STUDY OF ACCESSORIES, TOOLS USED IN WIRING & SAFETY

PRECAUTIONS
Aim:
To study the various types of accessories and tools used in house wiring.
To study safety precautions for electrical engineering practice

Accessories Required:
Switch, Lamp Holder, Lamp holder adopter, Ceiling roses, Mounting blocks, Socket outlets,
Plugs, Main switch, Distribution fuses boards.

Tools Required:
Cutting pliers, Flat nose pliers, Screwdriver, Neon tester, Hammer, knife, Poker, Pincer,
Center punch, twist drill, Soldering rod.

Accessories:

1. Switch
A switch is used to make or break an electric circuit. Under some abnormal conditions it must
retain its rigidity and keep its alignment between switchblades and contacts correct to a fraction of
centimeter.

2. Lamp Holders
A lamp holder is used to hold the lamp required for lighting purposes.
3. Lamp Holder Adopter
It is used for tapping temporary power for small portable electric appliances from lamp
holders. Such a practice is not advised.

4. Ceiling Roses
It is an end point of an electrical wire, which provides a cover to the wire end. These are used
to provide a tapping to the lamp holder through the flexible wire or a connection to a fluorescent tube
or a ceiling fan. It consists of a circular base and a cover made of bakelite. One end of the plates is
connected to supply and the other end to a flexible wire connected to appliances.
5. Mounting Blocks
These are nothing but wooden round blocks. They are used in conjunction with ceiling roses,
batten holder, surface switches, ceiling switches, etc.
6. Socket Outlets
It is a wiring accessory to which electrical appliances are connected for power supply. These
have insulated base with molded or socket base having three terminal sleeves. The two thin terminal
sleeves are meant for making connection to the load circuit wires and the third terminal sleeve,
larger in cross section, is used for an earth connection.

7. Plugs
 These are used for tapping power from socket outlets. Two-pin plugs and three-pin plugs are
commonly available.

8. Main Switch
This is used at the consumer’s premises so that he may have self-control of the entire
distribution circuit. This switch is a master control of all the wiring circuit made in the building. The
different classifications are double poled and triple poled switches.

9. Distribution Fuse Boards

In industries or in very big buildings, where a number of circuits are to be wired, distribution
fuse boards are used. They are usually iron clad and are designed with a large space for wiring and
splitting the circuits. The fuse bank in the distribution board can easily be removed.
10. Fuse
A fuse is a protective device, which is connected such that the current flowing through the
protected circuit also flows through the fuse. There is a resistive link inside the fuse body that heats or
melts up when current flows through it. If the current is beyond the permissible limit, the resistive
link burns open, which stops all current to flow in the circuit. At this condition we say that the fuse is
blown.

11. Earthing
When a wire is connected from the ground to the outer metal casing of the electrical
appliances, then it attain zero potential and the appliance is said to be earthed and this process is
known as earthing.
12. Purpose of Earthing
Under normal condition, there is no electrical potential is available in the outer metal casing
of the electrical appliances. When some fault develops in the appliances, then electrical potential
leaked to the metal casing causes heavy current flow due to earthing. This heavy current blows the
fuse and cutoff electrical supply to the appliances. Thus earthing provides protection to human being
and electrical appliances.
Tools:
1. Cutting Pliers
They are used to cut the wires, nipping by hand and twisting the wires and also to hold them.
Long nose pliers are used to hold the wires in small space and also to tighten and loosen small nuts.

2. Nose Pliers
Long nose pliers are used to hold the wires in small space and also to tighten and loosen small
nuts.
3. Screw Driver
They are used to drive and tighten screws into pointed holes in the switches and electrical
machines. They are generally insulated.

4. Hammer
Ball peen and claw hammers are commonly used in electrical work where greater power is
required in striking. It is best suited for riveting purposes in sheet metal works.

5. Line Tester
It is used to check the electric supply in the line or phase wire. It has a small neon bulb, which
indicates the presence of power supply. It can also be used as a screw driver.

6. Knife
It is generally used for removing the insulation from the wire. The closing type knife is
always preferred.
7. Poker
It is a long sharp tool used for making pilot holes in wood before fixing and tightening wood
screws.

8. Pincer
The pincer is used for extracting nails from the wood.
9. Center Punch
When a hole is to be drilled in a material, the center punch is always used for making the
starting hole.

10. Twist Drill

It is used for drilling holes into metals and woods.

11. Soldering Rod

It is used for soldering wires to small joints with solder. It consists of pointed oval Cu bit
fixed to an iron rod, which is heated by an electric element only.

Safety Precautions:
1. While work on electrical installations, wear always rubber shoes and avoid loose shirting.
2. Do not work on live circuits, if unavoidable use rubber gloves, rubber mats etc
3. Use wooden or PVC insulated handle screwdrivers when working on electric circuits.
4. Do not touch bare conductors
5. Replace or remove fuses only after switching OFF the circuit switches.
6. Never extend wiring by using temporary wiring.
7. Stand or rubber mats while working or operating switch panels, control gears etc.
8. Always use safety belts while working on poles or high rise points.
9. Do not connect earthing to the water pipe lines.
10. Only skilled persons should do electric work.
11. Wear all the protective clothing and use all the necessary safety equipment.
12. In case of any person suffered by electrical shook and if the victim is still in contact with the
supply, break the contact either by switching off or by removing the plug or pulling the cable free.
13. Do not give an unconscious person anything to eat or drink and do not leave an unconscious
person unattended.
14. First restore the normal breathing to the victim and ensure that the patient can breathe normally
unaided. Then we can render other first aids.

Result:
Thus a study on the various types of accessories, tools used in house wiring and safety
precautions for electrical engineering practice was performed.
 STAIRCASE WIRING
Aim:
To control the status of the given lamp by using two – way switches
Materials Required:

Tools Required:

Procedure:
1. Place the accessories on the wiring board as per the circuit diagram.
2. Place the P.V.C pipe and insert two wires into the P.V.C pipe.
3. Take one wire connect one end to the phase side and other end to the middle point of SPDT
switch 1
4. Upper point of SPDT switch 1 is connected to the lower point of SPDT switch2.
5. Lower point of SPDT 1 is connected to the upper point SPDT switch2.
6. Another wire taken through a P.V.C pipe and middle point of SPDT switch 2 is connected
to one end of the lamp holder.
7. Another end of lamp holder is connected to neutral line.
8. Screw the accessories on the board and switch on the supply.
9. Circuit is tested for all possible combination of switch position.

Precautions:
 While giving the connections be careful
 Handle the lame safely
 Be careful while handling the tools.
Result:

Thus the lamp was controlled by two switches.

 FLUORESCENT LAMP WIRING
Aim:

To make and check the fluorescent lamp wiring

Materials Required:

Tools Required:

Theory:
Tube light has filament on either side. They are coated with tungsten material. The inside of
the tube has phosphorous coating which is used to convert ultraviolet into visible light and to give the
required color sensation. A choke is used to give transient high voltage so as to initiate the electron
movement which is an iron starter capacitor is used to suppress radio interference with the switch
closed. The current flows through the choke and the starter. The glow switch suddenly breaks thereby
creating the circuit. Due to high conductivity, inductive property of the choke, a transient high voltage
is available across the filament. Hence the electrons are emitted and travel through the tube. Then tube
light is produced.

Procedure:
1. Give the connections as per the circuit diagram as shown in figure.
2. Fix the tube holder and the choke in the tube.
3. The phase wire is connected to the choke and neutral directly to the tube
4. Connect the starter in series with the tube.
 Precautions:
_ While giving the connection be careful.
_ Handle the lamp safely.
_ Be careful while handling the tools.
_ All the connections should be right and tight.

Result:
Thus the fluorescent lamp was made and checked.
 HOUSE WIRING

Aim:
To Construct House wiring using Energy Meter

Materials Required:

Tools required:

Theory:

Conductors, switches and other accessories should be of proper capable of carrying the
maximum current which will flow through them. The following table shows the rating for different
accessories. Conductors should be of copper or aluminium. In power circuit, wiring should be
designed for the load which it is supposed to carry. Power sub circuits should be kept separate from
lighting and fan sub – circuits. Wiring should be done on the distribution system with main and
branch distribution boards at convenient centers. Wiring should neat, with good appearance.

Wires should pass through a pipe or box, and should not twist or cross. The conductor is
carried in a rigid steel conduit conforming to standards or in a porcelain tube.
Procedure:
1. Study the given wiring diagram
2. Make the location points for energy meter, main witch box, switchboard, lamp and ceiling rose.
3. Draw the lines for wiring on the wooden board.
4. Place the wires along with the line and fix.
5. Fix the bulb holder, Switches, Ceiling rose, Socket in marked positions on the wooden board.
6. Connect the energy meter and main switch box in marked positions on the wooden board.
7. Give a supply to the wires circuit.
8. Test the working of light and socket.

Result:
Thus the wiring for the bulb and ceiling rose was prepared and tested.
 MEASURMENT OF VOLTAGE, CURRENT, POWER AND POWER
FACTOR USING RLC LOAD

Aim:
To measure power in a single phase AC circuit using wattmeter by RLC loading.

Apparatus Required:

SL.No Name of the Apparatus Range / Type Quantity

1 Voltmeter (0-300V) MI 1
2 Ammeter (0-10A) MI 1
3 Wattmeter 300V, 10A, LPF 1
4 RLC Load 5KW 1
5 Connecting Wires 1/18 SWG Few

Theory:
Power in an electric circuit can be measured using a wattmeter. A wattmeter consists of two
coils, namely current coil and pressure coil or potential coil. The current coil is marked as ML and
pressure coil is marked as CV. The current coil measure the quantity that is proportional to the current
in the circuit the pressure coil measures quantity that is proportional to the voltage in the circuit. The
given wattmeter is loaded by direct loading. The ammeter is connected in series to the wattmeter.
Since the same current flows in both the coils, the current and voltage across the circuit are constant.
The power consumed by the load is measured using the wattmeter and calculated using the relation
given below.

Formulae:
Actual power = W x Multiplication factor
Where W – Observed wattmeter reading
Apparent power = VI watts
Where V – Voltmeter reading
I – Ammeter reading
Power Factor, cosf = Actual Power / Apparent Power

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Initially no load is applied.
3. Autotransformer is set to minimum voltage position before switching on the power supply.
4. Set the rated voltage by using the autotransformer. Measure and record the values of voltmeter,
ammeter and wattmeter on no load condition. Also carefully note the multiplication factor of the
wattmeter that is mentioned in the wattmeter itself.
5. Apply the load by adjusting RLC load.
6. Measure and record the values of voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter.
7. Repeat the steps 5 and 6 until the ammeter reading reaches 10A.
8. After taking all the readings, reduce the load slowly to the minimum and bring the voltage to
minimum in the autotransformer. Switch off the power supply.
9. Calculated the Indicated power by the given formula.
10. Calculate the power factor by the given formula.
Model Calculation:

Result

A single – phase wattmeter is used to measure power in AC circuit using RLC loading.
 MEASURMENT OF ENERGY USING ENERGYMETER

Aim:
To measure the energy in a single phase circuit using direct loading
Appartus Required:

Theory:
The energy meter is an integrated type of instrument, where speed of rotation of the
aluminum to the power consumed and number of revolutions per minute is proportional to the energy
consumed by the load.
The ratings associated with the energy meter are.
_ Voltage rating
_ Current rating
_ Frequency rating
_ Meter Constant
The driving system of the meter provides the rotational surface of the torque for the moving
system, which in turn activates the energy meter.
Formulae:
Energy meter specification = 750 rev / kWh
True energy = Power (P) x time (s)
= P x t (ws)
= P x t / 3600 x 1000 kWh
Measured energy = n / 750 kWh
Where n - number of revolutions / sec
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Supply is given to the switch by closing the DFST switch.
3. By adjusting the voltage is brought to the rated voltage.
4. Load is switched On
5. Time taken for five revolutions in the energy meter is noted and the corresponding
ammeter and voltmeter reading are noted.
6. The above procedure is repeated for different load current and for fixed number of
revolutions.
7. Then the load is gradually released and supply is switched OFF.

Result:
Thus the energy in a single phase was measured using energy meter.
MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE TO EARTH OF AN ELECTRICAL
EQUIPMENT

Aim:
To measure the earth resistance using megger.
Materials Required:

Tools Required:

Theory:
Earthing means generally connected to the mass of the earth. It shall be in such a means as to
ensure at all times an immediate & safe discharge of electric current due to leakage, fault etc. All
metallic parts of every electrical insulation such as conduit, metallic sheathing, metallic panels, motor,
gear, Transformer regulator shall be earthed using continuous bus wire if one earth bus for installation
is found impracticable move than one earthing system shall be introduced the earthing conductors
when taken outdoors to the earthing point, shall be incased in pipe securely supported and continued
upto point not less than 0.3m below the ground. No joints are permitted in earth bus whenever there is
lighting conductors system installed in a building. Its earthing shall not be bonded to the earthing of
electric installation. Before the electric supply on apparatus is energized all earthing system shall be
tested for electrical resistance to ensure efficient earthing. It shall not be more than 2ohms including
the ohmic value of earth electrode.

PROCEDURE:
• Collect the materials required for this experiment.
• The terminal of ohmmeter E is first connected to earth.
• The two earth rods are fixed to feet away from the ohmmeter. So that they are triangle with base 50
feet.
• The wires are connected to each rod and the ohmmeter terminals are shown.
• The ohmmeter is ranked and the readings are taken.
TABULAR COLUMN:

RESULT:
The earth resistance was measured in the given area.
 STUDY OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS AND
EQUIPMENT

Aim:
To study electronic components and equipment such as resistor colour coding, usage of CRO
and Multimeter.

Components Required:
1. Resistors
2. Oscilloscope
3. Multimeter

Theory:
Resistor colour coding:
Resistor colour coding is used to indicate the values or ratings of resistors. It is also used in
capacitors and inductors. The advantage of colour coding is that essential information can be marked
on small components of cylindrical shape without the need to read tiny printing. Resistor values are
always coded in ohms.
Band A is the first significant digit of component value.
Band B is the second significant digit.
Band C is the decimal multiplier.
Band D if present, indicates tolerance of value in percent (no colour means 20%).
For example, a resistor with bands of yellow, violet, red and gold will have first digit 4(yellow),
second digit 7(violet), followed by 2(red) zeros: 4,700 ohms. Gold signifies that the tolerance is ±5%.
Actual resistor value = 4700 ±5% Ω.

Tabulation:

S.No Resistance using Color Coding Resistance using Multimeter

Oscilloscope:
An oscilloscope (sometimes abbreviated CRO for cathode-ray oscilloscope) is electronic test
equipment that allows signal voltages to be viewed, usually as a two dimensional graph of one or
more electrical potential differences (vertical axis) plotted as a function of time or some other voltage
(horizontal axis).
 A typical oscilloscope is a rectangular box with a small screen, numerous input connectors
and control knobs and buttons on the front panel. To aid measurement, a grid called the graticule is
drawn on the face of the screen. Each square in the graticule is known as a division. The signal to be
measured is fed to one of the input connectors, which is usually a coaxial connector such as a BNC or
N type.
In the simplest mode, the oscilloscope repeatedly draws a horizontal line called the trace
across the middle of the screen from left to right. One of the controls, the time base control, sets the
speed at which the line is drawn, and is calibrated in seconds per division. If the input voltage departs
from zero, the trace is deflected either upwards or downwards. Another control, the vertical control,
sets the scale of the vertical deflection, and is calibrated in volts per division. The resulting trace is a
graph of voltage against time.
If the input signal is periodic, a nearly stable trace can be obtained just by setting the time
base to match the frequency of the input signal. For example, if the input signal is a 50 Hz sine wave,
then its period is 20 ms, so the time base should be adjusted so that the time between successive
horizontal sweeps is 20ms. This mode is called continual sweep. To provide a more stable trace,
modern oscilloscopes have a function called the trigger. When using triggering, the scope will pause
each time the sweep reaches the extreme right side of the screen. The scope then waits for a specified
event before drawing the next trace. The trigger event is usually the input waveform reaching some
user-specified threshold voltage in the specified direction (going positive or going negative).
The effect is to resynchronise the time base to the input signal, preventing horizontal drift of
the trace. In this way, triggering allows the display of periodic signals such as sine waves and square
waves. Trigger circuits also allow the display of no periodic signals such as a single pulses or pulses
that don’t recur at a fixed rate.
Most oscilloscopes allow the user to bypass the time base and feed an external signal into
the horizontal amplifier. This is called X-Y
mode, and is useful for viewing the phase
relationship between tow signals, which is
commonly done in radio and television
engineering. When the two signals are
sinusoids of varying frequency and phase,

the resulting trace is called a Lissajous curve.

Oscilloscopes may have two or more input channels,
allowing them to display more than one input signal on
the screen. Usually, the oscilloscope has a separate set
of vertical controls for each channel, but only one triggering system and time base.

Usage of CRO:
One of the most frequent uses of oscilloscopes is troubleshooting malfunctioning
electronic equipments. An oscilloscope can graphically show signals: whereas a voltmeter can show
totally unexpected voltage, a scope may reveal that the circuit is oscillating. In other cases, the precise
shape of pulse is important.
In electronic equipment, for example, the connections between stages (e.g. electronic mixers,
electronic oscillators, amplifiers) may be ‘probed’ for the expected signal, using the scope as a simple
signal tracer. If the expected signal is absent or incorrect, some preceding stage of the electronics
circuit is not operating correctly. Since most failures occur because of a single faculty component,
each measurement can prove that half of the stages of a complex piece of equipment either work or
probably did not cause the fault.
Once the faulty stage is discovered, further probing can usually tell a skilled technician
exactly which component has failed. Once the component is replaced, the unit can be restored to
service, or at least the next fault can be isolated. Another use is to check newly designed circuitry.
Often a newly designed circuit will suffer from design errors, bad voltage levels, electrical noise etc.

Multimeter:
A Multimeter is an electronic measuring instrument that contributes several functions in one
unit. The most basic instruments include ammeter, voltmeter, and ohmmeter. Analog multimeters are
sometimes referred to as “volt-ohmmeters”, abbreviated as VOM. A multimeter is a handheld device
and used to find basic fault and for field service work. It can measure to seven or eight and a half digit
of accuracy. Current, voltage and resistance measurements are considered standard features for
multimeter.
A multimeter may be implemented with an analog meter deflected by an electromagnet, as a
classic galvanometer; or with a digital display such as an LCD or vacuum fluorescent display.
Modern multimeters are, exclusively digital and identified by the term DMM or digital multimeter. In
such an instrument, the signal under test is converted to a digital voltage and an amplifier with an
electronically controlled gain preconditions the signal.
Since the digital display directly indicates a quantity as a number, there is no risk of error
when viewing a reading. Similarly, better circuitry and electronics have improved the meter accuracy.
Older analog meters might have basic accuracies of ±5%. Modern potable DMMs have accuracies as
good as ±0.025%

Result:
Thus the resistor colour coding, usage of CRO and multimeter are studied.
 STUDY AND VERIFICATION OF LOGIC GATES
Aim:
To verify the truth table of the logic gates AND, OR, NOT, NAND & NOR using 74XX ICs.

Components Required:
IC 7432(OR Gate)
IC 7408(AND Gate)
IC 7404(NOT Gate)
IC 7400(NAND Gate)
IC 7402(NOR Gate)
Digital IC trainer kit

Theory:
Logic gates are digital circuits with one or more input signals and only one output signal.
Gates are digital circuits because the input and output signals are either low or high voltages. Gates
are often called logic circuits because they can be analysed using Boolean algebra.

AND Gate:
An AND gate can have two or more inputs but only one output. Its output can go to logic 1 if
all its inputs are at the high state.

The Boolean expression for a two input AND gate is: F=x.y

X Y F= x.y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

OR Gate:
An OR gate can have two or more inputs but only one output. Its
output will be at logic 1 if any or both of its inputs are at the high
state. The Boolean expression for a two input OR gate is: F = x + y

X Y F= x+y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

NOT Gate:
A NOT gate has a single input and a single output. It is also called as an inverter. The output
will be at logic 1 if its input is at low state, otherwise its output will be at logic 0. Thus its output is
the complement of its input. F= x’

X F= x’
0 1
1 0
NAND Gate:
It is the combination of AND gate and NOT gate. It is also called as an universal gate. The
output of this gate will go to logic 0 iff all its inputs are at the high state. The Boolean expression for a
two input NAND gate is F = (x.y)_

X Y F=
(x.y)’
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

NOR Gate:
It is the combination of an OR gate and a NOT gate. It is also called as an universal gate. The
output of this gate will go to logic 1 iff all its inputs are at the low state.The Boolean expression for a
two input NOR gate is: F = (x + y)_
X Y F=
(x+y)’
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
Pin Diagram:
Procedure:

1. Connections are given as per the logic diagrams and the pin-out diagrams of the individual ICs.
2. Supply and ground connections are given to the ICs.
3. Inputs are applied by using the switches that provide the logic High and Low levels.
4. The outputs are observed by using the LED’s.

Result:
Thus the logic gates AND, OR, NOT, NAND and NOR are studied and their truth tables
verified.
 GENERATION OF CLOCK SIGNAL

Aim:
To generate a clock signal of 1KHz (square waveform) by an astable multivibrator using
IC555 timer.

Apparatus Required:

Theory:
The 555 timers is a highly stable device for generating accurate time delay or oscillation. A
single 555 timer can provide time delay ranging from microseconds to hours whereas counter timer
can have a maximum timing range of days. An astable multi vibrator is a square waveform generator.
Forcing the Op-amp to operate in the saturation region generates square waveform. It is a free running
symmetrical multivibrator because it does not require any external trigger

Design:
Case 1:
Case 2:

Circuit Diagram:
Tabulation:
Amplitude (v) Time Period(mS)
Output

Model Graph:

Procedure:
1. The connections are given as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. The square waveform is obtained at output pin of Op-amp.
3. Note the amplitude & Time period of the of the waveform & Plot it in
the graph.
4. Duty cycle is calculated using the formula given.

Result:
Thus IC555 timer was operated in astable mode to generate square wave.
Theoretical Duty cycle: 25%
Practical Duty cycle : -----------.
 MEASUREMENT OF RIPPLE FACTOR FOR HALF-WAVE AND
FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER

Aim:
To study half-wave and full-wave rectifiers and measure the ripple factors with and without
capacitor filter.

Apparatus Required:

Theory:

The process of converting AC voltage and current to Direct current is called rectification. An
electronic device that offers a low resistance to current in one direction and a high resistance in the
other direction is capable of converting a sinusoidal waveform into a unidirectional waveform. Diodes
have this characteristic, which makes it a useful component in the design of rectifiers. In order to
achieve a constant/pure DC voltage at the output, filtering should be done to the pulsating DC output
of the rectifier. The output varies with the variation in AC mains. Hence a voltage regulator is used to
maintain the output voltage at the same value. Diodes are used in a rectifier circuit to convert AC into
DC. When only one half of the AC cycle is rectified, it is known as half-wave rectification. When
both the half cycles are rectified, it is known as full-wave rectification.

Procedure:
Half Wave Rectifier:

(i) Without Capacitor filter:

1. Test your transformer: Give 230v, 50Hz source to the primary coil of the transformer and observe
the AC waveform of rated value without any distortion at the secondary of the transformer.
2. Connect the half wave rectifier as shown in figure.
3. Measure the Vdc & Vac using DC and AC Voltmeters.
4. Calculate the Ripple factor
5. Compare the theoretical ripple factor with the practical ripple factor.
(ii) With capacitor:
1. Connect the half wave rectifier with filter circuit as shown in fig.
2. Assume r= 10% of ripple peak-to-peak voltage for R= 500W. Calculate C using the formula
r=
3. Connect CRO across load.
4. Keep the CRO switch in ground mode and observe the horizontal line and adjust it to the X-axis.
5. Switch the CRO into DC mode and observe the waveform.

Full wave Rectifier:

(i) Without Capacitor:

1. Test your transformer: Give 230v, 50Hz source to the primary coil of the transformer and observe
the AC waveform of rated value without any distortion at the secondary of the transformer.
2. Connect the full wave rectifier as shown in figure.
3. Measure the Vdc & Vac using DC and AC Voltmeters.
4. Calculate the Ripple factor
5. Compare the theoretical ripple factor with the practical ripple factor.

(ii)With capacitor:
1. To plot ripple peak-to-peak voltage Vs. Idc to choose C a ripple factor of 0.15 is assumed.
2. To get a variable load resistance a number of 500Ω, 5W of resistance are to be connected in
parallel. Hence Idc = Vdc /(N X 500). Where N is number of 500Ω resistances connected in parallel.
3. Plot the graph Idc Vs ripple peak to peak.
4. The above steps are repeated for the various values of capacitance.
Model Graph:
Result:

Thus the Half-wave and Full-wave rectifiers, with and without filters are constructed and their
ripple factors are obtained.
 SOLDERING AND CHECKING CONTINUITY
Aim:
To practice soldering of plates and wires
Tools Required:
1. Soldering iron
2. Solder and
3. Flux
Theory:
Soldering:
Soldering is the process of joining thin metal plates or wires made of steel, copper or brass. It
is very commonly used to join wires in electrical work and mount electronic components on a circuit
board. The joining material used in soldering is called as solder or filler rod. An alloy of tin and lead
is commonly used as the solder. The flux is used to clean the surface of the plates/wires to be
soldered. Aluminium chloride or zinc chloride is commonly used as flux. A good soldering iron is a
variable temperature setting type with interchangeable irons and tips. The tip should be removed
regularly to prevent oxidation scale from accumulating between the heating element and the tip.

Procedure:
1. The surface to be soldered is cleaned and flux applied.
2. The soldering iron is heated to the required temperature.
3. The soldering iron melts the solder rod and a thin film of solder spreads over the surface to
join the plates/wires.

Soldering Simple Electronic Components:

A printed circuit board (PCB) consists of copper strips and pads bonded to a plastic board.
The copper strip is the network of interconnecting conductive path. Leads of components mounted on
the board are inserted through holes on the board and the conductive copper. These leads are soldered
to the copper at the end of the hole. If excessive heat is applied to copper, it may get lifted from the
board or the components on the board get damaged. Soldering pencil gun of about 30 Watts is used to
heat the junction. The surface of copper bonded to the board should be properly prepared and
cleaned before soldering. Flux is applied on circuits and component leads. Check the conductive strips
and pads on the board before soldering. Avoid excess solder to prevent two copper paths from
bridging. When solder globules form on the junction area, remove them by cleaning the soldering tip
using a cloth.

Checking Continuity:
The continuity of a wire conductor without a break has practically zero ohms of resistance.
Therefore, an ohmmeter may be used to test continuity. To test continuity, select the lowest ohm
range. A wire may have an internal break, which is not visible due to insulation, or the wire may have
a bad connection at the terminals. Checking for zero ohms between any two points tests the
continuity. A break in the conducting path is evident from the reading of infinite resistance.
In a cable of wires, individual wires are identified with colours. Consider the figure, where
the individual wires are not seen, but you wish to find the wire that connects to terminal A. This is
done by, checking continuity of each wire to terminal A. The wire that has zero ohms is the one
connected to this terminal. Continuity of a long cable may be tested by temporarily short-circuiting
the other ends of the wires. The continuity of both wires may be checked for zero ohms.
In a digital multimeter, a beep mode is available to check continuity. The connectivity between the
terminals is identified by the beep sound.

Result:
The electronic components are soldered and continuity of a circuit or wire is checked.