CHAPTER 1

STATEMENTS AND THEIR TRUTH VALUES

1.1 Simple Statement

Sentences are usually classified as declarative, interrogative, exclamatory, and
imperative. In our discussions and study of logic we will deal only with declarative
statements which are either true or false but not both. For example:

1. Today is Monday.
2. Mark is at the park.
3. x2 − 1 = 0.

The above declarative sentences can be classified as either true or false but not
both.

We will not consider the following types of statements:

1. Is it raining?
2. Go home.
3. Maybe he is at the office.

In this chapter, we will examine a statement for the case when it is true and also
for the case when it is false. We will assign both truth values to the statement and
examine it for each possibility.

Definition 1.1.1 A simple statement is a declarative sentence or meaningful strings

of symbols that can be classified as either true or false.

Example 1.1.2 The following are examples of statements.

1. 2√is an even integer.
2. 2 is a rational number.
3. x2 − 1 = 0.

The first statement is true; the second is false; and the third is either true or false.

Notice that the first statement is always true and the second is always false. The
third statement is sometimes true and sometimes false. If x is a real number, then
the statement is true if x = 1 and false if x = 0.

All throughout this course, statements will be denoted by the symbols P , Q, and R.

1.2 Compound Statements

Definition 1.2.1 A compound statement is a statement consisting of two or more
simple statements joined by connectives.

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Definition 1.2.2 A logical connective is a word or phrase that is used to join simple
statements in order to form a compound statement.

There are four basic logical connectives that we will discuss. They are conjunction,
disjunction, implication, and double implication.

Conjunction
If two statements are combined by the word ”and”, then a compound statement
formed is called the conjunction of the two statements. The conjunction of statements
P and Q is denoted by P ∧ Q. It is read ”P and Q”.

The truth value of the compound statement P ∧Q satisfies the following property:

T1: P ∧ Q is true if both P and Q are true and false otherwise.

T1 can also be written in the form of a table as follows:

P Q P ∧Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Example 1.2.3 The following are examples of a conjunction of two statements.

1. 2 is an even integer and 2 + 3 = 5.
2. 2 is an odd integer and 2 + 3 = 5.
3. 2 is an even integer and 2 + 3 > 5.
4. 2 is an odd integer and 2 + 3 > 5.

Only statement 1 is true since both of its component statements are true. Each
of the other statements is false since at least one of its component statements is false.

Example
√ 1.2.4 Find the truth value of the following statements.
1. 2 is a rational number and 2 + 3 = 5.
2. 2√is an even integer and 2 + 3 < 5.
3. 2 is a rational number and 1 is an even integer.
4. 2 + 3 = 5 and −1 is an odd integer.

Solution: √
1. Let P be ” 2 is a rational number” and Q be ”2 + 3 = 5”. Then

P Q P ∧Q
F T F
Therefore, the statement is false.

2. Let P be ”2 is an even integer” and Q be ”2 + 3 < 5”. Then

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 P Q P ∧Q
T F F
Therefore, the statement is false.
√
3. Let P be ” 2 is a rational number and Q be ”1 is an even integer”. Then

P Q P ∧Q
F F F
Therefore, the statement is false.

4. Let P be ”2 + 3 = 5” and Q be ”−1 is an odd integer”. Then

P Q P ∧Q
T T T
Therefore, the statement is true. 

Disjunction
If two statements are joined by the word ”or”, then the compound statement
formed is called the disjunction of the two statements. The disjunction of statements
P and Q is denoted by P ∨ Q. It is read ”P or Q”.

The truth value of the compound statement P ∨Q satisfies the following property:

T2: P ∨ Q is true when at least one of P and Q is true and false only when P and
Q are both false.

T2 can also be written in the form of a table as follows:

P Q P ∨Q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Example 1.2.5 The following are examples of a disjunction of two statements.

1. 2 is an even integer or 2 + 3 = 5.
2. 2 is an odd integer or 2 + 3 = 5.
3. 2 is an even integer or 2 + 3 > 5.
4. 2 is an odd integer or 2 + 3 > 5.

Only statement 4 is false since both component statements are false. Each of the
other compound statements is true since at least one of its component statements is
true.

Example
√ 1.2.6 Find the truth value of the following statements.
1. 2 is a rational number or 2 + 3 = 5.
2. 2 is an even integer or 2 + 3 < 5.

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 √
3. 2 is a rational number or 1 is an even integer.
4. 2 + 3 = 5 or −1 is an odd integer.

Solution: √
1. Let P be ” 2 is a rational number” and Q be ”2 + 3 = 5”. Then

P Q P ∨Q
F T T
Therefore, the statement is true.

2. Let P be ”2 is an even integer” and Q be ”2 + 3 < 5”. Then

P Q P ∨Q
T F T
Therefore, the statement is true.
√
3. Let P be ” 2 is a rational number and Q be ”1 is an even integer”. Then

P Q P ∨Q
F F F
Therefore, the statement is false.

4. Let P be ”2 + 3 = 5” and Q be ”−1 is an odd integer”. Then

P Q P ∨Q
T T T
Therefore, the statement is true. 

Implication
If two statements are joined by the phrase if..., then..., then the compound
statement formed is called the implication statement. The implication ”If P , then
Q” is denoted by P ⇒ Q. It is read ”P implies Q”.

In the statement P ⇒ Q, P is called the hypothesis and Q is called the conclusion.

The implication P ⇒ Q can also be read:

(a) P only if Q
(b) P is sufficient for Q
(c) Q is necessary for P

The truth value of the implication statement P implies Q satisfies the following
property:

T3: The implication P implies Q is true unless P is true and Q is false. In other
words, a true statement cannot imply a false statement.

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T3: can be written in the form of a table as follows:

P Q P ⇒Q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Example 1.2.7 The following are examples of an implication statement.

1. If 1 < 4, then 2 + 3 = 5.
2. If 1 < 4, then 2 + 3 < 5.
3. If 1 > 4, then 2 + 3 = 5.
4. If 1 > 4, then 2 + 3 > 5.
Only statement 2 is false; the others are true.
Example
√ 1.2.8 Find the truth value of the following statements.
1. If 2 is a rational number, then 2 + 3 = 5.
2. If √
2 is an even integer, then 2 + 3 < 5.
3. If 2 is a rational number, then 1 is an even integer.
4. If 2 + 3 = 5, then −1 is an odd integer.

Solution: √
1. Let P be ” 2 is a rational number” and Q be ”2 + 3 = 5”. Then

P Q P ⇒Q
F T T
Therefore, the statement is true.

2. Let P be ”2 is an even integer” and Q be ”2 + 3 < 5”. Then

P Q P ⇒Q
T F F
Therefore, the statement is false.
√
3. Let P be ” 2 is a rational number and Q be ”1 is an even integer”. Then

P Q P ⇒Q
F F T
Therefore, the statement is true.

4. Let P be ”2 + 3 = 5” and Q be ”−1 is an odd integer”. Then

P Q P ⇒Q
T T T
Therefore, the statement is true. 

Double Implication

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 If two statements are joined by the phrase if and only if, then a compound
statement formed is called a double implication or biconditional statement. The
double implication ”P if and only if Q” is denoted by P ⇔ Q. It is read ”P is
necessary and sufficient for Q” or ”P is equivalent to Q”.

The truth value of the double implication statement P ⇔ Q satisfies the following
prperty:

T4: If P and Q have the same truth value, then P ⇔ Q is true; if P and Q have
opposite truth values, then P ⇔ Q is false.

T4 can be written in the form of a table as follows:

P Q P ⇔Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Example 1.2.9 The following are examples of a double implication statement.

1. 1 < 4 if and only if 2 + 3 = 5.
2. 1 < 4 if and only if 2 + 3 < 5.
3. 1 > 4 if and only if 2 + 3 = 5.
4. 1 > 4 if and only if 2 + 3 < 5.

Statements 1 and 4 are true; statements 2 and 3 are false.

Example
√ 1.2.10 Find the truth value of the following statements.
1. 2 is a rational number if and only if 2 + 3 = 5.
2. 2√is an even integer if and only if 2 + 3 < 5.
3. 2 is a rational number if and only if 1 is an even integer.
4. 2 + 3 = 5 if and only if −1 is an odd integer.

Solution: √
1. Let P be ” 2 is a rational number” and Q be ”2 + 3 = 5”. Then

P Q P ⇔Q
F T F
Therefore, the statement is false.

2. Let P be ”2 is an even integer” and Q be ”2 + 3 < 5”. Then

P Q P ⇔Q
T F F
Therefore, the statement is false.
√
3. Let P be ” 2 is a rational number and Q be ”1 is an even integer”. Then

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 P Q P ⇔Q
F F T
Therefore, the statement is true.

4. Let P be ”2 + 3 = 5” and Q be ”−1 is an odd integer”. Then

P Q P ⇔Q
T T T
Therefore, the statement is true. 

In addition to four logical connectives there is an important operation that will

help simplify our investigation of the truth values of some statements.

1.3 Negation
Given any statement P , another statement, called the negation of P , can be
formed by writing ”It is false that P or, if possible, by inserting in P the word ”not”.
The negation of P is denoted by ∼ P . It is read ”not P ” or ”It is false that P ”.

The truth value of the negation of a statement satisfies the following property:

T5: ∼ P is true when P is false and ∼ P is false when P is true.

T5 can also be written in the form of a table as follows:

P ∼P
T F
F T

Example 1.3.1 The following are examples of statements and their negations:
1. 2 + 3 = 5.
Negation: 2 + 3 6= 5. or It is false that 2 + 3 = 5..

2. 0 is a rational number.
Negation: 0 is not a rational number. or It is false that 0 is a rational number.

3. 4 + 7 < 12.
Negation: 4 + 7 ≮ 12. or It is false that 4 + 7 < 12.

4. 1 > 0.
Negation: 1 6> 0. or It is false that 1 > 0.

The following examples illusrate the method of writing the negation of compound
statements.

Example 1.3.2 Write the negation of the following compound statements.

1. 2 + 3 = 5 and 2 is an even integer.
2. 2 + 3 = 5 or 2 is an even integer.

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3. If 2 + 3 = 5, then 2 is an even integer.
2. 2 + 3 = 5 if and only if 2 is an even integer.

Solution:
1. Negation: It is false that 2 + 3 = 5 and 2 is an even integer.
2. Negation: It is false that 2 + 3 = 5 or 2 is an even integer.
3. Negation: It is false that if 2 + 3 = 5, then 2 is an even integer.
1. Negation: It is false that 2 + 3 = 5 if and only if 2 is an even integer.

Another method of writing the negation of conjunction and disjunction statements

is applying the DeMorgan’s Laws.

Theorem 1.3.3(DeMorgan’s Laws)

(1) ∼ (P ∨ Q) ≡ (∼ P ) ∧ (∼ Q).
(2) ∼ (P ∧ Q) ≡ (∼ P ) ∨ (∼ Q).

Example 1.3.4 Write the negation of the following statements using DeMorgan’s
Laws.
1. 1 < 4 and 2 + 3 = 5.
2. 1 < 4 or 2 + 3 = 5.
3. 2 is an even integer and 1 > 0.
4. 2 is an even integer or 1 > 0.

Solution:
1. Negation: 1 ≮ 4 or 2 + 3 6= 5.
2. Negation: 1 ≮ 4 and 2 + 3 6= 5.
3. Negation: 2 is not an even integer and 1 6> 0.
4. Negation: 6 0. 
2 is not an even integer or 1 >

Summary of the truth values of the compound statements

P Q P ∧Q P ∨Q P ⇒Q P ⇔Q
T T T T T T
T F F T F F
F T F T T F
F F F F T T

1.4 Symbolizing Statements

Example 1.4.1 Let P be ”It is cloudy” and let Q be ”It is cold”. Give a simple
verbal statement which describes each of the following statements.
1. ∼ P ∨ Q 2. P ∧ ∼ Q 3. ∼ (P ∨ Q)
4. Q ⇔ P 5. P ⇒∼ Q 6. Q∨ ∼ Q
7. ∼ P ∧ ∼ Q 8. P ⇔∼ Q 9. ∼ (∼ Q ∧ P
10. (P ∧ Q) ⇒ P 11. (P ∧ ∼ Q) ∨ P 12. P ⇔ (∼ P ∨ Q)

Solution:
1. It is not cloudy and cold.

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 2. It is cloudy and not cold.
3. It is false that it is cloudy or it is cold.
4. It is cold if and only if it is cloudy.
5. If it is cloudy, then it is not cold.
6. It is cold or it is not cold.
7. It is not cloudy and it is not cold.
8. It is cloudy if and only if it is not cold.
9 It is false that it is not cold and it is cloudy.
10. If it is cloudy and cold, then it is cloudy.
11. It is cloudy and not cold, or it is cloudy.
12 It is cloudy if and only if, it is not cloudy or cold. 

Example 1.4.2 Let P be ”He is intillegent” and let Q be ”He is handsome”. Write
each of the following statements in symbolic form using P and Q. 1. He is
intillegent and handsome.
2. He is intillegent but not handsome.
3. It is false that he is not intillegent or handsome.
4. He is neither intillegent nor handsome.
5. He is intillegent or, he is not intillegent and handsome.
6. Is is false that he is not intillegent or not handsome.
7. If he is handsome then he is not intillegent.
8. He is not handsome if and only if he is not intelligent.
9. If he is not intillegent and handsome, then he is handsome.

Solution:
1. P ∧ Q 2. P ∧ ∼ Q 3. ∼ (∼ P ∨ Q)
4. ∼ P ∧ ∼ Q 5. P ∨ (∼ P ∧ Q) 6. ∼ (∼ P ∨ ∼ Q)
7. Q ⇒∼ P 8. ∼ Q ⇔∼ P 9. (∼ P ∧ Q) ⇒ Q

1.5 Evaluating Compound Statements

If the truth values of the simple statements are given, the truth value of the
compound statement is found by substituting the truth values of the component
simple satements and applying the rules on logical connectives and negation. The
order on applying these rules is determined by the symbols of grouping used in the
formation of the compound statement.

Example 1.5.1√Find the truth value of the following statements.

1. 2 + 2 = 4 or √2 is a rational number and, 0 is an even integer.
2. 2 + 2 = 4 or, √ 2 is a rational number and 0 is an even integer.
3. If 2 + 2 = 4 or 2√is a rational number, then 0 is an even integer.
4. If 2 + 2 = 4, then 2 is a√rational number and 0 is an even integer.
5. 2 + 2 = 4 if and only if, √ 2 is a rational number and 0 is an even integer.
6. 2 + 2 = 4 if and
√ only if 2 is a rational number, and 0 is an even integer.
7. 2 + 2 = 4 or, 2 is a rational number if and only if 0 is an even integer.

Solutions:
√
1. 2 + 2 = 4 or 2 is a rational number and, 0 is an even integer.

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 √
Solution: Let P be ”2 + 2 = 4”, Q be ” 2 is a rational number”, and R be ”0 is an
even integer”. Then

P Q R P ∨Q (P ∨ Q) ∧ R
T F T T T
Therefore, the statement is true.
√
2. 2 + 2 = 4 or, 2 is a rational number and 0 is an even integer.
√
Solution: Let P be ”2 + 2 = 4”, Q be ” 2 is a rational number”, and R be ”0 is an
even integer”. Then

P Q R Q∧R P ∨ (Q ∧ R)
T F T F T
Therefore, the statement is true.
√
3. If 2 + 2 = 4 or 2 is a rational number, then 0 is an even integer.
√
Solution: Let P be ”2 + 2 = 4”, Q be ” 2 is a rational number”, and R be ”0 is an
even integer”. Then

P Q R P ∨Q (P ∨ Q) ⇒ R
T F T T T
Therefore, the statement is true.
√
4. If 2 + 2 = 4, then 2 is a rational number and 0 is an even integer.
√
Solution: Let P be ”2 + 2 = 4”, Q be ” 2 is a rational number”, and R be ”0 is an
even integer”. Then

P Q R Q∧R P ⇒ (Q ∧ R)
T F T F F
Therefore, the statement is false.
√
5. 2 + 2 = 4 if and only if, 2 is a rational number and 0 is an even integer.
√
Solution: Let P be ”2 + 2 = 4”, Q be ” 2 is a rational number”, and R be ”0 is an
even integer”. Then

P Q R Q∧R P ⇔ (Q ∧ R)
T F T F F
Therefore, the statement is false.
√
6. 2 + 2 = 4 if and only if 2 is a rational number, and 0 is an even integer.
√
Solution: Let P be ”2 + 2 = 4”, Q be ” 2 is a rational number”, and R be ”0 is an
even integer”. Then

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 P Q R P ⇔Q (P ⇔ Q) ∧ R
T F T F F
Therefore, the statement is false.
√
7. 2 + 2 = 4 or, 2 is a rational number
√if and only if 0 is an even integer.
Solution: Let P be ”2 + 2 = 4”, Q be ” 2 is a rational number”, and R be ”0 is an
even integer”. Then

P Q R Q⇔R P ∨ (Q ⇔ R)
T F T F T
Therefore, the statement is true. 

Example 1.5.2 Find the truth√value of the following statements.

1. It is false that 2 + 2 = 4 or √ 2 is a rational number.
2. It is false that 2 + 2 = 4 and 2 is a rational number.
3. It is false that if 3 + 2 6= 5, then 1 < 4.
4. If 2 + 1 = 3, then it is false that −3 < −4 and 1 is an odd integer.
5. If π is a rational number, then it is false that 1 + 1 = 2 if and only if 2 < 3.

Solutions:
√
1. It is false that 2 + 2 = 4 or 2 is a rational number.
√
Solution: Let P be ”2 + 2 = 4” and Q be ” 2 is a rational number”. Then

P Q P ∨Q ∼ (P ∨ Q)
T F T F
Therefore, the statement is false.
√
2. It is false that 2 + 2 = 4 and 2 is a rational number.
√
Solution: Let P be ”2 + 2 = 4” and Q be ” 2 is a rational number”. Then

P Q P ∧Q ∼ (P ∧ Q)
T F F T
Therefore, the statement is true.

3. It is false that if 3 + 2 6= 5, then 1 < 4.

Solution: Let P be ”3 + 2 6= 5” and Q be ”1 < 4”. Then

P Q P ⇒Q ∼ (P ⇒ Q)
F T T F
Therefore, the statement is false.

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4. If 2 + 1 = 3, then it is false that −3 < −4 and 1 is an odd integer.

Solution: Let P be ”2 + 1 = 3”, Q be ”−3 < −4”, and R be ”1 is an odd integer”.

Then

P Q R Q∧R ∼ (Q ∧ R) P ⇒∼ (Q ∧ R)
T F T F T T
Therefore, the statement is true.

5. If π is a rational number, then it is false that 1 + 1 = 2 if and only if 2 < 3.

Solution: Let P be ”π is a rational number”, Q be ”1 + 1 = 2”, and R be ”2 < 3”.

Then

P Q R Q⇔R ∼ (Q ⇔ R) P ⇒∼ (Q ⇔ R)
F T T T F F
Therefore, the statement is true. 

Example 1.5.3 Find the truth value of the following statements.

if 2 + 2 = 4, then −2 < −5 or 0.5 is a rational number.
1. It is false that √
2. 2 + 2 < 4 and 2 is a rational number, if and only if 1 > 0.
3. It is false that 3 + 2 6= 5 if and only if 1 < 4, or 2 is rational.
4. It is false that 3 + 2 6= 5 if and only if, 1 < 4 or 2 is rational.
5. If π is a rational number and 1 > 0, then 1 + 1 = 2 or −2 < −3.

Solutions:

1. It is false that if 2 + 2 = 4, then −2 < −5 or 0.5 is a rational number.

Solution: Let P be ”2 + 2 = 4”, Q be −2 < −5, and R be ”0.5 is a rational number”.

Then

P Q R Q∨R P ⇒ (Q ∨ R) ∼ [P ⇒ (Q ∨ R)]
T F T T T F
Therefore, the statement is false.
√
2. 2 + 2 < 4 and 2 is a rational number, if and only if 1 > 0.
√
Solution: Let P be ”2 + 2 < 4”, Q be ” 2 is a rational number”, and R be ”1 > 0”.
Then

P Q R P ∧Q (P ∧ Q) ⇔ R
F F T F T
Therefore, the statement is true.

3. It is false that 3 + 2 6= 5 if and only if 1 < 4, or 2 is rational.

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Solution: Let P be ”3 + 2 6= 5”, Q be ”1 < 4”, and R be ”2 is rational”. Then

P Q R P ⇔Q (P ⇔ Q) ∨ R ∼ [(P ⇔ Q) ∨ R]
F T T F T F
Therefore, the statement is false.

4. It is false that 3 + 2 6= 5 if and only if, 1 < 4 or 2 is rational.

Solution: Let P be ”3 + 2 6= 5”, Q be ”1 < 4”, and R be ”2 is rational”. Then

P Q R Q∨R P ⇔ (Q ∨ R) ∼ [P ⇔ (Q ∨ R)]
F T T T F T
Therefore, the statement is true.

5. If π is a rational number and 1 > 0, then 1 + 1 = 2 or −2 < −3.

Solution: Let P be ”π is a rational number”, Q be ”1 > 0”, R be ”1 + 1 = 2”, and

S be ”−2 < −3. Then

P Q R S P ∨Q R∧S (P ∨ Q) ⇒ (R ∧ S)
F T T F T F F
Therefore, the statement is false. 

1.6 Exercises
I. Let P be ”She is beautiful” and let Q be ”She is happy”. Give a simple verbal
statement which describes each of the following statements.
1. ∼ P ∨ Q 2. P ∧ ∼ Q 3. ∼ (P ∨ Q)
4. Q ⇔∼ P 5. P ⇒∼ Q 6. ∼ P ∨ ∼ Q
7. ∼ (P ∧ ∼ Q) 8. ∼ P ∧ (Q ∨ P ) 9. ∼ Q ∨ (∼ P ∧ Q)
10. (P ∧ ∼ Q) ⇒ P 11. (P ⇔∼ Q) ∨ P 12. P ⇔ (∼ P ∨ Q)
13. ∼ (P ∨ ∼ Q) ⇒ P 14. P ⇔ (∼ Q ⇒∼ P ) 15. ∼ Q ⇔ (∼ P ∨ Q)

II. Let P be ”She is beautiful” and let Q be ”She is happy”. Write each of the
following statements in symbolic form using P and Q.
1. She is neither happy nor beautiful.
2. If she is not beautiful, then she is not happy.
3. If she is not happy, then either she is beautiful or not happy.
4. She is not happy if and only if, she is not beautiful or she is happy.
5. It is false that she is beautiful or she is not happy.
6. She is not beautiful if and only if she is happy, and she is not beautiful
7. If she is beautiful and not happy, then she is not beautiful.
8. She is not beautiful or, she is not happy and beautiful.
9. If she is not beautiful, then she is not happy if and only if she is beautiful.
10. If she is beautiful or not happy, then she is not beautiful.
11. She is happy, and either she is not beautiful or she is happy.
12. If it is false that she is not beautiful and happy, then she is not beautiful.

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III. Write the truth value of the fololowing statements.
1. It is false that 0 is rational and −1 < −2.
2. It is false that if −1 < −2 then 0 is not rational.
3. −1 < −2 if and only if 0 is not rational.
4. If 1 − 4 = −3, then −1 < −2 or 0 is not rational.
5. If 1 − 4 = −3 then −1 < −2, and 0 is not rational.
6. If 0 is rational, then it is false that −1 < −2 or 1 − 4 = −3.
7. It is false that 0 is rational if and only if, −1 < −2 or 1 − 4 = −3.
8. It is false that 0 is not rational if and only if −1 < −2, or 1 − 4 = −3.
9. 0 is not rational, or −1 < −2 if and only if −4 < −3.
10. If 2 + 2 < 4, then it is false that 0 is rational if and only if −1 < −2.

III. Write the negation of the following statements using DeMorgan’s Laws.
1. 0 is not rational and −1 < −2.
2. −1 < −2 and 0 is not rational.
3. −1 < −2, or 2 + 2 = 4 and 0 is rational.
4. −1 < −2 or 2 + 2 = 4, and 0 is rational.
5. 1 − 4 6= −3 and 0 is not rational.
6. 1 + 1 = 3 or −1 < −2.
7. 0 is not rational, or −1 6< −2..
8. 0 is rational and −1 < −2, or 1 − 4 = −3.
9. 0 is not rational, or −1 < −2 and −4 < −3.
10. 2 + 2 < 4 and it is false that 0 is rational.

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