
𝟏𝟔
1 x
arc sec  C
3 3

Solution(s):
𝒅𝒙
6.
𝒙 𝒙𝟐 −𝟗
𝑢2 − 𝑎2 ; u = a 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 3 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃
a=3 ; 𝑢=𝑥 =
3𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 3𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
x = 3 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃
𝑑𝑥 = 3𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 1
𝑥 3 = 𝑑𝜃
sec 𝜃 = ; 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 3
3 𝑥
𝑥
𝜃 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑒𝑐
3 𝒙 1
2
𝑥 −9 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟗 = 𝜃+𝐶
tan 𝜃 = 𝜽 3
3 𝟑
𝑥 2 − 9 = 3 tan 𝜃
𝟏 𝒙
= 𝟑
𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝟑 +𝑪 ans.
Solution(s):
𝟑
𝒙𝟐 −𝟏𝟔 𝟐 𝒅𝒙
7. 𝒙𝟑
𝑢2 − 𝑎2 ; u = a 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 3
a=4 ; 𝑢=𝑥 16𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 2 4 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 4𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 3 4 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃
= =
x = 4 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 4𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 3 4𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 3
𝑑𝑥 = 4𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 2 2
64𝑡𝑎𝑛3 𝜃 4 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛4 𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃−1
𝑥 4 = =4 𝑑𝜃 =4 𝑑𝜃 = 4 𝑑𝜃
sec 𝜃 = ; 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 64𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 𝜃 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃
4 𝒙 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 4 𝜃 − 2𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 + 1
=4 𝑑𝜃 = 4 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 − 8 𝑑𝜃 + 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏𝟔 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃
𝟒 𝜽
𝑥 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 1
𝜃 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 4𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 − 8 𝜃 + 4 𝑑𝜃 = 4𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 − 8 𝜃 + 2 𝑑𝜃 + 2 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 ∙ 2𝑑𝜃
4 2 2
𝑥 2 − 16
tan 𝜃 = = 4𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 − 8𝜃 + 2𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 + 𝐶
4
𝑥 2 −16 𝑥 𝑥 2 −16 4
𝑥 2 − 16 = 4 tan 𝜃 = 4𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 − 6𝜃 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝐶 = 4 − 6𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑒𝑐 4 +2 +C
4 𝑥 𝑥
𝑥 2 − 16 = 16𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃
𝑥 2 − 16 𝒙 𝟖 𝒙𝟐 −𝟏𝟔
sin 𝜃 =
𝑥
= 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏𝟔 − 𝟔𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝟑 + 𝒙𝟐 + 𝑪 ans.
1 2x  3
Arc sec C
4 2

Solution(s):
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
8. =
𝟐𝒙−𝟑 𝟓−𝟏𝟐𝒙+𝟒𝒙𝟐 𝟐𝒙−𝟑 𝟐𝒙−𝟑 𝟐 −𝟒

𝑢2 − 𝑎 2 ; u = a 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 1
a = 2 ; 𝑢 = 2𝑥 − 3 = = 𝑑𝜃
2𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 4
2x − 3 = 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃
3 + 2𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 =
𝑥= 𝟏
2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃
= 𝜽+𝑪
𝟒
2𝑥 − 3
sec 𝜃 =
2 𝟏 𝟐𝒙−𝟑
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
2 = 𝟒 𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝟐
+ 𝑪 ans.
2𝑥 − 3 2x - 3

2𝑥 − 3 2 −4

𝟐 𝜽
2𝑥 − 3
𝜃 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑒𝑐
2
2𝑥 − 3 2 − 4
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
2
2𝑥 − 3 2 − 4 = 2 tan 𝜃
Integrands involving quadratic expressions
Consider the integral form
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒇 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 , , 𝒐𝒓
𝒇 𝒙 𝒇 𝒙
Where : 𝑓 𝑥 is a quadratic expression in 𝑥.

The process of completing the square is an important aid in evaluating this type of integral. By
completing the square, the quadratic expression is transformed into the sum (or difference) of two
squares. Then use the formula for inverse trigonometric functions.

Consider the integral form

𝑔 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥
𝑓 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑥
𝑓 𝑥

Where : 𝑔 𝑥 is linear in 𝑥 and 𝑓 𝑥 is quadratic in 𝑥 .

To evaluate this, reduce it to a form which a standard integration formula can be applied.
Example(s):
𝒅𝒙 𝟐𝒙−𝟑 𝒅𝒙
1. 6.
𝒙𝟐 −𝟑𝒙+𝟐 𝟒𝒙𝟐 −𝟏

𝒅𝒙 𝟐𝒙+𝟕 𝒅𝒙
2. 7.
𝟐𝒙𝟐 −𝟐𝒙+𝟏 𝒙𝟐 +𝟐𝒙+𝟓

𝒙−𝟑 𝒅𝒙
3. 𝟑 − 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 dx 8.
𝟒𝒙−𝒙𝟐

𝒅𝒙 𝒙+𝟑 𝒅𝒙
4. 9.
𝒙𝟐 −𝟖𝒙+𝟕 𝟖𝒙−𝒙𝟐

𝟒𝒙+𝟗 𝒅𝒙
5.
𝟑+𝟐𝒙
𝒅𝒙 10. 𝒙𝟐 −𝟒𝒙+𝟐𝟎
𝒙𝟐 +𝟗
Solution(s):
𝒅𝒙 𝑑𝑥
1. = 9 9
𝒙𝟐 −𝟑𝒙+𝟐 𝑥 2 −3𝑥+4)+ 2−4)
𝑑𝑥
= 3 2 1 2
𝑥−2 − 2

𝑑𝑢 1 𝑢−𝑎 3 1
Formula : = 𝑙𝑛 +𝐶 𝑢 = 𝑥 − 2 ; 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 ; 𝑎=2
𝑢2 −𝑎 2 2𝑎 𝑢+𝑎
3 1
1 𝑥− − 𝒙−𝟏
= 1 ∙ 𝑙𝑛 2 2
3 1 + 𝐶 = 𝒍𝒏 𝒙−𝟐
+𝑪 ans.
2 2 𝑥−2+2
Solution(s):
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
2. 𝟐𝒙𝟐 −𝟐𝒙+𝟏
= 𝟏 = 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝟐 𝒙𝟐 −𝒙+ 𝟐 𝒙𝟐 −𝒙+ + −
𝟐 𝟒 𝟐 𝟒
𝟏 𝒅𝒙
= 𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
𝒙− +
𝟐 𝟐
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑢 1 1
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 ∶ = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 + 𝐶 𝑢=𝑥− 𝑎=
𝑢2 + 𝑎2 𝑎 𝑎 2 2
𝟏
𝟏 𝟏 𝒙−𝟐
= ∙ 𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏 +𝑪
𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
𝟐 𝟐

= 𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏 + C ans.
Solution(s):
3. 𝟑 − 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 dx
𝑢 𝑎2 𝑢
= 3 − 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 Formula: 𝑎2 − 𝑢2 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑎2 − 𝑢2 + 2 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎 +𝐶
2

𝑎=2
= 3 + 1 − 1 − 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑢 = 1+𝑥 = 𝑥+1
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
2
𝑥+1 2 𝑥+1
= 4 − 1 + 2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 2 2− 𝑥+1 2+ 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 +𝐶
2 2 2

𝑥+1 2
𝑥+1
= 4 − 1+𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 3 − 2𝑥 − 𝑥 + 2 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 +𝐶
2 2

= 2 2 − 1+𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

𝑢 𝑎2 𝑢
Formula: 𝑎2 − 𝑢2 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑎2 − 𝑢2 + 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 +𝐶
2 2 𝑎
Solution(s):
𝒅𝒙
4.
𝒙𝟐 −𝟖𝒙+𝟕
𝑑𝑥 1 1
= 𝑑𝑥 −
𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 7 = 6 + 6 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−7 𝑥−1 𝑥−7 𝑥−1

𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥
= = −
𝑥−7 𝑥−1 6 𝑥−7 6 𝑥−1

𝑑𝑥 𝐴 𝐵 1 1
= + 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 − 7 − 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 − 1 + 𝐶
𝑥−7 𝑥−1 𝑥−7 𝑥−1 6 6

1 𝐴 𝐵 1
= + = 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 − 7 − 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 − 1 + 𝐶
𝑥−7 𝑥−1 𝑥−7 𝑥−1 6
1 𝑥−7
1= 𝑥−1 𝐴+ 𝑥−7 𝐵 = 𝑙𝑛 +𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑠.
6 𝑥−1
1
𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 1 ∶ 1 = −6𝐵 , 𝐵=−
6
1
𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 7 ∶ 1 = 6𝐴 , 𝐴=
6
Solution(s):
𝟑+𝟐𝒙
5. 𝒙𝟐 +𝟗
𝒅𝒙

3 + 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝐴 2𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 + 9 𝑥2 + 9

3 + 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 3 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥 +
𝑥2 + 9 𝑥2 + 9 𝑥2 + 9

3 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥 +
𝑥2 + 9 𝑥2 + 9
𝑥
= 3 arctan + ln 𝑥 2 + 9 + 𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑠.
3
 Solution(s):
𝟐𝒙−𝟑 𝒅𝒙
6. 𝟒𝒙𝟐 −𝟏

2𝑥 − 3 𝑑𝑥 2𝑥 3 1 2
3 1 2𝑥 − 1
= − 𝑑𝑥 = ln 4𝑥 − 1 − ∙ ln +𝐶
4𝑥 2 − 1 4𝑥 2 − 1 4𝑥 2 − 1 4 2 2 2𝑥 + 1

1 8𝑥 1 2 1 2
3 1 2𝑥 − 1
=2∙ 𝑑𝑥 − 3 ∙ 𝑑𝑥 = ln 4𝑥 − 1 − ∙ ln +𝐶
8 4𝑥 2 − 1 2 4𝑥 2 − 1 4 2 2 2𝑥 + 1

Formula : 1 3 2𝑥 − 1
2
= 𝑙𝑛 4𝑥 − 1 − 𝑙𝑛 +𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑠.
𝑑𝑢 𝑢
= 𝑙𝑛 +𝐶 ; 𝑢 = 4𝑥 2 − 1 ; 𝑑𝑢 = 8𝑥 𝑑𝑥 4 4 2𝑥 + 1
𝑢 𝑎
𝑑𝑢 1 𝑢−𝑎
= 𝑙𝑛 + 𝐶 ; 𝑢 = 2𝑥 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑑𝑥 𝑎=1
𝑢2 −𝑎2 2𝑎 𝑢+𝑎
Solution(s):
𝟐𝒙+𝟕 𝒅𝒙
7. 𝒙𝟐 +𝟐𝒙+𝟓

2𝑥 + 7 𝑑𝑥 2𝑥 + 7 𝑑𝑢 1 𝑢
= 𝑑𝑥 = arctan +𝐶
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 5 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 + 5 − 1 𝑢2 + 𝑎2 𝑎 𝑎

2𝑥 + 2 + 7 − 2 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑎=2
= 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 + 4

2𝑥 + 2 + 5 2
5 𝑥+1
= 𝑑𝑥 = ln 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 5 + 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 +𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑠.
𝑥+1 2+ 2 2 2 2

2𝑥 + 2 5
= 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 5 𝑥+1 2 + 2 2

Formula :
𝑑𝑢 𝑢
= 𝑙𝑛 + 𝐶
𝑢 𝑎

u = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 5 ; 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑥 + 2 𝑑𝑥
Solution(s):
𝒙−𝟑 𝒅𝒙
8.
𝟒𝒙−𝒙𝟐
𝑥 − 3 𝑑𝑥 𝑥−3 𝑢𝑑𝑢
: 𝑢 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑢 =2−𝑥 𝑎=2
= 𝑑𝑥 𝑎2 −𝑢2
4𝑥 − 𝑥 2 4 − 4 + 4𝑥 − 𝑥 2 2 − 𝑥 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑥 = 2 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑥−3 2 𝑑𝑥 = −2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃
= 𝑑𝑥 𝜃 2−𝑥
4 − 4 − 4𝑥 + 𝑥2 4− 2−𝑥 2

𝑥−3 2 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 −2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃 2−𝑥

= 𝑑𝑥 = − 3 arcsin +𝐶
2 2 2 cos 𝜃 2
2 − 2−𝑥
𝑥 1 2−𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥 − 3 𝑑𝑥 = −2 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 − 3 arcsin +𝐶
2 2 2 2
2 − 2−𝑥 2 − 2−𝑥 2

Formula: 2−𝑥
𝑑𝑢 𝑢 =2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 1 𝑑𝜃 − 3 arcsin +𝐶
2
= arcsin + 𝐶
2
𝑎 −𝑢 2 𝑎 2−𝑥
= −2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 2𝜃 − 3 arcsin +𝐶
𝑢 =2−𝑥 𝑑𝑢 = −𝑑𝑥 𝑎 = 2 2
Solution(s):
Continuation …..

2−𝑥
= −2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 2𝜃 − 3 arcsin +𝐶
2
4− 2−𝑥 2
cos 𝜃 =
2
2−𝑥
𝜃 = arcsin 2
4− 2−𝑥 2 2−𝑥 2−𝑥
= −2 + 2arcsin − 3 arcsin +𝐶
2 2 2
2
2−𝑥
= − 4 − 2 − 𝑥 − arcsin +𝐶
2
2−𝑥
= − 4𝑥 − 𝑥2 − arcsin +𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑠.
2
 x4
 8 x  x 2  7 Arc sin C

Solution(s):
4

𝒙+𝟑 𝒅𝒙
9.
𝟖𝒙−𝒙𝟐
𝑢𝑑𝑢
𝑥 + 3 𝑑𝑥 𝑥+3 : 𝑢 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑢 =4−𝑥 𝑎=4
= 𝑑𝑥 𝑎2 −𝑢2
8𝑥 − 𝑥 2 16 − 16 + 8𝑥 − 𝑥 2 4 − 𝑥 = 4𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑥 = 4 − 4𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑥+3 4 𝑑𝑥 = −4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃
= 𝑑𝑥 4−𝑥 4−𝑥
16 − 16 − 8𝑥 + 𝑥2 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
16 − 4 − 𝑥 2 4
𝑥+3 4 − 4𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 −4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃 4−𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥 = + 3 arcsin +𝐶
2 2 4 cos 𝜃 4
4 − 4−𝑥
𝑥 1 4−𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥 + 3 𝑑𝑥 = −4 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 + 3 arcsin +𝐶
2 2 2 2
4 − 4−𝑥 4 − 4−𝑥 4

Formula: 4−𝑥
𝑑𝑢 𝑢 =4 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 1 𝑑𝜃 + 3 arcsin +𝐶
4
= arcsin + 𝐶
𝑎2 − 𝑢2 𝑎 4−𝑥
= −4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 4𝜃 + 3 arcsin +𝐶
𝑢 = 4−𝑥 𝑑𝑢 = −𝑑𝑥 𝑎 = 4 4
Solution(s):
Continuation …..

4−𝑥
= −4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 4𝜃 + 3 arcsin +𝐶
4
16− 4−𝑥 2
cos 𝜃 = 4
4−𝑥
𝜃 = arcsin 4
16 − 4 − 𝑥 2 4−𝑥 4−𝑥
= −4 − 4arcsin + 3 arcsin +𝐶
4 4 4
2
4−𝑥
= − 16 − 4 − 𝑥 − arcsin +𝐶
4
4−𝑥
= − 8𝑥 − 𝑥2 − arcsin +𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑠.
4
 17 x2
2 ln x 2  4 x  10  Arc tan C
4 4

Solution(s):
𝟒𝒙+𝟗 𝒅𝒙
10. 𝒙𝟐 −𝟒𝒙+𝟐𝟎
4𝑥 + 9 𝑑𝑥 4𝑥 + 9 𝑢𝑑𝑢
: 𝑢 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑢 =4−𝑥 𝑎=4
= 𝑑𝑥 𝑢2 +𝑎2
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 20 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 + 20 − 4 4 − 𝑥 = 4𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑥 = 4 − 4𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
4𝑥 + 9 𝑑𝑥 = −4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃
= 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 + 16

4𝑥 + 9 4 − 4𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 −4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃 4−𝑥

= = + 3 arcsin +𝐶
𝑥−2 2+ 4 2 𝑑𝑥 4 cos 𝜃 4

4𝑥 9
=
𝑥−2 2 + 4 2 𝑑𝑥 +3 2 2 𝑑𝑥
4−𝑥
𝑥−2 + 4 = −4 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 + 3 arcsin +𝐶
4

Formula: 4−𝑥
𝑑𝑢 1 𝑢 =4 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 1 𝑑𝜃 + 3 arcsin +𝐶
4
= arctan + 𝐶
𝑢2 + 𝑎2 𝑎 𝑎 4−𝑥
= −4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 4𝜃 + 3 arcsin +𝐶
𝑢 = 𝑥−2 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑎=4 4
Algebraic Substitutions
Type 1– When the integrand contains fractional powers of 𝒙 only ,
Use substitution : 𝒛 = 𝒏 𝒙 𝒐𝒓 𝒛𝒏 = 𝒙

where 𝒏 is the least common denominator of the fractional exponents of 𝒙.

Type 2 – If the integrand contains fractional powers of 𝒂 + 𝒃𝒙 only

𝒏
Use substitution : 𝒛 = 𝒂 + 𝒃𝒙 𝒐𝒓 𝒛𝒏 = 𝒂 + 𝒃𝒙

where 𝒏 is the least common denominator of the fractional exponents of 𝒂 + 𝒃𝒙.

Type 3– If the integrand contains the expression 𝒙𝒎 𝒂 + 𝒃𝒙𝒏 𝒑 𝒒

𝒎+𝟏
where 𝒎, 𝒏, 𝒑, 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒒 are integers (𝒏, 𝒒 > 𝟎) and if = integer
𝒏
𝒒
Use substitution : 𝒛= 𝒂 + 𝒃𝒙 𝒐𝒓 𝒛𝒒 = 𝒂 + 𝒃𝒙
Type 4 – If the integrand contains the expression 𝒙𝒎 𝒂 + 𝒃𝒙𝒏 𝒑 𝒒

𝒎+𝟏 𝒑
where 𝒎, 𝒏, 𝒑, 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒒 are integers (𝒏, 𝒒 > 𝟎) and if + =
𝒏 𝒒
integer
Use substitution : 𝒙𝒏 𝒛𝒒 = 𝒂 + 𝒃𝒙𝒏

Type 5 - Reciprocal Substitution: Some integrals with irrational integrand may be

evaluated by
𝟏
Letting 𝒙 = 𝒛

Type 6 – If the integrand contains the expression 𝒂 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒙𝟐

Use substitution : 𝒂 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒙𝟐 = 𝒛 − 𝒙 𝟐

Type 7– If the integrand contains the expression 𝒂+𝒙 𝒃−𝒙

Use substitution : 𝒂 + 𝒙 𝒃 − 𝒙 = 𝒂 + 𝒙 𝟐 𝒛𝟐
Example(s): Evaluate the following
𝒅𝒙
1. 𝟐 7. 𝒙𝟓 𝟒 + 𝒙𝟑 𝒅𝒙
𝒙−𝒙 𝟑
𝟑 𝟐
𝒙𝟏 𝟑 −𝒙𝟏 𝟒 𝒅𝒙 8. 𝒙𝟑 𝟒 +𝒙 𝟐 𝒅𝒙
2.
𝟒𝒙𝟏 𝟐 𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒙 9.
3. 𝒙𝟒 𝟏+𝒙𝟐
𝒙+𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 − 𝒙+𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
𝒅𝒙
10. 𝟑 𝟒
4. 𝟒 + 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒙𝟐 𝟖𝟏+𝒙𝟒

𝟑 𝟏 𝟑
5. 𝒙 𝒙+𝟒 𝟏 𝟑 𝒅𝒙 𝒙−𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝟏
11. 𝒙𝟒
𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒙 = 𝒛
𝟒− 𝟐𝒙+𝟏 𝒅𝒙
6. 𝟏−𝟐𝒙
6  x  x 2  3  x  z 2
2

𝒅𝒙
12. 𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏 = 𝒛 − 𝒙𝟐
𝒙 𝒙𝟐 +𝟐𝒙−𝟏
𝒅𝒙
13. 𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝟔 − 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 = 𝟑 + 𝒙 𝟐 𝒛𝟐
𝟔−𝒙−𝒙𝟐
Solution:
𝒅𝒙
1. 𝟐
𝒙−𝒙 𝟑
3
𝑥= 𝑥3 = 3 𝑥 3𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 3𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧
= 2 = =3
2 𝑧3 − 𝑧2 𝑧2 𝑧 − 1
𝑥 3= 3 𝑥 2 𝑧3 − 3
𝑧 3

𝑛=3 𝑑𝑧
=3
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑧 = 3 𝑥 𝑧−1
𝑥 = 𝑧3
𝑑𝑥 = 3𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = 3 ln 𝑧 − 1 + 𝐶

𝑑𝑢 = 3 ln 3
𝑥−1 +𝐶 𝐴𝑛𝑠
= ln 𝑢 + 𝐶
𝑢
𝑢 = 𝑧−1
d𝑢 = 𝑑𝑧
 𝒙𝟏 𝟑 −𝒙𝟏 𝟒 𝒅𝒙
2.
𝟒𝒙𝟏 𝟐
1 4 1 1
12 4 12 3 12 4
𝑥3 = 𝑥 12 = 𝑥 𝑧 − 𝑧 12𝑧 11 𝑑𝑧 𝑧 4 − 𝑧 3 𝑧 11 𝑑𝑧
1 3 = 1 =3 =3 𝑧 4 − 𝑧 3 𝑧 5 𝑑𝑧
𝑥4 = 𝑥 12 = 12
𝑥 3
12 𝑧6
1 6
4 𝑧 2
12 6
𝑥2 = 𝑥 12 = 𝑥
=3 𝑧 9 𝑑𝑧 − 3 𝑧 8 𝑑𝑧
𝑛 = 12
1
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑥 = 12
𝑥 12 𝑧10 𝑧9
𝑥 = 𝑧 12 =3 −3 +𝐶
10 9
𝑑𝑥 = 12𝑧 11 𝑑𝑧 3 1 10 1 1 9
= 𝑥 12 − 𝑥 12 +𝐶
10 3
𝑑𝑢 3 5 1 3
= ln 𝑢 + 𝐶 = 𝑥6 − 𝑥4 + 𝐶
𝑢 10 3
5 3
𝑢 = 𝑧−1 9𝑥 6 − 10𝑥 4
d𝑢 = 𝑑𝑧 = +𝐶
30
1 1 1
𝑥2 9𝑥 3 − 10𝑥 4
= +𝐶 𝐴𝑛𝑠
30
 𝒅𝒙
3. 𝒙+𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 − 𝒙+𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
3 4 3 4𝑧 3 𝑑𝑧 𝑧 3 𝑑𝑧 𝑧 3 𝑑𝑧
𝑥+2 4 = 𝑥+2 = =4 =4
1 2 3 1 𝑧3 − 𝑧2 𝑧2 𝑧 − 1
2 4 4
𝑥+2 2 = 𝑥+2 4 =
4
𝑥+2 𝑧 4 − 𝑧 2
1
=4 1+ 𝑑𝑧
𝑛=4 𝑧−1
4
1
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 2 = 𝑥 + 2 4 𝑑𝑧
=4 𝑑𝑧 + 4
𝑥 + 2 = 𝑧4 𝑧−1
𝑥 = 𝑧4 − 2 = 4𝑧 + 4 ln 𝑧 − 1 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥 = 4𝑧 3 𝑑𝑧
1 1
𝑑𝑢 =4 𝑥+2 4 + 4 ln 𝑥 + 2 4 −1 +𝐶 𝐴𝑛𝑠
= ln 𝑢 + 𝐶
𝑢
𝑢 = 𝑧−1
d𝑢 = 𝑑𝑧
4. 𝟒 + 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
1
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑥 = 𝑥 2
= 4 + 𝑧 2𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 2 4 + 𝑧 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 2 𝑢 𝑢2 − 4 2𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑥 = 𝑧2
𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑧 𝑑𝑧
=4 𝑢4 𝑑𝑢 − 16 𝑢2 𝑑𝑢
1
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 4 + 𝑧 = 4 + 𝑧 2
𝑢5 𝑢3
𝑢2 = 4 + 𝑧 =4 − 16 +𝐶
5 3
𝑢2 − 4 = 𝑧
4 5 16 3
2𝑢𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑧 = 4+𝑧 − 4+𝑧 +𝐶
5 3
5 3
12 4 + 𝑧 − 80 4 + 𝑧
= +𝐶
15
3
4 4 + 𝑧 3 4 + 𝑧 − 20
= +𝐶
15
3 3
4 4 + 𝑧 12 + 3𝑧 − 20 4 4 + 𝑧 3𝑧 − 8
= +𝐶 = +𝐶
15 15
3 3
4 4+ 𝑥 3 𝑥−8 4 4+ 𝑥 2 3 𝑥−8
= + 𝐶 == +𝐶 𝐴𝑛𝑠
15 15
5. 𝒙 𝒙+𝟒 𝟏 𝟑 𝒅𝒙
𝐴𝑆2:
1 1 = 𝑧 3 − 4 ∙ 𝑧 ∙ 3𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = 3 𝑧 6 − 4𝑧 3 𝑑𝑧
𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 = 𝑥 + 4
𝑛 3
𝑎 = 4, 𝑏 = 1, 𝑛 = 3
=3 𝑧 6 𝑑𝑧 − 12 𝑧 3 𝑑𝑧
𝑛
1
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 = 𝑥 + 4 3
𝑧7 𝑧4
𝑧3 = 𝑥 + 4 =3 − 12 +𝐶
7 4
𝑥 = 𝑧3 − 4
3 1 7 1 4
𝑑𝑥 = 3𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑥+4 3 −3 𝑥+4 3 +𝐶
7
7 4
3 𝑥+4 3 − 21 𝑥 + 4 3
= +𝐶
7
4
3 𝑥+4 3 𝑥+4 −7
= +𝐶
7
4
3 𝑥+4 3 𝑥−3
= +𝐶
7
3 4
= 𝑥+4 3 𝑥−3 +𝐶 𝐴𝑛𝑠
7
 𝟒− 𝟐𝒙+𝟏 𝒅𝒙
6. 𝟏−𝟐𝒙
𝐴𝑆2: 4 − 𝑧 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 4 − 𝑧 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 4𝑧 − 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 4𝑧 − 2
1 1 = = = = 1+ 𝑑𝑧
𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 1
𝑛 2 𝑧2 − 1 1 − 𝑧2 + 1 2 − 𝑧2 2 − 𝑧2
1−2 2
𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 2, 𝑛 = 2
𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧
= 𝑑𝑧 + 4 − 2
𝑛
1 2 − 𝑧2 2 − 𝑧2
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 1 2
𝑧 2 = 2𝑥 + 1 4 −2𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧
= 𝑑𝑧 + −2
2𝑥 = 𝑧 2 − 1 −2 2 − 𝑧2 2
2
− 𝑧2
𝑧 2 −1
𝑥= 1 2+𝑧
2
1 = 𝑧 − 2𝑙𝑛 2 − 𝑧 2 − 2 ∙ ln +𝐶
𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∙ 2𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 2 2 2−𝑧
1
1 1 2 1 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 2
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 2 − 𝑧 2 = 2𝑥 + 1 2 − 2𝑙𝑛 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 2 − ln 1 +𝐶
𝑑𝑢 = −2𝑧 𝑑𝑧 2 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 2
𝑑𝑢 1
= 𝑙𝑛 𝑢 + 𝐶 1 1 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 2
𝑢 = 2𝑥 + 1 2 − 2𝑙𝑛 2 − 2𝑥 − 1 − ln 1 +𝐶
2 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 2
𝑑𝑢 1 𝑎+𝑢
= 𝑙𝑛 +𝐶 1 2 + 2𝑥 + 1
𝑎2 − 𝑢2 2𝑎 𝑎−𝑢 = 2𝑥 + 1 − 2𝑙𝑛 1 − 2𝑥 − ln +𝐶 𝐴𝑛𝑠
2 2 − 2𝑥 + 1
7. 𝒙𝟓 𝟒 + 𝒙𝟑 𝒅𝒙
𝐴𝑆3: 4 − 𝑧 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 4 − 𝑧 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 4𝑧 − 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 4𝑧 − 2
𝑝 1 = = = = 1+ 𝑑𝑧
𝑥𝑚 𝑎 𝑛
+ 𝑏𝑥 𝑞
= 4+ 3
𝑥 2 𝑧2 − 1 1 − 𝑧2 + 1 2 − 𝑧2 2 − 𝑧2
1−2 2
𝑚 = 5, 𝑎 = 4, 𝑏 = 1
𝑛 = 3, 𝑝 = 1 , 𝑞 = 2 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧
= 𝑑𝑧 + 4 − 2
2 − 𝑧2 2 − 𝑧2
𝑚+1 5+1 4 −2𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧
= = = 𝑑𝑧 + −2
𝑛 3 −2 2 − 𝑧2 2
𝑛
1 2 − 𝑧2
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 1 2
𝑧 2 = 2𝑥 + 1 1 2+𝑧
= 𝑧 − 2𝑙𝑛 2 − 𝑧 2 − 2 ∙ ln +𝐶
2𝑥 = 𝑧 2 − 1 2 2 2−𝑧
𝑧 2 −1 1
𝑥= 1 1 2 1 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 2
2
1 = 2𝑥 + 1 2 − 2𝑙𝑛 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 2 − ln 1 +𝐶
𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∙ 2𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 2 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 2
1
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 2 − 𝑧 2
1 1 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 2
= 2𝑥 + 1 2 − 2𝑙𝑛 2 − 2𝑥 − 1 − ln 1 +𝐶
𝑑𝑢 = −2𝑧 𝑑𝑧 2 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 2
𝑑𝑢
= 𝑙𝑛 𝑢 + 𝐶 1 2 + 2𝑥 + 1
𝑢 = 2𝑥 + 1 − 2𝑙𝑛 1 − 2𝑥 − ln +𝐶 𝐴𝑛𝑠
2 2 − 2𝑥 + 1
𝑑𝑢 1 𝑎+𝑢
2 2 = 𝑙𝑛 +𝐶
4  x  5x C
5
2 2 2
8

Solution(s): Evaluate the following

35

𝟑 𝟐 𝟑 𝟐
8. 𝒙 𝟒+𝒙 𝒅𝒙
2 x 2

1 1 x2
C
3x 3

Solution(s): Evaluate the following

𝒅𝒙
9.
𝒙𝟒 𝟏+𝒙𝟐
 81  x 
1
4 4
 C

Solution(s): Evaluate the following

81x

𝒅𝒙
10. 𝟑 𝟒
𝒙𝟐 𝟖𝟏+𝒙 𝟒
  
4
3 1 x2 3
 8
C

Solution(s): Evaluate the following

3
8x

𝟏 𝟑
𝒙−𝒙𝟑 𝒅𝒙 𝟏
11. 𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒙 =
𝒙𝟒 𝒛
  
2 Arc tan x 2  2 x  1  x  C

Solution(s): Evaluate the following

𝒅𝒙
12. 𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏 = 𝒛 − 𝒙𝟐
𝒙 𝒙𝟐 +𝟐𝒙−𝟏
 2 x
 2 Arc tan C
3 x

Solution(s): Evaluate the following

𝒅𝒙
13. 𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝟔 − 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 = 𝟑 + 𝒙 𝟐 𝒛𝟐
𝟔−𝒙−𝒙𝟐
Integration by parts
𝒖 𝒅𝒗 = 𝒖𝒗 − 𝒗 𝒅𝒖

The method of integration by parts is used when the

integrand is a product of two kinds of functions such as :
1. algebraic and exponential
2. algebraic and trigonometric
3. exponential and trigonometric
4. algebraic and logarithmic
Example(s): Evaluate the following
𝒙𝒆𝒙
1. 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 8. 𝒅𝒙
𝟏+𝒙 𝟐
2. 𝒆−𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝒙 𝒅𝒙
9. 𝒙𝟐 𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
3. 𝑨𝒓𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝟐𝒙 𝒅𝒙
4. 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟑 𝒙 𝒅𝒙

5. 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝟐𝒙 𝒅𝒙

6. 𝒆𝒙 + 𝟐𝒙 𝟐 𝒅𝒙

7. 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 𝒍𝒏 𝟏 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
Solution(s): Evaluate the following
1. 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥

𝒗 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 = 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − − cos 𝑥) + 𝐶

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥= -cos 𝒙

𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − 𝑣 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + cos 𝑥 + C ans.

x sin x  cos x  C
Solution(s): Evaluate the following
2. 𝒆−𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑒 −𝑥 1 1
−𝑥 −𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = −𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥)
1 2 2
𝑑𝑣 = cos 2 𝑥. 2𝑑𝑥
2
1 −𝑥 1 1 1
1
𝑣 = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 − − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 2 2 2
𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − 𝑣 𝑑𝑢 1 1 1
= 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 2 4 4
𝑑𝑣 = sin 2 𝑥 ∙ 2𝑑𝑥
2 4 1 −𝑥 4 1
1
𝑒 −𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∙ 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 − ∙ 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥
𝑣 = − 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 5 2 5 4
2 −𝑥 1
𝑒 −𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥
5 5
𝟏
= 𝒆−𝒙 𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒙 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒙 +C ans.
𝟓
ex
2 sin 2 x  cos x   C
5
Solution(s): Evaluate the following
3. 𝑨𝒓𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝟐𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 2𝑥
1
1
𝑑𝑢 = ∙ 2𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = arctan 2𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑥 2
∙ 2𝑑𝑥
1 + 4𝑥 2 1 + 4𝑥
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥
2 8𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝒗=𝒙 = 𝑥 arctan 2𝑥 −
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥= -cos 𝒙 8 1 + 4𝑥 2
1
𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − 𝑣 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑥 arctan 2𝑥 − 4 𝑙𝑛 1 + 4𝑥 2 + C ans.

xArc tan 2 x 
1
4
 
ln 1  4 x 2  C
Solution(s): Evaluate the following
4. 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟑 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒙 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟏 + 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝒙 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 2𝑥 \= 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + sec 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
𝑑𝑢 = ∙ 2𝑑𝑥
1 + 4𝑥 2 =
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥

𝒗=𝒙
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥= -cos 𝒙

𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − 𝑣 𝑑𝑢

1
sec x tan x  ln sec x  tan x   C
2
Solution(s): Evaluate the following
5. 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝟐𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥

𝒗=𝒙
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥= -cos 𝒙

𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − 𝑣 𝑑𝑢

x 4 x sin 4 x cos 4 x
  C
4 8 32
1 2x 4 3
e  x  4 xe x  4e x  C
2 3

Solution(s): Evaluate the following

6. 𝒆𝒙 + 𝟐𝒙 𝟐
𝒅𝒙
x  cos x  cos ln 1  sin x   C

Solution(s): Evaluate the following

7. 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 𝒍𝒏 𝟏 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
 ex
C
1 x

Solution(s): Evaluate the following

𝒙𝒆𝒙
8. 𝒅𝒙
𝟏+𝒙 𝟐
x 3 Arc sin x

 
1 x2 2  x2
C
3 9

Solution(s): Evaluate the following

9. 𝒙𝟐 𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
Rational Fractions
Rational fraction = is a quotient of two polynomials.
𝑵 𝒙
𝑫 𝒙
Proper Rational Fraction = if the degree of the numerator 𝑁 𝑥 is less than
the degree of the denominator 𝐷 𝑥 . This can be represented into an
equivalent partial fractions (sum of simpler fractions).

Improper Rational Fraction = if the degree of the numerator 𝑁 𝑥 is greater

than the degree of the denominator 𝐷 𝑥 . This can be reduced by division
into a polynomial and a proper rational fraction.
𝑵 𝒙 𝑹 𝒙
𝑫 𝒙
=𝑸 𝒙 + 𝑫 𝒙
PARTIAL FRACTIONS :

A factor of the type 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 is called a linear factor and if

𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑛 , where 𝑛 ≥ 2, occurs in 𝐷 𝑥 , we say that 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 is a
repeated linear factor of the denominator.

A factor of the form 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 is called a quadratic factor

and it is said to be irreducible if it cannot be factored further into real
linear factor. If 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 is irreducible and if 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 +
TO RESOLVE OR BREAK UP INTO A PARTIAL FRACTIONS :

Case 1 - When the factor of D(x) are all linear and none is repeated.
𝑨
Use a partial fraction : ; where A is constant to be determined.
𝒂𝒙+𝒃

Case 2 - When the factor of D(x) are all linear and some are repeated.
𝑨 𝑩 𝑳
Use a partial fractions: + +⋯+ ; here A, B, . . . L are constants to
𝒂𝒙+𝒃 𝒂𝒙+𝒃 𝟐 𝒂𝒙+𝒃 𝒏
be
determined.
Case 3 - When D(x) contains irreducible quadratic factors and none is repeated.
𝑨 𝟐𝑨𝒙+𝒃 +𝑩
Use a partial fraction : ; where A and B are constants to be determined
𝒂𝒙𝟐 +𝒃𝒙+𝒄
and
𝑑
2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥
Case 4 - When D(x) contains irreducible quadratic factors and some are repeated.
𝐴 2𝑎𝑥+𝑏 +𝐵 𝐶 2𝑎𝑥+𝑏 +𝐷 𝐾 2𝑎𝑥+𝑏 +𝐿
Use a partial fraction : + +⋯+ ; where A, B, C, D, . . .
𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐 𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐 2 𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐 𝑛
K, L
are constants to be determined.
 TWO GENERAL METHODS FOR FINDING
CONSTANTS :

1. By assigning particular values to x in order to obtain

equations involving at least one of the constants.

2. By equating the coefficients of equal powers of x to

obtain simultaneous equations involving the
constants.
Example(s): Evaluate the following
𝟏𝟐𝒙+𝟏𝟖
1. 𝒅𝒙
𝒙+𝟐 𝒙+𝟒 𝒙−𝟏

𝟔𝒙𝟐 +𝟐𝟑𝒙−𝟗
3. 𝒙𝟑 +𝟐𝒙𝟐 −𝟑𝒙
𝒅𝒙

𝒙𝟑 +𝟓𝒙𝟐 +𝟗𝒙+𝟕
4. 𝒅𝒙
𝒙𝟐 +𝟓𝒙+𝟒

𝟐𝒙+𝟏
5. 𝒅𝒙
𝒙−𝟐 𝒙−𝟑 𝟐
Example(s): Evaluate the following:
𝟐𝒙 −𝟓
6. 𝒅𝒙
𝒙 𝒙−𝟏 𝟑

𝟑𝒙𝟐 +𝟏𝟕𝒙+𝟑𝟐
7. 𝒅𝒙
𝒙𝟑 +𝟖𝒙𝟐 +𝟏𝟔𝒙
𝟐𝒙+𝟏
8. 𝟑𝒙−𝟏 𝒙𝟐 +𝟐𝒙+𝟐
𝒅𝒙

𝟓𝒙𝟐 −𝒙+𝟏𝟕
9. 𝒅𝒙
𝒙+𝟐 𝒙𝟐 +𝟗

𝟒𝒙𝟐 +𝟐𝟏𝒙+𝟓𝟒
10. 𝒅𝒙
𝒙𝟐 +𝟔𝒙+𝟏𝟑
 5 x 2  x  17
 x  2 x 2  9
 
Example(s):
𝒙𝟑 +𝟕𝒙𝟐 +𝟐𝟓𝒙+𝟑𝟓
11. 𝒅𝒙
𝒙𝟐 +𝟓𝒙+𝟔

𝒙𝟐 −𝒙−𝟖
12. 𝒅𝒙
𝟐𝒙−𝟑 𝒙𝟐 +𝟐𝒙+𝟐

𝒙𝟓 +𝟐𝒙𝟑 −𝟑𝒙
13. 𝟑 𝒅𝒙
𝒙𝟐 +𝟏
Solution(s):
𝟏𝟐𝒙+𝟏𝟖 𝑨 𝑩 𝑪
1. 𝒅𝒙 = + 𝒙+𝟒 + 𝒙−𝟏 𝒅𝒙
𝒙+𝟐 𝒙+𝟒 𝒙−𝟏 𝒙+𝟐
12𝑥+18 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
Case 1. 𝑥+2 𝑥+4 𝑥−1
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥+2
+ 𝑥+4
+ 𝑥−1 𝑑𝑥
12𝑥+18 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + + : multiply both sides by 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 + 4 𝑥 − 1
𝑥+2 𝑥+4 𝑥−1 𝑥+2 𝑥+4 𝑥−1

12𝑥 + 18 = 𝐴 𝑥 + 4 𝑥 − 1 + 𝐵 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 − 1 + 𝐶 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 + 4
Solve for the A, B & C :
1st method: by assigning value of x:
if 𝑥 = −2 ∶ 12 −2 + 18 = 𝐴 2 −3 + 0 + 0 ; −24 + 18 = −6𝐴 ; 𝐴=1
if 𝑥 = −4 ∶ 12 −4 + 18 = 0 + 𝐵 −2 −5 + 0 ; −48 + 18 = 10𝐴 ; 𝐴 = −3
if 𝑥 = 1 ∶ 12 1 + 18 = 0 + 0 + 𝐶 3 5 ; 12 + 18 = 15𝐴 ; 𝐴=2

ln x  2  3 ln x  4  2 ln x  1  C
2nd method: By equating the coefficients of equal powers of x
12𝑥 + 18 = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 4 𝐴 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2 𝐵 + 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 8 𝐶
12𝑥 + 18 = 𝐴𝑥 2 + 3𝐴𝑥 − 4𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 − 2𝐵 + 𝐶𝑥 2 + 6𝐶𝑥 + 8𝐶
0𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 + 18 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 𝑥 2 + 3𝐴 + 𝐵 + 6𝐶 𝑥 + −4𝐴 − 2𝐵 + 8𝐶
𝐴+𝐵+𝐶 =0 ; 3𝐴 + 𝐵 + 6𝐶 = 12 ; −4𝐴 − 2𝐵 + 8𝐶 = 18
𝐴=1 ; 𝐵 = −3 ; 𝐶=2
12𝑥+18 1 −3 2
𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑥+4 + 𝑥−1 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+2 𝑥+4 𝑥−1 𝑥+2
12𝑥+18 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 = + −3 +2
𝑥+2 𝑥+4 𝑥−1 𝑥+2 𝑥+4 𝑥−1

12𝑥+18
𝑥+2 𝑥+4 𝑥−1
𝑑𝑥 = 𝒍𝒏 𝒙 + 𝟐 − 𝟑𝒍𝒏 𝒙 + 𝟒 + 𝟐𝒍𝒏 𝒙 − 𝟏 + 𝑪 𝑎𝑛𝑠.

ln x  2  3 ln x  4  2 ln x  1  C
3 ln x  2 ln x  3  5 ln x  1  C

Solution(s):
𝟔𝒙𝟐 +𝟐𝟑𝒙−𝟗 𝟔𝒙𝟐 +𝟐𝟑𝒙−𝟗 𝟔𝒙𝟐 +𝟐𝟑𝒙−𝟗
3. 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒅𝒙
𝒙𝟑 +𝟐𝒙𝟐 −𝟑𝒙 𝒙 𝒙𝟐 +𝟐𝒙−𝟑 𝒙 𝒙+𝟑 𝒙−𝟏
6𝑥 2 +23𝑥−9 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
Case 1. = 𝑥 𝑥+3 𝑥−1
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥
+
𝑥+3
+
𝑥−1
𝑑𝑥

6𝑥 2 +23𝑥−9 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
Case 1. = 𝑥 𝑥+3 𝑥−1
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥
+
𝑥+3
+
𝑥−1
𝑑𝑥
 x2 7
5 ln  C
x3 x3
Solution(s):
𝟐𝒙+𝟏
5. 𝒅𝒙
𝒙−𝟐 𝒙−𝟑 𝟐
Case 1 & 2. 2𝑥+1
𝑥−2 𝑥−3 2
𝑑𝑥 =
𝐴
𝑥−2
+
𝐵
𝑥−3
+
𝐶
𝑥−3 2
𝑑𝑥
 3
2 ln x  ln x  4  C
x4

Solution(s): Evaluate the following:

𝟑𝒙𝟐 +𝟏𝟕𝒙+𝟑𝟐 𝟑𝒙𝟐 +𝟏𝟕𝒙+𝟑𝟐 𝟑𝒙𝟐 +𝟏𝟕𝒙+𝟑𝟐
7. 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒅𝒙
𝒙𝟑 +𝟖𝒙𝟐 +𝟏𝟔𝒙 𝒙 𝒙𝟐 +𝟖𝒙+𝟏𝟔 𝒙 𝒙+𝟒 𝟐
Case 1 & 2. 3𝑥 2 +17𝑥+32
𝑥 𝑥+4 2
𝑑𝑥 =
𝐴
𝑥
+
𝐵
𝑥+4
+
𝐶
𝑥+4 2
𝑑𝑥
 ln 3x  1  ln x 2  2 x  2  Arc tan  x  1  C
1 1 2
5 10 5

Solution(s): Evaluate the following:

𝟐𝒙+𝟏
8. 𝒅𝒙
𝟑𝒙−𝟏 𝒙𝟐 +𝟐𝒙+𝟐
Case 1 & 3. 2𝑥+1
3𝑥−1 𝑥 2 +2𝑥+2
𝑑𝑥 =
𝐴
3𝑥−1
+
𝐵 2𝑥+2
𝑥 2 +2𝑥+2
𝑑𝑥
 5 x
3 ln x  2  ln x 2  9  Arc tan  C
3 3

Solution(s): Evaluate the following:

𝟓𝒙𝟐 −𝒙+𝟏𝟕
9. 𝒅𝒙
𝒙+𝟐 𝒙𝟐 +𝟗
Case 1 & 3. 5𝑥 2 −𝑥+17
𝑥+2 𝑥 2 +9
𝑑𝑥 =
𝐴
𝑥+2
+
𝐵 2𝑥
𝑥 2 +9
𝑑𝑥

5𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 17 𝐴 𝐵 2𝑥
= +
𝑥 + 2 𝑥2 + 9 𝑥+2 𝑥2 + 9
5𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 17 = 𝐴 𝑥 2 + 9 + 𝐵 2𝑥 𝑥 + 2
5𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 17 = 𝐴𝑥 2 + 9𝐴 + 2𝐵𝑥 2 + 4𝐵𝑥
5𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 17 = 𝐴 + 2𝐵 𝑥 2 + 4𝐵 𝑥 + 9𝐴
17
𝐴 + 2𝐵 = 5 1 17 1 9𝐴 = 17 ; 𝐴=
9
4𝐵 = −1 ; 𝐵=− +2 − =5
4 9 4
1
𝐴+2 − =5 17 1
4 − =5
1 9 2
𝐴− =5
2 34 − 9
7 =5
18
𝐴=
2
Solution(s): Evaluate the following:
𝟒𝒙𝟐 +𝟐𝟏𝒙+𝟓𝟒
10. 𝒅𝒙
𝒙𝟐 +𝟔𝒙+𝟏𝟑
Case 3. 4𝑥 2 +21𝑥+54
𝑥 2 +6𝑥+13
𝑑𝑥 =
𝐴 2𝑥+6
𝑥 2 +6𝑥+13
𝑑𝑥

4𝑥 2 + 21𝑥 + 54 𝐴 2𝑥 + 6
=
𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 13 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 13

4𝑥 2 + 21𝑥 + 54 = 𝐴 2𝑥 + 6

3 11 x3
4x  ln x 2  6 x  13  Arc tan C
2 2 2
Solution(s):
𝒙𝟑 +𝟕𝒙𝟐 +𝟐𝟓𝒙+𝟑𝟓 𝒙𝟑 +𝟕𝒙𝟐 +𝟐𝟓𝒙+𝟑𝟓
11. 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒅𝒙
𝒙𝟐 +𝟓𝒙+𝟔 𝒙+𝟑 𝒙+𝟐
Case 1. 𝑥 3 +7𝑥 2 +25𝑥+35
𝑥+3 𝑥+2
𝑑𝑥 =
𝐴
𝑥+3
+
𝐵
𝑥+2
𝑑𝑥

1 2
x  2 x  4 ln x  3  5 ln x  2  C
2
Solution(s):
𝒙𝟐 −𝒙−𝟖
12. 𝒅𝒙
𝟐𝒙−𝟑 𝒙𝟐 +𝟐𝒙+𝟐
Case 1 & 3. 𝑥 2 −𝑥−8
2𝑥−3 𝑥 2 +2𝑥+2
𝑑𝑥 =
𝐴
2𝑥−3
+
𝐵 2𝑥+2
𝑥 2 +2𝑥+2
𝑑𝑥

1 x 2  2x  2
ln  Arc tanx  1  C
2 2x  3
1 1
ln x 2  1  C
2  
x2 1
2

Solution(s):
𝒙𝟓 +𝟐𝒙𝟑 −𝟑𝒙
13. 𝟐 𝟑 𝒅𝒙
𝒙 +𝟏
Case 4. 𝑥 5 +2𝑥 3 −3𝑥
𝑥 2 +1 3
𝑑𝑥 =
𝐴 2𝑥 +𝐵
𝑥 2 +1
+
𝐶 2𝑥 +𝐷
𝑥 2 +1 2
+
𝐸 2𝑥 +𝐹
𝑥 2 +1 3
𝑑𝑥
𝑥 5 +2𝑥 3 −3𝑥 𝐴 2𝑥 +𝐵 𝐶 2𝑥 +𝐷 𝐸 2𝑥 +𝐹
= + + multiply both sides by 𝑥 2 + 1 3
𝑥 2 +1 3 𝑥 2 +1 𝑥 2 +1 2 𝑥 2 +1 3
𝑥 5 + 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 = [A 2𝑥 +𝐵] 𝑥 2 + 1 2
+ 𝐶 2𝑥 + 𝐷 𝑥 2 + 1 + 𝐸 2𝑥 +F]

use 2nd method: By equating the coefficients of equal powers of x

𝑥 5 + 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 = [A 2𝑥 + 𝐵] 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 + 1 + 𝐶 2𝑥 + 𝐷 𝑥 2 + 1 + 𝐸 2𝑥 + 𝐹

𝑥 5 + 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 = 2𝐴𝑥 4 + 4𝐴𝑥 3 + 2𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 4 + 2𝐵𝑥 2 + 𝐵 + 2𝐶𝑥 3 + 2𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷𝑥 2 + 𝐷 + 2𝐸𝑥 + 𝐹

𝑥 5 + 0𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 + 0𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 0 = 2𝐴 + 𝐵 𝑥 4 + 4𝐴 + 2𝐶 𝑥 3 + 2𝐵 + 𝐷 𝑥 2 + 2𝐴 + 2𝐶 + 2𝐸 𝑥 + 𝐵 + 𝐷 + 𝐹
2𝐴 + 𝐵 = 0 ; 4𝐴 + 2𝐶 = 2 ; 2𝐵 + 𝐷 = 0 ; 2𝐴 + 2𝐶 + 2𝐸 = −3 ; 𝐵 + 𝐷 + 𝐹 = 0
3
𝐴=− ; 𝐵=3 ; 𝐶 = 4 ; 𝐷 = −5 , 𝐸=0 , 𝐹=3
2

3
−2 2𝑥 + 3 4 2𝑥 − 5 0 2𝑥 + 3
= + + 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 + 1 𝑥2 + 1 2 𝑥 +1 3
1 1
ln x 2  1  C
2  x2 12

3 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 1 1
=− +3 +4 𝑥2 + 1 −2
∙ 2𝑥𝑑𝑥 − 5 𝑑𝑥 + 3 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥2 + 1 𝑥2 + 1 𝑥2 + 1 2 𝑥2 + 1 3

3
= − 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 2 − 1 + 3𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 − 4 𝑥 2 + 1 −1
2
2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 1 1
− 2
+ 3 2
+ 4 𝑥 2 + 1 −2 ∙ 2𝑥𝑑𝑥 − 5 𝑑𝑥 + 3 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 +1 𝑥 +1 𝑥2 + 1 2 𝑥2 + 1 3

5 1
= 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 2 + 1 − 𝑥 2 + 1 −1 − ∙ − 𝑥2 + 1 −2 +𝐶
2 2

3
−2 2𝑥 + 3 4 2𝑥 − 5 0 2𝑥 + 3
= + + 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 + 1 𝑥2 + 1 2 𝑥 +1 3