Definition of Computer

Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from the
user and performs computations on the data i.e processes it and gives the desired
output.
Characteristics of computers
The major characteristics of computers can be classified as follows:
1. Speed: The computer was initially invented as a very high speed calculator.
This helped in completing many scientific projects that were previously
impossible. We would have taken a lot of time in making the arrangements
for flying abroad if computers were not there to book our seats so easily
and fast. The computers can perform 3 million calculations per second.
2. Storage: A human mind acquires some knowledge and after it has used it,
it might keep it in its subconscious mind or might even forget it after some
time. But computers can store massive amounts of information. This
information can be reused again. Today’s computers have the disks, which
have the capacity to store billions of characters.
3. Accuracy: Computers are very accurate. They do mistakes, but seldom.
These mistakes might be because of the faulty programs. Some mistakes
made are in feeding in the data or poorly designed systems.
4. Versatility: This means that the computers are capable of performing any
type of task, provided the activity could be put into logical steps.
5. Automation: A computer is much more than just a calculator in which we
need to give the instructions at every step. It is an intelligent device and if
programmed for an activity, it keeps doing it till it finishes, without any
human intervention.
6. Diligence: Computer being a machine, does not show any signs of fatigue,
tiredness, lack of concentration or lost interest. The speed, accuracy and
the quality would be absolutely same in the first and last calculation, even
if millions of calculations are done by the computer.
7. Reliability: All the above qualities of the computer make them reliable and
also make us too dependant on them. They can be run for years together
without any loss of data or any other problem.
8. No IQ: A computer does not possess any intelligence of its own. It has to
be told what to do and in what sequence. Only a user determines what task
a computer will perform.
 Limitations of Computers
1. Computers cannot think and they cannot do any job unless they are first
programmed with specific instructions.
2. Computers are not capable of decision making as they do not possess the
essential elements necessary to take a decision i.e. knowledge, information,
intelligence etc.
3. In any type of research, ideas play a vital role. In this context, computers
can’t express their ideas.
4. Though computers are helpful in storage of data and can contain the
contents of encyclopedia even, but only humans can decide and implement
the policies.
5. Computers, unlike humans cannot learn by experience.

Block Diagram of a Computer

Central Processing Unit(CPU)

ALU

CU OUTPUT
INPUT

Main Memory

Secondary
Storage

The computer consists of the following fundamental components:

1. Input devices: These are used to feed data into the computer. Various kinds
of input devices like keyboard, mouse, barcode reader, OCR,OMR,MICR
etc are available. The data in any form is first digitized i.e. converted into
binary form before being fed to the CPU.
2. Central Processing Unit(CPU): The CPU is the brain of the computer
system. It consists of the following components:
a. The Arithmetic and Logical Unit(ALU):The ALU performs all
arithmetic and logical computations on the data it receives. The
arithmetic computations may be addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, exponentiation etc. Logical calculations are
basically decision making statements.
b. The Control Unit(CU): The control unit controls the entire
operations of the CPU. It controls all the other devices connected to
the CPU i.e. Input devices, Output devices, Secondary storage etc.
The control unit upon receiving an instruction decides what is
to be done with it. That is, whether it is sent to the ALU for further
processing or to the output devices or to the memory etc. In other
words, control unit coordinates and controls all hardware operations.
c. The main memory unit:The main memory also known as the primary
memory is a part of the CPU and is a combination of both RAM and
ROM.
i. RAM: The Random Access Memory is a read write memory
i.e. information can be read as well as written into this type of
memory. It is volatile in nature i.e. the information it contains
is lost as soon as the system is shut down. It is basically used
to store programs and data during the computer’s operation.
ii. ROM: The Read only memory as the name suggests contains
information that can only be read i.e. you can’t write on this
type of memory. It is non-volatile or permanent in nature. It
is basically used to store permanent programs such as program
for the functioning of the monitor.
3. Output Devices: The output devices are used to present the processed data
in a human readable form. Various kinds of output devices like Visual
Display Unit(VDU), Printer, Plotter etc are available.
4. Secondary storage: The auxillary storage memory also known as secondary
memory is an external memory. The auxillary storage devices store system
programs, large data files, assemblers, compilers and other programs. It is
used for bulk storage of data. The secondary memory is permanent in
nature i.e. the information stored in these devices is not lost unless
specifically deleted .Ex. Hard disk, CD’s etc.
Primary Memory
There are two kinds of computer memory, primary and secondary. Primary
memory is accessible directly by the processing unit. You can store and
retrieve data much faster with primary memory compared to secondary
memory. Primary memory is more expensive. Computer memory is used to
store two things i) instructions to execute a program and ii) data. When the
computer is performing any job, the data that has to be processed is stored in
the primary memory. This data may come from an input device like keyword
or from a secondary storage device like a floppy disk.
The following terms are related to memory of a computer:
1. Random Access Memory(RAM): The primary storage is referred to as
random access memory because it is possible to randomly select and use
any location of the memory directly, store and retrieve data. It is also called
read/ write memory. The storage of data and instructions inside the primary
storage is temporary. It disappears from RAM as soon as the power to the
computer is switched off. So RAM is volatile memory.
2. Read Only Memory(ROM): The storage of program and data in the ROM
is permanent. The ROM stores some standard processing programs
supplied by the manufacturers to operate the pc. The basic input/output
program is stored in the ROM that examines and initializes various
equipment attached to the PC when the power is switched on. ROM is non
volatile memory.
3. PROM: This is another type of Primary Memory in computer, which is
called Programmable Read Only Memory(PROM). We know that it is not
possible to modify or erase programs stored in ROM, but it is possible for
you to store your program in PROM chip. Once the programs are written
it cannot be changed and remain intact even if power is switched off.
Therefore programs or instructions written in PROM or ROM cannot be
erased or changed.
4. EPROM: This stand for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory,
which overcome the problem of PROM & ROM. EPROM chip can be
programmed again and again by erasing the information stored earlier in
it. The information stored in EPROM chip is erased by exposing it to ultra
violet light. The chip can be reprogrammed to store new information.
5. Cache Memory: The speed of CPU is extremely high compared to the
access time of main memory. Therefore the performance of CPU decreases
due to the slow speed of main memory. To decrease the mismatch in
operating speed, a small memory chip is attached between CPU and Main
 Memory whose access time is very close to the processing speed of CPU.
It is called Cache memory. Cache memories are accessed much faster than
conventional RAM. It is used to store programs or data currently being
executed or temporary data frequently used by the CPU. It is also very
expensive to have bigger size of cache memory and its size is normally
kept small.
6. Registers: The CPU processes data and instructions with high speed. There
is also movement of data between various units of computer. It is necessary
to transfer the processed data with high speed. So the computer uses a
number of special units called registers. They are not part of the main
memory but they store data or information temporarily and pass it on as
directed by the control unit.

Secondary Memory
In this type of memory, the cost per bit of storage is low. However,
the operating speed is slower than that of primary storage. Huge volumes
of data are stored here on permanent basis and transferred to the primary
storage as and when required.
Figure:

1.Magnetic Tape: Magnetic tapes are used for large computers like
mainframe computers where large volume of data is stored for a longer
time. In PC also you can use tapes in the form of cassettes. The cost of
storing data in tapes is inexpensive. Tapes consist of magnetic materials
that store data permanently. It can be 12.5mm to 25 mm wide plastic film-
type and 500 meter to 1200 meter long which is coated with magnetic
material.
Advantages of Magnetic Tape:
a) Compact: A 10 inch diameter reel of tape is 2400 feet long and is able
to hold 800,1600 or 6250 characters in each inch of its length.
b) Economical: The cost of storing characters is very less as compared to
other storage devices.
c) Fast: Copying of data is easier and fast.
d) Long term storage and re-usability: Magnetic tapes can be used for long
term storage and a tape can be used repeatedly without loss of data.
2. Magnetic Disk: It rotates with very high speed inside the computer drive.
Data is stored on both the surfaces of the disk. Magnetic disks are most
popular for direct access storage device. Each disk consists of a number of
invisible concentric circles called tracks. Information is recorded on tracks
 of a disk surface in the form of tiny magnetic spots. The presence of a
magnetic spot represents one bit and its absence represents zero bit.The
information stored in a disk can be can be read many times without
affecting the stored data.
i) Floppy Disk: It is similar to magnetic disk. They are 5.25 inch or 3.5 inch
in diameter. They come in single or double density and recorded on one or
both surface of the diskette. The capacity of a 5.25 inch floppy is 1.2 mega
bytes whereas for 3.5 inch floppy it is 1.44 mega bytes.It is cheaper than
any other storage device and is portable.The floppy is a low cost device
particularly suitable for personal computer system.
ii) Hard Disks: It is the primary online secondary storage device for most
computer systems today. They are made of rigid metal aluminium platters
and come in many sizes ranging from 1 to 14 inch diameter.
Advantages:
1. Magnetic disk supports direct access of data
2. It is suitable for both online and offline storage of data
3. They are less vulnerable to data corruption
Limitation:
It is more difficult to maintain security of information stored in the disk
3 Optical Disk: With every new application and software, there is greater
demand for memory capacity. It is the necessity to store large volume of
data that has led to the development to optical disk storage medium. Optical
disks can be divided into the following categories:
a) Compact Disk/Read Only Memory(CD-ROM): CD-ROM disks are
made of reflective metals. CD-ROM is written during the process of
manufacturing by high power laser beam. The storage density is very
high, storage cost is very low and access time is relatively fast. Each
disk is approximately 4 ½ inches in diameter and can hold over 600 MB
of data. As the CD-ROM can only be read we cannot write or make
changes into the data contained in it.
b) Write-Once, Read Many(WORM): A WORM allows the user to write
data permanently on to the disk. Once the data is written it can never be
erased without physically damaging the disk. Here data can be recorded
from keyboard, video scanner, OCR equipment and other devices. The
advantage of WORM is that it can store vast amount of data amounting
to gigabytes. Any document in a WORM can be accessed very fast, say
less than 30 seconds.
 c) Erasable Optical Disk: These are optical disks where data can be
written, erased and re-written. This also applies a laser beam to write
and re-write the data. These disks are based on a technology known as
magnetic optical(MO). To write a data bit onto the erasable optical disk,
the MO drive’s laser beam heats a tiny, precisely defined point on the
disk’s surface and magnetises it.
Advantages:
1. It is of low cost and has high storage density
2. They are more reliable storage medium
3. Due to their compact size and light weight, optical disks are easy to
handle, store and port from one place to another.
Limitation:
Data access speed for optical disks is slower than magnetic disks.
4 Flash Memory: It is a non volatile memory chip used for storage and for
transferring data between a personal computer and digital devices. It has the
ability to be electronically reprogrammed and erased.It is often used in USB flash
drives, MP3 players, digital cameras and solid state drives.

Data Representation:
Computers use 0’s and 1’s to represent or store all kinds of data. Ex. text,
numbers, sound ,image, video etc. Byte is the basic storage unit in computer
system. A bit is a binary digit i.e. 0 or 1.
1 byte=8 bits
1 nibble=4 bits
Storage units in Computer:
1 nibble=4 bits
1 byte=8 bits
1KB=1024 bytes
1MB=1024KB
1GB=1024MB
1TB=1024GB
1PB(Petabyte)=1024TB
1EB(Exabyte)=1024PB
1ZB(Zettabyte)=1024EB
1YB(Yottabyte)=1024ZB
Number Systems:
There are four number systems:
1. Binary Number System: In this system we have 0 and 1
2. Decimal Number System: In this we have numbers 0, 1 2 ,3 ,4,5,6,7,8,9
3. Octal Number System:0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
4. Hexadecimal Number System: 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F

Conversion from Decimal Number System to Binary Number System

Steps:
1. The given Decimal number is divided by 2
2. Note down the remainder to the right
3. The quotient obtained is again divided by 2
4. Repeat the above steps till the quotient becomes 0
5. The reminders taken in the reverse order gives the binary equivalent
(53)10→ ( )2

Conversion from Binary Number System to Decimal Number System

Steps:
1. Start with the least significant bit
2. Multiply each bit with different powers of 2(0,1,2 etc) and add them
3. The resultant sum is the Decimal equivalent

(10101)2→ ( )10

.
Difference between Sequential and Random Access
Files
When we are talking about sequential or random access to data files we refer to the
way data is written or read from a file on a computer system.

Sequential Access to a data file means that the computer system reads or writes
information to the file sequentially, starting from the beginning of the file and
proceeding step by step.

On the other hand, Random Access to a file means that the computer system can
read or write information anywhere in the data file. This type of operation is also
called “Direct Access” because the computer system knows where the data is stored
(using Indexing) and hence goes “directly” and reads the data.

Tracks and Sectors

Platters are organized into specific structures to enable the organized storage and
retrieval of data. Each platter is broken into tracks--tens of thousands of them--
which are tightly-packed concentric circles. These are similar in structure to the
annual rings of a tree.

A track holds too much information to be suitable as the smallest unit of storage on
a disk, so each one is further broken down into sectors. A sector is normally the
smallest individually-addressable unit of information stored on a hard disk, and
normally holds 512 bytes of information. The first PC hard disks typically held 17
sectors per track. Today's hard disks can have thousands of sectors in a single
track, and make use of zoned recording to allow more sectors on the larger outer
tracks of the disk.

A platter from a 5.25" hard disk, with 20 concentric tracks

drawn over the surface. Each track is divided into16 sectors.