Atmosphere

Composition of air

Nitrogen — 78%

Oxygen — 21 %

Argon — 0.93 %

Carbon dioxide — 0.04%

Troposphere
Temp decreases w height as conduction and
convection from the earth’s surface decreases
Tropopause is where temp remains fairly constant
Up to 10km
Weather here
Temp cools 6.5 degrees per km
Most clouds here
99% water 75% water vapor
 Thermosphere

Stratosphere Temp rise because of absorption of UV radiations by

atmospheric oxygen

Temp increases w height

85 to 500km

Temp inversion layer because of ozone that absorbs UV

radiation Filters out x and gamma rays from sun

Shield against meteoroids Ionosphere here

10 to 50 km International space station orbits earth in this layer

Stable so jets and airplanes fly Exosphere

Contains ozone Space shuttle orbit

4% of atmosphere Thin layer part of space

No moisture so no clouds Virtually empty

From -60 to 0 Celsius Hot temp

Ozone layer
Mesosphere
19 to 48k above earth
Temp falls quickly as no dust water vapor or ozone to
absorb UV radiations
Layer of 3 atom molecules that protect the earth from
suns harmful ultraviolet rays
Above 85km

Hole over Antarctica

Burns meteors and rock fragments

The ozone layer filters out harmful ultraviolet radiation,

Ionosphere here which is associated with an increased prevalence of skin
cancer and skin burn limits reproduction of
phytoplankton limiting food chain webs cataracts,
reduced agricultural productivity, and disruption of
marine ecosystem
Insolation
Insolation is the direct or diffuse shortwave solar radiation that is received in the Earth’s atmosphere. The highest values
of insolation occur in tropical latitudes. Minimum values occur at the poles, primarily due to the result of the Earth-sun
geometric relationship and its effect on solar radiation (increasing latitudes). In middle and high latitudes insolation
values over oceans are generally higher than those on land.
Variations in global insolation.
-The tilt of the Earth's axis coupled with latitude controls the amount of insolation the Earth's surface receives. The
higher the latitude the greater the seasonal variation of insolation.

-Maximum insolation is found in the tropical and subtropical deserts of the earth. Here, high sun angles and a lack of
cloud cover in desert regions allow much solar radiation to the surface.

-Insolation decreases to a minimum at the poles where low sun angles and the fact that the Sun doesn't rise above the
horizon nearly half the year reduces annual insolation.

Climate is a region’s weather conditions for a long period of time Weather is an areas sort term physical conditions such
as temperature and precipitation.

Hurricanes (typhoons, cyclones): form when winds rush into areas of low pressure

Tornadoes: form when warm air meets cold air Quickly rising warm air forms a powerful convective current (spinning
funnel)
A region of low pressure or a low pressure system has lower pressure at its center than the surrounding areas. Winds
blow towards the low pressure, and the air rises in the atmosphere where they meet. As the air is rising, water vapor
within the air will condense, forming clouds and often precipitation as well. Because of the Earth’s spin/tilt and the
Coriolis Effect, winds of a low pressure system spin counterclockwise north of the equator and clockwise south of the
equator. There will typically be unfavorable weather that comes along with low pressure systems.

A region of high pressure or a high pressure system has higher pressure at its center than the surrounding areas. Wind
blows away from the high pressure; winds of a high pressure system swirl in the opposite direction as a low pressure
system. Air from higher in the atmosphere sinks down to fill the space left as air blew outward. Usually very good
weather is associated with a high pressure system.

Coriolis effect:

An apparent force that arises because of the earth's spin around its axis. Freely-moving objects are deflected
to the right of their direction of motion in the northern hemisphere and to the left of their direction of motion in
the southern hemisphere

The effects of land, relief and ocean currents.

Ocean Currents: It stores solar radiation and distributes it through the wind. Ocean water is constantly evaporating,
increasing temperature and humidity to form rain and storms that are carried by trade winds.

Land Currents: When a land mass is adjacent to a body of water, the land heats up faster than the water which means
the air over the land is warmer that the air over the ocean and also less dense. It rises, the denser ocean air spreads out
and flows inland to replace the land air.

-The sea affects the climate of a place. Coastal areas are cooler and wetter than inland areas. Clouds form when warm
air from inland areas meets cool air from the sea. Ocean currents can increase or reduce temperatures. The Gulf Stream
is a warm ocean current in the North Atlantic flowing from the Gulf of Mexico, northeast along the U.S coast and from
there to the British Isles.

Climate can be affected by mountains. Mountains receive more rainfall than low lying areas because as air is forced over
the higher ground it cools causing moist air to condense and fall out as rainfall. The higher the place is above sea level
 the colder it will be.

CFC’s
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are a group of compounds, which contain the elements chlorine, fluorine and carbon.At
room temperatures; they are usually colorless gases or liquids, which evaporate easily. They are generally unreactive
and stable, non-toxic and non-flammable. CFCs are also a part of the group of chemicals known as the volatile organic
compounds (VOCs).

Most CFCs have been released to the atmosphere through the use of aerosols containing them and as leakages from
refrigeration equipment. Other releases may occur from industry producing and using them and other products
containing them. There are not thought to be any natural sources of CFCs to the environment. At a global level, releases
of CFCs have serious environmental consequences. Their long lifetimes in the atmosphere mean that some end up in the
higher atmosphere where they can destroy the ozone layer, thus reducing the protection it offers the earth from the
sun's harmful UV rays.

Breakdown
When the sun heats these compounds they release chlorine and bromine, which break down the ozone.

CFCs also contribute to Global Warming. Although the amounts emitted are relatively small, they have a powerful
warming effect. Chlorine is able to destroy so much of the ozone because it acts as a catalyst. Chlorine initiates the
breakdown of ozone and combines with freed oxygen to create two oxygen molecules. After each reaction, chlorine
begins the destructive cycle again with another ozone molecule. One chlorine atom can thereby destroy thousands of
ozone molecules. Because ozone molecules are being broken down they are unable to absorb any ultraviolet light so we
experience more intense UV radiation at the earth’s surface.

Greenhouse gas effect

The Greenhouse effect is the natural warming of the earth’s surface from the trapping of heat in the earth’s
atmosphere. This is possible because of certain greenhouse gasses that trap the heat. These gasses include carbon
dioxide and methane etc. Humans are releasing large amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through burning
fossil fuel and large amounts of methane through cattle farming. This causes a greater greenhouse effect that is a danger
to the environment.

Natural Greenhouse Gases

Volcanic eruptions- mainly carbon dioxide

Methane – from decomposition

Nitrous oxide- from DE nitrification

Water vapor

Anthropogenic Causes of Greenhouse Gases

Burning of fossil fuels

Agricultural practices

Deforestation

Landfills

Industrial production- CFC’s are an example

Impacts of greenhouse gases

Raising sea levels- As the greenhouse effect increases,
the temperature will continue to rise on our planet.
More ice that is currently located in the poles will
melt. The sea levels will rise as a result of all this extra
water from poles. Three fourths of the earth’s fresh
water is frozen in glaciers. As glaciers melt, the
Albedo effect will be less on the earth’s surface. This
means that the earth will absorb more heat rather
than reflect it and the earth’s temperature will
continue to rise. Over the past 20 years, the average
rise in sea levels was .13 inches which was twice the
average speed of the preceding 80 years. The
increase in sea levels can have devastating effects to
coastal ecosystems. The rising sea levels can increase
erosion, flood wetlands, contaminate aquifers and
agriculture, and cause loss of habitat for fish, birds, and plants. Also most people on our planet live near the coast. These
people will be in danger of flooding. Scientists expect the sea levels to rise between 2.5 and 6.5 feet by 2100.

Increased storm intensity- As global warming increases the earth’s temperature, storm intensity will also increase. The
oceans temperatures have been increasing which speeds up the hydrological cycle. This means more water will
evaporate causing more rain. The increase temperature of the earth will also increase the winds. Hurricanes are major
storms that grow in warm water. The hurricanes will increase in intensity. Cities are more likely to be flooded and certain
areas are more subject to droughts.

Climate Change- As the earth’s average temperature is increasing, so is the change in earth’s climate. There are more
extremes in temperature not just rising temperature. Our summers are getting hotter and our winters are becoming
colder. Ecosystems are at great risk from climate change. Many animals cannot adapt to the change in climate.

Carbon Sequestration
An approach involving taking CO2 out of the atmosphere. Some methods include storing carbon in agricultural soils or
retiring agricultural land and allowing it to become pasture or forest. Researchers are looking at cost-effective ways of
capturing CO2 from the air, from coal-burning power stations, and from other emission sources. This captured CO 2
would be compressed and pumped into abandoned oil wells or the deep ocean.

Acid rain
Precipitation with a ph. value of less than 7

Wet deposition: when any form of precipitation removes acids from the atmosphere and delivers it to the Earth’s
surface

Dry deposition: when particles and gases stick to the ground, plants, or other surfaces

Causes
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) are the primary causes of acid rain.

Acid rain occurs when these gases react in the atmosphere with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form various
acidic compounds. Sunlight increases the rate of most of these reactions. The result is a mild solution of sulfuric acid and
nitric acid. Sulphur dioxide (from the burning of fossil fuels in power plants and industrial plants) is the primary cause of
acid rain. In the atmosphere, sulphur dioxide is slowly oxidized to sulphur trioxide which dissolves readily in water
droplets to form sulphuric (vi) acid.

Nitrogen oxides (from the burning of fossil fuels in automobiles and power plants) also cause the formation of acid rain.

When released to the atmosphere, nitrogen monoxide combines with atmospheric oxygen to form nitrogen dioxide: In a
series of complex reaction, nitrogen dioxide combines with oxygen and water vapour to form nitric (v) acid.

Natural causes
Nitrogen oxide is produced by lightning strikes

Sulfur dioxide is produced by volcanic eruptions

Ammonia is produced from livestock and their waste

Human causes
Coal generators

Factories

Motor vehicles
Effects

(i)In water of pH less than 4.5, calcium metabolism in fresh water fish will be affected, leading to poor health and
stunted growth. As a result, diversity and population of some fresh water species will be reduced.

(ii)In soil of pH less than 4.5, absorption of cations by plants will be affected, resulting in death of plants.

(iii)Inflow of acidic water containing poisonous metal ions from soil will kill the fish and water plants

(iv)Acid rain corrodes metals and accelerates the deterioration of building, rock and statue.

Smog
Photochemical smog is a mixture of pollutants which includes particulates, nitrogen oxides, ozones, aldehydes,
peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), unreacted hydrocarbons, etc. A brownish haze and painful eyes are often indicators ofn
photochemical smog. Nitrogen dioxide is responsible for the brownish colour of the haze.

Causes
The reactions that lead to the formation of photochemical smog are irritated by sunlight and involve hydrocarbons and
nitrogen oxides emitted from automobiles, the combination of sunlight, the catalysis by particulates and the abundant
pollutants present in modern cities provide favourable conditions for smog formation. Nitrogen dioxide from automobile
exhaust first absorbs sunlight and breaks down into nitrogen monoxide and reactive oxygen atom: The oxygen atom
reacts with other components of automobile exhaust (e.g. unburnt hydrocarbons) and those of the atmosphere (e.g.
oxygen) in a series of complex reactions to produce a variety of lachrymatory and toxic chemicals (e.g. peroxyacetyl
nitrate).

No2
The most natural way of forming nitrogen oxides [NOx, where x may be 1 or 2] is lightning. Atmospheric nitrogen reacts
with nearby oxygen to form nitrogen monoxide.
03
Ozone [O3 (g)] is a pale blue gas (exists in the stratosphere of our atmosphere as the ozone layer). It is formed from
atmospheric oxygen by the absorption of ultraviolet radiation of the right energy (wavelength 250 nm). Ozone can also
be formed in the lower part of the atmosphere. It is formed by reactions between nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons
under sunlight, or by electric sparks which occur in car engines or electrical appliances like photocopiers. In nature, the
gas can be generated during lightning.

Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons have both the elements carbon and hydrogen. Motors of cars do not always burn the fuel completely.
There are tiny amounts of un burnt hydrocarbons in car exhaust. Petrols and organic solvents are left unattended and
exposed to air. Since those solvents are volatile in nature, these hydrocarbons pose danger to our health.

Particulates
Particulates make up smoke. They may be ashes from burning of fuels. If fossil fuels (like coal and oil) are burnt, the tiny
particles formed are mainly soot (carbon) from incomplete combustion. Incineration plants, factories and diesel vehicles
are sources of emission.

Effects
(i)It can cause headaches, eye, nose and throat irritations, impaired lung function, coughing and wheezing.

(ii)It can cause rubbers and fabrics to deteriorate.

(iii)It can cause damage plants, leading to the loss of crops.

Noise pollution
Any unwanted sound that penetrates the environment is noise pollution. In general noise pollution refers to any noise
irritating to one's ear which comes from an external source. Normal level of tolerance is 80dbA. Sound level above this is
considered to be as noise pollution.

Sources
In an urban area, the main sources of noise can be industrial noise, transport noise, noise from construction activity and
neighborhood noise.

Street traffic Rail road’s Airplanes Constructions Consumer products

Effects
There are about 25000 hair cells in our ear which create wave in our ear, responding to different levels of frequencies.
With increasing levels of sound the cells get destroyed decreasing our ability to hear the high frequency sound.

-Noise pollution affects both human and animal health. It leads to:

 contraction of blood vessels

 making skin pale

 Excessive adrenalin in the blood stream which is responsible for high blood pressure.

 Blaring sounds are known to cause mental distress

 Heart attacks, neurological problems, birth defects and abortion

 -Muscle contraction leading to nervous breakdown, tension, etc

-The adverse reactions are coupled with a change in hormone content of blood, which in-turn increases heart beat,
constriction of blood vessels, digestive spams and dilation of the pupil of the eye The most immediate and acute effect
of noise is impairment of hearing that diminishes some part of the auditory system. Chronic or repeated exposure to
sounds at or above 85 decibels can cause hearing loss. A study conducted in the year 2008 in Lahore Pakistan found out
that public transport drivers (driving for the past 8-10 years) are exposed to excessive noise on the roads in Lahore and
most of them are suffering from noise induced hearing loss.

- Noise not only makes hearing, concentrating, and working more difficult it also disturbs sleep. Insufficient or poor
quality sleeps results in stress, fatigue, and changes in body’s chemical balances.

-Noise interferes with cognitive functions, including attention, concentration, memory, reading ability, and sound
discrimination. The long-term consequences of these effects on children‘s development are particularly significant. -Long
term exposure to noise from road, rail, and air traffic results in physiological and psychological stress, which indirectly
may contribute to heart disease, and high blood pressure.

-The brain is adversely affected by loud and sudden noise by jets and airplanes. People are subjected to psychiatric
illness.

-Recent reports suggest that blood is thickened by excessive noise

-The optical system of human beings is also affected by noise pollution.

Severe noise pollution causes: Pupillary dilation Impairment of night vision and Decrease in rate of colour perception

Prevention
Traffic noise is not inevitable; cities can minimize traffic noise by:

maintaining roads,

constructing sound barriers (an exterior structure designed to protect inhabitants of sensitive land use areas from noise
pollution) eg. The sound tube in Melbourne, Australia, designed to reduce roadway noise without detracting from the
area's aesthetics.

tree planting and landscaping (trees such as junipers with thick branches at ground level help muffle noise) ,

reducing vehicle speeds, enforcing illegal vehicle modifications, electric buses, and increasing the use of public transit,
bicycles, and walking.

Due to electricity shortage, generators are commonly used in Pakistan. They emit a lot of noise . An acoustic covering
can control this. Moreover, oiling also reduces noise from machinery In industries, where a lot of noise is generated,
personal protection devices such as ear plugs for operating noisy machinery can be used.

Cities can implement zoning controls and other land use policies to limit or avoid the proximity of noisy and noise-
sensitive uses. Cities can require quiet equipment when construction occurs at night or near sensitive uses, such as
hospitals.

Prescribing noise limits for vehicular traffic

Ban on honking (usage of horns) in certain areas

Creation of silence zones near schools and hospitals

Redesigning buildings to make them noise proof

Reduction of traffic density in residential areas

Giving preference to mass public transport system. Eg. Cairo Public transportation system . Singapore is banning
additional cars on its roads from Feb 2018

Night flying restrictions is any regulation or legislation imposed by a governing body to limit the ground-perceived
exposure to aircraft noise during the night hours, when the majority of residents are trying to sleep.

London airports The night restrictions for Heathrow, Gatwick and Stansted define a night period, 2300–0700 hours, and
a night quota period, 2330–0600 hours. During the night period, the noisiest types of aircraft (classified as QC/4 QC/8 or
QC/16) may not be scheduled to land or to take off (other than in the most exceptional circumstances, such as an
emergency landing.).There are a variety of effective strategies for mitigating adverse sound levels use of noise barriers.
Limitation of vehicle speeds

Alteration of roadway surface texture.

Limitation of heavy duty vehicles

Use of traffic controls that smooth vehicle flow to reduce braking and acceleration, innovative tire design and other

Legislation
Noise Regulation Rules under the Environment (Protection) Act of 1986.

Features

Industrial- 75db

Commercial- 65 db

Residential zones- 55 db

Zones of silence

No public address system after 10:00 pm and before 06:00 am.

Thermal inversion
Thermal Inversion- when a relatively warm layer of air at mid-altitude covers a layer of cold, dense air below.

The warm inversion layer traps emissions that then accumulate beneath it.

Ground level ozone

VOC’s from human activity come mainly from gasoline combustion band marketing, upstream oil and gas production,
residential wood combustion, and from the evaporation of liquid fuels and solvents.

Significant quantities of VOC’s also originate from natural (biogenic) sources such as coniferous forests.

Ground Level Ozone is produced when two primary pollutants react in sunlight and stagnant air. These two primary
pollutants are Nitrogen Oxide and volatile organic compounds.

Preventing air pollution

 Banning CFC’s ; use HCFCs

 Renewable energy sources : Solar, wind, HEP, Geothermal , Biomass

 Nuclear Energy

 Afforestation

 Carbon capture and storage

 International Agreements: Montreal, Rio, Kyoto, Bali, Paris agreement

 Catalytic converters on cars to ensure complete combustion ; car pooling, public

 transport system

 Removing sulfur dioxide from coal by fluidized bed combustion or flue gas
 desulphurization

 Scrubbers on smoke stacks

 Baghouse filters

 Electrostatic precipitators
  Selective catalytic reduction

 Adhere to noise regulations, road maintenance, land-use zoning, banning night time
 flights, use of silencers etc.

Case study
 Relevant case studies to illustrate drought and hurricanes.

1. At least 286 people were killed either directly or indirectly by Sandy. There were 147 direct deaths: 72 in the USA and
the rest mainly in Caribbean, including 54 in Haiti and 11 in Cuba. In the USA of the 87 indirect deaths from Sandy, at
least 50 were attributable to either falls by the elderly, carbon monoxide poisoning from inadequately ventilated
generators and cooking equipment, or hypothermia as a cold snap followed Sandy and extended power outages left
people without heating. Sandy was Cuba’s deadliest hurricane since 2005, whilst over the USA this was the greatest
number of hurricane deaths from one storm outside of the southern states since Hurricane Agnes in 1972. Sandy was
also the first hurricane to make landfall in Jamaica since 1988.

2. The effects of Hurricane Ike in Texas were crippling and long-lasting. Ike's effects included deaths, widespread
damage, and impacts to the price and availability of oil and gas. Hurricane Ike also had a long-term impact on the U.S.
economy. Making landfall over Galveston, at 2:10 a.m. on September 13, 2008, "giant" Hurricane Ike caused
extensive damage in Texas, with sustained winds of 110 mph, a 22 ft storm surge, and widespread coastal flooding.
[ More than 140,000 residents in the Texas Gulf Coast danger zones in Ike's path had failed to evacuate, partly due
to fears of multi-hour traffic jams as during Hurricane Rita, but over 940 were rescued from rising waters, and nearly
2,000 rescued afterward. As of December 27, 2008, 37 people are known to have lost their lives in Texas due to Ike while
hundreds are still missing.

3. Drought is taking place as a heat wave extends across much of India with temperatures crossing 40C for days now. An
11-year-old girl died of heatstroke while collecting water from a village pump in the western Maharashtra state. THe
girls’ death certificate says she died of heatstroke and dehydration.The pump she died at was a mere 500m from her
house, but a typical wait for water stretches into hours. India is heavily dependant on monsoon rains, which have been
poor for two years in a row. The government said that nearly 256 districts across India, home to nearly a quarter of the
population were impacted by the drought. Schools have been shut in the eastern state of Orissa and more than 100
deaths due to heatstroke have been reported from across the country, including from the southern states of Telangana
and Andhra Pradesh which saw more than 2,000 deaths last summer.
4. An extreme drought in Syria between 2006 and 2009 was most likely due to climate change, and that the drought was
a factor in the violent uprising that began there in 2011. The drought was the worst in the country in modern times, and
in a study published Monday in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, the scientists laid the blame for it on a
century-long trend toward warmer and drier conditions in the Eastern Mediterranean, rather than on natural climate
variability.

 The Montreal Protocol, finalized in 1987, is a global agreement to protect the stratospheric ozone layer by
phasing out the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODS). The Montreal Protocol has
proven to be innovative and successful, and is the first treaty to achieve universal ratification by all countries in
the world.
 The Kyoto Protocol In 1997, representatives of the nations of the world went to Kyoto, Japan to discuss how
best to control the emissions contributing to global warming. The agreement was that emissions of greenhouse
gases from all industrialized countries will be reduced to 5.2% below their 1990 levels by 2012. Developing
nations did not have emission limits imposed by the protocol.

 Case study examples- increased GHG emissions

Emissions in developing countries are increasing the most rapidly, and will pass those from the industrialized countries
early in the next century, assuming emissions in both groups of countries continue as expected in the absence of an
agreement, i.e. assuming they continue with business-as-usual. The magnitude and growing annual rate of growth of
China's carbon emissions make this country the major driver of global carbon emissions and thus a key focus for efforts
in emissions mitigations. Since 1990, U.S. greenhouse gas emissions have increased by about 7%. From year to year,
emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy, the price of fuel, and other factors. In 2014, U.S. greenhouse
gas emissions increased compared to 2013 levels. This increase was due to a number of factors, including: cold winter
conditions resulting in an increase in fuel demand, especially in residential and commercial sectors; an increase in
transportation emissions resulting from an increase in vehicle miles traveled; and an increase in industrial production
across multiple sectors also resulted in increases in industrial sector emissions. With the collapse of the Soviet Union in
the early 1990s and the economic rebuilding that followed, Russia’s emissions trajectory has not followed a pathway
similar those of many other developed countries. According to Russia’s latest greenhouse gas inventory figures,
emissions levels in 1990 were higher than at any other time in the past quarter century, and declined 50 percent from
1990 levels by 2012.

 smog

China's Pearl River Delta region is starting to suffer photochemical smog due to heavy air pollution in the cities.
Emissions from factories, power plants and the rapid growth of vehicles in cities are providing the raw materials for
photochemical smog.

The first case of photochemical smog happened in Los Angles as early as in 1943. On 9 December 1952, foggy conditions
developed over London. Being very cold, most houses kept fires burning, with coal as the major fuel. The smoke from
these fires mixed with the fog and was unable to disperse, resulting in smog which persisted for 4 days.

The pH of air during the Great London Smog was as low as 1.6. During this period some 4000 more people died than
would expected at this time of the year. Most of these additional deaths were due to respiratory disorders.