1

TANG DYNASTY (618–907)

Sources for Tibetan Empire Studies: A Bibliographic Essay

BIANCA HORLEMANN

Introduction
This paper provides an overview of primary and secondary Chinese sources related
to the Tibetan Empire period. Please note that the Chinese primary sources listed in
this essay are neither newly discovered nor unpublished, but that for a variety of
reasons—such as difficult access—some sources have gone almost unnoticed or rarely
used! Recent progress in making searchable online editions of multi-volume Chinese
historical works available on the internet, however, has considerably facilitated
research for the non-specialist as well. Furthermore, standard or recent western
publications concerning Tang China which provide useful comparative perspectives
for researchers of early Tibetan history, have also been included in this essay.1 With
regard to the Five Dynasties/Wudai period (907–960) which followed after the fall of
the Tang dynasty in 907, this era of disunion remains under-studied and the sources
seem to offer very little on Tibet. When the Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127)
emerged in 960, references to central Tibet stopped almost completely. Instead, the
Chinese sources started to focus on the Tsong kha Confederation in northeastern A
mdo. Nevertheless, many of the sources and research tools mentioned in this paper
might also prove useful for the post-Tang era.
Although Tibetan Empire specialists are well acquainted with the Tibet/Tufan/
Tubo2 chapters of the Old and New Tang Dynastic History (Jiu Tangshu, Xin Tangshu)
and Chinese Dunhuang documents related to Tibet, other important Chinese sources
still remain underused, such as the two 11th century works, Comprehensive Mirror
for Aid in Government/Zizhi tongjian and Outstanding Models from the Storehouse
of Literature/Cefu yuangui, as well as the Important Documents of the Tang/Tang
huiyao, the Collected Edicts of the Tang/Tang da zhaolingji, the annals/benji,

* I follow Paul Kroll’s dates for the Tang Dynasty; see Kroll 1987.
1 The Tang Dynasty, being considered the ‘golden age’ of Chinese history, has been comparatively
well studied not only by Chinese and Western researchers but also by Japanese and Korean
scholars. The latters’ works, however—if not translated into Chinese or western languages—
have been omitted in this paper because of the additional language skills required.
2 The Chinese characters 吐蕃 are transcribed either as ‘Tufan’ in the modern Chinese reading or
as ‘Tubo’ in the reconstructed Tang era reading. I use ‘Tufan’ throughout this paper.
2 BIANCA HORLEMANN

monographs/zhi and biographies/zhuan of the Jiu and the Xin Tang shu. Several
anthologies, such as the Complete Collection of Tang Prose/Quan Tang wen, the
Complete Collection of Tang Poetry/ Quan Tang shi and the Song Biographies of
Eminent Monks/ Song Gao Seng chuan or the 9th century geographical work Maps
and Gazetteer of the Provinces and Counties in the Yuanhe Period [806–21]/Yuanhe
junxian (tu)zhi also contain some useful pieces of information concerning imperial
Tibet or the areas under Tibetan domination. All this material adds up to several
hundred pages, but to my knowledge only a small fraction has been systematically
analysed so far.
Admittedly, using Chinese historical sources to gather information on the Tibetan
Empire period, meets with numerous difficulties. For example, finding the relevant
paragraphs referring to Tibet in multi-volume, unpunctuated historical work is already
a major task, and their translation is also beset with many uncertainties since most of
the original texts have been lost. In fact, we often only have later and frequently
revised editions at our disposal, and a number of texts have been retrieved from
encyclopaedias. In the course of re-editing and re-copying, a number of mistakes
have crept into the texts. For example, some Chinese characters have been omitted by
mistake, others ‘misspelled’ or confused, and some texts have been condensed in
such a way that the meaning becomes ambiguous, especially when the original
context is missing.
Fortunately, a fair number of research tools exist which considerably facilitate
work with Chinese sources on the Tang era[,] such as modern annotated and
punctuated editions and compilations especially devoted to Tibet [and] related
material contained in major historical works.3 Furthermore, dictionaries on Tang
administrative units and place names as well as searchable online editions of Chinese
historical texts make Tibet[-]related information more easily accessible.
In addition, a considerable number of important studies on the Tibetan imperial
period have come out from PRC researchers such as Huang Weizhong, Lu Li, Tian
Feng, Wang Duo, Wang Yao, etc. and from the Taiwanese scholar Lin Guanqun/Lin
Kuan-ch’ün. If you search for ‘吐蕃 Tufan’ in the Chinese Academic Journals’ [CAJ]
database, some 2,500 articles by Chinese authors are listed for the period from 1994
to 2010 alone. Of course, not all of them are relevant,4 but a fair number certainly
deserve our attention.
With regard to western secondary sources on Tang China, some works are
convenient reference books for tracing major political, cultural and religious trends
of the Tang dynasty. These include: Sui and T’ang China, 589–906, i.e., volume 3,
part 1 of The Cambridge History of China. Others provide valuable background

3 See, for example, the Tibet related Historical Material in the Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in
Government/ [Zizhi] tongjian Tufan shiliao.
4 Included in this list of 2,500 articles are all those which contain the term ‘Tufan’ irrespective of
their actual topic and content.
 TANG DYNASTY (618–907) SOURCES FOR TIBETAN EMPIRE STUDIES 3

information on specific issues such as the geography of the Tang Empire, Tang
military history, the role of religion and especially of Buddhism during the Tang
dynasty, etc. These are helpful tools for improving our understanding of important
developments in Tibet or in Sino-Tibetan relations by adapting a comparative
approach. Among the standard works are the historical studies by Denis Twichett,
Howard Wechsler and Stanley Weinstein, which explore politico-religious relations
in Tang-China; the works by Kenneth Ch’en, Paul Demiéville, Jacques Gernet or
Antonino Forte on Chinese Buddhism during the Tang; or Edward Schafer’s work,
The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A study of T’ang Exotics, on tribute and trade
relations, to name just a few.
Apart from this introduction the essay is divided into 6 parts: The first part
provides a short overview of the range of Sino-Tibetan contacts during the 7th to 9th
century, the second part introduces Chinese historical texts which contain information
on the Tibetan Empire period, and the third part deals with useful dictionaries and
other research tools. Part four lists Chinese secondary sources relating to imperial
Tibet, and part five, Western secondary sources on the Tang dynasty in general. The
list in part five is subdivided according to topics. Part six contains the bibliography,
in which all works mentioned in this article are listed alphabetically without any
further subdivisions. Please note that this is not a comprehensive bibliography but
only serves to provide a general account of the range and availability of often
unexplored Chinese sources for Tibetan Empire studies and to introduce a rather
small selection of secondary literature.

The range of Sino-Tibetan contacts,

7th–9th century, as reflected in Chinese sources
Emblematic of Sino-Tibetan contacts during the Tang Dynasty are―from a Chinese
point of view―the establishment of marital ties between the two ruling houses, i.e.,
the marrying off of the so-called ‘Tang princesses’ Wencheng/Mun sheng kong co
and Jincheng/Kim sheng kong co to the Tibetan rulers Srong btsan sgam po and Khri
lde gtsug brtsan. The circumstances of these marriage alliances are not only
remembered in legends and tales, but the latter marriage in particular is comparatively
well documented in historiography and both have thus already received considerable
scholarly attention, especially from Chinese researchers. The princesses apparently
travelled with a large entourage from China to Tibet and continued to keep contact
with the Tang court even after having settled down in their new homeland.
Communication between the two courts was facilitated by some 150 or more official
delegations and trade missions which travelled between Tibet and China during the
Tang dynasty. These also included high-ranking Tibetan officials and aristocrats who
stayed at the two imperial courts in Chang’an and Luoyang5. The delegations were

5 Luoyang was the preferred capital of the Tang Empress Wu Zetian.

4 BIANCA HORLEMANN

usually en route for several months and also stayed at their respective destinations for
several months if not years, thus providing their members ample opportunity to study
the customs, religion, etc. of their respective hosts.6
Apart from the above-mentioned diplomatic and trade exchanges, the frequently
occurring Sino-Tibetan military encounters along the Sino-Tibetan border also
offered many glimpses of the ‘other’ which can still be studied in a number of Chinese
poems of the Tang era. It should be noted, however, that the Sino-Tibetan border
zone was mostly populated by non-Tibetan and non-Chinese peoples such as the
Qiang, the Di, the Sumpa and the Tuyuhun/’A zha. Sino-Tibetan encounters as
reflected in Chinese poems might thus also describe the aforementioned ethnic groups
under a collective rubric ‘(Tu)fan’.
Last but not least, we know that quite a number of Chinese Buddhist monks skirted
Tibet on their way to India, and many monks lived and taught in the monasteries
along the Sino-Tibetan border. Unfortunately, very few records by monks of the Tang
era have come to light so far which contain observations on Tibet or Tibetans.
The Chinese historical sources in which the above-mentioned Sino-Tibetan
contacts are reflected, are described in more detail below.

Chinese historical texts

The Tang Dynasty is one of the few dynasties for which two standard histories exist,
i.e., the so-called Old Tang History/Jiu Tangshu―compiled by Liu Xu, completed in
945 and consisting of 200 juan/chapters7―and the so-called New Tang History/Xin
Tangshu, compiled by Ouyang Xiu et al., completed in 1060 and consisting of 225
juan/ chapters. Both histories cover the period from 618 to 907. This duplication of
officially compiled dynastic histories is usually explained by the discontentment of
Song scholars with the presumably carelessly edited Old Tang History and the many
errors it contained. In contrast, modern historians of Tang China often consider the
Old Tang History to be more reliable than the New Tang History.8
In general, Chinese standard histories such as the Old and the New Tang History
have the following structure: the first part is devoted to the ‘basic annals’/benji 本纪
which cover the main events of a dynasty in a chronological style. Here, references
to Tibet can be found according to the year in which relevant events occurred or in
which they were reported to the Chinese court. Of the altogether 16 volumes of the
modern Beijing edition9 of the Old Tang History, about 2.5 volumes contain annals.
Second are the ‘monographs’/zhi 志 which cover topics such as ritual, music, calendar,
geography, food, law etc. In the Old Tang History about 3.5 volumes are dedicated to

6 See Bielenstein 2005.

7 Juan 卷 are also often translated as ‘volumes’.
8 See Wilkinson 1998: 786 n. 3 and Zhang Yun 1998: 63.
9 See Jiu Tangshu (1975, repr. 2002). 16 vols. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju.
 TANG DYNASTY (618–907) SOURCES FOR TIBETAN EMPIRE STUDIES 5

the monographs, and references to Tibet mainly appear in the monograph on

geography. These references, however, do not deal with the geography of Tibet itself
but with Chinese forts, garrisons etc. along the Sino-Tibetan border. Thereafter, some
dynastic histories contain the so-called ‘tables’/biao 表 which mainly refer to official
institutions, ranks and the like. There is no tables section in the Old Tang History, but
in the modern Beijing edition10 of the New Tang History they cover 5.5 volumes out
of 20. Last but not least, there are the ‘biographies’/liezhuan 列传 of famous and
some less famous people. These usually constitute the major part of a dynastic history.
In the Old Tang History 10 volumes out of 16 contain biographies. Also, the chapters
on foreign countries such as Tibet are placed at the end of the biography section, i.e.,
the Tibet chapter is numbered 196 A and B in the Old Tang History and 216 A and B
in the New Tang History. Apart from these chapters which are especially devoted to
Tibet, further information on Tibet is contained in a number of biographies of Tang
officials in connection with military events and deeds, with missions to and from
Tibet and with discussions about political strategy at court, and so on. See, for
example, the biography of Guo Yuanzhen 郭元振 which provides additional
information about his mission to Qinghai where he met with the Tibetan chief minister
Qinling 钦陵/Khri ’bring, which is not contained in the Tibet chapters.11
Modern Chinese anthologies dedicated to material referring to Tibet in both the
Old and the New Tang History are available. Some of these editions are punctuated
and use simplified characters and usually also contain notes such as the Collection of
Historical Material on the Tibetans/Zangzu shiliaoji, vol. 1, and the Supplementary
Commentaries on the Tibet Chapter of the New Tang History/Xin Tangshu Tufan
zhuan jianzheng by the scholar Wang Zhong 王忠. To illustrate this kind of anthology,
an example of Wang Zhong’s work is given below. It provides parallel texts from the
annals and the Tibet chapter of the Old Tang History, from the Comprehensive Mirror
for Aid in Government/Zizhi tongjian, from the Records of Things Heard and Seen by
Mr. Feng/ Feng shi wenjian ji, from the Documentation of Tang Poetry/Tang shi jishi
and, last not least, from what he calls ‘Historical documents from Tibet’, obviously
referring to Tibetan Dunhuang documents. The quote from the New Tang History for
the year 709 reads:
“Tibet sent the Shang Zanduo, named Xila, and so on, to go to meet the
princess.”12 (My translation)
Wang Zhong’s annotation reads:
“In chapter seven of the Old Tang History in the annals of Emperor Zhongzong,
the entry for the 11th month of the third year Jinglong [709] reads: ‘The Tibetan

10 See Xin Tangshu (1975, repr. 2003). 20 vols. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju.
11 For the slightly differing biographies of Guo Yuanzhen see Jiu Tangshu 2002, vol. 9: 3,042–
3,049 and Xin Tangshu 2003, vol. 14: 4,360–4,366.
12 See Wang Zhong 1958: 60.
6 BIANCA HORLEMANN

zanpu/ ruler sent his high official/ minister Zhang Zantu to go to meet the bride
[literally: woman].’ The commentary in the Zizhi tongjian, 12th entry on the
civil officials, notes: ‘Tibet sent its important leader Sesegao/Saisaigao, Shen
Zanduo, subordinate of Jingao Shen Shang Qinzang, to meet Princess
Jincheng.’ Its comment reads: zanduo, this is similar (in rank) to zuopuye
[assistant supervisor], and qinzang is similar to shizhong [director of the
chancellery]. Thus Shang Zantu should read Shang Zanduo. In fact, Zanduo is
an official title/name of an office, and ‘Shang Zanduo named [= ming 名]
Xila’ is only one person and not two. The entry on polo in the Records of
Things Heard and Seen by Mr. Feng reads: ‘During the Jinglong reign period
[707–710] when Tibet sent its emissaries to go to meet Princess Jincheng,
(Emperor) Zhongzong granted them to watch (a match) of polo at the Liyuan
Pavilion. The Tibetan Zanduo presented a memorial saying: ‘In my delegation
there are several good players, please let them compete with the Han.’ The
Tibet chapter of the Old Tang History reads: ‘Xila had some knowledge about
documents/ record keeping(?). Foremost he came to Chang’an to meet Princess
Jincheng. At that time the whole imperial court praised his skilfulness in
debate.’ Also the Tangshi jishi/ The Documentation of Tang Poetry says that
the one called Xila took part in Zhongzong’s arranging/ comparing Bo (and?)
Liang’s interpretations of couplets. Tibetan historical documents say: ‘An
official was sent who was called Zhang Zanduo Relüjing (Zhang bcan to re
lhas byin).’ See p. 20.”13 (My translation)
The Tibet chapter of the Old Tang History was translated by S. W. Bushell in 1880
as “The Early History of Tibet. From Chinese Sources”. He used the Qianlong edition
which combined both the Old and the New Tang Histories into one text. The Old
Tang History was written in large script, and different or additional information as
contained in the New Tang History was added in small script. In addition, Paul Pelliot
translated the Tibet chapters of both the Old and the New Tang History in his Histoire
ancienne du Tibet into French. Useful information about how the Tang dynastic
histories were compiled, can be gleaned from Denis Twitchett’s The Writing of
Official History under the T’ang. With regard to place names occurring in the Tang
Histories, the Collected References to Toponyms in the Two Tang Histories/Liang
Tangshu dilizhi huishi is quite helpful.
Apart from the comparatively well-known Chinese dynastic histories, numerous
other works exist which are, in some instances, much more detailed than the Old and
New Tang History. One of the most important of these is the Comprehensive Mirror
for Aid in Government/Zizhi tongjian completed by Sima Guang in 1084. It is written
in chronological style and covers Chinese history from 403 BCE to 959 CE. Of its
altogether 294 chapters, chapters 190 to 265 contain material related to Tibet from the

13 Wang Zhong 1958: 60.

 TANG DYNASTY (618–907) SOURCES FOR TIBETAN EMPIRE STUDIES 7

Tang era. Especially useful are the critical annotations which point to and also discuss
divergences from other sources. Useful compilations of material relating to Tibet in
this monumental work are the Tibet related Historical Material in the Comprehensive
Mirror for Aid in Government/[Zizhi] Tongjian Tufan shiliao and the Collection of
Tibetan Annalistic Historical Material/Zangzu biannian shiliaoji, vol. 1. Furthermore,
a Summary of the Zizhi tongjian/Zizhi tongjian gangmu was devised by Zhu Xi (1130–
1200) and, in the late 18th century, translated from its Manchu version into French by
the Jesuit Father J. A. M. de Moyriac de Mailla. His Histoire générale de la Chine, ou
annals de cet empire is an even further-condensed version of Zhu Xi’s edition; vols.
6 and 7 (up to page 116) report on the Tang dynasty. Information on Tibet is available
but, of course, not as plentiful as in the original Zizhi tongjian.
Furthermore, several Chinese encyclopaedic works need to be considered
important sources on imperial Tibet. Entries in these are usually excerpts from other
works rather than articles especially written for a specific encyclopaedia. The texts
are organised under main section headings and many subsections such as ‘land taxes’,
‘currency’, ‘populations’, ‘official markets’, ‘local tribute’, ‘music’, ‘the army’,
‘geography’, ‘foreign lands’ etc. The encyclopaedias are of special value because
many otherwise long-lost texts have survived as fragments or even as complete texts
in different encyclopaedias. The Encyclopaedic [History of] Institutions/Tongdian
completed by Du You (735–812) in 801, consists of 200 chapters of which about
25% concern the Tang dynasty. Du You also included material by other authors.
Unfortunately, his magnum opus already ends in 755. The Tongdian devotes a whole
sub-chapter to Tibet which is part of chapter 190, and covers the origin, customs and
institutions of Tibet, annalistic material of Tang-Tibetan relations, and reports about
the already above-mentioned mission of Guo Yuanzhen to Tibet respectively Qinghai.
It is often more detailed than the Tang Histories and, in fact, it is very likely that the
Old and New Tang Histories also copied information from the Tongdian.14 If you
searched for specific place or personal names, you might find still more entries related
to imperial Tibet. The Continuation of the Encyclopaedic [History of] Institutions/Xu
tongdian compiled by Ji Huang, et al., during the early Qing Dynasty, covers the
Tang dynasty from 756 to the end of the Ming in 150 juan/chapters. It has some 50
entries in the online edition under ‘吐蕃 Tufan’.
The Comprehensive [History of] Institutions/Tongzhi by Zheng Qiao in 200 chapters
and completed in 1149, follows the model of the Tongdian. It covers the whole Tang
dynasty and its online edition lists some 20 entries under ‘吐蕃 Tufan’. The 18th century
Continuation of the Comprehensive [History of] Institutions/Xu Tongzhi by Ji Huang
et al. in 640 chapters is the extended and modified version of the Tongzhi and covers
the period from 907 to 1644. It provides some 300 entries under ‘吐蕃 Tufan’ in its
online edition, and—at first glance—about 70 concern the Tang dynasty.

14 See Zhang Yun’s “The Value of the Historical Material of ‘the Tibet Chapter of the Tongdian’/
‘Tongdian Tufanzhuan’ de shiliao jiazhi.”
8 BIANCA HORLEMANN

Another important work is the General History of Institutions and Critical

Examination of Documents and Studies/Wenxian tongkao completed by Ma Duanlin
in 1224. This encyclopaedia with 348 chapters, which ends in 1204, has about 100
entries for ‘吐蕃 Tufan’.
Last but not least, the monumental, 1,000 chapters-strong Outstanding Models
from the Storehouse of Literature/Cefu yuangui, compiled by Wang Qinruo et al.
between 1005–1013, contains texts from the earliest times up to 960, but Tang texts
are especially plentiful and also those concerning Tibet. Many articles are taken from
the standard histories, but some texts are from works already lost. 400 entries for ‘吐
蕃 Tufan’ are listed in the online edition. A useful compilation is the Collated
Historical Material on Tibet from the ‘Outstanding Models from the Storehouse of
Literature’/‘Cefu yuangui’ Tufan shiliao jiaozheng.
Other important but often neglected sources which contain references to Tibet
during the Tang dynasty are anthologies and collected works. The work Important
Documents of the Tang/Tang huiyao, completed by Wang Pu in 961 in 100 chapters,
is the continuation of earlier compilations from 804 and 853. It is a collection of
official documents from the Tang dynasty partly compiled during the dynasty itself
and thus especially valuable. The online edition lists 58 entries for ‘吐蕃 Tufan’. The
Collected Edicts of the Tang/Tang da zhaolingji, completed by Song Minqiu in 1070
in 130 chapters, is a collection of imperial edicts and thus similar in scope to the Tang
huiyao. The online edition has only 12 entries for ‘吐蕃 Tufan’. However, I cannot
say how much of the material on Tibet contained in these two works is new and not
already included in the standard histories or in the encyclopaedias.
The early 19th century work Complete Collection of Tang Prose/Quan Tangwen
by Dong Hao et al. in 1,000 chapters contains about 18,000 texts of some 3,000
named authors and many anonymous writers. According to the anthology Tibet
Related Historical Material in the Complete Collection of Tang Prose and of Tang
Poetry/Quan Tang wen quan Tang shi Tufan shiliao you will find some 180 texts
concerning Tibet and Sino-Tibetan relations, among them edicts and memorials,
letters, agreements, reports etc. Some of these texts are identical with those found in
the standard histories and the encyclopaedias mentioned above, but the duplicates are
nevertheless useful for checking unclear paragraphs for possible variant readings and
for additional information.
The 12th century Documentation of Tang Poetry/Tang shi jishi by Ji Yougong is
the first large-scale anthology for Tang poetry. He not only assembled the works of
1,100 poets but also anecdotes about the occasions which inspired the poems. The
900 juan strong Complete Collection of Tang Poetry/Quan Tangshi, compiled by
Peng Dingqiu, et al., in the early 18th century, contains nearly 50,000 poems by 2,200
poets. The poems with references to Tibet—there are about 180 listed in the above-
mentioned anthology Tibet Related Historical Material in the Complete Collection of
Tang Prose and of Tang Poetry—were often composed in order to bid farewell to
officials who were sent to the Sino-Tibetan border or to Tibet itself. Several such
 TANG DYNASTY (618–907) SOURCES FOR TIBETAN EMPIRE STUDIES 9

poems also exist for Princess Jincheng who married into the Tibetan royal house in
710. Other poems describe the impressions and experiences of officials and poets
stationed or travelling in the border area. In this context, Florence Hu-Sterk’s essay
“Entre fascination et repulsion : regards des poètes des Tang sur les ‘barbares’” is
very illuminating as to what kind of information one can expect to find in Tang
poems. Although the poems are often imaginative and emotional, some still provide
valuable glimpses on political and military issues as well as on cultural differences.
Geographical works such as the (Maps and) Gazetteer of the Provinces and
Counties in the Yuanhe Period [806–21]/Yuanhe junxian (tu)zhi, completed by Li
Jifu in 813 in 40 chapters, contains short overviews of the different provinces and
counties in Tang China and also about those on the Sino-Tibetan border. Geographical
sketches of the so-called ‘Western Regions’ are also found in the fragments of the
late 8th century work Jia Dan sidao ji and the mid-8th century work Du Huan jingxing
ji; both are contained in the above-mentioned Encyclopaedic [History of] Institutions/
Tongdian by Du You.
Miscellanea/biji are collected notes and writings of individual literati-officials
which were often written and published after retirement. Becoming fashionable
during the Tang dynasty, the biji were usually only privately copied and distributed
among friends.15 One of these early biji is the Records of Things Heard and Seen by
Mr. Feng/Feng shi wenjian ji, completed by Feng Yan in 800. It contains observations
on 8th century military institutions, court life, customs and local sights and the lives
of the famous. Among these is an account of a ballgame between Tibetan emissaries
and Chinese court officials which obviously refers to the Tang variant of a polo
match. We have already met a reference to this text in Wang Zhong’s annotation of
the Tibet chapter of the New Tang History.16 It starts with a general remark on the
history of the game and that the Tang emperors were fond of watching it, followed by
a reference to Tibetan emissaries:
During the Jingyun [reign period, i.e., 710–712; this is probably mistaken for
Jinglong, i.e., 707–710] when Tibet sent its emissaries to meet Princess
Jincheng, [Emperor] Zhongzong granted them at the Liyuan Pavilion to watch
[a match of] polo. The Tibetan Zanduo presented a memorial saying: “In my
delegation there are several good players, please let them compete with the
Han.” The Emperor ordered the Inner Quarters to test them, they made several
matches, and the Tibetans won them all. At that time Xuanzong was the Linzi
Prince and Zhongzong also ordered the Siguo Prince Yong, the Fuma/ Horse
attendants Yang Shenjiao and Wu Yanxiu, these four, to compete with ten
Tibetans.17 (My translation)

15 Starting from the Song dynasty, biji were also often printed.
16 See quotation from Wang Zhong’s work above.
17 See Feng 1985: 74–75.
10 BIANCA HORLEMANN

Furthermore, a few interesting travel accounts by Buddhist monks from the Tang
period have survived. For example, the Song Biographies of Eminent Monks/Song
Gao Seng chuan by Zanning contains biographies of Tang monks who travelled from
China to India or vice versa through Eastern Turkestan to the so-called ‘Western
Regions’. Some of these accounts also include short references to Tibet or Tibetans
met on the way.18 The well-known Record of the Western World [compiled] under
the Great Tang/Da Tang xiyuji narrates Xuanzang’s journey between 629 and 645
from China via Eastern Turkestan to India and back. Although Xuanzang’s travelogue
does not seem to specifically mention Tibet or Tibetans, it gives a vivid description
of Eastern Turkestan during the first half of the 7th century and of the role of Buddhism
in the area bordering on northern Tibet. Paraphrased versions of Xuanzang’s report
have been published by René Grousset in 1929 and by Arthur Waley in 1952. A
translation of Xuanzang’s biography has been published by A. L. Mayer in German
and a [full?] translation is provided by Li Rongxi in The Great Tang Dynasty Record
of the Western Regions.
The Memoir of Wukong’s Journey to India/Wukong ru Zhu ji briefly relates how
the monk Wukong travelled from China to India and back between 751 and 790.
Similar to Xuanzang, he gives an account of the role of Buddhism in Eastern Turkestan
and India although not as detailed and as vivid. Tibet is only mentioned once in
connection with a road leading from Kashmir to Tibet.19
An interesting travel account is provided by the (Korean) monk Huichao 慧超/ 惠
超 called [Huichao’s] Record of Five Indic Countries/[Huichao] wang wu Tianzhuguo
zhuan. It contains 2 short paragraphs on Tibet—apparently hearsay from a Kashmiri
perspective—as well as information on monasteries in the Anxi Protectorate, i.e., in
Kashgar and in Khotan.20 Huichao returned from India, via Turkestan, to China
during the early/ mid-8th century.21 The paragraphs on Tibet are not long, but contain
some interesting details about early Tibet.
Then to the northeast of Jiashimiluo [Kashmir], 15 days travel over mountains,
there are Great Bolü, Yangtong and Suoboci [?]. These three countries are
under Tibetan administration. … They have monasteries and monks and
venerate the Three Jewels. But in the very east towards Tibet, they don’t have
monasteries and don’t know the Dharma. [In] these [three] countries [the
people] are Hu, so they are believers.
In the very east is Tibet. Dwelling in a simple manner between ice and snow
mountains in river valleys, they [the Tibetans] take felt covers to live in and

18 See, for example, the biography of the Indian monk Shanwuwei 善无畏 in Zanning 1987, vol.
1: 17–22.
19 Chavannes 1895:356 and The Memoir of Wukong’s Journey to India/Wukong ru Zhu ji 1996:
123.
20 Forte 1992 studied this text with regard to the Great Cloud monasteries in Turkestan.
21 Huichao arrived at the seat of Anxi Protectorate, i.e., in Kucha, in 727.
 TANG DYNASTY (618–907) SOURCES FOR TIBETAN EMPIRE STUDIES 11

have neither city walls nor houses. They resemble the Tujue [Turks] and follow
water and grass. Their king/ruler, although he stays in one place, is without
city (or walls), but (also) takes fabrics and felt covers for his residence. The
territory produces sheep, horses, yak and some sort of rugs and coarse cloth.
The clothes are made of woollen cloth and skins. The women are almost bare/
naked. The land is extremely cold, not like in the other countries. The families
often eat roasted cereals, rarely flat bread or rice. The king and the people
generally don’t know the Dharma and don’t have monasteries. The common
people take what they wear as mats to sleep on and they don’t have bedding.
The people are very dark and the fair skinned are very rare. Their language is
different from all the other countries and they are very fond of eating lice,
because the woollen clothes are full of lice eggs. When they catch them, they
immediately fling them into the mouth and thus they [the lice] are not
discarded.22 (My translation)
All of the works listed above contain direct or indirect references to imperial Tibet
and, in sum, add up to several hundred pages. Much of the information might just
reconfirm what we already know from other sources. However, given the scarcity of
Tibetan primary sources, even snippets of new information might shed more light on
certain historical events and developments in imperial Tibet. These numerous Chinese
sources should, therefore, not be neglected.

Useful dictionaries and other research tools

Apart from searchable online editions of major Chinese historical works and special
compilations of material on Tibet contained therein, several further research tools
considerably facilitate our efforts to use Chinese sources. For example, Endymion
Wilkinson’s Chinese History : a Manual dates, classifies and describes all major
Chinese historical works and is thus an excellent starting point to clarify what kind of
source you are dealing with.
A convenient reference book for tracing major political, cultural and religious
trends of the Tang dynasty is Sui and T’ang China, 589–906, i.e., volume 3, part 1 of
The Cambridge History of China. Of this useful history, written by expert scholars,
unfortunately only the first part of the originally planned two volumes on the Tang
dynasty has been published so far. Although the first part has its own index, the
usually extensive bibliography is planned for part 2. Thus, relevant primary and
secondary sources can only be gleaned from the footnotes in part 1. Another helpful
publication is Mark Lewis’ recent book China’s Cosmopolitan Empire : The Tang
Dynasty. It provides a general overview of different aspects of Tang China such as

22 This text has already been studied by Demiéville 1952, Petech 1977, Stein 1989 and others. A
full translation of Huichao’s travelogue which I have not been able to consult, has been
published by Yang, et al. (ed. and trans.) 1984.
12 BIANCA HORLEMANN

‘Geography of the Empire’, ‘From Foundation to Rebellion’, ‘Urban Life’, ‘Rural

Society’, ‘The Outer World’, ‘Religion’, etc., and also contains several maps and
illustrations as well as an extensive, up-to-date bibliography.
Charles Hucker’s A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China is indispensable
when dealing with Chinese official ranks and titles. Although this dictionary is
strongest for titles starting from the Song Dynasty, it might still prove helpful to
clarify the significance of Chinese ranks or titles conferred to Tibetan emissaries
according to the Chinese nomenclature. The introduction also contains a separate
chapter on the Tang government together with a table of its general structure.
Mathews’ Chinese-English Dictionary contains useful appendices, e.g., a table of
the Chinese Dynasties including the reign titles/ periods (nianhao 年号) and dynastic
titles23 (miaohao/庙号) of all the Chinese emperors. Furthermore, it provides tables
of the celestial stems and branches for calendar calculations etc. However, Mathews
only uses Chinese characters in his tables while the Cambridge History of China only
provides transcriptions in Wade Giles. Unfortunately, the tables in both works contain
several, albeit different mistakes. It is thus best to consult Paul Kroll’s “Basic Data
on Reign-Dates and Local Government/The True Dates of the Reigns and Reign-
Periods of T’ang” to obtain the relevant information in Chinese and Wade Giles as
well as the exact dates, i.e., the day, month and year, of the inaugural date of a reign
period according to the western calendar. Kroll also provides the exact accession
dates of the emperors and points out such mistakes as incorrect years for accessions
as well as missing, incorrect and incorrectly named reign periods in reference works
such as Mathews’ dictionary.24

Excursus: Dynastic titles, reign titles and dates during the Tang dynasty
While Chinese dynastic titles were bestowed posthumously, reign titles served as
mottos for reign periods of individual emperors, often denoting political goals such
as ‘Yonghe/Everlasting peace’ or ‘Datong/Great unification’. Until the advent of the
Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) it was not uncommon for Chinese emperors to choose
one or more reign titles, but during the Tang dynasty these changes became
inflationary. For example, Emperor Gaozong (reg. 649–684) changed his reign titles
altogether 14 times and Empress Wu Zhao (de facto reg. 684–705)25 even 19 times.

23 Sometimes also translated literally as ‘temple name’.

24 In Mathews’ table, the accession year of a new emperor usually accords with the beginning of
a new reign period/ title. However, the reign titles were usually only changed sometime after
the accession, i.e., often only in the following year according to the western calendar. Mathew
also omitted the following reign titles: Wansui dengfeng/万岁登封, starting 20 Jan. 696,
Tanglong/唐隆, starting 5 July 710, and Xiantian/先天, starting 12 Sep. 712. Furthermore,
Mathews has Yonghe/永和 reign period for 827 to 836 which should read Taihe/太和instead.
In contrast, the Cambridge History of China often has incorrect years for the reign titles.
25 Wu Zhao, respectively Wu Zetian, was Emperor Gaozong’s empress from 655–83, then regent
of her son Ruizong from 684–90, and finally emperor in her own right from 690–705.
 TANG DYNASTY (618–907) SOURCES FOR TIBETAN EMPIRE STUDIES 13

During the Tang dynasty, reign titles also often had a religious connotation—especially
under Wu Zhao—or were connected to auspicious events.26 For example, the period
from 684 to 685 was named ‘Guangzhai’, alluding to the recovering of Buddha relics
in the Guangzhai quarter of Chang’an,27 and the year 701 had the reign title ‘Dazu/
Big foot’ which referred to the detection of foot imprints near Chengzhou in Henan
allegedly belonging to the Buddha.28 The reign titles could be changed anytime
during the year.
In general, references to exact dates in Chinese primary sources are provided in
the following manner:
Jinglong sannian shiyi yue jiaxu Tufan zanpu qian qi dachen Shangzantu lai
ni nü. 景龙三年十一月甲戌吐蕃赞普遣其大臣尚赞吐来逆女。On Jiaxu
day in the 11th month of the third year of Jinglong (i.e., Dec. 27th, 709): the
Tibetan tsanpu sent his high official Shangzantu to receive the woman [i.e.,
the bride of the tsanpu, Princess Jincheng].29
Modern Chinese text editions or anthologies also often indicate the year of an
event according to the western calendar in brackets, but not so for the month
and day. In order to obtain the exact date according to the western calendar,
conversion tables for the Chinese calendar need to be consulted, such as the
one provided by Kairos at http://www.raymondm.co.uk/Kairos.htm.
In order to use searchable online editions of Chinese historical texts, access to data
bases such as Shutongwen 书同文 at www.unihan.com.cn, Darenwu 大人物 at www.
greatman.com.tw or www.cn-classics.com is required depending on the text. These
usually licensed data bases can often be accessed through major libraries or university
libraries using, for example, Cross Asia Virtual Library at www.crossasia.org or
other providers.

Chinese Secondary Sources relating to the Tibetan Empire

I do not want to list here the great amount of secondary scholarship on different aspects
of the Tang dynasty by Chinese scholars, since, as already mentioned before, the Tang
dynasty has been comparatively well studied and a wide range of books and articles by
Chinese scholars is available. For the non-sinologist who only seeks some general
information on Tang China for comparative purposes, this information can usually also
be obtained by consulting secondary literature in Western languages as listed further
down.30 I would like to point out, however, that the Beijing-based Tang Research

26 See Rothschild 2006.

27 The discovery was already made in 677.
28 See Rothschild 2006: 130 and 140.
29 Quote from Jiu Tangshu 2002/1: 148.
30 Western language sources usually also contain references to specific studies by Chinese
scholars.
14 BIANCA HORLEMANN

Foundation [TRF]—established in 1991 in cooperation with an American sponsor—

publishes The Journal of Tang Studies/Tang yanjiu31 and a series called Selected Works
on the Tang. According to the (Chinese and English) TRF website at www.tangrf.org
the latter is an on-going series of magnum opus works of renowned Chinese scholars
related to Tang society, history, archaeology or culture. See, for example:
Shi Nianhai: Research on Tang Dynasty Historical Geography/Tangdai lishi
dili yanjiu.
Sun Jimin: A Beginning Exploration of Tang Dynasty Military Documents
from Dunhuang and Turfan/Dunhuang Tulufan suo chu Tangdai junshi
wenshu chutan.
Wang Yongxing: Research on Northwest Military Affairs of the Early Tang
Dynasty/Tangdai qianqi xibei junshi yanjiu.
Wu Yugui: Research on Relations between the Turkish Khanate and the Sui
and Tang Dynasties/Tujue hanguo yu Sui Tang guanxishi yanjiu.
We should, however, not neglect the considerable number of Chinese books and
articles which specifically deal with the Tibetan Empire period. In this respect, the
data base called Chinese Academic Journals [CAJ] at www.cnki.net is extremely
helpful. CAJ provides full-text PDFs of articles from over 7,200 Chinese academic
journals including China’s Tibet/ Zhongguo zangxue and Tibetan Studies/Xizang
yanjiu. Short English abstracts are often provided at the beginning or at the end of the
articles. However, Tibetan language journals published in China are not included.32
If you search for ‘吐蕃 Tufan’ in the CAJ database, some 2,500 articles by Chinese
authors are listed for the period from 1994 to 2010 alone.33
Below a small fraction of the available secondary literature on the Tibetan Empire
period is listed in order to provide some glimpses on the scope of research conducted
by Chinese scholars in recent years. Thus, the list is by no means comprehensive
and very likely many important publications have been omitted by accident. All these
works are in Chinese, and the English titles have only been added for your con-
venience.
Chen Jian/ Wang Yao: Bod kyi gna’ rabs yig cha gces bsdus/Tufan wenxian
xuandu.
Chen Xiaoping: The Old Route between Tang [China] and Tibet/ Tang Fan
gudao.

31 Not to be confused with the American Journal called T’ang Studies which has been published
since 1982 with about one issue once a year.
32 See, for example, the Tibetan issues of “Tibetan Studies”, i.e., Bod ljongs zhib ‘jug,
which are not available on CAJ. However, the Chinese issues called Xizang yanjiu,
which differ in content from the Tibetan issues, are accessible online.
33 Many of the listed articles are not relevant because of duplicates, wrong links etc., but when
sifting through the list a considerable number of articles remains and deserves attention.
 TANG DYNASTY (618–907) SOURCES FOR TIBETAN EMPIRE STUDIES 15

—— A Compilation of Historical Material on the Old Route between Tang

[China] and Tibet/ Tang Fan gudao shiliaoji.
Feng Yichao: “A Study of the Marital Ties between the Tang Dynasty and
Tibet/Tangchao yu Tufan heqin zhi yanjiu.”
Huang Weizhong: “A Study of Dega yucai (De ga g.yu tshal) Treaty Monastery
– A Further Discussion of why this Monastery is not [the same as] the
Yulin Grottoes/Dega yucai huimengsi (de ga g.yu tshal gtsigs kyi gtsug lag
khang) kao – zai lun gai si fei Yulinku.”
—— “About Some Questions Concerning the Tibetan Military Occupation
during the Tang Era/Guanyu Tangdai Tufan junshi zhanlingqu de jige
wenti.”
——/ Wang Weiqiang: “A Study of Tibetan ‘mdo gams’ and ‘mdo khams’/
Zangwen ‘mdo gams’ he ‘mdo khams’ kao.”
——/ Xie Jisheng: “A Translation of the Tibetan Note on the Murals of Cave
25 of the Yulin Grottoes/Yulinku di 25 ku bihua zangwenji shidu.”
——/ Wang Nannan: “An Account of the Tibetan Dunhuang Documents Stored
at the Gansu Provincial Museum (part 1)/Gansu sheng bowuguan suo zang
Dunhuang zangwen wenxian xulu (shang).”
—— “A Review of the Domestic [i.e., China’s] Rearrangement and Research
of Tibetan Dunhuang Documents/Guonei zang Dunhuang zangwen
wenxian de zhengli yu yanjiu huigu”.
—— “[Some] Problems [concerning] the Tibetan Transcription of Catalogue
Items of ‘Dunhuang Documents [stored] at the National Library’/‘Guojia
tushuguan zang Dunhuang yishu’ tiaoji mulu zhong de zangwen zhuanxie
wenti”.
Jie Zhanlu: The Struggle for Qinghai between the Tang and [Imperial] Tibet/
Tang Fan Qinghai zhi zheng.
Lin Guanqun [Lin Kuan-ch’ün]: “An Investigation into the Three-sided
Relationship between the Tang of the Li [Clan], the Uyghurs and the
Tibetans/ Li Tang, Huihe, Tufan san bian guanxi zhi tantao.”
—— A Collection of Historical Studies on the Tibetans during the Tang Era/
Tangdai Tufan shi lunji.
—— A Collection of Essays on the History and the Culture of Tibet during the
Tang Era/Tangdai Tufan lishi yu wenhua lunji.
Lu Li: Research on He[xi], Long[you] and the Western Region during the Era
of Tibetan Rule/Tufan tongzhi He Long Xiyu shiqi zhidu yanjiu.
—— “‘Army Supervisor (Khri spyan)’ and ‘Supervising Commissioner (Rtse
rje spyan)’ during the Tibetan Rule over Dunhuang/Tufan tongzhi
Dunhuang de jianjun, jianshi.”
—— “The ‘Retainers’ and the ‘Retainers’ Tribes’ during the Tibetan Rule over
Dunhuang/Tufan tongzhi Dunhuang shiqi de ‘xingren’, ‘xingren buluo’.”
—— “A Phonetic Study of Hunmo/Hunmo yinyi kao.”
16 BIANCA HORLEMANN

—— “The Terms ’Lho bal’ and ‘Nanpo’, ‘Nanshan’ in Dunhuang Documents/

Guanyu Dunhuang wenshu zhong de ‘Lho bal’ yu ‘Nanpo’, ‘Nanshan’.”
—— “Two Questions concerning the Translation of the Tibetan Inscriptions on
the Murals of Cave 25 of the Yulin Grottoes/Guanyu Yulinku di 25 ku
bihua zangwen tiji fandu de liangge wenti.”
Maeda Masana (transl. from Japanese): A Study of the Historical Geography
of Hexi/Hexi lishi dili xue yanjiu.
Qinghai sheng bowuguan Tang Fan gudao bianxiezu: Selected Material
concerning the Old Route between Tang [China] and Tibet/Tang Fan
gudao zhi ziliao xuanbian.
Rong Xinjiang: “The Nature of the Dunhuang Cave Library and the Reasons
for Its Sealing/Dunhuang zangjingdong de xingzhi ji qi fengbi yuanyin.”
—— Eighteen Lectures in Dunhuang Studies/Dunhuang xue shiba jiang.
Tang Huisheng:34 “An Investigation of the Buddhist Cliffs of the Tang Era in
the Qinghai Yushu Area/ Qinghai Yushu diqu Tangdai fojiao moya
kaoshu.”
Tian Feng: “An Investigation of the Old Route between Tang [China] and
Tibet/Tang Fan gudao tanxi.”
—— “A Brief Study of the Road leading from [Imperial] Tibet towards Bolü
and Jibin/Tufan tongwang Bolü, Jibin zhi dao lüekao.”
—— “A Brief Study of the Connections between [Imperial] Tibet and Nanzhao/
Tufan yu Nanzhao jiaowang lüekao.”
—— “A Brief Note on the Traffic [routes] on the Peripherie of [Imperial] Tibet/
Tufan shiqi zhoubian jiaotong yanjiu zongshu.”
Wang Duo: “A Study of the Names and Titles of Tibetan High Officials as
Contained in Old Chinese Historical Works/Gudai Hanwen shiji zhong de
Tufan dachen minghao kao.”
—— “A Study of the Names and Titles of Tibetan Rulers as Contained in Old
Chinese Historical Works/Gudai Hanwen shiji zhong de Tufan zanpu
minghao kao.”
—— “The Contributions of Foreign Monks to Tibetan Buddhism and the
Translation of Buddhist Sutras/Wailai sengren dui Tufan fojiao ji fojing
fanyi fangmian de gongxian.”
Wang Xiaofu: The History of Political Relations between Tang [China],
Tibetans and Arabs/ Tang, Tufan, Dashi zhengzhi guanxi shi.
Wang Yao: [Early] Tibetan Inscriptions/ Tufan jinshilu.
—— Scholars’ New Feast/Xianzhe xinyan.
—— A Register of Tibetan Wooden Slips/Tufan jiandu zonglu.

34 Tang Huisheng has published extensively on petroglyphs and other early cultural relics of the
Qinghai Plateau.
 TANG DYNASTY (618–907) SOURCES FOR TIBETAN EMPIRE STUDIES 17

—— A Collection of Minor Explorations into Tibet’s Culture and History/

Xizang wenshi tanwei ji.
—— A Collection of Explorations into Old Tibetan Documents from Dunhuang/
Dunhuang gu zangwen wenxian tansuo ji.
—— et al.: Tibetan Historical Documents from Dunhuang/Dunhuang ben
Tufan lishi wenshu.
Wang Zhong: “Songtsan Gampo—A Historical Hero of the Tibetans/ Songzan
Ganbu—Zangzu de lishi yingxiong.”
—— A Biography of Songtsan Gampo/Songzan Ganbu zhuan.
Wang Zhongxu: “An Identification of the ‘Devas, Nagas and Others of the
Eight Classes’ Images on the Dunhuang Murals from the Tibetan Era/
Tufan shiqi Dunhuang bihua zhong ‘Tianlong babu’ tuxiang bianren.”
—— “‘Images of Wutaishan Manifestations’ in Dunhuang from the Tibetan
Era and the Wutaishan Veneration/Tufan shiqi Dunhuang ‘Wutaishan
huaxian tu’ yu Wutaishan xinyang.”
Yang Ming: A Study of Tibet‘s Rule over Dunhuang and of Tibetan Documents/
Tufan tongzhi Dunhuang yu Tufan wenshu yanjiu.
Zhang Yun: “An Analysis of the Expansion Strategy of the Tibetan Imperial
Court/Tufan wangchao kuozhang celüe zhi fenxi.”
—— “Official Correspondence, Dialogue and the Establishment of Relations
between Tang [China] and Tibet/Tang Fan zhijian de shuhan wanglai,
duihua yu goutong.”
—— The History of Tibet during the Tang Era and Research on the History of
the Northwestern Ethnicities/Tangdai Tufan shi yu Xibei minzu shi yanjiu.
Zhou Weizhou: Contributions to the History of Tibet during the Tang Era and
of Modern Tibet/Tangdai Tufan yu Jindai Xizang shi lungao.
—— The Dangxiang of the Tang Era/Tangdai Dangxiang.
—— The History of the Tuyuhun/Tuyuhun shi.
Furthermore, numerous general works on Tibet’s history in Chinese also cover the
Empire period. Below are listed a few of the more recent or important ones focussing
on A mdo:
A Comprehensive Annalistic History of Qinghai/Qinghai lishi jiyao.
A Comprehensive History of Qinghai/Qinghai tongshi.
A Comprehensive History of the Northwest, vol. 2/Xibei tongshi, di er juan.
A Historical Study on the Opening Up of Hexi/Hexi kaifa shi yanjiu.
Chen Guangguo: A History of the Tibetans in Qinghai/Qinghai Zangzu shi.

Western secondary sources on the Tang dynasty

The Tang dynasty has also been comparatively well-studied by Western scholars and
their works are usually easily accessible. Below are listed secondary works in Western
18 BIANCA HORLEMANN

languages according to specific topics. These are general studies on the Tang dynasty
and the majority of them does not specifically deal with Tibet or Sino-Tibetan
relations during the Tang.

Dynastic court, military and civil administration

Abramson, Marc: Ethnic Identity in Tang China.
Chen Sanping: “Succession Struggle and the Ethnic Identity of the Tang
Imperial House.”
Chen Ta-ko: “Organising Authority: Office, Rank and Status in Tang China.”
Des Rotours, Robert: Traité des Fonctionnaires et Traité de l’Armée.
Drompp, Michael: Tang China and the Collapse of the Uighur Empire: A
Documentary History.
Graff, David: Medieval Chinese Warfare: 300–900.
Johnson, Wallace (tr.): The T’ang Code. Vol. 1. General Principles.
Kroll, Paul: “Basic Data on Reign-Dates and Local Government.”
Lai Swee Fo: “The Military and Defence System under the T’ang Dynasty.”
Lewis, Mark: China’s Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty.
McMullen, David: State and Scholars in T’ang China.
Peterson, Charles: “P’u-ku Huai-en and the T’ang Court: The Limits of
Loyalty.”
Tietze, Klaus-Peter: Ssuch’uan vom 7. bis 10. Jahrhundert: Untersuchungen
zur Frühen Geschichte einer chinesischen Provinz.
Twitchett, Denis: Financial administration under the T‘ang Dynasty.
—— “Tibet in Tang’s Grand Strategy.”

Tang emperors: Taizong, Gaozong, Wu Zetian, Xuanzong etc.

Benn, Charles: “Religious Aspects of Emperor Hsüan-tsung’s Taoist Ideology.”
Chen Jinhua:35 “Sarira and Scepter: Empress Wu’s Political use of Buddhist
Relics.”
Fitzgerald, Charles: The Empress Wu.
Guisso, Richard: Wu Tse-T’ien and the Politics of Legitimation in T’ang
China.
Rothschild, N. Harry:36 Wu Zhao. China‘s Only Woman Emperor.
Tonami Mamoru: “Policy towards the Buddhist Church in the Reign of T’ang
Hsüan-tsung.”

35 Chen Jinhua has published extensively on a variety of Buddhism related topics during the Sui
and Tang dynasties.
36 Up-to-date biography of Wu Zetian with useful bibliographic references in the chapter “A Note
on the Sources,” 2008: 215–220.
 TANG DYNASTY (618–907) SOURCES FOR TIBETAN EMPIRE STUDIES 19

Twitchett, Denis: “The T’ang Imperial Family.”

Wright, Arthur: “T’ang T’ai-tsung and Buddhism.”

Trade and tribute, foreign relations

Bielenstein, Hans:37Diplomacy and Trade in the Chinese World: 589-1276.
Lee, Don:38 The History of Early Relations between China and Tibet. From Chiu
T‘ang-shu, a Documentary Survey.
Li Rongxi (tr.):39 The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions.
Mackerras, Colin:40 The Uighur Empire According to the Tang Dynastic
Histories.
—— “Uygur-Tang relations, 744–840.”
—— “The Uighurs.”
Pan Yihong:41 Son of Heaven and Heavenly Qaghan: Sui-Tang China and its
Neighbors.
Pulleyblank, Edwin: The Background of the Rebellion of An Lushan.
Schafer, Edward: The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A study of T’ang Exotics.
Sen Tansen: Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian
Relations, 600–1400.
Tong, Tao: “The Silk Roads of the Northern Tibetan Plateau During the Early
Middle Ages (From the Han to the Tang Dynasty) as Reconstructed from
Archaeological and Written Sources.”

Role of religion, divination, auspicious signs and astrology during the Tang
Barrett, Timothy: Taoism under the T’ang.
Forte, Antonino:42 Political Propaganda and Ideology in China at the End of
the Seventh Century: Inquiry into the Nature, Authors and Function of the
Tunhuang Document S. 6502, Followed by an Annotated Translation.

37 Focus on (trade) missions. Also lists Sino-Tibetan missions according to different sources.
38 This work is helpful with regard to finding0 the different entries concerning Tibet in the Old
Tang History and by providing translations of these entries.
39 Contains Xuanzang’s (600–664) report of his journey to the west as requested by Emperor Tang
Taizong.
40 Mackerras’ work on the Uighurs during the Tang period is an important contribution to Chinese-
foreign relations and invites comparative perspectives on Sino-Tibetan relations during the
Tang. It seems, however, that Mackerras’ work is mainly based on the Old and New Tang
History and rarely used the other sources listed above.
41 Pan’s work deals with the Turks, Koreans, Nanzhao and Tibet. It provides a good overview on
how and by whom Chinese foreign affairs were handled during the Sui and Tang Dynasties.
42 Forte’s publications on the Tang dynasty are highly recommendable. The main topics of his
research are very specialized, but at the same time he illuminates many important and otherwise
much neglected aspects of religious trends and especially of Buddhist practices both at the court
and among the common people.
20 BIANCA HORLEMANN

—— Mingtang and Buddhist Utopias in the History of the Astronomical Clock:

The Tower, Statue and Armillary Sphere Constructed by Empress Wu.
Kohn, Livia/ Kirkland, Russell: “Daoism in the Tang (618–907).”
McMullen, David: “Bureaucrats and Cosmology: The Ritual Code of T’ang
China.”
Rothschild, N. Harry: “An Inquiry into Reign Era Changes under Wu Zhao,
Woman Emperor of China.”
Schafer, Edward: Pacing the Void: T’ang Approaches to the Stars.
Wechsler, Howard: Offerings of Jade and Silk: Ritual and Symbol in the
Legitimation of the T’ang Dynasty.

Everyday life, status of women43 etc.

Bauer, Virginia: “Polo in Tang China: Sport and an Art.”

Benn, Charles:44 China’s Golden Age. Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty.
Dudbrigde, Glen:45 Religious Experience and Lay Society in T‘ang China. A
Reading of Tai Fu‘s Kuangi chi.
Eberhard, Wolfram: “The Origin of the Commoners in Ancient Tun-huang.”
Georgieva, Valentina: “Representation of Buddhist Nuns in Chinese Edifying
Miracle Tales during the Six Dynasties and the Tang.”
Jay, Jennifer: “Imagining Matriarchy: ‘Kingdoms of Women’ in Tang China.”

Buddhism during the Tang

1. Chinese Buddhist schools, i.e. Northern/Southern Chan/Zen, Flower Garland/
Huayan, Tiantai, Pure Land/Jingtu, Tantrism
Ch’en, Kenneth: Buddhism in China.
—— The Chinese Transformation of Buddhism.
Chou I-liang: “Tantrism in China.”
Gernet, Jacques: Buddhism in Chinese Society: An Economic History from the
Fifth to the Tenth Centuries.
Gimello/ Gregory (eds.): Studies in Ch’an and Huayan.
Weinstein, Stanley: Buddhism under the T’ang.
—— “Imperial Patronage in the Formation of T’ang Buddhism.”
Wright, Arthur: Buddhism in Chinese History.

43 See the literature on Wu Zetian as already cited above.

44 Benn provides a good general overview but, unfortunately, his “Suggested Readings” contain
many errors and no Chinese sources.
45 This books not only deals with religious experiences of lay people in China but also with the
role of lay women in Buddhist and Daoist contexts.
 TANG DYNASTY (618–907) SOURCES FOR TIBETAN EMPIRE STUDIES 21

Zürcher, Erik: The Buddhist Conquest of China: The Spread and Adaptation
of Buddhism in Early Medieval China.

2. Eminent monks of the Tang

Chavannes, Edouard/ Lévi, Sylvain: “Itinéraire d’Ou-k’ong (751–790).”
Chen Jinhua:46 Philosopher, Practitioner, Politician: the Many Lives of
Fazang (643-712).
Forte, Antonino: “Le Moine Khotanais Devendraprajna.”
—— “Hui-chih (fl. 676-703 A.D.), a Brahmin born in China.”
—— “The Maitreyist Huaiyi (d. 695) and Taoism.”
Grousset, René: In the Footsteps of Buddha.
Mayer, Alexander: Xuanzang, Übersetzer und Heiliger.
Waley, Arthur:47 The Real Tripitaka.

3. Buddhist space: monasteries, caves, mountains etc.

Birnbaum, Raoul:48 “Thoughts on T’ang Buddhist Mountain Traditions and
Their Context.”
—— “The Manifestation of a Monastery: Shen-ying’s Experiences on Mount
Wu-t’ai in T’ang Context.”
Forte, Antonino: “Chinese State Monasteries in the Seventh and Eighth
Centuries.”
Howard, Angela: Summit of Treasures: Buddhist Cave Art of Dazu.
McNair, Amy:49 Donors of Longmen.
Qiang Ning:50 Art, Religion, and Politics in Medieval China: The Dunhuang
Cave of the Zhai Family.
Soper, Alexander: “A Vacation Glimpse of the T’ang Temples of Ch’ang-an:
The Ssu-t’a chi by Tuan Ch’eng-shih.”
Twitchett, Denis: “Monastic Estates in T’ang China.”
Yang Lien-sheng: “Buddhist Monasteries and Four Money-Raising Institutions
in Chinese History.”

46 This work deals with the eminent Chinese monk Fazang and his role at Taizong’s and Gaozong’s
courts.
47 On Xuanzang; see n. 38.
48 There are several more works by Birnbaum on Wutaishan during the Tang which I have not
listed here.
49 This book is a case study on patronage of Buddhist cave shrines dating from ca. 500 to 755 in
Longmen, near Luoyang. It contains translations of donor inscriptions and provides insights
into the motivations of donors.
50 An art historic account of an important Chinese clan in Dunhuang which is full of insights for
the historian and tibetologist.
22 BIANCA HORLEMANN

4. Emanation/ reincarnation, Buddhist feasts, self-immolation, suppression of

Buddhist monasticism in 840–845, competition Buddhism - Daoism
Benn, James:51 Burning for the Buddha. Self-Immolation in Chinese Buddhism.
Ch’en, Kenneth: “The Economic Background of the Hui-ch’ang Suppression
of Buddhism.”
Deeg, Max: “Origins and Development of the Buddhist Pancavarsika.”
Huang Chi-chiang: “Consecrating the Buddha: Legend, Lore, and History of
the Imperial Relic-Veneration Ritual in the T’ang Dynasty.”
Janousch, Andreas: “The Emperor as Bodhisattva: The Bodhisattva Ordination
and Ritual Assemblies of Emperor Wu of the Liang Dynasty.”
Reischauer, Edwin:52 Ennin’s Diary.
—— Ennin’s Travels in T’ang China.
Waley, Arthur: “Ennin (A.D. 794–864) and Ensai.”

This general overview of western scholarship on Tang China is, of course, not
comprehensive but rather eclectic. My aim for compiling these lists was twofold:
on the one hand, to demonstrate that the scope of western Tang studies is also quite
varied, and on the other, to list mostly those works which might be of interest for
comparative studies for tibetologists.

51 The author traces the Buddhist practice of ‘self-mutilation/ abandoning the body’ from its
beginnings in late 4th century China to the early 20th century with a special focus on Tang China
in chapter 5.
52 Ennin (794–864) was a Japanese monk who arrived in China in 835. He stayed for several years
in a monastery in Yangzhou before he moved on to Wutaishan and from there to Chang’an. He
kept a diligent diary and also reported on the suppression of Buddhist monasticism during the
mid-9th century, Ennin was especially interested in the Tiantai school of Buddhism and in
Tantrism.
 TANG DYNASTY (618–907) SOURCES FOR TIBETAN EMPIRE STUDIES 23

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28 BIANCA HORLEMANN

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guanxi zhi tantao—yi Su-, Dai-, Dezong shiqi wei zhongxin 李唐、回纥、吐
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—— 2007. A Collection of Essays on the History and the Culture of Tibet during
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—— 2010. “The Terms ’Lho bal’ and ‘Nanpo’, ‘Nanshan’ in Dunhuang Documents/
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Dunhuangxue jikan 敦煌学辑刊 3: 28–39.
—— 2010. “Two Questions concerning the Translation of the Tibetan Inscriptions
on the Murals of Cave 25 of the Yulin Grottoes/Guanyu Yulinku di 25 ku bihua
zangwen tiji fandu de liangge wenti 关于榆林窟第25窟壁画藏文题记释读的两
个问题.” Journal of Northwest University for Nationalities/ Xibei minzu daxue
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 TANG DYNASTY (618–907) SOURCES FOR TIBETAN EMPIRE STUDIES 29

—— 2010. “Army Supervisor [Khri spyan] and Supervising Commissioner [Rtse

rje spyan] during the Tibetan Rule over Dunhuang/Tufan tongzhi Dunhuang de
jianjun, jianshi 吐蕃统治敦煌的监军，监使.” China Tibetology/ Zhongguo
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Ma Duanlin 马端临. 1224 (repr. 1936). General History of Institutions and Critical
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Mackerras, Colin. 1973. The Uighur Empire According to the Tang Dynastic Histories.
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—— 2000. “Uygur-Tang relations, 744–840.” Central Asian Survey 19/2: 223–234.
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Maeda Masana 前田正名. 1993. A Study of the Historical Geography of Hexi/Hexi
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Mathews, R. H. 1943. Mathews’ Chinese-English Dictionary. Revised American
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Mayer, Alexander L. 1992. Xuanzang, Übersetzer und Heiliger. Wiesbaden :
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—— 1988. State and Scholars in T’ang China. Cambridge : Cambridge University
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McNair, Amy. 2007. Donors of Longmen: Faith, Politics, and Patronage in Medieval
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Ouyang Xiu 欧阳修 et al. 1060 (repr. 1975, 2003). New Tang History/Xin Tangshu 新
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Pan Yihong. 1997. Son of Heaven and Heavenly Qaghan : Sui-Tang China and Its
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Petech, Luciano. 1977. The Kingdom of Ladakh c. 950–1842 A. D. Roma: IsMEO.
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30 BIANCA HORLEMANN

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