1

CHAPTER 5
SETS

5.1 Notation and Terminology

Given a set S, we shall use the notation a ∈ S to read a is an element
of S and a ∈
/ S to read x is not an element of S. For example, if S = {1, 2, 3},
then 1 ∈ S and 4 ∈/ S.

Definition 5.1.1 A set A is a subset of a set S if for every x ∈ A, x ∈ S. In

this case we write A ⊆ S.

Restatement of Definition 5.1.1:

A ⊆ S ⇔ ∀ x ∈ A, x ∈ S.
A 6⊆ S ⇔ ∃ x ∈ A, such that x ∈
/ S.

If A ⊆ S and A 6= S, then we write A ⊂ S and say that A is a proper

subset of S.

Theorem 5.1.2 Let A and B be sets. Then A = B if and only if A ⊆ B and

B ⊆ A.

The null set or empty set is the set with no elements. We usually
denote the empty set by ∅.

Theorem 5.1.3 For any set A, we have ∅ ⊆ A.

Notational remark: Given a set we shall use the notation A = {a ∈ S :

P (a)} to read ”‘A is the set of all elements in S which the pproperty holds”’.
For example, if S is the set of integers and A is the subset of positive integers,
then we can describe A as A = {a ∈ Z : a > 0}.

5.2 Basic Set Operations

Definition 5.2.1 If A and B are sets, then their union, denoted by A ∪ B, is
the set of all elements that belong to either A or B. In other words, we have
 2

A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}.

Restatement of Definition 5.2.1:

x ∈ A ∪ B ⇔ x ∈ A or x ∈ B.
x∈/ A∪B ⇔ x∈ / A and x ∈
/ B.

Theorem 5.2.2 Let A, B, and C be sets. Then

1. A ∪ B = B ∪ A.
2. A ⊆ A ∪ B and B ⊆ A ∪ B.
3. (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C).
Proof : 1.

A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
= {x : x ∈ B or x ∈ A}
= B ∪ A.

Therefore, A ∪ B = B ∪ A.

2. Let x ∈ A. Suppose x ∈ / A ∪ B. Then x ∈ / A and x ∈

/ B. Thus,
x∈/ A. This is a contradiction to the hypothesis. Hence, x ∈ A∪B. Therefore,
A ⊆ A ∪ B.
The proof of the other statement is similar.

3.
(A ∪ B) ∪ C = {x : x ∈ (A ∪ B) or x ∈ C}
= {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B, or x ∈ C}
= {x : x ∈ A or, x ∈ B or x ∈ C}
= {x : x ∈ A or, x ∈ (B ∪ C)}
= A ∪ (B ∪ C).

Therefore, (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C). 

Definition 5.2.3 If A and B are sets, then their intersection, denoted by

A ∩ B, is the set of all elements that belong to both A and B. In other words,
we have

A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.
 3

Restatement of Definition 5.2.3:

x ∈ A ∩ B ⇔ x ∈ A and x ∈ B.
x∈/ A∩B ⇔ x∈ / A or x ∈
/ B.

Theorem 5.2.4 Let A and B be sets. Then

1. A ∩ B = B ∩ A.
2. A ∩ B ⊆ A and A ∩ B ⊆ B.
3. (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C).
Proof : 1.

A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}
= {x : x ∈ B and x ∈ A}
= B ∩ A.

Therefore, A ∩ B = B ∩ A.

2. Let x ∈ A ∩ B. Then x ∈ A and x ∈ B. Thus, x ∈ A. Therefore,

A ∩ B ⊆ A.
The proof of the other statement is similar.

3.
(A ∩ B) ∩ C = {x : x ∈ (A ∩ B) and x ∈ C}
= {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B, and x ∈ C}
= {x : x ∈ A and, x ∈ B and x ∈ C}
= {x : x ∈ A and, x ∈ (B ∩ C)}
= A ∩ (B ∩ C).

Therefore, (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C). 

Definition 5.2.5 If A and B are sets, then their difference, denoted by A\B,
is the set of all elements that belong to A but which do not belong to B. In
other words, we have
A\B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈
/ B}.

Restatement of Definition 5.2.5:

x ∈ A\B ⇔ x ∈ A and x ∈ / B.
x∈/ A\B ⇔ x ∈ / A or x ∈ B.
 4

Theorem 5.2.6 Let A and B be sets. Then

1. A\B ⊆ A.
2. A\B, A ∩ B, and B\A are mutually disjoint.

Proof : 1. Let x ∈ A\B. Then x ∈ A and x ∈

/ B. Thus, x ∈ A. Therefore,
A\B ⊆ A.

2. We show that the sets are pairwise disjoint, that is, (A\B)∩(A∩B) =
∅, (A\B) ∩ (B\A)) = ∅, and (A ∩ B) ∩ (B\A)) = ∅. We prove only the first
statement using proof by contradiction.
Suppose (A\B) ∩ (A ∩ B) 6= ∅. Then there exists x such that x ∈
[(A\B) ∩ (A ∩ B)]. Thus, x ∈ (A\B) and x ∈ (A ∩ B). Hence, x ∈ A
and x ∈/ B, and x ∈ A and x ∈ B. By the commutative and associative
laws of propositions, we have x ∈ A and x ∈ A, and x ∈ / B and x ∈ B.
This implies that x ∈ / B and x ∈ B. This is a contradiction. Therefore,
(A\B) ∩ (A ∩ B) = ∅. 

Definition 5.2.7 The complement of set A relative to the universal set U ,

denoted by A0 , is the set of elements which are in U but not in A. In other
words, we have
A0 = {x : x ∈ U and x ∈
/ A}.

Restatement of Definition 5.2.7:

x ∈ A0 ⇔ x ∈ / A.
0
x∈/ A ⇔ x ∈ A.

Theorem 5.2.8 Let A be a set. Then

1. A ∪ A0 = U .
2. A ∩ A0 = ∅.
3. (A0 )0 = A.

Proof : 1. By Theorem 5.1.2, we have to show that A∪A0 ⊆ U and U ⊆ A∪A0 .

By the definition of the universal set U , we have A ∪ A0 ⊆ U .
Suppose U * A ∪ A0 . Then ∃x ∈ U such that x ∈ A ∪ A0 . Thus, x ∈ A
and x ∈ A0 . Hence, x ∈ A and x ∈ / A. This is a contradiction. Therefore,
U ⊆ A ∪ A0 .
Therefore, A ∪ A0 = U .
 5

2. Suppose A ∩ A0 6= ∅. Then ther exists x such that x ∈ A ∩ A0 .

Thus, x ∈ A and x ∈ A0 . Hence, x ∈ A and x ∈
/ A. This is a contradictiion.
0
Therefore, A ∩ A = ∅.

3. By Theorem 5.1.2, we have to show that (A0 )0 ⊆ A and A ⊆ (A0 )0 .

Let x ∈ (A0 )0 . Then x ∈
/ A0 . Thus, x ∈ A. Hence, (A0 )0 ⊆ A.
Let x ∈ A. Then x ∈ / A0 . Thus, x ∈ (A0 )0 . Hence, A ⊆ (A0 )0 .
Therefore, (A0 )0 = A. 

Theorem 5.2.9 Let A and B be sets. Then A\B = A ∩ B 0 .

Proof :

A\B = {x|x ∈ A and x ∈

/ B}
= {x|x ∈ A and x ∈ B 0 }
= A ∩ B0.

Therefore, A\B = A ∩ B 0 . 

Example 5.2.10 Let A be any set. Prove that A ∪ ∅ = A.

Proof : We show that (i) A ⊆ A ∪ ∅ and (ii) A ∪ ∅ ⊆ A.

(i) By Theorem 5.2.2(2), A ⊆ A ∪ ∅.
(ii) Suppose that A ∪ ∅ * A. Then there exists x ∈ A ∪ ∅ such that
x∈/ A. Thus, x ∈ A or x ∈ ∅ such that x ∈ / A. This implies that x ∈ A and
x∈/ A, or x ∈ ∅ and x ∈ / A. This is a contradiction. Hence, A ∪ ∅ ⊆ A.
Therefore, A ∪ ∅ = A. 

Example 5.2.11 Let A be any set. Prove that A ∩ ∅ = ∅.

Proof : We show that (i) ∅ ⊆ A ∩ ∅ and (ii) A ∩ ∅ ⊆ ∅.

(i) By Theorem 5.1.3, the empty set ∅ is a subset of any set. Thus,
∅ ⊆ A ∩ ∅.
(ii) By Theorem 5.2.4(2), A ∩ ∅ ⊆ ∅.
Therefore, A ∩ ∅ = ∅. 

Example 5.2.11 Let A be any set. Prove that A ∩ ∅ = ∅.

 6

Proof : Suppose that A ∩ ∅ 6= ∅. Then there exist an x such that x ∈ A ∩ ∅.

Thus, x ∈ A and x ∈ ∅. Hence, x ∈ ∅. This is a contradiction since ∅ has
no element. Therefore, A ∩ ∅ = ∅. 

Example 5.2.12 Let A be any set. Prove that A ∪ U = U .

Proof : We show that (i) A ∪ U ⊆ U and (ii) U ⊆ A ∪ U .

(i) Since U contains every set, we have A ∪ U ⊆ U .
(ii) By Theorem 5.2.4(2), U ⊆ A ∪ U .
Therefore, A ∪ U = U . 

Example 5.2.13 Let A be any set. Prove that A ∩ U = A.

Proof : We show that (i) A ∩ U ⊆ A and (ii) A ⊆ A ∩ U .

(i) By Theorem 5.2.4(2), A ∩ U ⊆ A.
(ii) Let x ∈ A. Since A ⊆ U , it follows that x ∈ U . Thus, x ∈ A and
x ∈ U . Hence, x ∈ A ∩ U . Therefore, A ⊆ A ∩ U .
Therefore, A ∩ U = A. 

Example 5.2.14 Let A and B be sets. Prove that B\A ⊆ A0 .

Proof : Let x ∈ (B\A). Then x ∈ B and x ∈ / A. Hence, x ∈ A0 .

/ A. Thus, x ∈
Therefore, B\A ⊆ A0 . 

Example 5.2.14 Let A and B be sets. Prove that B\A ⊆ A0 .

Proof : By Theorem 5.2.9, B\A = B ∩ A0 . By Theorem 5.2.4(2), B ∩ A0 ⊆ A0 .

Therefore, B\A ⊆ A0 . 

Example 5.2.15 Let A and B be sets. Prove that B\A0 = B ∩ A.

Proof :

B\A0 = {x|x ∈ B and x ∈

/ A0 }
= {x|x ∈ B and x ∈ A}
= B ∩ A.

Therefore, B\A0 = B ∩ A. 
 7

Example 5.2.15 Let A and B be sets. Prove that B\A0 = B ∩ A.

Proof : By Theorem 5.2.9, B\A0 = B ∩ (A0 )0 . By Theorem 5.2.8(3), (A0 )0 = A.

Therefore, B\A0 = B ∩ A. 

Example 5.2.16 Let A and B be sets. Prove that A\B ⊆ A ∪ B.

Proof :
A\B = {x|x ∈ A and x ∈
/ B}
= {x|x ∈ A and x ∈ B 0 }
= A ∩ B0
⊆ A, by Theorem 5.2.4(2)
⊆ A ∪ B, by Theorem 5.2.2(2).
Therefore, A\B ⊆ A ∪ B. 

Example 5.2.16 Let A and B be sets. Prove that A\B ⊆ A ∪ B.

Proof :
A\B = A ∩ B 0 , by Theorem 5.2.9
⊆ A, by Theorem 5.2.4(2)
⊆ A ∪ B, by Theorem 5.2.2(2).
Therefore, A\B ⊆ A ∪ B. 

Example 5.2.16 Let A and B be sets. Prove that A\B ⊆ A ∪ B.

Proof : Suppose that A\B 6⊆ A ∪ B. Then there exists x ∈ A\B such that
x∈/ A ∪ B. Thus, x ∈ A and x ∈ / B such that x ∈/ A and x ∈/ B. This implies
that x ∈ A and x ∈/ A. This is a contradiction. Therefore, A\B ⊆ A ∪ B. 

Example 5.2.17 Let A and B be sets. Prove that A0 \B 0 = B\A.

Proof :
A0 \B 0 = {x|x ∈ A0 and x ∈
/ B0}
= {x|x ∈ A0 and x ∈ B}
= {x|x ∈ B and x ∈ A0 }
= {x|x ∈ B and x ∈/ A}
= B\A.
 8

Therefore, A0 \B 0 = B\A. 

Example 5.2.17 Let A and B be sets. Prove that A0 \B 0 = B\A.

Proof :

A0 \B 0 = A0 ∩ (B 0 )0 , by Theorem 5.2.9
= A0 ∩ B, by Theorem 5.2.8(3)
= B ∩ A0 , by Theorem 5.2.4(1)
= B\A, by Theorem 5.2.9.

Therefore, A0 \B 0 = B\A. 

Example 5.2.18 Let A and B be sets. Prove that (A\B) ∩ B = ∅.

Proof : Suppose that (A\B) ∩ B 6= ∅. Then there exists x such that x ∈

(A\B) ∩ B. Thus, x ∈ (A\B) and x ∈ B. Hence, x ∈ A and x ∈ / B, and
x ∈ B. This implies that x ∈ A, and x ∈
/ B and x ∈ B. This is a contradiction.
Therefore, (A\B) ∩ B = ∅. 

Example 5.2.18 Let A and B be sets. Prove that (A\B) ∩ B = ∅.

Proof :

(A\B) ∩ B = (A ∩ B 0 ) ∩ B, by Theorem 5.2.9

= A ∩ (B 0 ∩ B), by Theorem 5.2.4(3)
= A ∩ (B ∩ B 0 ), by Theorem 5.2.4(1)
= A ∩ ∅, by Theorem 5.2.8(2)
= ∅, by Example 5.2.11.

Therefore, (A\B) ∩ B = ∅. 

5.3 Algebra of Sets

Laws of the Algebra of Sets

Idempotent Laws
1a. A ∪ A = A 1b. A ∩ A = A
 9

Associative Laws
2a. (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C) 2b. (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)

Commutative Laws
3a. A ∪ B = B ∪ A 3b. A ∩ B = B ∩ A

Distributive Laws
4a. A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) 2b. A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)

Identity Laws
5a. A ∪ ∅ = A 5b. A ∩ U = A
6a. A ∪ U = U 6b. A ∩ ∅ = ∅

Complement Laws
7a. A ∪ A0 = U 7b. A ∩ A0 = ∅
8a. (A0 )0 = A 8b. U 0 = ∅, ∅0 = U

DeMorgan’s Laws
9a. (A ∪ B)0 = A0 ∩ B 0 9b. (A ∩ B)0 = A0 ∪ B 0

Example 5.3.1 Let A and B be sets. Prove that (A\B) ∩ B = ∅.

Proof :
(A\B) ∩ B = (A ∩ B 0 ) ∩ B, by 5.2.9
= A ∩ (B 0 ∩ B), by 2b
= A ∩ ∅, by 7a
= ∅, by 6b.

Therefore, (A\B) ∩ B = ∅. 

Example 5.3.2 Let A and B be sets. Prove that A0 \B 0 = B\A.

Proof :
A0 \B 0 = A0 ∩ (B 0 )0 by 3.2.15
= A0 ∩ B by 8a
= B ∩ A0 by 3b
= B\A, by 3.2.15.

Therefore, A0 \B 0 = B\A. 
 10

Example 5.3.3 Let A and B be sets. Prove that A0 \B 0 = B\A.

Proof :

(A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ B 0 ) = A ∪ (B ∩ B 0 ), by 4a
= A ∪ ∅, by 7b
= A, by 5a.

Therefore, A0 \B 0 = B\A. 

Example 5.3.4 Let A and B be sets. Prove that A ∪ (A0 ∩ B) = A ∪ B.

Proof :

A ∪ (A0 ∩ B) = (A ∪ A0 ) ∩ (A ∪ B), by 4a
= U ∩ (A ∪ B), by 7a
= A ∪ B by 5b.

Therefore, A ∪ (A0 ∩ B) = A ∪ B. 

Exercises
Let A and B be sets. Prove the following:
1. (A ∪ B)0 = A0 ∩ B 0
2. (A ∩ B)0 = A0 ∪ B 0
3. A ∪ A0 = U , A ∩ A0 = ∅
0 0
3. U = ∅, ∅ =U
0 0
4. (A\B ) ∩ B = ∅
5. (A ∪ B)\B = A\B
6. A ∩ (B\A0 ) = A ∩ B
7. A ∩ (A0 ∪ B) = A ∩ B.
8. A ∪ (A ∩ B) = A.
9. A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A.
10. (A\B) ∪ (A\C) = A\(B ∩ C).
11. Let A and B be sets. If A ∩ B = ∅, prove the following statements.
a. B ∩ A0 = B, b. A ⊆ B 0 , c. A ∪ B 0 = B 0 .
12. Let A and B be sets. If A ∪ B = ∅, prove that A = ∅ and B = ∅.
13. Let A and B be sets. If A ⊆ B, prove the following statements.
a. A ∩ B = A, b. A ∪ B = B, B 0 ⊆ A0 .