Research 1: The Incremental Rigidity Method- More-Direct Conversion of Strain to Internal Force in an

Instrumented Static Loading Test

This paper aims to utilize Incremental Rigidity or IR method to determine the relationship
between axial rigidity and strain at individual strain gage levels using applied test loads and measured
strains. Through this method, measured strains can be converted to internal forces without prior
knowledge on the deep foundation element’s elastic modulus or cross-sectional area. The Incremental
Rigidity Method for converting strain to internal force in an instrumented static loading test is
presented, which includes the assumptions, uncertainties, limitations, and best practices associated with
method. Furthermore, the researchers aim to review several published methods commonly used to
estimate elastic modulus, cross-sectional area, internal stress, and internal force in deep-foundation
element.

I have observed that the research addresses some issues with regards to both the analysis
and/or design of deep foundation elements as the incremental rigidity method manifests an
independent characteristic or feature that allows strain to internal force conversion without the need to
know or even assume an element’s elastic modulus or cross-sectional area. With the development of
this method, engineers better understand the behavior of deep foundation elements and provide a
mean in analyzing and designing these elements with fewer parameters.

In designing deep foundation elements, specifically piles, static loading test is utilized and
enhanced by determining load-transfer response during test. This refers to the manner in which internal
pile forces are transferred into the surrounding geomaterial, therefore internal forces at various
locations within piles are vital to determine load-transfer behavior or response. One of the ways to
obtain load-transfer measurements is strain gages. The physical characteristics required to convert
strain to internal force can vary by location within the pile, but these values are more-often assumed
which introduces significant error into internal pile force calculation, and shaft resistances.

Incremental Rigidity or IR offers a more-direct determination of a pile’s physical characteristics

and therefore a more accurate representation of its behavior. Quantitatively speaking, this method
allows for a more-direct conversion of strain measurements to internal forces and shaft resistances. As
engineers, it is our duty to assure clients or even the public of a safe and stable structure, which is built
upon on strong foundation. Being able to accurately represent the quantities, magnitudes, and
relationships among the physical characteristics of pile structures fulfills that duty. I have come to the
realization of the impact of wrongful and deviant assumptions, especially in designing structures.

Researchers abided by the principles of static loading tests, specifically the concept of step-and
hold test increments, in creating a direct relationship between strain and internal force. For each load
increment of a static load test, internal pile forces are calculated at each strain gage level, and a
resulting internal force profile is determined. Internal pile forces at each strain gage level are calculated
using the average measured strain at that strain gage level and the product of the pile’s composite-
section elastic modulus and cross-sectional area at that strain gage level. The product of the pile’s
composite-section elastic modulus and cross-sectional area is considered as the axial rigidity, which is an
extensive quantity whose magnitude depends on the size of the system. The IR Method relates changes
in applied test load to strain to determine a force relationship. The incremental rigidity, which is the
change in test load and the change in strain is equated to the product of the pile’s composite-section
elastic modulus and cross-sectional area which eliminates the need to assume or determine such values.

Since piles sometimes manifest non-uniformity, the IR method presents further advantages as it
allows the measurement of individual strains along pipe length, and thus the corresponding internal
force calculation. This method provides a reliable option for engineers in designing and analyzing pile
structures for the benefit and safety of all people.

Research 2: Research Progress on the Influence of Deep Foundation Pit Excavation on Adjacent Pile
Foundation

The first paper, entitled Research Progress on the Influence of Deep Foundation Pit Excavation
on Adjacent Pile Foundation, aims to refine the technologies and discoveries in the related literatures
involving the interaction between deep foundation excavations and its adjacent pile foundation. In spite
the numerous studies, it is limited to linear stress-strain response which does not represent the actual
behavior of soil deformation which manifests a complex non-linear stress-strain relationship.
Furthermore, the study addresses the lack of consideration of other studies to the impact of embedded
pile caps, excavation supporting structure installation of superstructure stiffness.
 Soil movements behind supporting walls are unavoidable during deep excavations resulting in
stress state change that will have detrimental effect on the performance of existing pile foundation. The
direct strains imposed onto the piles as a result this excavation-induced ground movement should be
carefully dealt with in design and execution to avoid unexpected behavior ensuring stability and
performance requirements of the project.

Various models are utilized in designing and analyzing deep excavation such as earth pressure
method, numerical method, and the robust geotechnical design method. For the construction
technology, engineers are developing to a accommodate time-space-effect with either bottom-up or
top-down construction method. With the difficulty of observing ground movements and excavation-
induced wall in existing piles, researchers utilize plane strain Finite Element (FE) analysis to assess pile
deformations along with other monitored construction activities. Comparison between 2D-3D analysis
shows the 3D analysis reasonably matches with field data. Pile-soil interaction programs are utilized to
estimate the adequacy of pile capacity through the estimation of the forces and moments brought onto
the piles. It is found that pile distance from retaining wall, its head condition, formation level of the
excavation, and the embedment depth of the wall highly influence the magnitude of the extra bending
moment and lateral deflection of the pile. The load-deformation characteristics of laterally loaded piles
has been theoretically approached through the subgrade reaction method, the p-y method, the elastic
continuum method, and the FE approach.

Experimental studies on passively loaded piles are also presented in this paper. These aided in
assessing the interaction between moving soil and pile shaft. The efficacy of the experimental results to
be obtained from model tests depended on the model soil preparation, model pile selection, the ability
to simulate excavation process, and capability to reflect actual loading scenario with appropriate loading
method. Centrifuge test is the common experimental method used in high scale laboratory testing of
interaction between new foundation pit excavation and adjacent existing pile foundations but in most of
the current studies made with model tests, little attention is paid to the influence of embedded pile caps
as previously foundations with elevated pile caps were researched and the stiffness of the
superstructure has not been given much attention. Case studies that proved the effectiveness or
publicized the failures have been included in the paper as the researcher deemed that these could be of
aid in the improvement in the current design and construction method. Furthermore, these can be
reutilized to support risk management decisions.
 In the conclusion of the paper, the researcher has recommended various points for the
refinement of the analysis and assessment of the interaction between Deep Foundation Pit Excavation
on Adjacent Pile Foundation. First, is to consider the state of a stress corresponding to different
unloading effects as the deformation of soil under excavation is stress path dependent and affects the
soil stresses around the pile due to unloading. Second recommendation is further understanding of
nonlinear stress-strain response of soils subjected to different stress path. Lastly, are further
improvements in model test result that shall incorporate the impact of embedded pile caps, specifically,
the complex interaction of pile-soil-cap, foundation pit excavation supporting structure installation, and
superstructure stiffness which are among the factors ignored in the current practice of simulating
excavation process in laboratories.

Research 3: Reliability of Foundation Pile Based on Settlement and a Parameter Sensitivity Analysis

The second paper, entitled Reliability of Foundation Pile Based on Settlement and a Parameter
Sensitivity Analysis, aims to analyze the settlement of foundation pile through the uncertainty analysis
method to consider some variability parameters. This is to address the limitations of other
methodologies such as the load transfer method, integral equation method, finite element method,
approximate analysis method, and hybrid analysis approach which considered parameter of soil
properties as fixed, when in actual site, these variables are uncertain or does not manifest a fixed value.
In this paper, formula of reliability index of settlement of a single foundation pile is derived through the
establishment of limit state equation based on uncertainty analysis on settlement model of foundation
pile. The influence of coefficient of variation of the calculated settlement, coefficient of variation of the
permissible limit of settlement, and coefficient of variation of the measured settlement on reliability is
studied as well. The result of analysis can be used as reference and guide for design, construction, and
quality inspection of foundation pile engineering.

For modelling the uncertainty coefficient and limit state equation, calculation of settlement of
foundation pile is of high uncertainty. Under vertical load, the measured settlement of pile head is
assumed to be Sm and the estimated settlement of pile head according to settlement formula of
foundation pile is Sp. The calculated settlement of pile head Sp is considered as a random variable to
reflect uncertainty of calculation model of settlement. In order to quantitatively evaluate uncertainty of
calculation model of settlement, the ratio of measured settlement to calculated settlement is used to
define model coefficient. Related literatures utilizing static load test conditions and load settlement
models were applied to determine assumed values for settlement. Furthermore, for the permissible
limit of settlement, related literature utilizing statistical analysis method found that logarithmic normal
distribution can be applied. For the calculation of reliability index, measured settlement should not be
greater than the permissible limit of settlement to deem the foundation pile design as valid and meet
design requirement of foundation pile engineering. Lastly. Parameter sensitivity analysis is conducted to
analyze the relationship between assumed variables and determine the dependability of a certain
variable to another,

In conclusion, the researchers were able to establish limit state equations, formula for reliability
index of foundation pile settlement, and parameter sensitivity analysis. They have concluded that with
the increase of the coefficient of variation of the permissible limit of settlement, the reliability index
gradually reduces. Second, gradual increase of the reliability index can be obtained by the increase of
the safety coefficient. Third, the reliability index always decreases with the increase of the mean value of
calculation model coefficient. Lastly, the reliability index will not always monotonically increase or
decrease with the increase of the coefficient of variation of the calculated settlement and the coefficient
of variation of calculation model coefficient.

This paper provided the readers, including myself, an overview of the current development and
advancement in the research for the analysis and design of piled foundation. The uncertainties from
previous models provide deviation from actual values and creates an unreliable set-up and reference.
That issue is addressed in this research as it accounts for uncertainty from various parameters and
understand the relationship between these variables in analyzing the patterns and improving the overall
knowledge of engineers for future references in analysis and design.

Research 4: Variable Node Plate Bending Element for Mat Foundation Analysis

The first paper, entitled Variable Node Plate Bending Element for Mat Foundation Analysis, aims
to apply the concept of variable node plate bending moment element with one or two additional mid-
side nodes to effectively analyze mat foundation effectively. Various mesh schemes were proposed and
tested to find the most suitable scheme for mat foundation analysis. Variable node elements generate a
nearly ideal grid for mat foundation analysis in which more nodes are defined near the column location
where the steep stress gradient is expected. Mat on elastic foundation is one of those types commonly
utilized where conventional footings occupy most of the site which makes design of individual footing
impossible. Due to the continuous nature of mat foundations, differential column movement is
prevented, thus improves the overall performance of the structure. The efficacy of variable node plate
bending element method utilized in this study is verified by various tests. This pertinent method follows
finite element analysis which utilizes mathematical models in explaining certain phenomenon. In
modelling the mat foundation, researchers found it necessary to idealize the behavior of soil, therefore
they assumed linear elastic behavior in the supporting soil medium. For verification, analysis of the mat
foundation for a 25-storey reinforced concrete office building was utilized. Floor framing for the building
consists of a system of girders running between interior core walls and columns to the exterior. Mat
experiences larger deflection when supported on more flexible springs.

In conclusion, variable node plate bending element in mat foundation was concluded to be
effective in mat foundation analysis and was verified with the use of a 25-storey reinforced concrete
building. Local stress smoothing techniques were successfully applied obtain the nodal stresses from the
stress at the points of variable node elements. Among the proposed mesh schemes which include the
variable node elements in modelling, scheme B, with 16 elements and 33 nodes, was found to be
optimum considering the analysis results obtained. The performance of scheme B along the column
lines, which is the most important area in mat foundation design is significantly improved by adding few
mid-side nodes to the 4x4 uniform mesh model. The findings in this study have been implemented for
practical applications in the mat foundation analysis routines of various foundation analysis and design
computer program for building structures.

Research 5: Behavior of Piled Raft Foundation in Sand Subjected to Combined V-M-H Loading

The second study, entitled Behavior of Piled Raft Foundation in Sand Subjected to Combined V-
M-H (Vertical-Moment-Horizontal) Loading, aims to examine the behavior of piled rat foundation in
sandy soil under V-M-H interaction using three-dimensional finite element analysis as in conventional
piled raft design, capacity of piled raft under combined lateral and vertical load is taken into
consideration. Horizontal and moment capacity of piled-raft foundation is assessed due to the various
influential parameters, such as relative stiffness of pile and soil, spacing to diameter ratio of the pile,
length to width ratio of the foundation and pile head connection with the raft. For general idea, the
research presented piled rafts as foundation system for supporting high rise buildings, towers, and
offshore structures resting on soft or loose to medium soil deposit as it controls total and differential
settlement and enhances serviceability of the whole structure significantly. Piles under the raft act as a
settlement reducer while raft also provides reasonable stiffness and soil resistance. Currently, there is a
standard design and construction guidelines for a vertically loaded piled raft by the International Society
for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering (ISSMGE) but there is a lack of guidelines when
considering combined vertical, lateral, and moment load simultaneously. For the modelling of soil-pile
raft foundation system embedded below the ground surface, a three-dimensional analysis using PLAXIS
3D is carried out. Soil is modelled as a saturated homogeneous medium with an angle of internal friction
of 31° and 1° , respectively. The soil domain is assumed as a 3D prismatic cube having a dimension of
28m x 28m x 16m. On the other hand, for the V-M-H loading simulation, load controlled probe test
method is considered in the present study. In the probe test method, the loads are applied in two
stages. In the first loading stage, the prescribed vertical load is applied to the foundation. In the second
stage of loading, coupled horizontal (H) and moment (M) loads are applied simultaneously on the
foundation keeping the vertical load (V) constant.

In conclusion, lateral and moment capacity of piled raft increases considerably with increase in
rigidity of raft. Furthermore, the influence of variation of length to base ratio on lateral load
deformation and moment rotation behavior indicates that the lateral and moment capacity increases. It
is observed that piled-raft lateral capacity increases due to combined loading than that of independent
capacity. Design of piled raft with lateral capacity obtained from the combined action of the V-M-H load
may reduce the number of piles compared to conventional design performed using individual capacity.

Research 6: Experimental Study on the Reinforced Fly Ash and Sand Retaining Wall Under Static Load

The third study, entitled Experimental Study on the Reinforced Fly Ash and Sand Retaining Wall
Under Static Load, aims to conduct physical model tests to investigate the deformation characteristics
and ultimate bearing capacity of a retaining wall consisting of a fly ash-sand mixture backfill and
geosynthetic reinforcements. Various types, layers, and combinations of geogrid materials were
considered in the physical model tests. In this study, a sand-fly ash mixture retaining wall reinforced by
different geomaterials was utilized and a series of physical model tests were conducted for rigid footing
subjected to static loading. Soil pressure and deflection of retaining wall were monitored in physical
tests. Nine working conditions were investigated with the geomaterials used to reinforce the retaining
walls included waste tires, biaxial geogrid, and triaxial geogrid. Various combinations of geomaterials
were considered to optimize the performance and reinforcement effect of the soil retaining. The mixed
ratio of fly ash and sand was 30% in the physical model. The water content is 10% in the physical model
test, and the mixture was kept for 12 hours after the mixing. Retaining wall models are of 1000mm x
800mm x 1300mm. At the bottom of the box is 100mm cushion layer. The compaction degree of each
layer was controlled at 90%. The tests were conducted by applying a load of 10KPa per stage with a strip
loading steel plate measuring 650mm x 400mm x 20mm. After measured parameter values stabilized,
the next level of the load was applied for at least 30min, and multiple stages were loaded. Loading was
stopped when the settlement of the retaining wall model increased rapidly, significant cracking
occurred, or the lateral deformation of the retaining wall increased sharply. Earth pressures and vertical
and horizontal displacements of the retaining wall were monitored during the loading stage using the
earth pressure cells and linear variable differential transformers, respectively. The vertical displacement
of the top of the wall was recorded by the displacement meter of the magnetic head rod.

From the results of the experimentation and tests, a reinforced layer effectively increases the
bearing capacity of the retaining wall and decreases vertical settlement and deflection. Quantitatively
speaking, the bearing capacity of the rigid footing of the retaining wall increases up to 90% when the
reinforced layer number increases from three to nine. Furthermore, waste tires exhibited greater
deformation resistance and bearing capacity compared to other materials. Waste tires and geogrid
combinations help to uniformly distribute surcharge load and improve the overall performance of
retaining wall. Another finding the researchers had was that the lateral displacement of the retaining
wall increases with increasing surcharge load. It was found that the lateral deflection changes
dramatically between the unreinforced retaining wall and the reinforced retaining wall. The horizontal
displacement of the retaining wall gradually decreases from the top of the wall to the bottom. Lastly, the
vertical earth pressure distribution of retaining wall changed with increasing surcharge load. The thicker
the reinforced layer in the retaining wall, the greater the stress concentration of the earth pressure
distribution.

Research 7: A New Capillary Barrier System for Retaining Wall Backfilled with Fine-Grained Soil
 The fourth paper, entitled A New Capillary Barrier System for Retaining Wall Backfilled with
Fine-Grained Soil, aims to propose a new capillary barrier concept to form a back-filled retaining wall to
reduce water infiltration under rainfall. This concept was created as there were findings that retaining
wall backfilled with fine grained soil such as silt is vulnerable to failure due to its low water permeability
under heavy rainfall. Rainfall-induced retaining wall failure is considered as one of the most common
hazards in geotechnical engineering especially for the retaining wall back-filled with a fine-grained soil,
specifically the mechanism involving the infiltration of rainwater into the fine-grained backfill, leading to
a dissipation of matric suction due to buildup of porewater pressure. The capillary barrier retaining
system consists of a fine-grained soil, a nonwoven geotextile, and a coarse-grained soil like sand. The
principle of capillary barrier is based on the contrasting unsaturated hydraulic properties of two layers: a
fine-grained soil layer and the coarse-geomaterial layer. During infiltration, the wetting front is
temporarily stopped when it reaches the interface between the fine-grained soil layer and the coarse-
geomaterial later. Water is stored in fine-grained soil later due to capillary forces generated from
interface. When pressure that the dry soil exerts on surrounding soil to equalize moisture decreases
below the water entry value of the coarse-geomaterial layer, volumetric water content increases and
starts penetrating to the underlying coarse-geomaterial layer. Finite element method was utilized to
analyze the effectiveness of the proposed retaining system to investigate its hydraulic response and
stability to rainfall with a 100-year return period. In addition, a numerical parametric study is conducted
to reveal the influence of different properties of the nonwoven geotextile on the capillary barrier
retaining system. The factors and properties that was considered in this study include the saturated
permeability coefficient, inverse of air-entry value, and the pore size distribution.

In investigating the influence of the capillary barrier retaining system on the porewater pressure
distribution in unsaturated soil retaining wall, 2D models were made using SEEP/W and SLOPE/W
software. In order to evaluate the effect of the proposed retaining system on the retaining wall, rock
was selected as the soil type of slope in this study. Furthermore, the silt retaining wall without the
proposed retaining system model was investigated to assess the effectiveness of the capillary barrier
retaining system.

In conclusion, it is found that high matric suction, or the pressure that dry soil exerts on
surrounding soil to equalize moisture, can be maintained within the silt backfill under the imposed
rainfall, therefore the factor of safety of retaining system remains unchanged as compared with its initial
conditions. The saturated permeability coefficient is found to have a significant influence on the
proposed capillary barrier retaining system. The lower the coefficient in value, the smaller the rate of
increase in the volumetric water content of the nonwoven geotextile and the therefore a more stable
retaining wall. Furthermore, the proposed capillary barrier retaining system can effectively reduce water
infiltration even under rainfall with 100-year return period.

Research 8: Analysis of Combined Footings on Extensible Geosynthetic Stone Column Improved

Ground

The fifth paper, entitled Analysis of Combined Footings on Extensible Geosynthetic Stone
Column Improved Ground, aims to conduct a detailed parametric study to study the effect of model
parameters like applied load, flexural rigidity of footing, configuration of stone columns, ultimate
bearing resistance of foundation soil and stone column, tensile stiffness of geosynthetics and degree of
consolidation on response of soil foundation system by means. of deflection and bending moment in the
footing and mobilized tension in geosynthetic layer. These parameters have been found to have
significant influence on the response of footing and the geosynthetic reinforcement layer. This analysis
was conducted to address the concern in the review of literature which suggests the absence of any
study pertaining to settlement analysis of shallow foundations possessing finite flexural rigidity on
extensible geosynthetic reinforced soft soil with stone columns system. A simple mechanical model has
been proposed for the analysis wherein the governing differential equations have been derived
considering free body diagrams of a soil-foundation system. Furthermore, these equations have been
solved with appropriate boundary and compatibility conditions employing finite difference method. To
quantify this, results have been nondimensionalized to produce design charts for ready use for the
analysis of combined footings resting on such a soil foundation system.

For the development of mathematical model, a combined footing subject to column loads has
been considered for analysis. The footing is resting on a geosynthetic reinforced granular layer. This
layer is lying on soft foundation soil treated with stone columns. Geosynthetic layer has been placed in
between the granular layer with varying thicknesses and shear moduli. It is also assumed to be
extensible in nature and manifests tensile stiffness. The footing has been modeled as a beam, the
granular layer as a nonlinear Pasternak shear layer, the geosynthetic as a linear, rough, elastic,
extensible membrane, the soft foundation soil as a nonlinear Kelvin body and the stone columns as
nonlinear Winkler springs. The nonlinear nature has been modeled with the help of Kondner’s
hyperbolic constitutive relationship. Governing differential equations are produced by considering the
equilibrium of free bodies of various components of the soil-foundation system and imposing the
deformation compatibility conditions. All formulation was programmed in C language with the solution
being obtained by finite difference scheme.

For the analysis of results, influences of the aforementioned factors on geosynthetic properties
was discussed. An increase in flexural rigidity provides greater resistance of the footing against
deformation and bending, therefore the deflection of footing and tension mobilized in geosynthetic is
lesser and more uniform. About 37% increase in maximum normalized deflection and 64% increase in
mobilized tension has been observed as normalized diameter increases from 0.02 to 0.1. There will be a
lesser number of stone columns beneath the footings for higher values of the parameter spacing to
diameter ratio and therefore larger deflection has been observed for higher values of spacing to
diameter ratio of stone columns. An optimum value of s/d can be observed as 2.5 – 3. Tensile stiffness of
the geosynthetic layer has no influence on response of the footing. However, it significantly affects the
tension mobilized in the geosynthetic layer. Deflection increases with increase in degree of
consolidation. Maximum deflection increases by about 114% 70 as degree of consolidation increases
from 40% to 100%.

In conclusion, the response of combined footing was found to be almost independent of type of
geosynthetic, whether extensible or inextensible. However, response of geosynthetic in terms of tension
mobilized was found to be significantly affected by type of geosynthetic. Values of tension mobilized in
geosynthetic layer reduces to a large extent as the type of geosynthetic changes from inextensible to
extensible. Non-dimensional ready to use charts have been developed for response of footings in terms
of its deflection and the bending moment and for response of geosynthetic in terms of tension
mobilized in the geosynthetic layer. The footing can be designed as against settlement criteria
employing these charts and its section modulus can be chosen accordingly. Furthermore, appropriate
selection of geosynthetics can be made with respect to its tensile stiffness.

Research 9: Differential Settlements on Mat Foundations

The first paper is entitled Research on the Differential Settlements on Mat Foundations. This
research is based on the concept of determining and quantifying the differential settlements of mat
foundations through the analysis of the various factors that impact such occurrence. For overview, the
research described the characteristics and properties that mat foundations possess such as the
utilization of underground space, increased factor of safety in terms of bearing capacity, and lowering
foundation settlements. The high stiffness of mat foundations and foundation girders allow for
decreased differential settlement, which is affected by the uneven distribution of column loading,
subgrade reaction of foundation soils, combined stiffness of foundation plate and girders, and the shape
and size of the mat. Given this information, the researchers aim to analyze, quantify, and create a
method or model that amalgamates all the factors, both for the foundation loadings, and the subgrade
reaction for the determination of differential settlement.

The researchers have utilized finite element method which uses mathematical techniques,
models and simulations in quantifying and relating various variables and factors affecting the differential
settlement of mat foundations on clay soils. Researchers have applied clay as the type of soil or
subgrade for foundation as it provides the most obvious differential settlement in comparison to other
soil types. In the actual reading, various simulation models are manifested, but when considering the
analysis of the factors, researchers have utilized the simulation method where a plate element is used to
simulate the mat plate while beam element is used to simulate the foundation girders. Soil springs are
uniformly imposed directly under the foundation mat plate to correctly simulate the soil reaction
pressures. In this research, soil springs are assumed not to take any tensile forces to match the special
characteristics of foundation soils.

In creating a model or graph for determining differential settlement, concept of vertical

coefficient of subgrade reaction is utilized for the soil behavior. In determining the coefficient of
subgrade reaction, the soil type, foundation pressure, foundation size, embedment length, and
thickness of compressible soil layer must be noted and taken into consideration. Consolidation theory is
used to calculate the coefficient of subgrade reaction. For the results of the simulation, researchers have
found out that differential settlement decreases as the thickness of the mat plate increases.
Furthermore, the ratio of the differential settlement to the average settlement of mat plate increases as
the coefficient of subgrade reaction increases. Another relationship built is the increase of differential
settlement of mat plate as the shape of the mat plate increased. The researchers’ model was then
compared to the finite analysis method and yielded very similar results 2.6% to 11.1%.

After reading the paper, I have learned that in constructing mat foundations, accurate and
precise determination of differential settlement is a must as this assures structural safety and integrity.
Despite the reduced probability for settlement due to the physical characteristics of mat foundation,
there are multiple factors that impact the prospective settlement that is a necessity to create, verify and
innovate determining models and methods in determining the pertinent differential settlement. In
addition, I have learned that various factors should be considered in creating models and analyses for
determining differential settlement of mat foundation, as each variable represents a quantity that when
overlooked, may jeopardize the structural integrity of the mat foundation. In analyzing the scope and
results of the research, I recommend the need for improving the quantification of factors or researchers
may consider other variables incremental for better accuracy and precision in the determination of
differential settlement.

Research 10: Design of Boundary Combined Footings of Trapezoidal Form Using a New Model

The second paper is entitled Design of Boundary Combined Footings of Trapezoidal Form Using a
New Model. The aim of this study is to present the design of reinforced concrete combined footings of
trapezoidal form subjected to axial load and moments in two directions to each column using a new
model that consider soil pressure acting on the contact surface of the footing. This pertinent pressure is
presented in terms of axial load, moment around the X and Y axis in each column. Current models
considers axial load and moment around the X axis or the transverse axis applied to each column and
when the moments in two directions are taken into account, the maximum pressure throughout the
contact surface of footing is considered the equal. This new model accounts for real pressure and is
suitable for real conditions and is considered as more economical.

This research tackles the design application of trapezoidal footing and the comparative analysis
of the proposed new model and the classical model which the researchers believe overestimate the
amount of reinforcement and footing area, which tend to spike overall project cost. This paper presents
a full model for the design of boundary trapezoidal combined footings to obtain moments around X and
Y axis, bending shear and punching shear for footings which support boundary column and other inner
column subject to axial load and moment in two direction or bidirectional bending. The data obtained
from the critical moment and/or shear is compared to that of the data obtained utilizing the classical
model. The researchers have concluded that there is 27% savings in the new model with respect to
classical model and that the reinforcement in the Y axis yielded up to 38% savings utilizing the new
model, while for the X axis, savings were up to 25%
 The boundary trapezoidal combined footings under the new model have addressed the
economical issue of classical foundation design computation and analysis. This research has provided
information that creating trapezoidal footings under this new model fulfills the safety requirements,
while also providing the pertinent economical advantage. I consider this research as a form of a budding
innovation as it allows engineers to think outside the box and create systems and models that would
maximize and optimize both the safety and economical aspects of constructing footings. Boundary
trapezoidal combined footing under the new model provides an option for engineers in their design.

Research 11: Damage Associated with Spread Footings

This paper focuses on the investigation of the damage and the fragility of buildings in
Thailand after the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami to evaluate the vulnerability of structures and
assess whether the design practices in Thailand is apt to resist such occurrences. Reinforced
concrete structures were analyzed to find the relationship between the damage level and the
distance from the shoreline and the inundation height. For the sake of RC column’s capacity to
resist lateral forces, full-scale loading test was conducted to gain insight into the relationship
between the observed damage and the actual structural performance. The impact of typical
tsunami-induced building damage is severe on building foundations, columns, beams, and
secondary members of the structure. The usual structures that suffer from such damage are
buildings along shorelines with a function to elevate the residential zone and prevent possible
corrosion. Typically, after impact the water will merge with the soil giving a lateral force due to
waves and great compression force due to sinking of the footing on soil. In addition to erosion,
there can be events that loose backfill materials may occur by high-velocity currents; thus, the
footing is also prone to erosion. For columns, cracking, spalling, and collapsed can be observed.
Even though an exposed column has less drag forced it can be damage by floating debris which
shows the bending failure of a column that was struck by a debris. On the other hand, beams
will show lateral bending failure of a façade beam and a ground beam. In detail, poor joint
prevailed in the destruction. It manifested that there were insufficient anchorage of reinforcing
bars connecting the members. Finally, a movement or destruction of spread footing leads to a
devastating secondary component of buildings. It was also found that the design practices in
Thailand were not appropriate or designed to resist earthquake loads and lateral loads from
tsunamis. I have learned that design codes must adapt and assume worst case scenarios in
order to have structures that can withstand natural disasters similar to Indian Ocean Tsunami in
2004.

Research 11: The Collapse of Foundations in Khon Kaen Soil

The main cause of the collapse in Khon Kaen foundations in many construction projects
is due to the increase of moisture content on soil. The moisture content greatly affects the
stabilization of soil, cause internal friction angle to decrease, and result in large settlements of
footings. A loess soil is a loosely compacted yellowish-gray deposit of windblown sediment and
is considered as a soil with good engineering parameters, but weakens when there is an
increase in moisture cotent. The supporting foundation at the middle part of the Khon Kaen
University was soaked for many days due to a busted water supply pipe, hence the foundation
severely settled. Some reinforced concrete structures were damaged. An underpinning
technique was employed for the rehabilitation to strengthen and become serviceable again by
installing composite piles for transferring the load from the building to the foundation.

Research 12: The Great Alaska Earthquake of 1964

The 1964 Alaska Earthquake, with a 9.2 magnitude, is the largest U.S. earthquake ever
recorded. In 1964 scientists did not understand how or why it occurred but three US Geological
Survey scientists were sent to figure it out. There were no faults at the surface to explain it even
with months of careful observation and fieldwork. In the occurrence of this great earthquake,
the oceanic crust was being pushed underneath a part of southern Alaska at a very low angle
and there was slip on this on the interface between the oceanic crust and the overlying
continental crust that these two crusts were converging at the dramatic rate of an inch and a
half each year periodic slip. The 1964 Great Alaska earthquake was accompanied by massive
tsunamis within minutes one created a wave 20 stories high in parts of Alaska some traveled
across the Pacific wreaking havoc in coastal Oregon California and Hawaii. The widespread
damage and loss of life from this earthquake led to a determination to use science in the future
south-central Alaska where there is a state infrastructure center. It involves the fundamental
characterizing of the earthquake hazard knowing which faults are active and which faults can
produce earthquakes. Furthermore, it serves the purpose of understanding how often these
earthquakes occur. The local tsunami hazard from the 1964 Great Alaska earthquake paved the
way for the development of the United States Geological Survey (USGS) earthquake hazards
program, round-the-clock tsunami warning centers, and the advanced national seismic system
resulting in seismic hazard maps and improved building codes all together these programs can
help predict strong ground motions from future earthquakes and minimize risks.

Research 13: Seattle SDCI-Seattle Building Code Chapter 18

The documents focus on the soil and foundation of Seattle’s building code. There are a lot
of topics and sub-topics to detail on each concept, processes, and standards. In general,
building codes come in different varieties depending upon the type of construction and subject
they are seeking to regulate. Many of the building codes adopted by governments in the United
States are based upon model building codes drafted by the International Code Council (ICC).
International Building Code (IBC) applies to construction of new buildings of nearly every type.
International Residential Code, which applies to new construction of one and two-family
dwellings as well has townhomes that are no more than three stories high. International
Existing Building Code, which regulates the renovation, alteration or repair of existing buildings.
In a broad level to its purpose and importance, building codes serve a vital purpose in our
modern urban society. They are enacted to protect the general health, safety and welfare of
the people that occupy the buildings. The codes ensure that the buildings they reside in, work
in and visit are safe.

Research 14: Effects of Earthquakes on Foundations

 This paper entitled, Effects of Earthquake on Foundations, aims to show the effect of the
earthquake on different types of foundations such as shallow, mat/raft, pile and structures like
dams. Each type of foundation or structure have different effect from earthquakes. The
reaction of soil to the loading of the building when a building undergoes an earthquake
disturbance as a behavior of deflection is known as the soil structure interaction. The
movement of ground during the earthquake induces kinematic and inertial loading which
decreases the bearing capacity and increments the settlement of shallow foundations. In other
observation, mat foundation experiences overturning moments on seismic activities. Pile
foundations are influenced by both kinematic and inertial interactions causing failures. The
effect of earthquake on the foundation of different architectural structures are influenced in
number of ways by the nature and the behavior of the soils in the affected area. Despite of
modern Engineering technology, the complete structure may collapse in an earthquake if the
foundation of the structure lies on soft soil however, the geotechnical engineers can incredibly
enhance the structure how the structure and foundation together react to the seismic waves.
Solutions to prevent damage are that superstructures should be tied to the foundation so that
the entire structure acts as a single unit and that the building be floated above its foundation
which is known as base isolation. This is to decrease lateral acceleration and the structure
experience far less deformity and damage.

Research 14: Report on Geotechnical Investigation Designation

Geotechnical investigation and designation must include topics on hazardous release or

toxic contamination of any type. It is on point to discuss that the conditions vary significantly
from a specific sample location. It is commendable that the work has been done in accordance
to the accepted engineering principles and practice. Moreover, to observe and test the
earthwork and foundation portions of the project to ensure compliance to project specification
and the field applicability of subsurface conditions which are the basis of the recommendation
on the work.
Research 15: Minard Hall Collapse Due to Excavation and Pile Driving

The collapse was caused by excavation works close to the building. The excavation
works created two problems that led to the collapse, the reduction of the load distribution of
the soil pressure bulb and the vibrations to the soil caused by driving piles, which were
constructed to support and protect a tunnel and a staircase adjacent to the excavation. The
foundation that supported the Minard Hall was a spread footing. The footing transfers the loads
from the superstructure above to the soil via a pressure bulb load distribution, also known as
isobars. Excavation of the supporting soil also decreased the bearing pressure resistance,
leading to settlement and cracks on the foundation walls. The allowable bearing pressure is the
ability of soil below to resist the applied load of the building. The bearing capacity is the bearing
pressure at which the soil will fail by producing shear failure and have permissible settlement
due to large compression loads. The soil beneath the footing got excavated, which reduced the
area of soil that provides bearing pressure. The large compression loads from the
superstructure also caused shear failure for the soil and soil settlement. Another factor is the
vibrations caused by the driving machines weakened the clays and their already weak strength
to support the superstructure. Moreover, the vibrations can lead clays to easily move laterally
to the excavated hole.
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