CHAPTER 3

CONTEXT AND QUANTIFIERS

In any form of communication, it is important that the individuals have an

appropriate context in mind. If one goes into the middle of a mathematical lecture
and sees the equation x2 − 1 = 0, it is useful for the viewer to know what the writer
means by the letter x and the symbol 1.

Often the context is well understood by the conversants, but it is always a good
idea to establish it at the start of the discussion. For example, many mathematical
statements involve one or more variables whose values usually affect the truth or
falsity of the statement, so we should always make clear what the possible values of
the variables maybe.

3.1 Propositional Function

Let A be a given set. A propositional function on A is an expression denoted
by P (x) which has the property that P (a) is true or false for each a ∈ A. In other
words, P (x) is a propositional function on A if P (x) becomes a statement whenever
any element a ∈ A is substituted for the variable x.

Example 3.1.1
1. Let P (x) be x + 4 > 9. Then P (x) is a propositional function on N, Q, or R
since inequalities are defined on the sets N, Q, and R.

2. Let P (x) be x + 4 > 9. Then P (x) is not a propositional function on C, the

set of complex numbers, since inequalities are not defined for all complex numbers.
√
3. Let P (x) be x + 1. Then P (x) is a propositional function on R+ ∪ {0}, the
set of all nonnegative real numbers. Hence, P (x) is not a propositional function on
R− , the set of all negative real numbers.

If P (x) is a propositional function on a set A, then the set of elements a ∈ A with

the property that P (a) is true is called the truth set TP of P (x). In other words,

TP = {x ∈ A : P (x) is true }.

Example 3.1.2
1. Let P (x) be x + 4 > 9 defined on the set N of natural numbers. Then

TP = {x ∈ N : x + 4 > 9} = {x ∈ N : x > 5} = {6, 7, 8, 9, ...}.

2. Let P (x) be x2 > 0 defined on the set R of real numbers. Then

TP = {x ∈ R : x2 > 0} = R\{0}.

3. Let P (x) be x2 + 1 > 0 defined on the set R of real numbers. Then

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 TP = {x ∈ R : x2 + 1 > 0} = R.
4. Let P (x) be x2 < 0 defined on the set R of real numbers. Then
TP = {x ∈ R : x2 < 0} = { }.

Note that if P (x) is a propositional function defined on a set A, then P (x) could
be true for all x ∈ A, for some x ∈ A, or for no x ∈ A. This means that the truth
set of P (x) could be one of the following:
TP = A or TP ⊆ A or TP = { }.

Example 3.1.3
1. Let P (x) be x2 ≥ 0 defined on the set R of real number. Then
TP = {x ∈ R : x2 ≥ 0} = R.
2. Let P (x) be x2 < 0 defined on the set R of real numbers. Then
TP = {x ∈ R : x2 < 0} = { }.
3. Let P (x) be x2 > 0 defined on the set R of real numbers. Then
TP = {x ∈ R : x2 > 0} = R\{0}.

Example 3.1.4 Find the truth set of the following propositional function:
1. Let P (x) be x2 − 5x + 4 = 0 defined on the set R of real numbers.
2. Let P (x) be 3x − 4 > 0 defined on the set R of real numbers.
3. Let P (x) be 3x − 4 = 0 defined on the set Z of integers.
4. Let P (x) be 2x2 − 5x + 3 = 0 defined on the set Z of integers.
5. Let P (x) be x2 − 2 = 0 defined on the set Q of rational numbers.

Solution:
1. Let P (x) be x2 − 5x + 4 = 0 defined on the set R of real numbers.
TP = {x ∈ R : x2 − 5x + 4 = 0}
= {x ∈ R : (x − 1)(x − 4) = 0}
= {x ∈ R : x − 1 = 0 or x − 4 = 0}
= {x ∈ R : x = 1 or x = 4}
= {1, 4}.

2. Let P (x) be 3x − 4 > 0 defined on the set R of real numbers.

TP = {x ∈ R : 3x − 4 > 0}
= {x ∈ R : 3x > 4}
 
4
= x∈R:x>
3
 
4
= , +∞ .
3

2
3. Let P (x) be 3x − 4 = 0 defined on the set Z of integers.

TP = {x ∈ Z : 3x − 4 = 0}
= {x ∈ Z : 3x = 4}
 
4
= x∈Z:x=
3
= {x ∈ Z : x ∈
/ Z}
= { }.

4. Let P (x) be 2x2 − 5x + 3 = 0 defined on the set Z of integers.

TP = {x ∈ Z : 2x2 − 5x + 3 = 0}
= {x ∈ Z : (x − 1)(2x − 3) = 0}
= {x ∈ Z : x − 1 = 0 or 2x − 3 = 0}
 
3
= x ∈ Z : x = 1 or x =
2
 
3
= x ∈ Z : x = 1 ∈ Z or x = ∈ /Z
2
= {1}.

5. Let P (x) be x2 − 2 = 0 defined on the set Q of rational numbers.

TP = {x ∈ Q : x2 − 2 = 0}
√ √
= {x ∈ Q : (x + 2)(x − 2) = 0}
√ √
= {x ∈ Q : x + 2 = 0 or x − 2 = 0}
√ √
= {x ∈ Q : x = − 2 or x = 2}
√ √
= {x ∈ Q : x = − 2 ∈ / Q or x = 2 ∈
/ Q}
= { }. 

3.2 Universal Quantifier

Let P (x) be a propositional function on the set A. Then

∀ x ∈ A, P (x)

is a statement which reads ”For all x in A, P (x)”. The symbol ∀ is called the
universal quantifier.

Note that the statement

∀ x ∈ A, P (x) is equivalent to the statement TP = {x|x ∈ A, P (x)} = A.

Thus,

if TP = {x ∈ A, P (x)} = A, then ∀ x, P (x) is true;

if TP = {x ∈ A, P (x)} =
6 A, then ∀ x, P (x) is false.

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Example 3.2.1 Determine whether the given statement is true or false.
1. ∀ x ∈ R, x2 − 1 = 0.
2. ∀ x ∈ Z, 2x > x.
3. ∀ x ∈ N, 2x > x.
4. ∀ x ∈ R, x2 ≥ 0.
5. ∀ x ∈ R, x2 < 0.

Solution:
1. ∀ x ∈ R, x2 − 1 = 0.
TP = {x ∈ R : x2 − 1 = 0}
= {x ∈ R : (x + 1)(x − 1) = 0}
= {x ∈ R : x = −1 or x = 1}
= {1, −1}.
Hence, TP 6= R. Therefore, the statement is false.

2. ∀ x ∈ Z, 2x > x.
TP = {x ∈ Z : 2x > x}
= {x ∈ Z : 2x − x > 0}
= {x ∈ Z : x > 0}
= {1, 2, 3, ...}.
Hence, TP 6= Z. Therefore, the statement is false.

3. ∀ x ∈ N, 2x > x.
TP = {x ∈ N : 2x > x}
= {x ∈ N : x > 0}
= {1, 2, 3, ...}.
Hence, TP = N. Therefore, the statement is true.

4. ∀ x ∈ R, x2 ≥ 0.
TP = {x ∈ R : x2 ≥ 0}
= R.
Hence, TP = R. Therefore, the statement is true.

5. ∀ x ∈ R, x2 < 0.
TP = {x ∈ R : x2 < 0}
= { }.
Hence, TP 6= R. Therefore, the statement is false. 

3.3 Existential Quantifier

Let P (x) be a propositional function on the set A. Then

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 ∃ x ∈ A, P (x)
is a statement which reads ”There exists an x in A such that P (x)”. The symbol ∃
is called the existential quantifier.

Note that the statement

∃ x ∈ A, P (x) is equivalent to the statement TP = {x|x ∈ A, P (x)} =
6 { }.
Thus,
if TP = {x ∈ A|P (x)} =
6 { }, then ∃ x, P (x) is true;

if TP = {x|x ∈ A, P (x)} = { }, then ∃ x, P (x) is false.

Example 3.2.1 Determine whether the given statement is true or false.

1. ∃ x ∈ R, x2 − 1 = 0.
2. ∃ x ∈ N, 2x < x.
3. ∃ x ∈ Q, x2 − 2 = 0.
4. ∃ x ∈ R, x2 ≥ 0.
5. ∃ x ∈ R, x2 < 0.

Solution:
1. ∃ x ∈ R, x2 − 1 = 0.
TP = {x ∈ R : x2 − 1 = 0}
= {x ∈ R : (x + 1)(x − 1) = 0}
= {x ∈ R : x = −1 or x = 1}
= {1, −1}.

Hence, TP 6= { }. Therefore, the statement is true.

2. ∃ x ∈ N, 2x < x.
TP = {x ∈ N : 2x < x}
= {x ∈ N : 2x − x < 0}
= {x ∈ N : x < 0}
= {x ∈ N : x ∈
/ N}
= { }.

Hence, TP = { }. Therefore, the statement is false.

3. ∃ x ∈ Q, x2 − 2 = 0.
TP = {x ∈ Q : x2 − 2 = 0}
√ √
= {x ∈ Q : (x + 2)(x − 2) = 0}
√ √
= {x ∈ Q : x + 2 = 0 or x − 2 = 0}
√ √
= {x ∈ Q : x = − 2 or x = 2}
= { }.

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Hence, TP = { }. Therefore, the statement is false.

4. ∃ x ∈ R, x2 ≥ 0.

TP = {x ∈ R : x2 ≥ 0}
= R.

Hence, TP 6= { }. Therefore, the statement is true.

5. ∃ x ∈ R, x2 < 0.

TP = {x ∈ R : x2 < 0}
= { }.

Hence, TP = { }. Therefore, the statement is false. 

3.4 DeMorgan’s Laws

Theorem 3.4.1 (DeMorgan)
(1) ∼ [∀ x ∈ A, P (x)] ≡ ∃ x ∈ A, ∼ P (x).
(2) ∼ [∃ x ∈ A, P (x)] ≡ ∀ x ∈ A, ∼ P (x).

Example 3.4.2 Write the negation using Theorem 3.4.1:

1. ∀ x ∈ R, x2 − 1 = 0.
2. ∀ x ∈ Q, x2 − 2 6= 0.
3. ∀ x ∈ Z, 2x > x.
4. ∀ x ∈ N, 2x < x.
5. ∀ x ∈ R, x2 ≥ 0.
6. ∃ x ∈ R, x2 − 1 = 0.
7. ∃ x ∈ Q, x2 − 2 = 0.
8. ∃ x ∈ Z, 2x > x.
9. ∃ x ∈ N, 2x < x.
10. ∃ x ∈ R, x2 ≥ 0.

Solution:
1. ∀ x ∈ R, x2 − 1 = 0.
Negation: ∃ x ∈ R, x2 − 1 6= 0.

2. ∀ x ∈ Q, x2 − 2 6= 0.
Negation: ∃ x ∈ Q, x2 − 2 = 0.

3. ∀ x ∈ Z, 2x > x.
Negation: ∃ x ∈ Z, 2x 6> x. or ∃ x ∈ Z, 2x ≤ x.

4. ∀ x ∈ N, 2x < x.
Negation: ∃ x ∈ N, 2x 6< x. or ∃ x ∈ N, 2x ≥ x.

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5. ∀ x ∈ R, x2 ≥ 0.
Negation: ∃ x ∈ R, x2 6≥ 0. or ∃ x ∈ R, x2 < 0.

6. ∃ x ∈ R, x2 − 1 = 0.
Negation: ∀ x ∈ R, x2 − 1 6= 0.

7. ∃ x ∈ Q, x2 − 2 = 0.
Negation: ∀ x ∈ Q, x2 − 2 6= 0.

8. ∃ x ∈ Z, 2x > x.
Negation: ∀ x ∈ Z, 2x 6> 0. or ∀ x ∈ Z, 2x ≤ x.

9. ∃ x ∈ N, 2x < x.
Negation: ∀ x ∈ N, 2x 6< x. or ∀ x ∈ N, 2x ≥ x.

10. ∃ x ∈ R, x2 ≥ 0.
Negation: ∀ x ∈ R, x2 6≥ 0. or ∀ x ∈ R, x2 < 0. 

3.5 Counter-Example
By Theorem 3.4.1(1), ∼ [∀ x ∈ A, P (x)] ≡ ∃ x ∈ A, ∼ P (x). Therefore, to show
that a statement ∀ x ∈ A, P (x) is false, it is equivalent to showing that ∃ x ∈ A, ∼
P (x) is true, that is, that there is an element x0 with the property that P (x0 ) is false.
Such an element is called a counter-example to the statement ∀ x ∈ A, P (x).

To find a counter-example to a false statement ∀ x ∈ A, P (x), find an element

x0 ∈ A with the property that P (x0 ) is false.

Example 3.5.1 The statement ∀ x ∈ R, x2 − 1 = 0 is false. Find a counter-example

to the statement.

Solution: Consider x0 = 0 ∈ R. Then (0)2 − 1 = 0. Thus, −1 = 0, which is false.

Hence, (0)2 − 1 = 0 is false. Therefore, x0 = 0 is a counter-example to the statement
∀ x ∈ R, x2 − 1 = 0. 

Example 3.5.2 The statement ∀ x ∈ Z, 2x > x is false. Find a counter-example to

the statement.

Solution: Consider x0 = 0 ∈ Z. Then 2(0) > 0. Thus, 0 > 0, which is false.

Hence, 2(0) > 0 is false. Therefore, x0 = 0 is a counter-example to the statement
∀ x ∈ Z, 2x > x. 

Example 3.5.3 The statement ∀ x ∈ R, x2 < 0 is false. Find a counter-example to

the statement.

Solution: Consider x0 = 1 ∈ R. Then (1)2 < 0. THus, 1 < 0, which is false.

Hence, (1)2 < 0 is false. Therefore, x0 = 1 is a counter-example to the statement
∀ x ∈ R, x2 < 0. 

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Example 3.5.4 The the statement ∀ x ∈ R, x2 ≥ x is false. Find a counter-example
to the statement.

Solution: Consider x0 = 12 ∈ R. Then ( 12 )2 ≥ 12 . Thus, 14 ≥ 21 , which is false.

Hence, ( 12 )2 ≥ 21 is false. Therefore, x0 = 21 is a counter-example to the statement
∀ x ∈ R, x2 ≥ x. 

Example 3.5.5 Let B = {5, 7, 9, 11}. Find a counter-example for each of the
following statement.
1. ∀ x ∈ B, x is prime.
2. ∀ x ∈ B, x + 2 < 12.

Solution:
1. Consider x0 = 9. Then ”9 is prime” is false. Therefore, x0 = 9 is a counter-example
to the statement ∀ x ∈ B, x is prime.

2. Consider x0 = 11. Then 11 + 2 < 12. Thus, 13 < 11, which is false. Hence,
11 + 2 < 12 is false. Therefore, x0 = 11 is a counter-example to the statement
∀ x ∈ B, x + 2 < 12. 

To show that a statement ∀ x ∈ A, P (x)] is false, it is equivalent to showing that

∃ x ∈ A, ∼ P (x) is true.

Example 3.5.6 Show that the statement ∀ x ∈ R, x2 > |x| is false.

Solution: Consider 0 ∈ R. Then (0)2 > |0|. Thus, 0 > 0, which is false. Hence,
∃ 0 ∈ R, (0)2 6> |0|. Therefore, the statement ∀ x ∈ R, x2 > |x| is false. 

Example 3.5.7 Show that the statement ∀ x ∈ Z, 2x > x is false.

Solution: Consider 0 ∈ Z. Then 2(0) > 0. Thus, 0 > 0, which is false. Hence,
∃ 0 ∈ Z, 2(0) 6> 0. Therefore, the statement ∀ x ∈ Z, 2x > x is false. 

Example 3.5.8 Show that the statement ∀ x ∈ R, x2 < 0 is false.

Solution: Consider 1 ∈ R. Then (1)2 < 0. Thus, 1 < 0, which is false. Hence,
∃ 1 ∈ R, (1)2 6< 0. Therefore, the statement ∀ x ∈ R, x2 < 0 is false. 

Example 3.5.9 Show that the statement ∀ x ∈ R, x2 ≥ x is false.

Solution: Consider 21 ∈ R. Then ( 12 )2 ≥ 21 . Thus, 14 ≥ 12 , which is false. Hence,

∃ 12 ∈ R, ( 12 )2 6≥ 12 . Therefore, the statement ∀ x ∈ R, x2 ≥ x is false. 

Example 3.5.9 Show that the statement ∀ x ∈ R, x2 ≥ x is false.

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Solution: Consider 12 ∈ R. Then ( 12 )2 ≥ 21 . Thus, 14 ≥ 12 , which is false. Hence,
∃ 12 ∈ R, ( 12 )2 6≥ 12 . Therefore, the statement ∀ x ∈ R, x2 ≥ x is false. 

Example 3.5.10 Let P be the set of all prime numbers. Show that the statement
∀ x ∈ P, ”x is odd” is false.

Solution: Consider 2 ∈ P. Then ”2 is odd” is false. Hence, ∃ 2 ∈ P, ”2 is not odd”.

Therefore, the statement ∀ x ∈ P, ”x is odd” is false. 

3.6 Exercises
I. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Determine the truth value of the following statements.
1. ∃ x ∈ A, x + 3 = 10.
2. ∀ x ∈ A, x + 3 < 10.
3. ∃ x ∈ A, x + 3 < 5.
4. ∀ x ∈ A, x
√+ 3 ≤ 7.
5. ∃ x ∈ A, x ≥ x.

II. Determine the truth value of the following statements.

1. ∃ x ∈ R, |x| = −x.
2. ∀ x ∈ Q, x + 3 ≥ x.
3. ∃ x ∈ Z, x + 2 = x2 .
4. ∃ x ∈ C, x√2 + 1 = 0.
5. ∃ x ∈ Q, 3 x = x.

III. Negate each of the statements in I and II using DeMorgan’s Laws.

IV. Let B = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}. Find a counter-example for each of the following
statements.
1. ∀ x ∈ B, x + 5 < 12.
2. ∀ x ∈ B, x is a prime.
3. ∀ x ∈ B, x2 > 1.
4. ∀ x ∈ B, x is even.
5. ∀ x ∈ B, x2 ≤ 4.