~ as given in Eqn.

Poisson’s & Laplace’s equations: The fundamental equations for E

(26) can be combined to give,
ρ
∇2 V = − Poisson′ s equation (27)
ǫ0
2
∇ V = 0 Laplace′ s equation (28)

Laplace’s equation follows from Poisson’s equation in the region where there is no charge
density ρ = 0. The solutions of Laplace’s equation are called harmonic functions and have
no local maxima or minima. All extrema occur at boundaries and, hence, correspond to
smoothest surface available. For instance, in 1-dim the solution is a straight line which is
shortest distance between to points at boundary.
Earnshaw’s Theorem: A charged particle cannot be held in stable equilibrium by elec-
trostatics forces alone. This basically follows from the fact that Laplace’s equation tolerates
no local maxima or minima of the potential and Poisson’s equation allows no stability!

• Stable equilibrium demands extrema of the potential V and i.e. ∇2 V ≶ 0. But in the
region without any charge density ∇2 V = 0.

• For an assemble of positive charge ρ > 0 to be stable, it must be at minimum of

potential i.e. ∇2 V > 0. But Poisson’s equation ∇2 V = −ρ/ǫ0 < 0 gives negative sign
indicating maximum of V .

• For an assemble of negative charge ρ < 0 to be stable, it must be at maximum of

potential i.e. ∇2 V < 0. But Poisson’s equation ∇2 V = −ρ/ǫ0 > 0 gives positive sign
indicating minimum of V .

These imply there can be no points of stable equilibrium in an electrostatic field.

Boundary conditions: What happens if E ~ encounter some boundary, say a surface, that
may or may not have charges distributed over them?

|
Ea
|

ε A
σ
Ea||
|
|

Eb
||
E
b
Considering a Gaussian pillox of area A and thickness ǫ, and a surface density of charge σ,
following Gauss’s law,
Z
~ · d~a = qencl = σA
E
ǫ ǫ0
Z Z0 Z Z
~ ⊥ ~ ⊥ ~ k
Ea · d~a + Eb · d~a + Ea · d~a + E ~ k · d~a = σA
b ǫ0
σA
Ea⊥ A − Eb⊥ A + (0 + 0)ǫ→0 =
ǫ0
⊥ ⊥ σ
⇒ Ea − Eb = (29)
ǫ0

1
From Stoke’s theorem, however, we get
I
~
∇×E = 0⇒ E ~ · d~l
Z Z Z Z
~ k ~ ~ ⊥ ~ ~ k ~ ~ a⊥ · d~l = 0
Ea · dl − Eb · dl − Eb · dl + E
k
⇒ Eak − Eb = 0 (30)

Electric field, therefore, undergoes discontinuity crossing a surface having charge density
σ – normal components of E ~ are discontinuous by σ/ǫ0 at any boundary while tangential
components are continuous
E ~ below = σ n̂
~ above − E (31)
ǫ0
In terms of potential, from the above equation (31) it follows that
σ
∇Vabove − ∇Vbelow = − n̂ and Vabove − Vbelow = 0, (32)
ǫ0

that is, the normal derivative of potential is discontinuous by σ/ǫ0 while the potential itself
is continuous across any boundary.